_The hardness_, or soap-wasting power of_Cooley's Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, Professions, and Trades..., Sixth Edition, Volume II

economic grounds. Unless the hardness is very excessive, the hardness or

softness of the water does not appear to materially affect the health of

the consumer. Hardness is caused by salts of lime and magnesia. If the

property of hardness be caused by the presence of bicarbonates of the

above substances, the water is said to be ‘temporarily’ hard, for by

boiling or adding lime as above described, the hardness may be reduced

without affecting the potability of the supply; but when the hardness is

due to calcium or magnesium sulphates it is called ‘permanent’ hardness,

for it is not then practicable to remove the hardening ingredients without

adding some more objectionable substance. The average hardness of the

four classes of pure water is shown in the analyses given above. Thames

water has a total hardness of 15°, Loch Katrine water, as supplied to

Glasgow, 0·70, on Clarke’s scale.

_Chlorine._——Except in places near the sea, or in salt-bearing strata, an

unpolluted water does not contain more than the merest trace of chlorine.

Sewage, however, contains a large quantity of chlorine as sodic chloride

(common salt) derived from the salt used in cooking, &c. Hence a mixture

of sewage with water becomes known by the quantity of chlorine present. It

is not safe to drink a water containing such an excessive quantity of

chlorine as 4 grains per gallon. The chlorine in Ullswater and Thames

water is ·7 and 1·1 grains per gallon respectively. Sewage has about 8

grains on the average.

_Ammonia._——This determination acquires significance because it is one of

the early substances produced by the decomposition of animal matter. It

therefore indicates, when present in large quantities, _recent_

contamination by sewage. Rain always contains a small amount of ammonia,

and deep wells occasionally show ammonia derived from the reduction of

nitrates by the oxygen-seeking organic matter. The above inferences must,

therefore, be applied with caution.

_Nitrates and Nitrites_ result from the oxidation of animal matter.

Vegetable substances, under like conditions, yield none or but mere traces

of these compounds. The presence of nitrates is a most unfavorable sign in

a shallow well or river water, because the conditions to which these

waters are subjected are so variable that there is a constant liability of

the purifying processes diminishing, and allowing the sewage, now only

represented by innoxious nitrates, to appear in its dangerous, unoxidised

condition.

Dr Frankland takes the sum of the nitrogen existing in the water as

ammonia and as nitrites and nitrates, as a sort of measure of the minimum

amount of animal or sewage matter destroyed. The amount due to sewage or

animal matter is considered to be all over ·032 part per 100,000 (or ·022

gr. per gallon), which is the average of ‘inorganic nitrogen’ natural to

unpolluted rain water. Dr Frankland also expresses this ‘previous sewage

or animal contamination,’ in terms of London sewage containing 10 parts of

nitrogen in 100,000 parts of liquid, by multiplying the above-named

corrected sum by 10,000. Thus, a water containing 1 part per 100,000 (·7

gr. per gall.) of ‘inorganic nitrogen’ would have a ‘previous sewage or

animal contamination’ of 9680 parts per 100,000, for it would have

required 100,000 {(1 - ·032)/10} = 9680 parts of London sewage to produce

an amount of nitrogen equal to that found by analysis. A water which

contains over 20,000 parts of previous sewage contamination (1·5 grains

of inorganic nitrogen) is said to be dangerous. All other waters

containing more inorganic nitrogen than in rain are said to be ‘doubtful’

except springs and deep well waters containing less than 10,000 parts of

previous sewage contamination per 100,000, and such shallow wells and

running water which from their source may be taken to be free from sewage.

_Organic matter._——There is no method by which the actual weight of

organic matter can be determined, still less is it possible to say how

much is likely to be actually injurious organic matter, but there are

several means of measuring the proportionate amount of organic

contamination.

Dr Frankland determines the amount of carbon and nitrogen in the organic

matter. The smaller the amount of these elements the better the water, and

the less the amount of nitrogen, especially in proportion to organic

carbon, the less chance of _animal_ matter. A good drinking water will not

have more than ·2 parts in 100,000 (·14 gr. per gall.) of carbon, or ·03

part of organic nitrogen in 100,000 parts (·02 gr. per gall.) of the

water. The amount of putrescent matter may be estimated by the amount of

oxygen consumed in destroying it. Dr Tidy (‘Chem. Soc. Jour.,’ January,

1879) considers that, speaking generally, waters requiring ·05 part per

100,000 (·035 gr. per gall.) to be of great organic purity; ·15 part (·1

gr. per gall.) waters of medium purity; waters of doubtful purity, from

·15 to ·21 part per 100,000 (·15 gr. per gallon). Impure waters, all above

·15 gr. per gall.

The proportion of albuminous substances present is measured by Mr Wanklyn

by the amount of ammonia set free by alkaline permanganate. A water

containing over ·15 part per million albuminoid ammonia condemns a water

absolutely (‘Wanklyn’s Water Analysis,’ 4th edit., p. 54); ·10 part per

million with little free ammonia, or ·05 part albuminoid ammonia with much

free ammonia, is ‘suspicious.’ A water with less than ·05 part albuminoid

ammonia belongs to the class of very pure waters.

Of course the above data are not hard and fast lines, but serve as aid to

a judgment which may be modified by other circumstances connected with the

analysis, and the source of the water.

_Methods of Analysis. Total solid residue._——1000 grains are evaporated to

dryness in a platinum dish over a water bath and residue dried in an oven

at 212° F. for an hour, or until the weight is constant. The increase in

weight of the platinum vessel multiplied by 70 gives the number of grains

of total solid residue per gallon.

_Hardness_ is determined by a solution of soap of which 320 grain-measure

will soften a water of 16° of hardness. Each degree of hardness represents

an amount of soap-destroying matter equivalent to 1 grain of chalk per

gallon. 1000 measured grains of the water are measured into a

narrow-mouthed six or eight ounce stoppered bottle, then well shaken, and

the air sucked out by means of a piece of glass tube. The standard soap

solution is now run in 10 grains at a time, shaking well between each

addition until there is formed over the whole surface a lather which, when

the bottle is placed upon its side, shall last just five minutes. The

number of grain-measures used will indicate the hardness of the water by

reference to Table A. Should, however, the permanent lather not be formed

before 320 measures of soap solution have been added, a second trial must

be made, in which only 500 grain-measures of the water are taken, to which

a like amount of recently-boiled distilled water is added. The degree of

hardness now obtained must be multiplied by 2. With very hard waters it is

necessary to dilute still further, say 250 grains to 750 of distilled, and

multiplying the result by 4. If the number of soap-measures does not

correspond with any degree on the table, observe which numbers it falls

between. The degree corresponding to the lower of these soap volumes will

be the whole number in the answer; the fraction will be the difference

between the observed number of measures and the next lower on the table,

divided by the difference (given in column 3) between the figure above and

below it. Thus, if 14 measures were used the hardness would be 6·2°, 13·6

measures being equivalent to 6 degrees, and the fraction being {14 -

13·6}/{13·6 - 11·6} = 4/20 = ·2.

The hardness of the water in the natural state is the ‘total hardness.’ By

boiling for an hour and making up loss by evaporation with boiled

distilled water and again determining the hardness, the ‘permanent

hardness’ is found. That which has been removed by the boiling is the

temporary hardness.

TABLE A.

Soap test measures corresponding to one thousand measures of water of each

degree of hardness.

Degree of Soap test Difference.

hardness. measures.

0 14 18

1 32 22

2 54 22

3 76 20

4 96 20

5 116 20

6 136 20

7 156 19

8 175 19

9 194 19

10 213 18

11 231 18

12 249 18

13 267 18

14 285 18

15 303 17

16 320 ——

The standard water of 16° of hardness is thus made:——Pure carbonate of

calcium (Iceland spar) is weighed out into a porcelain or platinum dish in

the proportion of 16 grains for a gallon of solution. It is dissolved in

weak hydrochloric acid, and the whole cautiously evaporated to dryness

over a water bath, then re-dissolved in water and again evaporated to

drive off any excess of acid. The dish is covered with a glass during the

operation to prevent loss by spirting. The resulting neutral chloride of

calcium is dissolved in a gallon of pure distilled water if 16 grains were

weighed out, or a proportionate quantity in other cases. The soap solution

can be made by dissolving good curd soap in weak methylated spirit in the

proportion of one ounce of soap to the gallon. A potash soap made as

follows is, however, less liable to change: 150 grains of lead plaster

(Emplastrum plumbi, B. P.) and 40 grains of dry potassic carbonate are

rubbed together in a mortar and repeatedly extracted with small portions

of methylated spirit, triturating the mass meanwhile, till about a pint of

spirit has been used; filter and add an equal bulk of recently boiled

distilled water. Whichever method is followed the clear solution has now

to be standardised by the ‘water of 16° of hardness.’ 1000 grains of the

water of 16° of hardness are placed into a bottle, and this soap solution

is run in from a burette until a permanent lather is formed. The soap

solution must be fortified by strong soap solution or diluted with alcohol

till 320 measures produce a lather permanent for five minutes in 1000

grain-measures of water of 16° of hardness.

_Chlorine._ To 1000 grains of the water add a drop or two of neutral

chromate of sodium, so as to tinge the water yellow; run in standard

nitrate of silver till the liquid acquires a very faint red tinge, showing

that all the chlorine has been precipitated and that red silver chromate

is beginning to be formed. The number of grains of standard solution

divided by 100 will give the grains of chlorine in one gallon of the

water.

The standard solution is prepared by dissolving pure nitrate of silver in

the proportion of 47·90 grains to one gallon of distilled water.

_Ammonia_ is always carried out as described in the account of Messrs

Wanklyn and Chapman’s process.

_Nitrate and Nitrites._——These substances can be most expeditiously

estimated by the indigo process as follows: 200 grain-measures of the

water are placed in a flask and a little of a standard solution of indigo

added thereto; twice the volume of pure sulphuric acid is then suddenly

poured in from a measuring cylinder, and the whole shaken. The temperature

rises immediately to about 270° Fahr., and the blue colour will probably

be immediately discharged; more indigo, therefore, must be rapidly run in

till a brown-green tint shows itself. This gives the trial estimation,

but the maximum amount of indigo is only used up when all the indigo is

added previous to the addition of acid; hence a second experiment is now

started, and an amount equal to that previously used run in at once, and

on it is poured exactly twice as much sulphuric acid as there is water and

indigo in solution. The second result will be somewhat higher than the

first. If the solutions below mentioned be used, the amount of indigo

required by the 200 grains of water divided by the number of grains of

indigo required to bleach 200 c.c. of standard nitre represents the

grains per gallon of nitrogen as nitrates and nitrites. The standardising

of the indigo with the nitrate solution is performed exactly as for an

actual water. The requisites are a solution of pure potassium nitrate of

known strength, say 14·442 gr. of nitre (equivalent to 2 gr. of nitrogen

or 9 gr. of nitric acid) in a gallon of distilled water. 2. A solution of

indigo made by dissolving soluble indigo carmine in distilled water in

such a proportion that 200 gr. is about equal to 200 gr. of nitre

solution. 3. Strong pure oil of vitriol; it must be free from nitrous

compounds, not become turbid when diluted, and its specific gravity not be

less than 1·84. It is important to maintain the same proportion of acid,

and not to allow the temperature to fall below 250° F. throughout the

experiment.

Messrs Wanklyn and Chapman’s aluminium method is also a very convenient

process. 2000 grains of the water are placed in a retort and half as much

of a solution of 10 per cent. soda added. The soda solution is made from

sodium soda and the absence of nitrates is secured by boiling the liquid

with a piece of aluminium. Half the contents of the retort are distilled

over and the residue cooled. A piece of aluminium foil of about six square

inches area is tied to a piece of clean glass rod and sunk in the liquid.

The neck of the retort is guarded by a tube containing fragments of glass

moistened with hydrochloric acid; it is sloped, so that any liquid spurted

into the neck will flow back into the retort. After resting several hours

the neck of the retort is washed down with pure water, the contents of the

tube are transferred to the retort, and the contents distilled over, down

to about an ounce in two or three ounces water placed as a receiver. The

contents of the receiver are made up to 200 grains and the ammonia is

estimated in one half by Nessler’s test as below described.

An exceedingly accurate eudiometric method has also been devised by Dr

Frankland, based on Crum’s observations, that a highly concentrated

solution of nitrates, when vigorously agitated with mercury and an excess

of concentrated pure sulphuric acid, yields all its nitrogen from the

nitrates and nitrites, as nitric oxide, a compound occupying twice the

volume of the nitrogen as nitrates. The weight of gas is easily calculated

from the volume measured (‘Journal Chem. Soc.,’ March, 1868).

_Organic Contamination; means of estimating._——Messrs Wanklyn and

Chapman’s method is most generally employed. It depends on the conversion

of the nitrogen of the organic matter into ammonia and the employment of

Nessler’s test to estimate this ammonia.

_Nessler’s Test._ 500 gr. of iodide of potassium are dissolved in a small

quantity of hot distilled water, and to this is gradually added a cold

saturated solution of mercuric chloride till the precipitate produced

ceases to be dissolved upon stirring. To render this alkaline, add 2000

gr. of potassic hydrate and dilute the volume to 10,000 grain measures. A

little more saturated mercuric chloride is added, and the whole allowed to

settle, and the clear liquid decanted off. The test should have a slightly

yellowish tint. If colourless, it is not sensitive, and more mercuric

chloride must be added.

_Standard Ammonia Solution._——Dissolve 27·164 gr. of pure sulphate of

ammonium in 1 gall. of distilled water. For use dilute 100 gr. to 1000 gr.

It will then contain 1 gr. of ammonia in 100,000 of water.

