SIGNAL SMOKES
The success of pyrotechnics in night signalling led, during the
World War, to considerable attention being paid to the development
of pyrotechnic signals for day use. This was mainly directed to the
production of distinctive smokes, which should have the same long range
visibility under varying light conditions. Since a gray or white smoke
might be confused with the smoke produced accidentally by the explosion
of shell, it was necessary to use smoke of definite and unmistakable
colors, and red, blue, yellow, green and purple smokes were developed.
During the early part of the war, only a yellow smoke was in use,
though others were added later.
PRODUCTION OF COLORED SMOKES
There are three possible ways of obtaining signal smokes.
I. Mechanically dispersing solids.
II. Chemical Reaction.
III. Volatilization of colored materials.
I. The first method, while possible, can never be an efficient method
of producing signals. Some success was met with in dispersing certain
inorganic materials, as rouge, and ultramarine, in projectiles fired
from a 3-inch mortar and exploded by a time fuse arrangement at the
height of their flight. Various mixtures were also tried, such as
antimony oxysulfide and aluminum powder (red), arsenic and antimony
trichlorides with sodium thiosulfate (yellow), etc., but these
compositions have the disadvantages of being liable to catch fire if
dispersed by a black powder explosion.
II. While colored smokes may be produced by chemical reaction, such
as the combination of hydrogen iodide (HI), chlorine and ammonia, the
clouds are not satisfactory as signals. In this particular case, the
purple cloud (to the operator in the aeroplane) appeared white to the
observers on the ground.
High temperature combustion smokes have also been studied. These are
used in the so-called smoke torches. The _yellow_ arsenic sulfide
smoke is the most widely used. Most formulas call for some sulfide of
arsenic (usually the native realgar, known commercially as “Red Saxony
Arsenic”), sulfur, potassium nitrate, and in some cases, a diluent like
ground glass or sand. A typical mixture consists of:
Red arsenic sulfide 55%
Sulfur 15%
Potassium nitrate 30%
A very similar smoke may be obtained from the following mixture:
Sulfur 28.6%
White arsenic 32.0%
Potassium nitrate 33.8%
Powdered glass 6.6%
These smokes are not as satisfactory in color as the smoke produced
by a dye smoke mixture, especially when viewed from a distance, with
the sky as a background. They fade out rather quickly to a very nearly
white smoke.
A _black_ smoke upon first thought might seem to be the easiest of all
smokes to produce, but actually the production of a black smoke that
would be satisfactory for signalling purposes was rather a difficult
matter.
Starting with the standard smoke mixture, which gives a white or gray
smoke, hexachloroethane, which is solid, was substituted for the carbon
tetrachloride, in order to avoid a liquid constituent. Naphthalene was
first used, until it was found that the mixture of naphthalene and
hexachloroethane melted at temperatures below that of either of the
constituents. Anthracene was then substituted. The principal reaction
is between the magnesium and the chlorine-containing compound, whereby
magnesium chloride and carbon are formed. The reaction is very violent,
and a white smoke is produced. The anthracene slows down the reaction
and at the same time colors the smoke black. The speed of the reaction
may be controlled by varying the anthracene content.
In burning this type of smoke mixture in a cylinder, it is essential
that free burning be allowed. It has been found that if combustion
is at all smothered, and the smoke forced to escape through a
comparatively small opening, it will be gray instead of dense black.
III. Various attempts have been made to utilize the heat evolved when
the Berger type smoke mixture reacts to volatilize or mechanically
disperse various colored inorganic substances, and especially iodine.
These were unsuccessful. Modifications, such as
Strontium nitrate 1 part
Powdered iron 2 parts
Iodine 3 parts
were also tried, but while such mixtures ignited easily, burned freely
and evenly, and gave a continuous heavy purple cloud, they were very
sensitive to moisture and capable of spontaneous ignition.
The most satisfactory and successful colored smokes are those produced
by the volatilization of organic dye materials. This practice seems
to have originated with the British, who produced such smokes by
volatilizing or vaporizing special dyes by igniting mixtures of the
dye, lactose and potassium chlorate and smothering the combustion.
In selecting dyestuffs for this purpose it was at once recognized that
only those compounds can be used which are volatilized or vaporized
without decomposition by the heat generated when the mixture is ignited
and the combustion smothered. It was also found that the boiling point
and melting or volatilization point of the colored compound must be
close enough together so that there is never much liquid dye present.
