communicated to me some circumstances respecting the death of a hive of
bees in his possession, which induced me to request from him a full
statement of particulars. Mr. Martin gave me the following account:--
"In October last I had three hives of bees which I received into my
house. Each doorway was closed, and the hive placed upon a piece of
calico; the corners were brought over the top, leaving a loop by which
the hive was suspended from the ceiling. The hives were taken down about
the 14th of March; two were healthy, but all the bees in the third were
dead. There was a gallon of bees. The two hives containing live bees
were much smaller; but in each of them were dead ones. Under whatever
circumstances you preserve bees through the winter, dead ones are found
at the bottom, in the spring. The room, an attic, was dry; and I had
preserved the same hives in the same way during the winter of 1856. In
what I may call the dead hive there was an abundance of honey when it
was opened; and it is clear that its inmates did not die for want. It is
not a frequent occurrence for bees so to die; but I have known another
instance. In that case the hive was left out in the ordinary way, and
possibly cold was the cause of death. I think it probable that my bees
died about a month before the 14th of March, merely from the
circumstance that some one remarked about that time that there was no
noise in the hive. They might have died earlier; but there were
certainly live bees in the hive in January. I understand there was an
appearance of mould on some of the combs. There was ample ventilation, I
think; indeed, as the bees were suspended, they had more air than
through the summer when placed on a stand."
When the occurrence was first made known to me, I suggested that the
bees might probably have died from the growth of a fungus, and requested
some of the dead bees might be sent for examination. They were
transmitted to me in a very dry state; and a careful inspection with a
lens afforded no indications of vegetable growth. I then broke up a
specimen, and examined the portions under a compound microscope, using a
Nachet No. 4. The head and thorax were clean; but on a portion of the
sternum were innumerable very minute, linear, slightly curved bodies,
showing the well-known oscillatory or swarming motion. Notwithstanding
the agreement of these minute bodies with the characters of the genus of
_Bacterium_ of the Vibrionia, I regarded them as spermatia, having
frequently seen others undistinguishable from them under circumstances
inconsistent with the presence of _Confervæ_, as in the interior of the
immature peridia and sporangia of Fungals.
In the specimen first examined there were no other indications of the
growth of any parasite; but from the interior of the abdomen of a second
bee I obtained an abundance of well-defined globular bodies resembling
the spores of a fungus, varying in size from .00016 to .00012 in. Three
out of four specimens subsequently examined contained similar spores
within the abdomen. No traces of a mycelium were visible; the plants had
come to maturity, fruited, and withered away, leaving only the spores.
The chief question then remaining to be solved was as to the time when
the spores were developed; whether before or after the death of the
bees. In order, if possible, to determine this, I placed four of the
dead bees in circumstances favourable for the germination of the spores,
and in about ten days I submitted them again to examination. They were
covered with mould, consisting chiefly of a species of _Mucor_, and one
also of _Botrytis_ or _Botryosporium_. These fungi were clearly
extraneous, covering indifferently all parts of the insects, and
spreading on the wood on which they were lying. On the abdomen of all
the specimens, and on the clypeus of one of them, grew a fungus wholly
unlike the surrounding mould. It was white and very short, and
apparently consisted entirely of spores arranged in a moniliform manner,
like the fertile filaments of a stemless _Penicillium_. These spores
resembled those found in the abdomen of the Bees, and proceeded I think,
from them. The filaments were most numerous at the junction of the
segments. The spores did not resemble the globules in _Sporendonema
muscæ_ of the English Flora, neither were they apparently enclosed.
The Rev. M. J. Berkeley, to whom I sent some of the bees, procured, by
scraping the interior of the abdomen with a lancet, very minute, curved
linear bodies from 1/8000 to 1/10000 in. long, which he compares to
Vibrios. He also found mixed with them globular bodies, but no visible
stratum of mould.
From the peculiar position of the supposed spores within the abdomen of
the bees, and from the subsequent growth of a fungus unlike any of our
common forms of Mucedines, I think it probable that the death of the
bees was occasioned by the presence of a parasitic fungus.
Notice of the occurrence of recent Worm Tracks in the Upper Part of the
London Clay Formation near Highgate. By JOHN W. WETHERELL. Communicated
by JAMES YATES, Esq., M.A., F.L.S.