In order to estimate ammonia several six-ounce tall glass cylinders, free

from colour, are graduated at 1000 grains. One of these is filled up to

the graduation mark with the ammonia to be estimated, and about 30 gr. of

Nessler’s reagent added from a pipette. The coloration produced is noted,

a second cylinder is filled nearly to the mark with distilled water, and

what is thought sufficient ammonia to produce a similar colour to the

first run in, and the whole made up to 1000 gr., and 30 gr. of Nessler

added; if after standing five minutes the colour in the second is the same

as in the water examined, the quantity of ammonia they contain will be

equal; but if this is not the case a second trial must be made, using more

or less standard ammonia as the intensity of colour is greater or less

than the first. After a little experience, more than two trials are rarely

necessary.

_Examination._ (_a_) _Free Ammonia._ 7000 grains (a deci-gallon) of the

water to be analysed is placed in a tabulated retort, and to it is added

half an ounce of a supersaturated solution of carbonate of soda, made by

dissolving ignited carbonate of soda in water free from ammonia. The

contents are distilled over in two portions of 1000 grains each, and the

second Nesslerised; if it contains no ammonia, the distillation may be

stopped; if it does, the distillation must be continued and tested in

portions of 500 grains till the ammonia no longer can be detected. If

there is much ammonia in the cylinder of the second 1000 grains the first

will probably contain too much to be conveniently estimated, and therefore

an aliquot part diluted to 1000 grains with distilled water free from

ammonia should be used. The sum of the ammonia in these different portions

multiplied by 10 gives grains per gallon.

(_b_) _Albuminoid Ammonia._ To the retort, after all the free ammonia has

been driven off, one ounce of a solution of hydrate and permanganate of

potassium of a strength of 2000 gr. of hydrate of potassium and 80 gr. of

permanganate to 10,000 gr. of water is added, and the distillation

continued until no more ammonia comes over, collecting the distillate in

portions of 1000 c.c. as before. The sum is the albuminoid ammonia derived

from the nitrogenous organic matter.

It is of course essential that the utmost care be taken to remove by

rinsing or distillation all traces of ammonia from apparatus employed.

Water which has been distilled till free from ammonia should alone be used

in estimations and preparations of solutions, and the alkaline

permanganate should lie boiled for a short time when made to expel

ammonia.

_“Oxygen” Process._ This is a useful process when comparing waters of

similar origin. It is probably a more reliable measure of the _putrescent_

matter present than the _total_ organic contamination. It is essential

that the oxidizing agent potassium permanganate be added in excess and

allowed to stand three hours. The following method is very delicate

(_vide_ Dr Tidy on Potable Waters, ‘Chem. Soc. Journ.,’ January, 1879.)

Cleanse with sulphuric acid and with tap water two flasks and place in one

500 septems (1/20 gall.) of the water, in the other an equal quantity of

distilled water. Add to each 20 septems (140 gr.) of sulphuric acid (1

part pure acid to 3 of distilled water) and 20 septems of potassium

permanganate and allow to rest for 3 hours. Then add to each flask a

couple of drops of an aqueous solution of potassic iodide (1 in 10) when

iodine is liberated equivalent to the amount of permanganate unacted on by

the waters. Observe the amount of a sodic hyposulphite solution (5·4 gr.

in 7000 gr.) which must be added to each to remove this free iodine

(judging of the exact spot by adding towards the end of the experiment a

few drops of starch).

The strength of the potassic permanganate solution is 2 gr. of the salt in

7000 gr. to 1/10 gall.; therefore the 20 septems will contain ·04 gr.

permanganate, equivalent to ·01 of available oxygen. The experiment (A)

with the amount of hyposulphite used up for the blank distilled water

shows the amount of hyposulphite equivalent to 20 septems or ·01 gr. of

oxygen. Therefore the amount of oxygen unconsumed in the water (B) to be

examined was (B/A) × ·01 and the amount (C) actually used up was (A - B)/A

× ·01 for 500 septems (1/20th gall). Then the oxygen consumed per gallon

would be A-B x ·2 / A. It is necessary to perform this standardising of

hyposulphite with every series of experiment on account of its tendency to

change. Dr Tidy recommends that in addition to the three hours’ experiment

one of a single hour duration be executed. The higher the proportion of

oxygen consumed in one hour to the oxygen consumed in three hours the

worse the water.

Nitrites, sulphuretted hydrogen, and ferrous salts interfere with this

test, and there appears to be a different ratio between the oxygen

consumed and the amount of organic matter according to the amount of

oxidation that has already taken place. The organic matter of deep wells

is proportionately least acted upon.

_Combustion methods._——The “Frankland and Armstrong process” consists in

burning with oxide of copper in vacuo the residue left on evaporating the

water, and collecting and measuring in a suitable gas apparatus the

carbonic acid, and nitrogen, and nitric oxide proceeding from the organic

matter. From these estimations are calculated the organic carbon and

nitrogen.

This method, though forming the most accurate means of measuring organic

contamination, is not in general use in consequence of the difficulties

attending Dr Frankland’s method of analysis. Professor Dittmar and Drs

Dupré and Hake have lately introduced processes by which the same results

may be obtained without necessitating the use of expensive gas apparatus.

_Dittmar’s Carbon._——Concentrate a suitable quantity (say 10,000 gr.) in a

pear-shaped flask, and, after adding some saturated solution of sulphurous

acid to expel carbonates and nitrates, evaporate to dryness in a glass

dish on a water bath. Transfer the residue from the dish to a porcelain or

platinum boat, and introduce it into the tail end of a combustion tube,

filled three fourths of its length with oxide of copper, and having a roll

of silver gauze in the front part of the tube. Previous to the boat being

put in, this tube is heated to redness, and a stream of air, freed from

carbonic acid, passed through it till the gas which comes out no longer

renders clear baryta water turbid. The combustion tube has attached in

front a small V-Shaped tube charged with chromic acid, dissolved in 60 per

cent. sulphuric acid. To it is permanently fixed a small tube filled with

calcic chloride, and in front of all is a small-weighed U-tube the first

three fourths of which is filled with soda lime, and the other fourth with

calcic chloride. On turning the gas on gradually from the front to the

tail the residue is at last reached, and burnt in the stream of pure air.

The carbonic acid given off, after being freed from sulphurous anhydride

by passing through the chromic acid solution and of moisture by the

calcic chloride, passes into the soda lime tube and is absorbed. The

increase in weight multiplied by 3/11 gives the amount of carbon in the

amount of water taken.

_Dittmar’s Nitrogen._ An amount of water, about half that taken for the

carbon, is evaporated in a similar way. The residue is transferred to a

large copper or silver boat, and mixed with about 50 grains of soda made

from pure sodium, or with a mixture of soda and baryta, and burnt in a

stream of hydrogen in a short combustion tube, which is closed in front by

a nitrogen absorption bulb charged with exceedingly weak acidulated water.

The amount of ammonia given off is estimated by the Nessler test as

described under “Ammonia.” Subtracting the amount of inorganic ammonia the

residue multiplied by 14/17 yields the quantity of organic nitrogen in

that volume of water.

A few blank experiments must be made to observe and allow correction for

the amount of experimental error.

_Carbon method of Drs Dupré and Hake._[261]——This method appears to be

very accurate, but it necessitates a number of minute precautions, which

cannot here be particularised. A residue is obtained by evaporating the

water either in the ordinary hemispherical glass dish, or in an

exceedingly thin silver one, which after being ignited is supported in a

platinum hemisphere of convenient size. At the close of the evaporation

this dish is crumpled up without being handled and introduced into a

combustion tube, similar to that described under Dittmar’s process. The

carbonic acid is absorbed in bright baric hydrate solution, and the

precipitated baric carbonate is, with suitable precautions to prevent

access of impure air, collected on a filter and washed. It is dried and

weighed. The result divided by 19·4 gives the weight of organic carbon. As

another method of estimating the carbon the authors propose to compare the

turbidity produced by the carbonic acid evolved from the combustion of the

residue in solutions of basic acetate of lead with that produced by known

quantity of carbonic acid.

[Footnote 261: ‘Chem. Soc. Journ.,’ March, 1879.]

_Pres._ The preservation of rain water in a state of purity necessitates

the greatest care in constructing the tanks, especially if the latter are

underground. Of eight samples of stored rain water examined by the River

Commissioners only one was fit for domestic use, the others were all

polluted by animal matter. Storage room sufficient to hold 120 days’

supply will be found sufficient for the driest district. The small

cisterns for service water should not be placed in positions where it can

receive the emanation of water closets or sleeping apartments. They should

be frequently cleaned out. The best are made of enamelled slate or

properly painted iron. Wherever possible a water service should be on the

constant supply system.

For wells the chief precaution necessary is to keep out surface and

drainage water by maintaining the walls water-proof for a considerable

depth. On shipboard water is preserved in iron tanks or in casks well

charred on the inside. Water cannot be safely kept in copper or leaden

vessels, and it receives a calcareous impregnation by contact with lime,

mortar, slate, or stone containing lime. The addition of 1/2 to 1 per

cent. of finely powdered binoxide of manganese materially promotes

preservation, especially at sea, where the motion of the vessel and the

subsequent agitation of the water increases the points of contact. Water

never putrefies in iron vessels or when some fragments of metallic iron

are immersed in it. Distilled water should be preserved in glass bottles

or carboys. See LOTION, SPIRITS, WATER, DISTILLED EYE WATER, PERFUMED

WATER, and the articles below.

=Water, Soda.= Each bottle of this liquid should contain at least 15

grains of carbonate of sodium, but that of the shops is usually nothing

else but water highly charged with carbonic anhydride. Not a particle of

soda enters into its composition, on which account it cannot be

substituted for the preparation of the Pharmacopœias.

To produce a superior article of soda water, the possession of a powerful

aërating and bottling machine is absolutely necessary. The water employed

must also be of the purest quality, the carbonic anhydride well washed

with water, and the corks so prepared that they will not impart their

peculiar flavour to the beverage. See POWDERS, SOLUTION, WINES, and LEAD

IN AERATED WATER.

=Water, Tar.= See INFUSION OF TAR.

=WATERS (Distilled).= _Syn._ AROMATIC WATERS, ODORIFEROUS W., PERFUMED W.;

AQUÆ (Ph. L.), AQUÆ DESTILLATÆ (Ph. E. & D.), L. Pure water, charged, by

distillation, with the volatile, odorous, and aromatic principles of

plants.

_Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.)——_a._ 2 galls, of water are put into the still along

with the vegetable matter (bruised, if necessary), but only 1 gall. is

drawn over. In the Ph. L. 1836, 7 fl. oz. of proof spirit were added

before distillation.

_b._ Take of the essential oil of the plant, 2 fl. dr.; powdered silex, 2

dr.; triturate them diligently together, and then with distilled water, 1

gall., gradually added; lastly (after briskly agitating the whole for some

time), strain the solution.

2. (Ph. E.) As 1, _a_, but adding of rectified spirit, 3 fl. oz., before

distillation.

3. (Ph. D.). From the respective essences (Ph. D), 1 fl. oz.; distilled

water, 2 quarts; agitated well together, and then filtered through paper.

The following are the AQUÆ DESTILLATÆ of the British Colleges, with some

others, the quantities referring to a product of 1 gall., to be prepared

as above when not otherwise directed.

ANGELICA WATER; AQUA ANGELICÆ (P. Cod.). Bruised seed, 1 lb.; water,

q. s., distil 4 lbs.

ANISEED WATER; AQUA ANISI (P. Cod.). From seeds, as AQUA ANGELICÆ.

BALM WATER; AQUA MELISSÆ (P. Cod.), L. Fresh tops, 12 lbs.

BERGAMOT WATER; AQUA BERGAMII (L. 1746). Bergamot peel, 5 oz.

BITTER-ALMOND WATER; AQUÆ AMYGDALÆ AMARÆ, AQUA AMYGDALARUM AMABARUM (P.

Cod.), L. Bitter-almond cake (from which the oil has been expressed), 5

lbs.; macerate for 24 hours, and filter the distilled product through

paper previously wetted with pure distilled water. Poisonous.——_Dose_, 10

to 60 drops, as a substitute for hydrocyanic acid.

BLACK MUSTARD-SEED WATER; AQUA SINAPIS NIGRÆ (Guibourt). Mix 1 part of

ground black mustard seed with 8 of water; macerate for 12 hours, and

distil 4 parts, by means of steam conducted by a tube from a boiler to the

bottom of the still. Filter through moistened paper to separate the oil.

Used externally as a rubefacient.

BORAGE WATER; AQUA BORAGINIS (P. Cod.), L. Fresh leaves, 12 lbs.

CAMPHOR WATER; AQUA CAMPHORÆ (B. P.) MISTURA CAMPHORÆ. Enclose 1/2 oz. of

camphor, broken into pieces, in a muslin bag, and attach this to one end

of a glass rod, to keep it at the bottom of a bottle containing 1 gall, of

distilled water. Macerate for 2 days, then pour off the solution as

required.

CARAWAY WATER; AQUA CARUI (B. P., Ph. L. & D.). Caraway, bruised, 1;

water, 20; distil 10.

CASCARILLA WATER; AQUA CORTICIS CASCARILLÆ (P. Cod.), L. Cascarilla,

bruised, 3 lbs.

CASSIA WATER; AQUA CASSIÆ (Ph. E.), L. Cassia, bruised, 1-1/2 lb.

CASTOR WATER; AQUA CASTOREI. Castor, 4 oz.

CHAMOMILE WATER; AQUA ANTHEMIDIS (Ph. G.). Dried chamomile flower, 2 lbs.;

water, q. s.; distil 20 lbs.

CHERRY-LAUREL WATER; AQUA LAURO-CERASI (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1.