Since all colored organic compounds are destroyed if subjected to
sufficient heat, the mixture must be so prepared and the ignition
so arranged that the heat generated is not sufficient to cause this
destruction.
The oxidizing agents used in the combustion mixture may be either
potassium or sodium chlorate. The nitrate is not satisfactory. Lactose
has proven the best combustible. Powdered orange shellac is fairly
satisfactory but offers no advantage over lactose.
The following dyes have been found to give the best smokes:
Red “Paratoner”
Yellow Chrysoidine + Auramine
Blue Indigo
Purple Indulin (?)
Green Auramine Yellow + Indigo
At the beginning of the war, the only colored smoke used by the United
States Army was a yellow smoke. The smoke mixture used in all signals,
excepting the smoke torch, was the old arsenic sulfide mixture. The
following smoke signals were adopted during the World War:
Signal Parachute Rocket Yellow and Red
V. B. Parachute Cartridge Yellow
25 mm. Very Parachute Cartridge Yellow
35 mm. Signal Cartridge Yellow
35 mm. Signal Cartridge Red
35 mm. Signal Pistol
25 mm. Very Signal Pistol
V. B. Rifle Discharger Cut
THE TACTICAL USE OF SIGNAL SMOKES
From the days when Horatius kept the bridge, down through the centuries
to the World War, all leaders in battle were pictured at the front
and with flaming sword, mounted on magnificent chargers, or otherwise
so prominently dressed that all the world knew they were the leaders.
During all these hundreds of years commands on the field of battle
were by the voice, by the bugle, or by short range signals with arms,
flags, and swords. Even where quite large forces were involved they
were massed close enough ordinarily so that signalling by such means
sufficed to cover the front of battle. In those cases where they did
not, reliance was put upon swift couriers on horseback or on foot.
With the invention of smokeless powder and the rifled gun battles were
begun and carried on at greater and greater ranges. Artillery fired
not only 2,000 to 3,000 yards but up to 5,000 and 10,000 yards, or
even, as in the World War, at 20,000 yards and more. It was then that
other means of signalling became essential. Distant signalling with
flags is known to have been practiced to a certain extent on land for
a long time. The extension of the telegraph and telephone through
insulated wires laid by the Signal Service was the next great step
in advance, and in the World War there came in addition the wireless
telephone both on land and in aeroplanes and balloons.
Along with this development, as mentioned under Screening Smokes, came
the development of the use of smoke for protection and for cutting off
the view of observers, thus making observation more and more difficult.
This use of smoke, coupled with the deadly fire of machine guns and
high explosives, forced men to take shelter in deep shell holes, in
deep trenches and other places that were safe, but which made it nearly
impossible to see signals along the front of battle.
Every man can readily be taught to read a few signals when clearly
indicated by definite, sharply defined colored smokes. At first these
were designed for use on the ground and will be used to a certain
extent in the future for that purpose, particularly when it is desired
to attract the attention of observers in aeroplanes or balloons. In
such cases a considerable volume of smoke is desired. For the man in
the trench or shell hole some means of getting the signal above the
dust and smoke of the battlefield is needed. It is there that signal
smokes carried by small parachutes, contained in rockets or bombs, have
proven their worth. These signals floating high above the battlefield
for a minute or more, giving off brilliantly colored smokes, afford a
means of sending signals to soldiers in the dust and smoke of battle
not afforded by any other method so far invented. As before stated,
every man can be taught these simple signals, where but very few men
can be taught to handle even the simplest of wireless telephones.
Thus, smoke has already begun to complicate, and in the future will
complicate still more, every phase of fighting. It will be used for
deception, for concealment, for obscuring vision, for signalling and
to hide deadly gases. The signal rocket will be used to start battles,
change fronts, order up reserves, and finally to stop fighting.
The signal smokes by day will be displaced at night by brilliantly
colored lights which will have the same meaning as similarly colored
smokes during the day. Thus, literally, smoke in the future will be the
cloud by day and the pillar of fire by night to guide the bewildered
soldier on the field of battle with all its terrors and amidst the
confusion, gas, smoke and dust that will never be absent while battles
last.