[Read June 3rd, 1858.]
The London clay is very tenacious, and near the surface is generally of
a brown colour, probably owing to the decomposition of the iron pyrites
which it contains. It abounds in selenite or sulphate of lime, and in
nodules which often contain organic remains. Fossil wood with _Teredo
antenautæ_ is also met with, and pyritous casts of univalve and bivalve
shells. Lower down the stratum becomes more compact and is of a bluish
or blackish colour, and its fossil contents are in a fine state of
preservation. During the last summer, while examining the London Clay in
the vicinity of Highgate in search of fossils, my attention was directed
to certain appearances in it which I could not account for. This led to
a further examination, when I found they were produced by the borings of
_Lumbrici_ or earth-worms. These appearances consisted of long tubes
passing nearly perpendicularly through the clay and terminating in
receptacles or _nidi_, each tube leading to a separate receptacle. As
these receptacles occurred in large numbers, I had an opportunity of
examining a great many of them with various results. In one instance, I
found a dead worm coiled up; in another, a portion of a worm protruding
into the lower part of the tube. Again, _nidi_ were found partially
filled with only the casts of worms, whilst others contained more or
less of a species of Conferva; and, lastly, I obtained some with the
cavities partially or wholly filled up. The receptacles varied in shape,
from a sphere to an oval, and were extremely thin and fragile. They also
varied in size from a pea to a nut. Externally they presented an
appearance so singularly contorted, that I could not help considering
they were moulded from the casts of worms. They did not appear to have
any attachment to the surrounding clay, except at the point of junction
with the tube; and the clay beneath them presented no unusual
appearance.
Internally they generally exhibited impressions of the worm; but
occasionally I detected some of the round and contorted appearances
which I have mentioned as being so conspicuous on the outside. I cannot
speak with precision as to the length of the tubes, as the clay when
examined had been broken up into large rough masses in digging for the
foundations of houses. The largest noticed was about three inches long,
and the general width one-eighth of an inch. They often run parallel to
each other, but at unequal distances. I now have to notice what I
consider a remarkable circumstance, namely, that all the tubes contained
a solid cylinder of clay, and in every instance where the worms occurred
under the circumstances above recorded, they were found to be dead.
Researches of this kind are calculated to throw a light on some of those
singular phenomena which geologists occasionally meet with in the older
rocks.
[_Mem._--Several specimens of clay, containing the worm-tubes as above
described, were exhibited to the meeting.]
Natural History--Extracts from the Journal of Captain Denham, H.M.
Surveying Vessel 'Herald,' 1857. Communicated by Captain WASHINGTON,
through the Secretary.
[Read June 3rd, 1858.]
We found upon the larger islands the small species of the Kangaroo,
bearing the native name Wallaby (_Halmaturus Billardierii_), which,
when mixed with other meats, affords a fine-flavoured soup.
On the islets are flocks of the Cape Banca goose, which Mr. Smith
informed me were only to be found in these straits in the vicinity of
Flinders Island, from Cape Banca to Cape Frankland (west about), and
that they are readily domesticated, and hatch from three to seven eggs,
and afford an acceptable dish. I obtained a live specimen, which Dr.
Rayner of this ship describes thus:--"_Cereopsis Novæ Hollandiæ_. Body
about the size of a common goose; bill short, vaulted, obtuse,
two-thirds of which is covered by an expanded cere of a pale
greenish-yellow colour, the tip of the bill being black, arcuated, and
truncated. Nostrils large, round, open, and situated in the middle of
the bill. Wings ample, third quill longest. Legs long, light dull-red,
and naked to a little above the knee. Feet black, webbed, the membrane
being deeply notched, great toe articulated to the metatarsus. Plumage
slate-grey, with black spots upon the wings and back. Wing-feathers
dusky black, and edged at the tip with pale grey. Irides light hazel."
We likewise obtained specimens of the following wildfowl:--
AVES.
A BRONZE-WING PIGEON, Phaps elegans.
QUAIL, Corturnix pectoralis (_Gould_).
OYSTER-CATCHER, Hæmatophus fuliginosus.
RING PLOVER, Hiaticula bicincta.
WILD DUCK, Anas punctata (_Cuvier_).
GREAT GULL, Larus pacificus.
LESSER GULL, Xema Jamesonii.