(B. P.) Fresh leaves of common laurel, 16, water, 50; chop the leaves,

crush them in a mortar, and macerate them in the water for twenty-four

hours; distil 20 of the liquid, shake the product, filter through paper,

and preserve in a stoppered bottle——2. (Ph. E.) Fresh leaves, chopped, 10

lbs. (10 lbs.——Ph. D.). To the product add of compound spirit of lavender,

8 fl. oz,; agitate well, and, if milky, filter it (through wet paper——Ph.

D.& P. Cod.).——_Dose_, 10 to 60 drops, as a substitute for hydrocyanic

acid. It is commonly imitated in trade by dissolving 75 drops (minims) of

the oil of bitter almonds in 2-1/2 fl. oz. of rectified spirit, agitating

the mixture with warm distilled water, 1 gall., and filtering.

CINNAMON WATER; AQUA CINNAMOMI (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. 1. Cinnamon,

bruised, 18 oz.; or oil, 2 fl. dr.——2. (B. P.) Cinnamon, bruised, 1;

water, 16; distil 8.

CLOVE WATER; AQUA CARYOPHYLLI (P. Cod.), L. Cloves, bruised, 3 lbs.

CORIANDER WATER; AQUA CORIANDRI. As Angelica water.

DILL WATER; AQUA ANETHI (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. 1. Bruised seed, 1-1/2

lb.; or essential oil, 2 fl. dr.——2. (B. P.) Bruised fruit, 1; water, 20;

distil 10.

DISTILLED WATER; AQUA DESTILLATA (B. P.). Take of water, 10 galls, distil

from a copper state, connected with a block-tin worm; reject the first 1/2

gall., and preserve the next 8 galls. It should remain clear on the

addition of either lime water, chloride of barium, nitrate of silver,

oxalate of ammonia, or hydrosulphuric acid (sulphuretted hydrogen).

ELDER-FLOWER WATER; AQUA SAMBUCI (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. 1. Fresh elder

flowers, 10 lbs.——2. (B. P.) Fresh elder flowers, separated from the

stalks, 1; water 2; distil 1.

FENNEL WATER; AQUA FŒNICULI (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.) L. As DILL WATER.

HYSSOP WATER; AQUA HYSSOPI (P. Cod.), L. Fresh tops, 12 lbs.

EUCALYPTUS WATER. _Syn._ AQUA EUCALYPTI. _Prep._ Dry leaves, 1 part; add

sufficient water to yield 4 parts of product.

HYSTERIC WATER; AQUA HYSTERICA. Compound of spirit of bryony, omitting the

bryony.

JUNIPER WATER; AQUA BACCÆ JUNIPERI (P. Cod.), L. Berries, bruised, 3 lbs.

LAVENDER WATER; AQUA LAVENDULÆ (P. Cod.), L. Flowering tops, 3 lbs.

LEMON-PEEL WATER; _Aqua limonis_ (E., 1817). Fresh lemon peel, 2 lbs.;

water, q. s.; distil 10 lbs.

LETTUCE WATER; AQUA LACTUCÆ (P. Cod.), L. Fresh lettuces, bruised, 12 lbs.

LIME-TREE-FLOWER WATER; AQUA TILLIÆ. From lime flowers, as melilot water.

LILY WATER; AQUA LILIORUM CONVALLIUM (Ph. Bruns.). Flowers of lily of the

valley, 1 lb.; water, 4 lbs.; distil 2 lbs.

MELILOT WATER; AQUA MELLIOTI (P. Cod.), L. Dried flower, 3 lbs.

MINT WATER, SPEARMINT W.; AQUA MENTHÆ VIRIDIS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.).

L. 1. Dried herb, 2 lbs.; or fresh herb, 4 lbs.; or essential oil, 2 fl.

dr.——2. (B. P.) English oil of spearmint, 1-1/2 dr.; water, 1-1/2 gall.;

distil 1 gall.

MYRTLE-FLOWER WATER; AQUA MYRTI. Myrtle flowers, 3 lbs.; water, q. s.;

distil 1 gall.

OPIUM WATER; AQUA OPII (Ph. G). Opium, sliced and dried, 1 oz. Put into a

glass retort with 10 oz. of. water, and distil 5 oz.

ORANGE-FLOWER WATER; AQUA AURANTII FLORIS (B. P., Ph. L.), A. FLORUM

AURANTII, L. “Water distilled from the flowers of _Citrus Bigaradia_,

Risso, and _Citrus Aurantium_, D. C.” (Ph. L.) Orange flowers, 10 lbs.;

proof spirit, 7 fl. oz. (Ph. L. 1836.)

ORANGE-PEEL WATER; AQUA CORTICIS AURANTII (L. 1746). Rind of oranges, 5

oz.

ORIGANUM WATER; AQUA ORIGANI (P. Cod.), L. Dried flowers, 3 lbs.

PEACH WATER; AQUA PERSICÆ (P. Cod.), L. Fresh leaves, chopped small, 12

lbs.; as CHERRY-LAUREL WATER.

PEACH-LEAF WATER; AQUA PERSICÆ (P. Cod.). Fresh peach leaves, cut small, 2

lbs.; water, 4 lbs. Distil gently 3 lbs.

PARSLEY-SEED WATER; AQUA PETROSELINI (P. Cod.). From parsley seed, as

angelica water.

PENNYROYAL WATER; AQUA PULEGII (Ph. L. & E.), AQUA MENTHÆ PULEGII (Ph.

D.), L. As MINT WATER (_above_).

PEPPERMINT WATER; AQUA MENTHÆ PIPERITÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. As

MINT WATER (_above_).

PIMENTO WATER; AQUA PIMENTÆ: (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). L. 1. Pimento,

bruised, 1 lb.; or oil, 2 fl. dr.——2. (B. P.) Pimento, bruised, 1; water,

23, nearly; distil one half.

PLANTAIN-LEAF WATER; AQUA PLANTAGINIS (P. Cod.). From fresh plantain

leaves, as lettuce water.

RASPBERRY WATER. Fresh raspberries, 6 lbs.

RED-ANT WATER; AQUA FORMICARUM. Distilled from red ants with water, q. s.

RHODIUM WATER; AQUA RHODII. Rhodium wood, 1 part; water, 8; macerate, and

distil 4 parts.

ROSEMARY WATER; AQUA ROSMARINI, AQUA ANTHOS. Rosemary, in flower, 1 lb.;

infuse 24 hours; distil 1 gall.

ROSE WATER; AQUA ROSÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Damask or

hundred-leaved rose, 10 lbs. (Ph. L. & E.).——Otto 40 drops. (Ph.

D.)——Fresh cabbage-rose petals, 1; water, 2; distil 1 (B. P.).

RUE WATER; AQUA RUTÆ. Fresh rue, 1 lb.; macerate 24 hours; distil 1 gall.

SAGE WATER; AQUA SALVIÆ (P. Cod.), L. As LAVENDER WATER (_above_).

SASSAFRAS WATER; AQUA LIGNI SASSAFRAS (P. Cod.), L. Sassafras chips, 3

lbs.

SASSAFRAS WATER; AQUA SASSAFRAS (P. Cod.). From sassafras, as melilot

water.

SCURVY-GRASS WATER; AQUA COCHLEARIÆ (P. Cod.). Fresh scurvy grass, 8 lbs.

SPEARMINT WATER. See MINT WATER.

SPIRITUOUS WATERS. Many of the distilled spirits were formerly termed

waters.

SPRUCE FIR WATER; AQUA ABIRTIS (P. Cod.). Bruised buds of spruce fir, 2

lbs.

STINKING GOOSE-FOOT WATER; AQUA CHENOPODII VALVARIÆ. Stinking goose-foot,

1 lb.; water, 6 lbs.; distil 3 lbs.; 1 to 2 oz. in hysteria.

STRAWBERRY WATER; AQUA FRAGARIÆ. Strawberries, 3 lbs.; water, q. s.;

distil 3 lbs.

TANSY WATER; AQUA TANACETI (P. Cod.), L. Flowering tops, 6 lbs.

THYME WATER; AQUA THYMI (P. Cod.), L. As the last.

VALERIAN WATER; AQUA VALERIANÆ, A. RADICIS V. (P. Cod.), L. Root bruised,

3 lbs.

VANILLA WATER; AQUA VANILLÆ, L. Vanilla, coarsely powdered, 1 lb.; salt, 5

lbs.; water 2-1/2 galls.; macerate for 24 hours in a covered vessel, then

distil 1 gall.

VIOLET WATER; AQUA VIOLÆ. Violets, 1 part; water, 4; after 6 hours distil

2 parts.

WORMWOOD WATER; AQUA ABSINTHII (P. Cod.). Wormwood tops, 4 lbs.

_Uses, &c._ Distilled waters are mostly employed as vehicles or perfumes.

A few, as bitter-almond, cherry-laurel, and peach water, are poisonous in

doses larger than a few drops. The dose of the aromatic or carminative

waters, as those of dill, caraway, peppermint, pennyroyal, &c., is a

wine-glassful, _ad libitum_.

_Concluding Remarks._ In the preparation of distilled waters for medical

purposes the utmost care should be taken to prevent contamination from

contact with either copper, lead, or zinc, since these metals are

gradually oxidised and dissolved by them. In preparing them from the

essential oils, silica, in impalpable powder, is the best substance that

can be employed to promote the division and diffusion of the oil, as

directed in the Ph. L. Magnesia and sugar, formerly used for the purpose,

are objectionable; as the first not; only decomposes a portion of the oil,

but the water is apt to dissolve a little of it, and is hence rendered

unfit to be used as a solvent for metallic salts, more especially for

corrosive sublimate and nitrate of silver; whilst the other causes the

water to ferment and acetify.

In the distillation of waters intended for perfumery the utmost care is

requisite to produce a highly fragrant article. The still should be

furnished with a high and narrow neck, and the heat of steam, or a

salt-water bath, should alone be employed. The first 2 or 3 fl. oz. of the

runnings should be rejected, except when spirit is used, and the remainder

collected until the proper quantity be obtained, when the whole product

should be mixed together, as distilled waters progressively decrease in

strength the longer the process is continued. When a very superior article

is desired, the waters may be redistilled by a gentle heat, the first two

thirds only being preserved. The herbaceous odour of recently distilled

waters is removed by keeping them for some months, loosely covered in a

cold cellar.

When distilled waters have been carefully prepared, so that none of the

liquor in the still has ‘spirted’ over into the condensing worm, they keep

well, and are not liable to change; but when the reverse is the case, they

frequently become ropy and viscid. The best remedy for this is to redistil

them. Waters which have acquired a burnt smell in the ‘stilling’ lose it

by freezing. Distilled waters may be prevented from turning sour by

adding a little calcined magnesia to them, and those which have begun to

spoil may be recovered by adding 1 gr. each of borax and alum to the pint.

The doctoring is not, however, to be recommended, and should never be

adopted for those used in medicine. A drop of solution of terchloride of

gold added to these waters shows whether they contain any uncombined

essential oil, by forming, in that case, a fine metallic film on the

surface. After distilled waters have acquired their full odour, they

should be carefully preserved in well-stopped bottles. Such houses keep a

separate still for each of the more delicate perfumed waters, as it is

extremely difficult to remove any odour that adheres to the body of the

still and worm. The addition of the small quantity of spirit ordered in

the Ph. E. and Ph. L. 1836, in the preparation of their waters, in no way

tends to promote their preservation.

In general, the druggist draws off 2 galls., or more, of water from the

quantities of the herbs, barks, seeds, or flowers, ordered in the

Pharmacopœias; hence the inferior quality of the waters of the shops. They

do, however, very well for vehicles. The perfumers, on the contrary, use

an excess of flowers, or at least reserve only the first and stronger

portion of the water that distils over, the remainder being collected and

used for a second distillation of fresh flowers.

The most beautiful distilled waters are those prepared in the south of

France, and which are imported into England under the French names. Thus

eau de rose, eau de fleurs d’oranges, &c., are immensely superior to the

best English rose or orange-flower water, &c. The water that distils over

in the preparation of the essential oils is usually of the strongest and

finest class. See ESSENCE, OILS (Volatile), SPIRITS (Perfumed),

VEGETABLES, &c.

=WATERS (Eye).= _Syn._ COLLYRIA, L. _Prep._ 1. From distilled vinegar, 1

fl. oz.; distilled water 1/2 pint. Half a fl. oz. of rectified spirit, or

1 fl. oz. of brandy, is often added. In simple chronic ophthalmia, blear

eyes, &c., also to remove particles of lime from the eyes.

2. Sugar of lead, 10 gr.; pure vinegar, 1/2 teaspoonful; distilled water,

1/2 pint. In ophthalmia, as soon as active inflammation ceases; also as

the last.

3. Wine of opium, 2 fl. dr.; sulphate of zinc, 20 gr.; distilled water,

1/2 pint. Astringent and anodyne; in painful ophthalmia and extreme

irritability.

4. Opium, 15 gr.; boiling water, 8 fl. oz.; when cold, add of solution of

acetate of ammonia, 2-1/2 fl. oz., and filter. As the last.

5. Sulphate of zinc, 20 gr.; distilled water, 1/2 pint; dissolve. Au

excellent astringent water in chronic ophthalmia, weak and irritable,

eyes, &c.

6. Sulphate of copper, 10 gr.; camphor mixture (julep), 1/2 pint;

dissolve. In the purulent ophthalmia of infants.

I. TABLE _exhibiting the Composition of several of

the more celebrated_ MINERAL WATERS.

16 fl. oz. in the following Ingredients:——

+---------------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+--------»

| |in cubic|anhydride|hydrogen in |of |of |of |of |of mag-

| | |cubic | |in |in |in |in |grains.

+---------------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+--------»

|Seltzer | | 17· | | 4· | 5· | 3· | |

|Pyrmont | | 26· | | | 10· | 4·5 | | 5·5

|Spa | | 13· | | 1·5 | 4·5 | 1·5 | |

|Carlsbad | | 5· | | 5· | | 1·5 | 8·5 |

|Pouges | | 30· | | 10· | 1·2 | 12· | |

|Saint Parize | | 22· | | | 0·5 | 11·5 | |

+---------------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+--------»

|Tunbridge | 0·59 | 1· | {trace } | | | 0·03 | |

|Cheltenham | | | { of } | | | | |

| Chalybeate | | 2·5 | {oxygen} | 0·5 | | | 22·7 | 6·

|Brighton | | 2·2 | | | | | |

+---------------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+--------»

|Seidlitz | | | | | 2·5 | 0·8 | | 180·

|Cheltenham | | | | | | | 15· | 11·

|Bristol | | 3·5 | | | | 1·5 | 1·5 |

|Buxton | 0·2 | | | | | 1·3 | |

|Bath | | 1·2 | | | | 0·8 | 1·5 |

|Plombières | | | | 2·2 | | 0·3 | 2·3 |

|Kilburn | | 3·5 | 8·54? | | 0·5 | 1· | 12· | 37·

| Old Bath | 0·3 | ditto | | | | | 7·5 | 7·

+---------------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+--------»

|Harrogate | 0·8 | 1· | 2·3 | | 0·7 | 2·5 | | 1·3

|Moffat | 0·5 | 0·6 | 1·2 | | | | |

|Aix-la-Chapelle| | | 5·5 | 12· | | 4·2 | |

| Sulph. Spring| | | 1·5 | | | | 23·5 | 5·

+---------------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+--------»

»---------------+--------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------------+

»---------------+--------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------------+

|Pyrmont | 8·5 | 1·5 | | | 0·6 | | ditto | 30·6 | Ditto. |

|Spa | | 0·2 | | | 0·6 | | ditto | 8·3 | Ditto. |

|Carlsbad | | 4·5 | | |a trace| 0·3 | 165° | 19·8 |Klaproth. |

|Pouges | | 2·2 | | | 2·5 | 0·5 | Cold | 28·4 |Hassentratz.|

»---------------+--------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------------+

|Tunbridge | 0·17 | 0·30 | 0·03 | 0·05 |0·28 | | ditto | 0·86 | Scudamore. |

| Chalybeate | 2·5 | 41·3 | | |0·8 | | ditto | 73·8 | & Brande.|

|Brighton | 4· | 3· | 0·75 | |1·4 | 0·14 | ditto | 9·29 | Marcet. |

»---------------+--------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------------+

|Seidlitz | 5· | | 4·5 | | | | ditto |192·8 | Bergman. |

|Cheltenham | 4·5 | 50· | | | | | | | Parkes |

|Bristol | 1·5 | 0·5 | 1· | | | | 74° | 6· | Carrick. |

|Buxton | 0·3 | 0·2 | | | 0·03 | | 82° | 1·83 | Pearson. |

|Bath | 9· | 3·3 | | |a trace| 0·2 | 116° | 14·8 | Phillips. |

|Barèges |a trace | 0·5 | | | | | 120° | 3· | Ditto. |

|Plombières | | 1·5 | | | | 0·3 | ? | 6·6 | Vanquelin. |

|Kilburn | 5·5 | 2·5 | 5·5 | 0·2 |a trace| | Cold | 64·2 | Schmeisser.|

| New Bath |14· | 53· | 1·5 | | 0·8 | | ditto | 88·3 | Lambe. |

| Old Bath |18· | 41· | | | | | ditto | 73·5 | Ditto. |

»---------------+--------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------------+

|Harrogate | | 77· | 11· | 1·5 | | | ditto | 94· | Garnet. |

|Aix-la-Chapelle| | 5· | | | | | 143° | 21·2 | Bergman. |

| Sulph. Spring| 1·2 | 35· | | | 0·3 | | Cold | 65· | & Brande.|

»---------------+--------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------------+

II. TABLE _exhibiting the Composition of the

principal_ MINERAL WATERS of GERMANY, _and of the_

SARATOGA CONGRESS SPRING _of_ AMERICA, _re-arranged

expressly for this work._

+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------»

| | | | | |Ems. | | |Brunnen.

+--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------»

| | | | | | | | |

|Carbonate of Soda | 5·2443| 4·5976| 7·2712| 3·8914| 8·0625|12·3328| ... | ...

|Carbonate of Lithia | 0·0902| 0·0507| 0·0150| 0·0282| 0·0405| ... | ... | ...

|Carbonate of Baryta | 0·0024| ... | ... | ... | 0·0022| ... | ... | ...

|Carbonate of Strontia | 0·0387| 0·0040| 0·0055| 0·0023| 0·0080| ... | 0·0592| ...

|Carbonate of Lime | 0·4703| 3·0085| 1·7775| 1·3501| 0·8555| 1·8667| 4·8180| 0·2058

|Carbonate of Magnesia | 0·2980| 2·2867| 1·0275| 0·5040| 0·5915| 1·2983| 1·3185| 1·1812

|Carbonate (Proto) Manganese 0·0012| 0·0692| 0·0048| 0·0322| 0·0028| ... | 0·0121| 0·0072

|Carbonate of (Proto) Iron | 0·0121| 0·2995| 0·0208| 0·1762| 0·0120| ... | 0·1397| 0·1495

|Sub-Phos. of Lime | ... | ... | 0·0012| 0·0172| ... | 0·0061| ... | ...

|Sub-Phos. of Alumina | ... | 0·0040| 0·0019| 0·0092| 0·0014| ... | ... | ...

|Sulphate of Potassa | 0·0066| ... | ... | ... | 0·4050| ... | 1·2540| ...

|Sulphate of Soda | ... |16·9022|14·9019|18·3785| ... | 0·1267| ... | ...

|Sulphate of Lithia | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ...

|Sulphate of Lime | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 5·5485| ...

|Sulphate of Strontia | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ...

|Sulphate of Magnesia | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ...

|Nitr. of Magnesia | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ...

|Chlor. of Ammonium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0364| ...

|Chlor. of Potassium | 0·1845| ... | ... | ... | 0·0338| ... | ... | 0·7287

|Chlor. of Sodium |28·4608| 6·7472| 5·9820| 6·9229| 5·7255| 3·2337|39·3733|54·6917

|Chlor. of Lithium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0562

|Chlor. of Calcium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 9·7358

|Chlor. of Magnesium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 3·6599| ...

|Chlor. of Barium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·2366

|Chlor. of Strontium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·5494

|Bromide of Sodium | 0·3060| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·3331| 0·2304

|Iodide of Sodium | 0·1500| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0024

|Fluoride of Calcium | ... | ... | 0·0184| ... | 0·0014| ... | ... | ...

|Alumina | 0·0166| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0086

|Silica | 0·1922| 0·5023| 0·4329| 0·3548| 0·3104| 0·0657| 0·1609| 0·2355

+----------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------»

|Total Saline contents |35·4739|34·4719|31·4606|31·6670|16·0525|18·9300|56·7136|68·0190

|Carbonic Acid Gas in 100} | 10 | 154 | 58 | 154 | 51 | 135 | 96 | 12

| cubic inches } | | | | | | | |

| { | | Spru. 165° | | | |

| { | | Neub. 138° Kess. 117° | |

|Temperature, Fahr. { | 58 | 49° Mühl. 128° 54° Krán. 84° 50° | 53°| 47°

| { | | Ther. 122° | | | |

|Authorities | A | B | C | C | A | D | A | A

+----------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------+-------»

»--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

»--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

| | | | | | | | | |

|Carbonate of Soda | 5·3499| ... | ... | 0·8261| 7·6211| ... | 4·6162| 0·5531|

|Carbonate of Lithia | 0·0858| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |

|Carbonate of Baryta | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0014| ... |

|Carbonate of Strontia | 0·0028| ... | ... | 0·0672| 0·0170| ... | 0·0144| ... |

|Carbonate of Lime | 2·9509| 0·5775| 4·7781| 5·8531| 1·5464| 5·1045| 1·4004| 0·7387|

|Carbonate of Magnesia | 2·0390| 4·8045| ... | 4·1155| 1·5496| 0·8235| 1·5000| 0·8421|

|Carbonate (Proto) Manganese 2·0288| ... | 0·0364| 0·0202| 0·0026| 0·0032| ... | 0·0389|

|Carbonate of (Proto) Iron | 0·1319| ... | 0·3213| 0·0173| 0·0356| 0·0095| ... | 0·2813|

|Sub-Phos. of Lime | ... | 0·0026| ... | ... | ... | 0·0117| 0·0007| 0·0102|

|Sub-Phos. of Alumina | ... | ... | 0·0110| ... | ... | 0·0088| 0·0020| 0·0064|

|Sulphate of Potassa | ... | 3·6000| 0·0314| 0·1379| 0·3160| 3·6705| 0·2978| 0·0593|

|Sulphate of Soda |28·5868|92·8500| 1·6092| ... | 2·5106|17·6220| ... | 0·0281|

|Sulphate of Lithia | ... | ... | 0·0067| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |

|Sulphate of Lime | ... | 1·9500| 5·0265| ... | ... | 1·1287| ... | ... |

|Sulphate of Strontia | ... | ... | 0·0154| ... | ... | 0·0347| ... | ... |

|Sulphate of Magnesia | ... |69·8145| 2·3684| ... | ... |62·3535| ... | ... |

|Nitr. of Magnesia | ... | ... | ... | 0·1004| ... | 5·9302| ... | ... |

|Chlor. of Ammonium | ... | ... | ... | 0·0326| 0·0164| ... | ... | ... |

|Chlor. of Potassium | ... | ... | ... | 1·6256| ... | ... | 0·2685| ... |

|Chlor. of Sodium |10·1727| ... | ... |19·6653| 0·8682| ... |12·9690| 0·3371|

|Chlor. of Lithium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |

|Chlor. of Calcium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |

|Chlor. of Magnesium | ... |14·7495| 0·8450| ... | ... | 1·2223| ... | ... |

|Chlor. of Barium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |

|Chlor. of Strontium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |

|Bromide of Sodium | ... | ... | ... | 0·1613| 0·0051| ... | ... | ... |

|Iodide of Sodium | ... | ... | ... | 0·0046| ... | ... | ... | ... |

|Fluoride of Calcium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0013| ... |

|Alumina | 0·0023| ... | ... | 0·0069| ... | ... | ... | ... |

|Silica | 0·2908| 0·1320| 0·3727| 0·1112| 0·2423| 0·0900| 0·2265| 0·3739|

»--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

|Total Saline contents |51·6417|88·4806|15·4221|32·7452|14·7309|98·0133|21·2982| 3·2691|

|Carbonic Acid Gas in 100} | 105 | 7 | 160 | 114 | 98 | 20 | 126 | 136 |

| cubic inches } | | | | | | | | |

| { | | | | | | | | |

|Temperature, Fahr. { | 53°| 58°| 56°| 50°| 58° | 58°| 58°| 58°|

| { | | | | | | | | |

|Authorities | C | A | A | E | A | A | A | A |

»--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

Authorities: A Struve. B Steinm. C Berzelius. D Bischoff. E Schweitz.

7. Camphor julep, 5 fl. oz.; solution of acetate of ammonia and rose

water, of each 2-1/2 fl. oz.; mix. For weak or swollen eyes, particularly

after ophthalmia.

8. Chloride of barium, 30 gr.; distilled water, 1/2 pint. In the

ophthalmia of scrofulous and syphylitic habits.

9. (Bate’s.) From blue vitriol, 15 gr.; camphor, 4 gr.; hot water, 1/4

pint; agitate in a corked bottle, and, when cold, make it up to 4 pints,

and filter. In purulent ophthalmia and blear eyes.

10. (Goulard’s.) From solution of diacetate of lead, 16 drops; distilled

water, 1/2 pint; mix. As No. 2.

11. (Krimer.) Hydrochloric acid, 20 drops; mucilage, 1 dr.; water, 2 fl.

oz. To remove particles of iron or lime from the eye.

12. (Marshall’s ‘EYE-DROPS,’) Nitrate of silver, 2 gr.; dilute nitric

acid, 2 drops; pure soft or distilled water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve; add

powdered gum, 15 gr.; agitate until dissolved, and the next day decant the

clear portion.

13. (P. Cod.) Extract of opium, 4 gr.; rose water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolved.

In painful ophthalmia.

=WATERS (Mine′ral).= _Syn._ SALINE WATERS; AQUÆ MINERALES, L. Our space

will not permit a description of these individually. The tables given on

pages 1746-7, exhibiting their composition, will, however, enable the

reader, with a little attention, to produce artificial waters more closely

resembling the natural ones than can be done by adopting any of the

numerous formulæ published for the purpose. The ‘aerated waters’ are

charged with 5 or 6 times their volume of carbonic acid gas, by means of

the apparatus employed by the soda-water manufacturers. On the small scale

the gas is often produced by the reaction of the ingredients on each

other, in which case, on the introduction of the latter, the bottle must

be instantly closed and inverted. Distilled water, or filtered rain water,

should alone be employed in their composition; and for the chalybeated and

sulphuretted waters it should be first boiled, and allowed to cool out of

contact with the air.

In addition to the tables it may be remarked that traces of iodine have

been found in the water of Cheltenham (old well), traces of bromine in the

water of Epsom, and traces of both bromine and iodine in that of

Leamington (royal pump). Manganese has been found in the waters of

Tunbridge, Carlsbad, Spa, Pyrmont, Marienbad, Saidschüts, &c. Traces of

phosphoric and fluoric acid have also been found in some mineral waters.

It is the opinion of many high authorities that the medicinal virtues of

these waters depend more on the minute quantities of the above substances,

and the high state of dilution in which they are held, than on their more

abundant saline ingredients.