MUTTON BIRD, Puffinus brevicaudus (_Brandt_).
SOUTHERN GANNET, Sulu australis (_Gould_).
SMALL PENGUIN, Spheniscus minor (_Temminck_).
The Mutton Bird we observed streaming from island to island; and I
learnt from Mr. Benvenuto Smith the following particulars of its habits
from his own observations.
The male birds come in from sea in the month of September, and prepare
the burrows for the reception of the hens. The hen bird does not make
her appearance till about the 25th November, when she lays and sits at
once.
The Mutton Bird lays but one egg; they are employed rearing the young
bird until the month of May, at which time the old birds leave the young
ones to shift for themselves; the young birds remain in the burrows till
they are starved down, and then set off to sea, and are not seen again
amongst the islands till September. The cock and hen sit alternately
night and day; and all the labour of providing for the young is equally
shared.
There are at this date about ninety people living on the small islands
in "Franklin Inlet" who make a livelihood by gathering the oil,
feathers, and eggs of the Mutton Bird.
Upwards of 2000 gallons of the oil are extracted from the birds
annually; and although 300,000 birds are known to be destroyed each
year, they appear undiminished in numbers. The oil burns well, and is of
a bright-red colour.
I was presented by Mr. Smith with two Paper Nautilus shells (_Argonauta
tuberculosa_) found on the shore of Flinders Island this season, a
circumstance which he has remarked occurs but every seventh year, when
many hundreds are thrown up: the shells are rarely obtained perfect, as
they are extremely fragile, and the sea fowl pick the fish out of them.
Our Botanic Collector, Mr. Milne, ascertained, from what he obtained
himself and from what we could contribute from our individual visits to
the islets, the existence of plants, which he believes to be indigenous,
belonging to the following families and genera, viz.
Amentaceæ. Umbelliferæ.
Asteraceæ. Graminaceæ.
Rosaceæ. Junceæ.
Geraniaceæ. Solanum.
Euphorbiaceæ. Geranium.
Myrtaceæ.
Testing the chances of fish refreshment at this anchorage, we found
little encouragement for hook and line; but the two favouring
opportunities which the weather allowed for hawling the seine produced
as tabulated on opposite page.
We found the Reef Islands in this sound so abundant in rabbits since
Captain Stokes's forethought had set some loose upon them, that, in two
visits of four hours with but four guns, 100 brace were brought on
board.
I took care to follow my esteemed brother officers' example and the
system of introducing such productions, and obtained a dozen couple
alive for letting loose in Shark Bay.
[A coloured drawing of _Cereopsis Novæ Hollandiæ_ accompanied Captain
Denham's observations.]
| Trawl-seine, |
| or hook |
|How many | and line. |
|hawls and| Depth | Nature| Natural
| phase | of | of | History | Common |No. of|Pounds
Locality. |of [moon]| water.|bottom.| Names. | Names. |sorts.|weight.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
West side | 6 hawls | with seine. |Mugil |Mullet | 23| 28|
| | | | | | | |
Flinders | ... ... | 1/2 |... ...|Hemiramphus |Gar-fish | 10| 5|
Isl. | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Settlement|[moon] } | 1 | Sand |{Platycephalus|Flat-head,| 3| 1|
| |fathom | | |small | | |
| | | | | | | |
Bay |14 days} | on | and |{Raia |Sting Ray | 2| 29|
| | | | | | | |
H.W.F. & |... ... }|a flat | weed |{Iulis |Small fish|Several|...|
C. [moon] | | | | |of the | | |
X. 30. | | | | |Basse | | |
| | | | |family | | |
| | | | | | | |
Range 10 | L.W. |... ...|... ...|Labrax |Basse | 1| 1|
ft. | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
East side | 7 hawls | with seine |{Myliobatis |Ray | 11|375|
of } | | (mar.). | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Hummock } | [moon] |... ...|... ...|{Mugil |Mullet | 20| 30|
| | | | | | | |
Island | 26 days |1 to 3 | Sandy |Platycephalus |Flat-head | 3| 2|
centre | | fams. | beach | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
| | | |{Siphyracus |Barracouta| 1| 1|
| | | | | | | |
Bay | at 3/4 |... ...|... ...|{Scomberesox |Saury | 27| 17|
| flood | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
| | | |{Sepioteuthis |Cuttlefish|Several|...|
| | | | | | | |
| | | | |Total | ...|489|
| | | | | | | |
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
On some points in the Anatomy of _Nautilus pompilius_. By T. H. HUXLEY,
F.R.S., Professor of Natural History, Government School of Mines.