=WATER (Perfumed′).= _Syn._ AQUÆ ODORIFERÆ, L. The simple distilled

waters of the perfumer have been already noticed (see page 1745). They may

be prepared from any substances which imparts its fragrance to water by

distillation. The compound waters (eaux) employed as perfumes consist of

very pure rectified spirit, holding in solution essential oils, or other

odorous matter, and resemble the esprits, essences, and spirits, before

noticed. They differ from extraits in being mostly colourless, or nearly

so, and in being generally prepared by distillation, or by the addition of

the pure essential oils or essences to carefully rectified and perfectly

scentless spirit; whereas the extraits are mostly and preferably prepared

by macerating the flowers, &c., in the spirit, or by digesting the spirit

with the oils, in the manner noticed under SPIRITS (Perfumed). Extraits

are preferred to eaux and esprits as the basis of good perfumery, where

the colour is not objectionable.

The following are a few additional formulæ and remarks:——

ANGEL WATER, PORTUGAL W. From orange-flower and rose water, of each 1

pint; myrtle water, 1/2 pint; essence of ambergris, 1/2 fl. oz.; essence

of musk, 1/4 fl. oz.; shake them well together for some hours, then filter

the mixture through paper.

EAU D’ANGE, Fr.; AQUA MYRTI, L. From myrtle flowers, 3-1/2 lbs.; water, 2

galls.; distil a gallon. A pleasant perfume.

EAU D’ANGE BOUILLÉE, Fr. From rose water and orange-flower water, of each

3 pints; benzoin, 1/2 lb.; storax, 1/4 lb.; cinnamon, 1 oz.; cloves, 1/2

oz.; 3 fresh-emptied musk bags; digest in a securely covered vessel, at

nearly the boiling heat, for 2 hours, then allow it to cool; strain off

the clear, press the remainder, and filter for use. Very fragrant.

EAU D’ANGE DISTILLÉE, Fr. From benzoin, 4 oz.; storax, 2 oz.; cloves, 1/2

oz.; calamus and cinnamon, of each 1/4 oz.; coriander seeds, 1 dr. (all

bruised); water, 3 quarts; distil 2 quarts. Eau d’Ange distillée et

musquée is made by adding a little essence of musk to the distilled

product. Both are highly fragrant.

EAU DE LAVANDE, LAVANDER WATER. See SPIRITS (Perfumed).

EAU DE NAPHRE, EAU LE NAPHE, Fr.; AQUA NAPHÆ, L. This article is distilled

in Languedoc from the leaves of the bigarade, or bitter-orange tree, but

the preparation sold in England under this name is often prepared as

follows:——Orange flowers, 7 lbs.; fresh yellow peel of the bigarade or

Seville orange, 1/2 lb.; water, 2 galls.; macerate 24 hours, and distil 1

gall. In many cases ordinary orange-flower water is sold for eau de naphe.

ROSE WATER. From otto of roses, 3 dr.; rectified spirit (warm), 1 pint;

dissolve, add of hot water, 10 galls.; mix in a 12-gallon carboy, cork,

and well agitate the whole until quite cold. This makes the ordinary rose

water of the shops, and is really excellent, but it is better for

distillation. See WATERS (Distilled).

UNPARALLELED WATER; EAU INCOMPARABLE, Fr. From oil of lemon, 4 dr.; oil of

bergamot, 2-1/2 dr.; oil of cedrat, 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 3-1/2 pints;

Hungary water, 1/2 pint; mix, and distil all but 9 oz. (Guibourt.)

SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE OF MINERAL WATERS.

APOLLINARIS BRUNEN.

Carbonate of soda 9·65 grains.

Carbonate of magnesia 3·39 ”

Carbonate of lime 0·45 ”

Chloride of sodium 3·57 ”

Sulphate of soda 2·30 ”

Oxide of iron }0·15 ”

Alumina }

Silica 0·06 ”

——————

19·59

Carbonic acid 47·04

(BISH.)

The above are the contents of 16 oz. Temp. Fahr. 70°.

BADEN-BADEN. In 16 oz.

Chloride of sodium 16·520 gr.

Bicarbonate of lime 1·273 ”

Bicarbonate of magnesia 0·042 ”

Bicarbonate of protoxide of iron 0·037 ”

Bicarbonate of protoxide of manganese traces

Bicarbonate of ammonia 0·050 ”

Sulphate of lime 1·556 ”

Sulphate of potash 0·017 ”

Phosphate of lime 0·021 ”

Arseniate of iron traces

Chloride of magnesium 0·097 ”

Chloride of potassium 1·258 ”

Bromide of sodium traces

Silica 0·914 ”

Alumina 0·008 ”

Nitrates traces

————————

22·093 gr.

Free carbonic acid 0·299 ”

(Bunsen.)

FRIEDRICHSHALL. In 16 oz.

Sulphate of soda 46·51 gr.

Sulphate of magnesia 39·55 ”

Chloride of sodium 61·10 ”

Chloride of magnesium 30·25 ”

Bromide of magnesium 0·37 ”

Sulphate of potash 1·52 ”

Sulphate of lime 10·34 ”

Carbonate of lime 0·11 ”

Carbonate of magnesia 1·16 ”

Silica 0·33 ”

——————

190·25 gr.

Carbonic acid 5·32 c. i.

(LIEBIG.)

TOEPLITZ. 16 oz. Temp., 14° Fahr.

Sulphate of potash 0·098 gr.

Sulphate of soda 0·290 ”

Carbonate of soda 2·635 ”

Phosphate of soda 0·014 ”

Floride of silicium 0·351 ”

Chloride of sodium 0·433 ”

Carbonate of lime 0·330 ”

Carbonate of strontia 0·027 ”

Carbonate of magnesia 0·088 ”

Carbonate of protoxide of iron 0·019 ”

Carbonate of protoxide of manganese 0·021 ”

Sulphate of alumina 0·020 ”

Silica 0·443 ”

Crenic acid 0·034 ”

——————

4·804

(WOLF.)

VICHY (Grand Grille). Temp. 106° Fahr. In a litre.

Carbonic acid 0·908

Bicarbonate of soda 4·883

Bicarbonate of potash 0·352

Bicarbonate of magnesia 0·303

Bicarbonate of strontia 0·003

Bicarbonate of lime 0·434

Bicarbonate of protoxide of iron 0·004

Bicarbonate of protoxide of manganese a trace

Sulphate of soda 0·291

Phosphate of soda 0·130

Arseniate of soda 0·002

Borate of soda a trace

Chloride of sodium 0·534

Silica 0·070

Organic matter, bituminous a trace

————————

grammes 7·914

WOODHALL (Lancashire).

Iodine and bromine, with chlorides of calcium, magnesium, potassium; more

than 1/2 grain of bromide of sodium and 1/4 grain of iodine of sodium.

190 grains in 20 oz. Strongly impregnated with carbonic acid.

=WATERBRASH.= See PYROSIS.

=WATER-CLOSET.= There are a number of conditions necessary to be observed

in the construction and arrangement of the water-closet if we wish to

prevent its becoming a nuisance and a source of danger to the health of

the inmates of a dwelling-house. 1. As regards situation there can be no

doubt that, upon strict sanitary principles, the closet, instead of

forming part of the house, should, whilst within easy access to it, be

entirely detached. Owing to various causes, however, this isolation is

frequently impossible.

Under such circumstances the closet, whilst forming part of the dwelling,

should be built out from it, so as to have as little connection as

possible with the rooms, corridors, &c. To still further accomplish this

end the approach to the closet should be through a small vestibule or

passage connecting the closet with the corridor, and opening into the

latter by means of a door. Where there are more than one closet, they

should be built upon the plan just proposed, and one over the other. The

basement of a house is a particularly objectionable locality for a

water-closet, since the warm house acts as an aspirator, and thus draws

any fetid and poisonous gases there may be in the closet into the house,

and causes them to be diffused throughout it. The water-closet should,

therefore, always be placed in the higher parts of a building. 2. As

regards construction, &c., it would be impossible for us to attempt to

canvass the merits or the reverse of the numerous designs, patents, &c.,

that relate to this part of our subject. We shall indicate, therefore,

only the more important desiderata, which are——That the pan should be

nearly cone-shaped, and not round, like a half-circle. It is mostly made

of earthenware, sometimes of metal and occasionally of enamelled iron. The

preferable substance is earthenware: the pan should always be ventilated,

and there should likewise be a sufficient flow and force of water to sweep

everything out of it, and thoroughly cleanse it.

The cistern supplying the closet should be kept solely for this purpose,

and not, as is sometimes the case, be taken from the house cistern, as

this latter practice may lead to the contamination of the drinking water,

owing to the gases rising from the closet.

The bottom of the pan is attached to the soil-pipe which discharges into

the drain. The soil-pipe is mostly trapped by means of a syphon valve; and

it is important that the points of junction between the pipe and the

syphon valve and the pipe and the main drain should be thoroughly secure

and air-tight. Furthermore it is imperative, if we wish to prevent an

influx into the pan of the gases and foul air which rise through the

syphon as the water runs off, that the soil-pipe should be ventilated.

This may be effected by attaching a small pipe having connection with the

outer air to the discharge-pipe just below the syphon, and carrying it up

to the top of the house. Another advantage arising from ventilating the

soil-pipe, besides the prevention of the escape of sewer-gas into the

house, is that there is no danger of its corrosion (if it be of lead) by

the action of the pent-up sulphuretted vapours. The seat, which is mostly

of wood, should be so arranged as to be easily movable, and thus allow of

easy inspection of the different parts should they get out of order.

The seat as well as the closet should always be ventilated. A good and

simple method for the ventilation of the latter is to carry a tube from

the top of the closet into the outer air. “If the closet is in a bad

situation it should be heated by a gas jet.”[262]

[Footnote 262: Parkes.]

The lid attached to the seat should have a hole cut in it, so as to allow

of the handle being pulled up when the pan is covered, which, strange to

say, in perhaps ninety-nine cases out of every hundred it never is, after

being used. Of course, in the absence of the ventilation of the pan and

soil-pipe, the result of keeping the seat covered over would only be to

fill the pan with malodorous and more or less dangerous gases, which would

escape into the closet when the lid was again raised.

3. Precautions.——The use of unduly large pieces of paper, such as cause

stoppage and obstruction in the discharge-pipe, should be particularly

avoided. Any defect or impediment in the working of the closet should be

remedied at once. As a general rule, servants are very careless in all

matters connected with the water-closet; so much so that the masters of

many houses are themselves compelled to exercise supervision over it.

During very hot weather, or the prevalence of an infectious disease in a

dwelling-house or in the neighbourhood of the house, some disinfectant

should be added to the water that supplies the closet. A substance that

will very satisfactorily answer this purpose is the commercial sulphate of

iron known as green vitriol. A pound of it should be put into the tank

when filled with water.

The same disregard of sanitary obligations so frequently shown in the

construction, site, &c., of water-closets is more obvious in the case of

privies. The Public Health Act not only renders unlawful the erection or

rebuilding of any dwelling-house without “a sufficient water-closet,

earth-closet, or privy and an ash-pit, furnished with proper doors and

coverings;” but also requires that, “If a house within the district of a

local authority appears to such authority by the report of their surveyor

or inspector of nuisances to be without a sufficient water-closet,

earth-closet, or privy and ashpit, furnished with proper doors and

coverings, the local authority shall, by written notice, require the owner

or occupier of the house within a reasonable time therein specified, to

provide a sufficient water-closet, earth-closet, or privy and an ashpit

furnished as aforesaid, or either of them, as the case may require.”

Although in many large towns and cities a more or less effectual

supervision may be exercised by the sanitary inspector in the above

direction, as every one’s experience of the usual outdoor privy of a small

English country town or village, will suggest to them the extreme

toleration prevailing amongst the sanitary authorities in many provincial

and rural districts in this particular. Ventilation is as essential for

the privy as the water-closet, so also is the thorough trapping of the

exit-pipe from the pan, as well as the cleansing and flushing of this

latter by water directly after it has been used. Yet how rarely do we find

not only all, but not even one of these conditions fulfilled in the

arrangement of the ordinary privy; but instead an untrapped, immovable pan

(and in some cases even this is wanting) covered with filth, and no

contrivance of any kind for a constant water supply.

No wonder, therefore, that the atmosphere of an ordinary privy should be

so foul and noisome as it invariably is.

The following specification for a useful description of privy is published

by Messrs Knight & Co., 90, Fleet Street, London:——

_Specification._——The privy and dust-bin to be built of 4-1/2-inch

brickwork, in well-ground mortar of approved quality. Two rows of 4-1/2

and 3-inch bond timber to be built in at back of privy for securing

ventilating-shafts. The ventilating-shafts to be 7 by 4-1/2 inches, inside

measurement, of best red deal boards 1 inch thick, closely put together

with strong white lead paint, and well nailed and carefully seamed to the

4-1/2 inch and 3 inch bond timber. These shafts to have coats of boiled

tar both inside and out.

The lid of refuse-bin to be of best 1-inch red deal boards, with two

strong ledges or battens across them; to be hung with three strong

band-hinges to the sides of the ventilating-shafts, and the making-up

piece between the same. A circular orifice to be made in centre of lid,

between the battens 10 inches wide. The lid to have two coats of boiled

tar both inside and out. A 4-1/2-inch and 3-inch frame of red deal to be

securely fixed on top of the dust-bin, as a seat for the lid. A lid over

the privy seat to be hinged on at the back, with a child’s seat over

centre of large one. The larger seat to be provided with an earthenware

circular rim beneath. The earth-compartment to be without lid, and

provided with a pint scoop for each occupant to throw in a pint of the

stored dry earth or dry ashes through the seat into the galvanised iron

pail, the contents of which must be scattered over the garden or put in

the dust-bin before the pail becomes full. A loose foot-block may be

furnished where there are young children.[263]

[Footnote 263: The Earth-closet is described under “Sewage Removal of.”]

The dust-bin may be placed at side of the privy if required. The floor of

dust-bin to be at the ground level, slightly inclined outwards, and paved

with brick. See SEWAGE, REMOVAL AND DISPOSAL OF, DRAINS, TANKS, CESSPOOLS.

=WATER-COLOUR CAKES.= These are prepared from any of the ordinary pigments

that work well in water, made into a stiff and perfectly smooth paste with

gum water, or isinglass size, or a mixture of the two, and then compressed

in polished steel moulds, and dried. See PAINTING, and the respective

pigments.

=WATERCRESS.= The _Nasturtium officinale_, a well-known plant of the

natural order _Cruciferæ_. It is alterative and antiscorbutic, and was

formerly used in medicine, but now chiefly as a salad, or a refreshing

relish at breakfast.

=WATER-GAS.= By forcing steam through fireclay, or iron retorts filled

with red-hot charcoal or coke, the steam is decomposed into a mixture of

hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and carbonic anhydride.[264]

[Footnote 264: Possibly a small quantity of marsh gas is also

present.——ED.]

To this mixture, after it has been purified, the name of “water-gas,”

owing to the source from whence it has been derived, has been given.

According to some chemists the purified gas (obtained by passing the crude

gaseous product sometimes over lime, sometimes over crystallised carbonate

of soda) consists solely of hydrogen gas. Langlois’ analysis, however, has

led to the conclusion that it is a compound of hydrogen and carbonic oxide

gases. Water gas, obtained as above, possesses no illuminating power. This

is imparted to it, by impregnating the gas with the vapour of certain

hydrocarbons, a plan suggested by Jobbard, of Brussels, in 1832. Another,

but less usual method, originating with Gengembre and Gillard, is to place

on the burners which consume the gas small platinum cylinders. When these

become white hot a strong and brilliant light is produced. See PLATINUM

GAS.

=WATER-POX.= See (POX). CHICKEN-POX.

=WATERPROOF′ING.= Cloth is ‘waterproofed’ as follows:——

1. Moisten the cloth, on the wrong side, first with a weak solution of

isinglass, and, when dry, with an infusion of nut-galls.

2. As the last, but substitute a solution of soap for isinglass, and

another of alum for galls.

3. (Hancock’s Patent.) By spreading the liquid juice of the caoutchouc

tree upon the inner surface of the goods, and allowing them to dry in the

air. Absolutely chimerical.

4. (Potter’s Patent.) The cloth is first imbued on the wrong side with a

solution of isinglass, alum, and soap, by means of a brush; when dry, it

is brushed on the same side against the grain, and then gone over with a

brush dipped in water. Impervious to water, but not to air.

5. (Sievier’s Patent.) By applying first a solution of India rubber in oil

of turpentine, and afterwards another india rubber varnish, rendered very

dry by the use of driers. On this, wool or other material of which the

fabric is made, cut into proper lengths, is spread, and the whole passed

through a press, whereby the surface acquires a nap or pile.

6. A simple method of rendering cloth waterproof, without being airproof,

is to spread it on any smooth surface, and to rub the wrong side with a

lump of bees wax (perfectly pure and free from grease), until it presents

a light, but even, white or greyish appearance; a hot iron is then to be

passed over it, and the cloth being brushed whilst warm, the process is

complete. When the operation has been skilfully performed, a candle may be

blown out through the cloth, if coarse, and yet a piece of the same,

placed across an inverted hat, may have several glassfuls of water poured

into the hollow formed by it, without any of the liquid passing through.

Pressure or friction will alone make it do so. “We have shown this to

numerous cloth-manufacturers, waterproofers, tailors, and others, several

of whom have adopted the method very extensively, and with perfect

success.” (Cooley.)

7. About the year 1862 a patent was taken out by Dr Stenhouse for

employing paraffin as a means of rendering leather waterproof, as well as

the various textile and felted fabrics; and in August, 1864, an additional

patent was granted to him for an extension of and improvement on the

previous one, which consisted chiefly in combining the paraffin with

various proportions of drying oils, it having been found that paraffin

alone, especially when applied to fabrics, became to a considerable extent

detached from the fibre of the cloth after a short time, owing to its

great tendency to crystallise. The presence, however, of even a small

quantity of drying oil causes the paraffin to adhere much more firmly to

the texture of the cloth, from the oil gradually becoming converted into a

tenacious resin by absorption of oxygen.

In the application of paraffin for waterproofing purposes it is first

melted along with the requisite quantity of drying oil and cast into

blocks. This composition can then be applied to fabrics by rubbing them

over with a block of it, either cold or gently warmed, or the mixture may

be melted and laid on with a brush, the complete impregnation being

effected by subsequently passing it between hot rollers. When this

paraffin mixture has been applied to cloth such as that employed for

blinds or tents, it renders it very repellant to water, although still

pervious to air.

Cloth paraffined in this manner forms an excellent basis for such articles

as capes, tarpaulins, &c., which require to be rendered quite impervious

by subsequently coating them with drying oil, the paraffin in a great

measure preventing the well-known injurious effect of drying oil on the

fibre of the cloth. The paraffin mixture can also be advantageously

applied to the various kinds of leather. One of the most convenient ways

of effecting this is to coat the skins or manufactured articles, such as

boots, shoes, harness, pump-buckets, &c., with the melted composition, and

then to gently heat the articles until it is entirely absorbed. When

leather is impregnated with the mixture, it is not only rendered perfectly

waterproof, but also stronger and more durable. The beneficial effects of

this process are peculiarly observable in the case of boots and shoes,

which it renders very firm without destroying their elasticity. It

therefore not only makes them exceedingly durable, but possesses an

advantage over ordinary dabbing in not interfering with the polish of

these articles, which, on the whole, it rather improves.

The superiority of paraffin over most other materials for some kinds of

waterproofing consists in its comparative cheapness, in being easily

applied, and in not materially altering the colour of fabrics, which in

the case of light shades and white cloth is of very considerable

importance.

8. A waterproof packing cloth which does not break may be made by covering

the fabric with the following varnish:——2 lbs. of soft (potash) soap is

dissolved in water and mixed with an aqueous solution of sulphate of iron.

The washed and dried soap is dissolved in 3 lbs. of linseed oil, in which

1/5 lb. of caoutchouc has been previously dissolved.

=WATERPROOF LIQUID.= _Prep._ 1. India rubber, in fragments, 1 oz.; boiled

oil, 1 pint; dissolve by heat, carefully applied, then stir in of hot

boiled oil, 1 pint, and remove the vessel from the fire.

2. Boiled oil, 1 pint; beeswax and yellow resin, of each 2 oz.; melt them

together.

3. Salad oil, 1 pint; mutton suet, 1/4 lb.; white wax and spermaceti, of

each 1 oz.; as the last. For ‘ladies’ work.’

4. Bisulphide of carbon, 2 oz.; gutta percha, 1/2 oz.; asphaltum, 2 oz.;

brown amber, 1/2 oz.; linseed oil, 1 oz. Mix. Dissolve the gutta percha in

the bisulphide of carbon, the asphalte and amber in the oil, and mix well.

_Obs._ The above are used for boots, shoes, harness, leather straps,

leather trunks, &c., applied warm before the fire.

=WAX.= _Syn._ BEESWAX, YELLOW W.; CERA (Ph. L.), CERA FLAVA (B. P., Ph. E.

& D.), L. The substance which forms the cells of bees; obtained by melting

the comb in water, after the honey has been removed, straining the liquid

mass, remelting the defecated portion, and casting it into cakes.

Pure beeswax has a pleasant ceraceous odour, a pale yellowish-brown

colour, and the sp. gr. ·960 to ·965. It is brittle at 32°, softens and

becomes plastic at 88 or 90°, and melts at 154 to 155° Fahr. “It becomes

kneadable at about 85°, and its behaviour while worked between finger and

thumb is characteristic. A piece the size of a pea being worked in the

hand till tough with the warmth, then placed upon the thumb, and forcibly

stroked down with the forefinger, curls up, following the finger, and is

marked by it with longitudinal streaks.” (B. S. Proctor.) It is very

frequently adulterated with farina, resin, and mutton suet or stearin. Dr

Normandy met with a sample containing 23% of effloresced sulphate of soda.

The first may be detected by oil of turpentine, which dissolves only the

wax,——the second, by its solubility in cold alcohol, and by its

terebinthinate taste,——the third and fourth, even when forming less than

2% of the wax, may be detected by it affording sebacic acid on

distillation. When greasy matter is present in any considerable quantity,

it may also be detected by the suspected sample having an unctuous feel

and a disagreeable taste. A spurious beeswax met with in the American

markets, is described in ‘New Remedies’ for 1877, and is said to have been

a very clever imitation externally of the genuine substance, which it

closely resembled in appearance, colour, fracture, bitterness, pliability,

and odour. Upon analysis it was found to be composed of 60 parts of

paraffin and 40 parts of yellow resin covered with a thin coating of true

beeswax. The specific quantity of the counterfeit article was identical

with that of many samples of genuine beeswax. Saline matter may be

detected by the loss of weight, when a weighed quantity of the wax is

boiled in water. Heavy substances, as chalk, plaster of Paris, white lead,

oxide of zinc, &c., may also be thus separated, since they subside, owing

to their superior gravity, to the bottom of the vessel. The rough mealy

fracture of pure wax is rendered finer grained, smoother, and duller, by

the addition of lard or spermaceti, and becomes sparkling and more

granular by the addition of resin. (Proctor.)

[Note: ‘Chem. Central,’, 1872, No. 29.]

[Transcriber’s Note: The publisher omitted the corresponding tag in the

text.]

=Wax, Bleached.= See WAX, WHITE (_below_).

=Wax, Carnauba.=[265] The leaves of the Carnauba tree (_Copernicia

cerifera_), a South American palm, have lately become a very important

source for the supply of large quantities of vegetable wax. Carnauba wax

is extensively used in the manufacture of candles. Mr Consul Morgan, in a

paper laid before Parliament in 1876, on the trade and commerce of Brazil,

states “that the exportation of this wax is calculated at 871,400 kilos;

exceeding in value reis 1,500,000, or £162,500.”

[Footnote 265: ‘Ph. Journal,’ vol. vi, 3rd series, p. 745.]

=Wax, Etching.= See ETCHING GROUND and VARNISH.

=Wax, Facti′′tious.= _Syn._ CERA FLAVA FACTITIA, L. A spurious compound,

sold by the farriers’ druggists for veterinary purposes.

_Prep._ 1. From yellow resin, 16 lbs.; hard mutton suet or stearin, 8

lbs.; palm oil, 2-1/2 lbs.; melted together.

2. As last, but substituting turmeric, 1 lb., for the palm oil.

3. Best annotta, 6 oz., or q. s.; water, 1 gal.; boil; add, of hard mutton

suet or stearin, 35 lbs.; yellow resin, 70 lbs.; again boil, with constant

agitation, until perfectly mixed and of a proper colour, and, as soon as

it begins to thicken, pour it out into basins to cool. When cold, rub each

cake over with a little potato starch.

=Wax, Gilder’s.= See GILDING.

=Wax, Mod′eling.= _Prep._ Take of beeswax, lead plaster, olive oil, and

yellow resin, equal parts; whiting, q. s. to form a paste; mix well, and

roll it into sticks. Colours may be added at will.

=Wax, Refined.= Crude wax, especially that imported, is generally loaded

with dirt, bees, and other foreign matter. To free it from these

substances, it undergoes the operation of ‘refining.’ This is done by

melting the wax along with about 4 or 5% of water in a bright copper or

stone-ware boiler, preferably heated by steam, and, after the whole is

perfectly liquid, and has boiled for some minutes, withdrawing the heat,

and sprinkling over its surface a little oil of vitriol, in the proportion

of about 5 or 6 fl. oz. to every cwt. of wax. This operation should be

conducted with great care and circumspection; as, when done carelessly,

the melted wax froths up, and boils over the sides of the pan. The acid

should also be well scattered over the whole surface. The melted wax is

next covered over, and left for some hours to settle, or until it becomes

sufficiently cool to be drawn off for ‘moulding.’ It is then very gently

skimmed with a hot ladle, baled or decanted into hot tin ‘jacks,’ and by

means of these poured into basins, where it is left to cool. Great care

must be taken not to disturb the sediment. When no more clear wax can be

drawn off, the remainder in the melting-pan is allowed to cool, and the

cake, or ‘foot,’ as it called, is taken out, and the impurities (mostly

bees) scraped from its under surface. The scraped cake is usually reserved

for a second operation; but if required, it may be at once remelted, and

strained through canvas into a mould.

Much of the foreign wax has a pale, dirty colour, which renders it, no

matter however pure, objectionable to the retail purchaser. Such wax

undergoes the operation of ‘colouring’ as well as ‘refining.’ A small

quantity of the best roll annotta, cut into slices (1/4 lb., more or less,

to wax, 1 cwt., depending on the paleness of the latter), is put into a

clean boiler with about a gallon of water, and boiled for some time, or

until it is perfectly dissolved, when a few ladlefuls of the melted wax

are added, and the boiling continued until the wax has taken up all the

colour, or until the water is mostly evaporated. The portion of wax thus

treated has now a deep orange colour, and is added, in quantity as

required, to the remainder of the melted wax in the larger boiler until

the proper shade of colour is produced when cold; the whole being well

mixed, and a sample of it cooled now and then, to ascertain when enough

has been added. The copper is next brought to a boil, and treated with oil

of vitriol, &c., as before. Some persons add palm oil (bright) to the wax,

until it gets sufficient colour, but this plan is objectionable from the

quantity required for the purpose being often so large as to injure the

quality of the product; besides which the colour produced is inferior, and

less transparent and permanent than that given by annotta.