[Read June 3rd, 1858.]
Some time ago my friend Dr. Sinclair, of New Zealand, had the kindness
to offer me two specimens of the Pearly Nautilus which had been brought
to him from New Caledonia, preserved in Goadby's solution. I gladly
accepted the present, and looked forward to the dissection of the rare
animal with no little pleasure; but on proceeding to examine one of the
specimens, I found its anatomical value greatly diminished by the manner
in which a deposit from the solution had glued together some of the
internal viscera. Other parts of the Nautilus, however, were in a very
good state of preservation; and I have noted down such novel and
interesting peculiarities as they presented, in the hope that an account
of them will be acceptable to the Linnean Society.
Of the six apertures which, besides the genital and anal outlets, open
into the branchial cavity of _Nautilus pompilius_, one on each side lies
immediately above and in front of that fold of the inner wall of the
mantle which forms the lower root of the smaller and inner gill, and
encloses the branchial vein of that gill. The aperture is elongated and
narrow, with rather prominent lips. It measures about 1/8th of an inch.
The other two apertures are larger, and lie at a distance of 7/16ths of
an inch below and behind the other. They are in close juxta-position,
being separated only by a thin triangular fold of membrane, which
constitutes the inner lip of the one and the outer lip of the other.
The inner aperture is the larger, measuring 3/16ths of an inch in long
diameter, and having the form of a triangle with its base directed
posteriorly. The outer aperture is not more than 1/8th of an inch long.
The two apertures lie just above the edge of the fold of membrane which
runs from the inner root of the larger or outer branchia, across the
branchial cavity and beneath the rectum, to the other side.
These apertures lead into five sacs, which collectively constitute what
has been described as the pericardium. The sacs into which the superior
apertures open, by a short wide canal with folded walls, are situated on
each side of and above the rectum. Their inner boundaries are separated
by a space of not less than 5/8ths of an inch in width, in which lie
the vena cava and the oviduct. Each cavity has a rounded circumference,
and a transverse diameter of about half an inch. In a direction at right
angles to this diameter the dimensions vary with its state of
distension; but a quarter of an inch would be a fair average.
The anterior or outer wall of the cavity is formed by the mantle; the
posterior, inner, or visceral wall by a delicate membrane. The former
separates it from the branchial cavity; the latter from the fifth sac,
to be described by-and-by. I could find no natural aperture in the thin
inner wall, so that I conceive no communication can take place between
either of these sacs and the fifth sac.
Two irregular, flattened, brownish, soft plates depend from the
posterior wall of the sac into its cavity; their attached edges are
fixed along a line which is directed from behind obliquely forwards and
upwards.
The outer and smaller of the inferior apertures on each side leads into
a sac of similar dimensions and constitution to the preceding, but
having a less rounded outline in consequence of its being flattened in
one direction against its fellow of the opposite side, from which it is
separated only by a delicate membranous wall, whilst on another side it
is applied against the inferior wall of the superior sac, and is in like
manner separated from it only by a thin and membranous partition.
Like the upper sacs, each of these has two dark-brown, lamellar,
glandular masses depending from its membranous visceral wall.
A delicate, but broad, triangular membranous process, about 1/4th of an
inch long, hangs down freely from the visceral wall of the cavity just
behind the opening of the short canal which connects the sac with its
aperture.
The third and largest aperture on each side opens directly into a very
large fifth cavity, whose boundary is formed anteriorly by the visceral
walls of the sacs already described, and behind this by the mantle
itself as far as the horny band which marks and connects the insertion
of the shell-muscles.
In fact this cavity may be said to be co-extensive with the attached
part of the mantle,--the viscera, enclosed within their delicate
"peritoneal" membranous coat, projecting into and nearly filling it, but
nevertheless leaving a clear space between themselves and the delicate
posterior wall of the mantle.