Another method of refining crude wax, and which produces a very bright

article, is to melt it in a large earthen or stoneware vessel, heated by

steam or a salt-water bath, then to cautiously add to it about 1% of

concentrated nitric acid, and to continue the boiling until nitrous fumes

cease to be evolved, after which the whole is allowed to settle, and is

treated as before.

_Obs._ The great art in the above process is to produce a wax which shall

at once be ‘bright,’ or semi-translucent in thin places, and good

coloured. The former is best ensured by allowing the melted mass to settle

well, and by carefully skimming and decanting the clear portion without

disturbing the sediment. It should not be poured into the moulds too warm,

as, in that case, it is apt to ‘separate,’ and the resulting cakes to be

‘streaky,’ or of different shades of colour. Again, it should be allowed

to cool very slowly. When cooled rapidly, especially if a current of air

fall upon its surface, it is apt to crack, and to form cakes full of

fissures. Some persons, who are very nice about their wax, have the cakes

polished with a stiff brush when quite cold and hard. It is absolutely

necessary that the ‘jacks’ or cans, ladles, and skimmers, used in the

above process, be kept pretty hot, as without this precaution the wax

cools, and accumulates upon them in such quantity as to render them

inconvenient, and often quite useless, without being constantly scraped

out.

=Wax, Seal′ing.= _Prep._ 1. (RED.)——_a._ Take of shell-lac (very pale), 4

oz.; cautiously melt it in a bright copper pan over a clear charcoal fire,

and when fused, add of Venice turpentine, 1-1/4 oz.; mix, and further add

of vermilion, 3 oz.; remove the pan from the fire, cool a little, weigh it

into pieces, and roll them into circular sticks on a warm marble slab by

means of a polished wooden block; or it may be poured into moulds whilst

in a state of fusion. Some persons polish the sticks with a rag until

quite cold.——_b._ From shell-lac, 3 lbs.; Venice turpentine, 1-1/4 lb.;

finest cinnabar, 2 lbs.; mix as before Both the above are ‘fine,’——_c._ As

the last, but using 1/2 less of vermillion. Inferior.——_d._ Resin, 4 lbs.;

shell-lac, 2 lbs.; Venice turpentine and red lead, of each 1-1/2 lb.; as

before. Common.

2. (BLACK.)——_a._ From shell-lac, 60 parts; finest ivory black, reduced to

an impalpable powder, 30 parts; Venice turpentine, 20 parts. Fine.——_b._

Resin, 6 lbs.; shell-lac and Venice turpentine, of each 2 lbs.; lampblack,

q. s. Inferior.

3. (GOLD-COLOURED.) By stirring gold-coloured mica spangles or talc, or

aurum musivum, into the melted resins just before they begin to cool.

Fine.

4. (MARBLED.) By mixing 2 or 3 different coloured kinds just as they begin

to grow solid.

5. (SOFT.)——_a._ (Red.) Take of beeswax, 8 parts; olive oil, 5 parts;

melt, and add, of Venice turpentine, 15 parts; red lead, to colour.——_b._

(Green.) As the last, but substituting powdered verdigris for red lead.

Both are used for sealing official documents kept in tin boxes; also as a

cement.

6. (BOTTLE WAX.)——_a._ (Black.) From black resin, 6-1/2 lbs.; beeswax, 1/2

lb.; finely powdered ivory black, 1-1/2 lb.; melted together.——_b._ (Red.)

As the last, but substitute Venetian red or red lead for ivory black.

_Obs._ All the above forms for ‘fine’ wax produce ‘superfine’ by employing

the best qualities of the ingredients; and ‘extra superfine,’ or

‘scented,’ by adding 1% of balsam of Peru or liquid storax to the

ingredients when considerably cooled. The ‘variegated’ and ‘fancy coloured

kinds,’ are commonly scented with a little essence of musk or ambergris,

or any of the more fragrant essential oils. The addition of a little

camphor, or spirit of wine, makes sealing-wax burn easier. Sealing-wax

containing resin, or too much turpentine, runs into thin drops at the

flame of a candle.

=Wax, White.= _Syn._ BLEACHED WAX; CERA ALBA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L.

_Prep._ From pure beeswax, by exposing it in thin flakes to the action of

the sun, wind, and rain, frequently changing the surface thus exposed, by

remelting it, and reducing it again to thin flakes. Used in making

candles, and in white ointments, pommades, &c., for the sake of its

colour. Block white wax (CERA ALBA IN MASSIS) is the above when cast into

blocks; the best foreign is always in this form. Virgin wax (CAKE WHITE

WAX; CERA ALBA IN OFFIS) should be the last made into round flat cakes;

but this is seldom the case, the mixture sold under the name generally

containing from 1-3rd to 1-2nd its weight of spermaceti. The ‘white wax’

supplied by certain wholesale druggists to their customers is often

totally unfit for the purposes to which it is applied. Spermaceti is

constantly added to the white wax of commerce, to improve its colour. Mr

B. S. Proctor states that wholesale houses of the highest reputation

supply an article, as white cake wax, which is in many cases half

spermaceti, and in some as much as two thirds spermaceti to one of

wax.[266]

[Footnote 266: See articles on “Adulteration of Wax,” and “Substitutes for

Wax,” in ‘Chemist and Druggist,’ vol. iv, 1863.]

=WEATHER, Effects of, on Health.= The ‘Medical Press and Circular’

says:——“We are in the midst of a severe winter (1878), and as hygiene is

the order of the day, we cannot be too particular in impressing upon the

public certain facts which are too often disregarded. Few are aware of

the killing powers of intense cold and great heat, even in this

comparatively temperate climate. Those who have been in the habit, as we

have, of watching the returns of the Registrar-General, well know how

quickly the death-rate rises during even a short continuance of cold

weather. Now that the increase in the mortality affects chiefly the young

and the old, as well as those who are either suffering from, or are

predisposed to, affections of the chest and throat, indicates the class of

people who should be especially careful to protect themselves against the

inclemency of the weather. With regard to children, the system of

‘hardening’ them, by allowing them to go thinly clad, and exposing them to

all sorts of weather, is a delusion from which the minds of some parents

are even now not altogether free. It is thought that if their chest is

kept warm, there is no need of caring about their arms and legs. But that

is a great mistake. In proportion as the upper and lower extremities are

well clothed will the circulation be kept up and determined to the surface

of those parts, and in proportion to the quickness and equable

distribution of the circulation will be the protection against those

internal congestions which are but the first stage of the most fatal

diseases of infancy and childhood. The same observation holds good with

respect to grown-up people who are predisposed to pulmonary complaints.

There is no exaggeration in saying that the mortality from these and other

affections would be considerably diminished were people to avoid that

‘catching cold,’ of which they so often and so lightly speak; and it is a

matter of surprise to us that this fact, of which most of us are aware,

does not lead to more precautions being taken by those who are anxious

about either their own health or that of others. To take care that the

body is thoroughly warm and well-clothed just before going out in very wet

or very cold weather——to keep up the circulation and warmth of the body

rather by exercise of some kind than by sitting over great fires or in

overheated rooms——to be sure that the temperature of the sleeping

apartments is not ever so many degrees below that of the

sitting-room——these are three golden maxims, attention to which would

prevent thousands from catching that ‘chill’ or ‘cold’ to the results of

which so many valuable lives have been prematurely sacrificed.”

=WEIGHT.= The quantity of a body determined by means of a balance, and

expressed in terms having reference to some known standard; the measure of

the force of gravity, from which the relative quantity of a body is

inferred. The relation between the weight and volume of a body, compared

to a given standard taken as unity, constitutes its specific gravity.

For the purpose of weighing, a balance or lever is required, which, when

accurately suspended in a state of equilibrium, will be affected, in

precisely an equal manner, by like weights applied to its extremities.

Hence, the construction of such an instrument is not more difficult than

its application is important in chemical and philosophical research.

Oertling, the most celebrated maker of the chemical balance, constructs

this important instrument in seven different varieties, more or less

elaborate. The largest of these, with a 16-inch beam, will carry 2 lbs. in

each pan, and yet turn with 1/100th of a grain. A balance with arms of

unequal length or weight will weigh as accurately as another of the same

workmanship with equal arms, provided the substance weighed be removed and

standard weights placed in the same scale until the equilibrium be again

restored, when the weights so employed, being exactly in the same

condition as the substance previously occupying the scale, will, of

course, indicate its proper weight. A knowledge of this fact is useful, as

it enables any one to weigh correctly with unequal scales, or with any

suspended lever.

Small weights may be made of thin leaf brass, or, preferably, of platinum

foil. Quantities below the 100th of a grain may be either estimated by the

position of the index, or shown by actually counting rings of wire, the

value of which has been previously determined. The readiest way to

subdivide small weights consists in weighing a certain quantity of very

fine wire, and afterwards cutting it into such parts, by measure, as are

desired; or the wire may be wrapped close round two pins, and then cut

asunder with a knife. By this means it will be divided into a great number

of equal lengths, or small rings.[267]

[Footnote 267: An elaborate essay on the BALANCE, in Watt’s ‘Dict. of

Chemistry,’ gives minute directions for weighing, with rules for the

elimination of errors. See BALANCE.]

The following tables represent the values of the weights legally employed

in this country for the sale of gold, silver, and articles made thereof,

as well as platinum, diamonds, and other precious metals and stones; also

for drugs when sold by retail (See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACT, 1879; and

MEASURES).

1. _Troy Weight._

+---------+---------------+----------+----------+

| gr. | dwt. | oz. |lb. or ℔ |

+---------+---------------+----------+----------+

| 24 | 1 | | |

| 480 | 20 | 1 | |

| 5760 | 240 | 12 | 1 |

+---------+---------------+----------+----------+

⁂ The standard of the above measure is 1 cubic inch of distilled water,

which, at 62° Fahr. and 30 inches of the barometer, weighs 252·458 troy

grains.

The carat used in weighing diamonds is 3-1/6 grains (nearly). Troy weight

is employed in weighing gold, jewelry, &c., and, under a somewhat modified

form, in prescribing and dispensing medicines. (See _below_.)

2. _Apothecaries’ Weight._

(Modified Troy Weight.)

+---------+---------+--------+---------+---------+

| | | | | |

|(_Troy_).| ℈ | ʒ | ℥ | ℔ |

| gr. | | | | |

+---------+---------+--------+---------+---------+

| | | | | |

| 1· | ·05 | ·01666| ·002083| ·0001736|

| 20· | 1· | ·3333 | ·0416 | ·003472 |

| 60· | 3· | 1· | ·1250 | ·0104166|

| 480· | 24· | 8· | 1· | ·0833333|

| 5760· | 288· |96· |12· |1· |

+---------+---------+--------+---------+---------+

+---------+---------+---------+------------+------------+

+---------+---------+---------+------------+------------+

| | | | | |

| 1· | ·06475| 1·09 | ·003961055| 1· gr.|

| 20· | 1·295 | 21·94 | ·07922109 | 20· gr.|

| 60· | 3·885 | 65·82 | ·23766329 | 60· gr.|

| 480· | 31·08 | 526·62 | 1·90130635 |1 oz 42·5 gr.|

| 5760· |372·96 | 6319·54 |22·81567609 |13 oz 72·5 gr.|

+---------+---------+---------+------------+------------+

⁂ Apothecaries’ weight is employed in prescribing and dispensing medicines

according to the Ph. L., E., and U. S. But in the last Ph. D. and the new

Brit. Ph. it has been superseded by avoirdupois weight.

Troy _Avoirdupois._

1 ℔ is equivalent to 0·822857 lb.

1 oz. ” 1·097143 oz.

=WEIGHTS, FOREIGN.=

_Binary Weights._ (Système usuel.) _French._

+-------+--------+-----+-----+------+-------+

| | | | | | |

+-------+--------+-----+-----+------+-------+

| | | | | | |

| 1·| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |

| 24·| 1· | ... | ... | ... | ... |

| 72·| 3· | 1·| ... | ... | ... |

| 576·| 24· | 8·| 1· | ... | ... |

| 9216·| 384· | 128·| 16· | 1· | ... |

| 18432·| 768· | 256·| 32· | 2· | 1· |

+-------+--------+-----+-----+------+-------+

+-------+---------+------------+-------------------+

+-------+---------+------------+-------------------+

| 1·| ·0542| ·05 | ... ... 0·837|

| 24·| 1·30 | 1·30 | ... ... 20·1 |

| 72·| 3·906 | 4· | ... ... 60·284|

| 576·| 81·25 | 32· | ... 1 45· |

| 9216·| 500· | 500· | 1 1-1/2 61· |

| 18432·|1000· | 1000· | 2 3-1/4 13· |

+-------+---------+------------+-------------------+

⁂ The old French grain is equal to ·820 of an imperial troy grain; hence 1

troy grain is equal to 1·21 old French grains. The gros, once, and other

multiples of the grain, are, of course, proportionate. The new French

grain (of 1812) is equal to ·0542 gramme, or ·8365228 gr. troy. It is

said, in some works, to be equal to ·878 gr. troy, or, in round numbers,

·9, but this is much too high.

CONTINENTAL MEDICINAL WEIGHTS, _in Troy Grains_.

(From Dr Christison’s ‘Dispensatory.’)