A layer of the "peritoneal" membrane extends from the posterior edge of
the muscular expansion which lies between the shell-muscles and from the
upper wall of the dilatation of the vena cava, and passes upwards and
backwards like a diaphragm to the under surfaces of the gizzard and
liver. It is traversed by the aorta, to whose coats it closely adheres.
Along a line nearly corresponding with the horny band which proceeds
from the insertions of the shell-muscles and encircles the mantle below,
the pallial wall is produced inwards and forwards into a membranous fold
or ligament, which I will call the pallio-visceral ligament; and this
pallio-visceral ligament becoming attached to various viscera, divides
the great fifth chamber into an anterior inferior, and a posterior
superior portion, which communicate freely with one another.
Commencing with its extreme right-hand end, the ligament is inserted
into the line of reflection of the mantle, and then into the wall of the
oviduct, which becomes enclosed as it were within the ligament. The
latter then ends in a free edge on the inner side of the oviduct, and is
continued along it until it reaches the inferior surface of the apex of
the ovary, into which it is inserted.
The free edge is arcuated; and the rectum passes over it, but is in no
way connected with it.
Here, therefore, is one great passage of communication between the
anterior and posterior divisions of the fifth chamber.
On the left side, this aperture is limited by the heart, whose posterior
edge is, on the left side, connected by means of a ligamentous band with
the surface of the apex of the ovary; but on the right, for the greater
part of its extent, receives a process of the pallio-visceral ligament.
Between the ovario-cardiac ligament and this process lies the small oval
aperture already described by Professor Owen, which gives passage to the
siphonal artery. It constitutes the middle aperture of communication
between the two divisions of the fifth chamber.
The left-hand end of the ligament is inserted into the upper wall of the
dilated end of the vena cava; but between this point and the heart it
has a free arcuated edge, as on the right side.
Thus there are in reality three apertures of communication between the
two divisions of the fifth chamber, the middle, by far the smallest,
being alone hitherto known.
A delicate membranous band passes from the whole length of the middle
line of the rectum to the heart and to the ovary.
The singular "pyriform appendage" of the heart lies in the left process
of the ligament, its anterior edge nearly following the arcuated contour
of that process.
The siphuncular process of the mantle was broken in my specimen; but
its aperture appeared to communicate quite freely with the posterior
division of the fifth chamber.
Four sets of brownish, glandular-looking bodies depend into the anterior
division of the fifth chamber, from parts of the delicate septa dividing
this from the four small sacs, corresponding with the insertions of the
glandular bodies above described.
In fact, on distending the vena cava with air, it is found that the four
branchial arteries traverse these septa, and that the appendages in
question are diverticula of their walls. Consequently the anterior wall
of each branchial vein is produced into two glandular appendages, which
hang into one of the four smaller sacs, while the posterior wall is
produced into a single mass of appendages, which hangs into the anterior
division of the fifth chamber.
Although, as I believe, the five chambers do not communicate directly,
all the appendages must nevertheless be equally bathed with sea-water,
which enters by the apertures of the chambers.
An impacted yellowish-white concretionary matter filled the anterior
chamber; and a small quantity of it lay as a fine powder at the bottom
of the posterior one. In the latter, however, its presence might, by
possibility, have been accidental. My colleague, Dr. Percy, who kindly
undertook to examine this substance, informs me that he has been unable
to detect uric acid in it. The follicular appendages of the branchial
arteries present remarkable differences in their external appearance.
The eight which hang into the four anterior chambers are similar,
slightly festooned, but otherwise simple lamellæ; while the four which
depend into the posterior chambers are produced into a number of
papillary processes. This external difference is obvious enough: whether
it be accompanied by a corresponding discrepancy in minute structure I
am unable to say; for I have not as yet been able to arrive at any
satisfactory results from the microscopic examination of the altered
tissues, and, as will be seen below, the only observer who has had the
opportunity of examining the Nautilus in the fresh state has not noted
any difference of structure in the two sets of follicles.
One is naturally led to seek among other mollusks for a structure
analogous to the vast posterior aquiferous chamber of the Nautilus; and
it appears to me that something quite similar is offered by the
_Ascidioida_ and the _Brachiopoda_. In both cases, the viscera, inclosed
within a delicate tissue, project into a large cavity communicating
freely with the exterior by the cloacal aperture in the one case, and
by the funnel-shaped channels which have been miscalled "hearts" in the
other.