+-----------+------+------+-------+---------------------+-------+

| | | | | 24 med. | 20 med. | |

| | | | | grs. | grs. | |

+-----------+------+------+-------+----------+----------+-------+

|French |5670·5|470·50| 59·10 | 19·7 | ... | 0·820 |

|Spanish |5326·3|443·49| 55·14 | 18·47 | ... | 0·769 |

|Tuscan |5240·3|436·67| 54·58 | 18·19 | ... | 0·758 |

|Roman |5235·0|436·25| 54·58 | 18·17 | ... | 0·757 |

|Austrian |6495·1|541·25| 67·65 | ... | 22·5 | 1·127 |

|German |5524·8|460·40| 57·55 | ... | 19·18 | 0·960 |

|Russian |5524·8|460·40| 57·55 | ... | 19·18 | 0·960 |

|Prussian |5415·1|451·26| 56·40 | ... | 18·80 | 0·940 |

|Dutch |5695·8|474·64| 59·33 | ... | 19·78 | 0·988 |

|Belgian |5695·8|474·64| 59·33 | ... | 19·78 | 0·988 |

|Swedish |5500·2|458·34| 57·29 | ... | 19·09 | 0·954 |

|Piedmontese|4744·7|395·39| 49·45 | ... | 16·48 | 0·824 |

|Venetian |4661·4|388·45| 48·55 | ... | 16·18 | 0·809 |

+-----------+------+------+-------+----------+----------+-------+

=WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACT, 1878.= On the 1st of January, 1879, there came

into force an act to consolidate throughout the United Kingdom the law

relating to weights and measures. Legislation on this subject had been

long rendered necessary from the extreme inconvenience and friction to

commerce of all kinds arising from the adherence to local standards of

weight or measurements; and from the divergent values in different parts

of the kingdom, and in places more or less contiguous to each other, of

weights and measures often bearing the same name. Thus, previous to the

passing of the above Act, there were twelve different markets in this

country in which when corn was sold by the bushel, the weight of the

bushel varied in each; and six different localities in which the same

thing occurred when vended by the quarter and the load. In some places a

score of grain would imply 20 lbs. but often less, whilst in others it was

not an infrequent transaction for wheat to be sold by one measure,

delivered by another, and eventually paid for by weight. And the same

perplexing and arbitrary conditions attached to the sale of numberless

other commodities.

We give below the most important sections of the Weights and Measures Act

of 1878:

LAW OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

_Uniformity of Weights and Measures._

The same weights and measures shall be used throughout the United Kingdom.

_Standards of Measure and Weight._

The bronze bar and the platinum weight, more particularly described in the

first part of the First Schedule of this Act, and at the passing of this

Act, deposited in the Standards Departments of the Board of Trade, in the

custody of the Warden of the Standards, shall continue to be the imperial

standard of measure and weight, and the said bronze bar shall continue to

be the imperial standard for determining the imperial standard yard for

the United Kingdom, and the said platinum weight shall continue to be the

imperial standard for determining the imperial standard pound for the

United Kingdom.

_Imperial Measures of Length._

The straight line or distance between the centres of the two gold plugs or

pins (as mentioned in the First Schedule to this Act),[268] in the bronze

bar by this Act declared to be the imperial standard for determining the

imperial standard yard, measured when the bar is at the temperature of

sixty-two degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and when it is supported on

bronze rollers placed under it in such a manner as best to avoid flexure

of the bar, and to facilitate its free expansion and contraction from

variations of temperature, shall be the legal standard measure of length,

and shall be called the imperial standard yard, and shall be the only unit

or standard measure of extension from which all measures of extension,

whether linear, superficial, or solid shall be ascertained.

[Footnote 268: See further on.]

One third part of the imperial standard yard shall be a foot, and the

twelfth part of such foot shall be an inch, and the rod, pole, or perch in

length shall contain five such yards and a half, and the chain shall

contain twenty-two such yards, and the furlong two hundred and twenty such

yards, and the mile one thousand seven hundred and sixty such yards.

The rood of land shall contain one thousand two hundred and ten square

yards according to the imperial standard yard, and the acre of land shall

contain four thousand eight hundred and forty such square yards, being one

hundred and sixty square rods, poles or perches.

_Imperial Measures of Weight and Capacity._

The weight in vacuo of the platinum weight (mentioned in the First

Schedule to this Act), and by this Act declared to be the imperial

standard for determining the imperial standard pound, shall be the legal

standard measure of weight, and of measure having reference to weight, and

shall be called the imperial standard pound, and shall be the only unit or

standard measure of weight from which all other weights and all measures

having reference to weight shall be ascertained.

One sixteenth part of the imperial standard pound shall be an ounce, and

one-sixteenth part of such ounce shall be a dram, and one seven thousandth

part of the imperial standard pound shall be a grain.

A stone shall consist of fourteen imperial standard pounds, and a hundred

weight shall consist of eight such stones, and a ton shall consist of

twenty such hundredweights.

Four hundred and eighty grains shall be an ounce troy.

All the foregoing weights except the ounce troy shall be deemed to be

avoirdupois weights.

The unit or standard measure of capacity from which all other measures of

capacity, as well as for liquids as for dry goods, shall be derived, shall

be the gallon containing ten imperial standard pounds weight of distilled

water weighed in air against brass weights, with the water and air at the

temperature of sixty-two degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and with the

barometer at thirty inches.

The quart shall be one fourth part of the gallon, and the pint shall be

one-eighth part of the gallon.

Two gallons shall be a peck, and eight gallons shall be a bushel, and

eight such bushels shall be a quarter, and thirty-six such bushels shall

be a chaldron.

A bushel for the sale of any of the following articles, namely, lime,

fish, potatoes, fruit, or any other goods and things which before (the

passing of the Weights and Measures Act, 1835, that is to say) the ninth

day of September, one thousand eight hundred and thirty five, were

commonly sold by heaped measure, shall be a hollow cylinder having a plane

base, the internal diameter of which shall be double the internal depth,

and every measure used for the sale of any of the above-mentioned articles

which is a multiple of a bushel, or is a half bushel or a peck, shall be

made of the same shape and proportion as the above-mentioned bushel.

In using an imperial measure of capacity, the same shall not be heaped,

but either shall be stricken with a round stick or roller, straight, and

of the same diameter from end to end, or if the article sold cannot from

its size or shape be conveniently stricken, shall be filled in all parts

as nearly to the level of the brim as the size and shape of the article

will admit.

_Metric Equivalents of Imperial Weights and Measures._

The table in the Third Schedule to this Act shall be deemed to set forth

the equivalents of imperial weights and measures and of the weights and

measures therein expressed in terms of the metric system, and such table

may be lawfully used for computing and expressing, in weights and

measures, weights and measures of the metric system.

_Use of Imperial Weights and Measures._

Every contract, bargain, sale, or dealing, made or had in the United

Kingdom for any work, goods, wares, or merchandise, or other thing which

has been or is to be done, sold, delivered, carried, or agreed for by

weight or measure, shall be deemed to be made and had according to one of

the imperial weights or measures ascertained by this Act, or to some

multiple or part thereof, and if not so made or had shall be void; and all

tolls and duties charged or collected according to weight or measure shall

be charged and collected according to one of the imperial weights or

measures ascertained by this Act, or to some multiple or part thereof.

Such contract, bargain, sale, dealing, and collection of tolls and duties

as is in this section mentioned is in this Act referred to under the term

‘trade.’

No local or customary measures, nor the use of the heaped measure, shall

be lawful.

Any person who sells by any denomination of weight or measure other than

one of the imperial weights or measures, or some multiple or part thereof,

shall be liable to a fine not exceeding forty shillings for every such

sale.

All articles sold by weight shall be sold by avoirdupois weight; except

that——

(1) Gold and silver, and articles made thereof, including gold and

silver thread, lace, or fringe, also platinum, diamonds, and

other precious metals or stones, may be sold by the ounce troy or

by any decimal parts of such ounce; and all contracts, bargains,

sales, and dealings in relation thereto shall be deemed to be

made and had by such weight, and when so made or had shall be

valid; and

(2) Drugs, when sold by retail, may be sold by apothecaries’ weight.

Every person who acts in contravention of this section shall be liable to

a fine not exceeding five pounds.

A contract or dealing shall not be invalid or open to objection on the

ground that the weights or measures expressed or referred to therein are

weights or measures of the metric system, or on the ground that decimal

sub-divisions of imperial weights and measures, whether metric or

otherwise, are used in such contract or dealing.

Nothing in this act shall prevent the sale, or subject a person to a fine

under this Act for the sale, of an article in any vessel, where such

vessel is not represented as containing any amount of imperial measure,

nor subject a person to a fine under this Act for the possession of a

vessel where it is shown that such vessel is not used nor intended for

use as a measure.

Any person who prints, and any clerk of a market or other person who

makes, any return, price list, price current, or any journal or other

paper containing price list or price current, in which the denomination of

weights and measures quoted or referred to denotes or implies a greater or

less weight or measure than is denoted or implied by the same denomination

of the imperial weights and measures under this Act, shall be liable to a

fine not exceeding ten shillings for every copy of every such return,

price list, price current, journal, or other paper which he publishes.

Every person who uses or has in his possession for use for trade a weight

or measure which is not of the denomination of some Board of Trade

standard, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding five pounds, or in the

case of a second offence ten pounds, and the weight or measure shall be

liable to be forfeited.

_Unjust Weights and Measures._

Every person who uses or has in his possession for use for trade any

weight, measure, scale, balance, steelyard, or weighing machine which is

false or unjust, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding five pounds, or

in the case of a second offence ten pounds, and any contract, bargain,

sale, or dealing made by the same shall be void, and the weight, measure,

scale, balance, or steelyard shall be liable to be forfeited.

Where any fraud is wilfully committed in the using of any weight, measure,

scale, balance, steelyard, or weighing machine, the person committing such

fraud, and every person party to the fraud, shall be liable to a fine not

exceeding five pounds, or in the case of a second offence ten pounds, and

the weight, measure, scale, balance, or steelyard shall be liable to be

forfeited.

A person shall not wilfully or knowingly make or sell, or cause to be made

or sold, any false or unjust weight, measure, scale, balance, or weighing

machine.

Every person who acts in contravention of this section shall be liable to

a fine not exceeding ten pounds, or in the case of a second offence fifty

pounds.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Every inquisition which, in pursuance of any Act hereby repealed, has been

taken for ascertaining the amount of contracts to be performed or rents to

be paid in grain or malt, or in any other commodity or thing, or with

reference to the measure or weight of any grain, malt, or other commodity

or thing, and the amount of any toll rate or duty payable according to any

weight or measure in use before the passing of the said Act, and has been

enrolled of record in Her Majesty’s Court of Exchequer, shall continue in

force, and may be given in evidence in any legal proceeding, and the

amount ascertained by such inquisition shall, when converted into imperial

weights and measures, continue to be the rule of payment in regard to all

such contracts, rents, tolls, rates, or duties.

_Standards and Definitions._

Nothing in this Act shall affect the validity of the models of gas holders

verified and deposited in the Standards Department of the Board of Trade,

in pursuance of the Act of the session of the twenty-second and

twenty-third years of the reign of Her present Majesty, chapter sixty-six,

entituled “An Act for regulating measures used in sales of gas,” and of

the Acts amending the same, and the provisions of this Act with respect to

Board of Trade standards shall apply to such models; and the provisions of

this Act with respect to defining the amount of error to be tolerated in

local standards when verified or reverified, shall apply to defining the

amount of error to be tolerated in such copies of the said models of gas

holders as are provided by any justices, council commissioners, or other

local authority in pursuance of the said Acts.

Nothing in this Act shall extend to prohibit, defeat, injure, or lessen

the rights granted by charter to the master, wardens, and commonalty of

the mystery of the Founders of the City of London.

Nothing in this Act shall prohibit, defeat, injure, or lessen the rights

of the mayor and commonalty and citizens of the City of London, or of the

Lord Mayor of the City of London for the time being, with respect to the

stamping or sealing of weights and measures, or with respect to the

gauging of wine or oil, or other gaugeable liquors.

APPLICATION OF ACT TO SCOTLAND.

This Act shall apply to Scotland with the following modifications:

In the application of this Act to Scotland the expression ‘rents and

tolls’ includes all stipends, feu duties, customs, casualties, and other

demands whatsoever, payable in grain, malt, or meal, or any other

commodity or thing.

The fair’s prices of all grain in every county shall be struck by the

imperial quarter, and all other returns of the prices of grain shall be

set forth by the same, without reference to any other measure whatsoever.

APPLICATION OF ACT TO IRELAND.

This Act shall apply to Ireland with the following modifications:

In Ireland every contract, bargain, sale, or dealing——

For any quantity of corn, grain, pulses, potatoes, hay, straw, flax,

roots, carcasses of beef or mutton, butter, wool, or dead pigs, sold,

delivered, or agreed for:

Or for any quantity of any other commodity sold, delivered, or agreed for

by weight (not being a commodity which may by law be sold by the troy

ounce or by apothecaries’ weight), shall be made or had by one of the

following denominations of imperial weight; namely, the ounce avoirdupois;

the imperial pound of sixteen ounces; the stone of fourteen pounds; the

quarter hundred of twenty-eight pounds; the half hundred of fifty-six

pounds; the hundredweight of one hundred and twelve pounds; or the ton of

twenty hundredweight; and not by any local or customary denomination of

weight whatsoever, otherwise such contract, bargain, sale, or dealing

shall be void:

Provided always, that nothing in the present section shall be deemed to

prevent the use in any contract, bargain, sale, or dealing of the

denomination of the quarter, half, or other aliquot part of the ounce,

pound, or other denomination aforesaid, or shall be deemed to extend to

any contract, bargain, sale, or dealing relating to standing or growing

crops.

In Ireland every article sold by weight shall, if weighed, be weighed in

full net standing beam; and for the purposes of every contract, bargain,

sale, or dealing the weight be ascertained shall be deemed the true weight

of the article, and no deduction or allowance for tret or beamage, or on

any other account, or under any other name whatsoever, the weight of any

sack, vessel, or other covering in which such article may be contained

alone excepted, shall be claimed or made by any purchaser on any pretext

whatever under a penalty not exceeding five pounds.

SCHEDULES.

FIRST SCHEDULE.

Cooley's Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, Professions, and Trades..., Sixth Edition, Volume II · 第 23 / 27 章

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