* * * * *
Transcriber’s Note: This is Volume II. Volume I is etext 39733 at
gutenberg.org. Near the beginning of that volume will be found lists of
the abbreviations used in this text. Near the end of this Volume II will
be found a list of publications referenced in the footnotes.
The original publication has been replicated faithfully except as shown in
the TRANSCRIBER’S AMENDMENTS near the end of the text. To preserve the
alignment of tables and headers, this etext presumes a mono-spaced font on
the user’s device, such as Courier New, but another font might be needed
to render odd unicode characters better. Words in italics are indicated
like _this_. Text emphasized with bold characters or other treatment is
shown like =this=. Superscripts are indicated like this: S^{ta} Maria.
Subscripts are indicated like this: H_{2}O.
* * * * *
COOLEY’S CYCLOPÆDIA
OF
PRACTICAL RECEIPTS
AND
COLLATERAL INFORMATION
IN THE
ARTS, MANUFACTURES, PROFESSIONS, AND TRADES
INCLUDING
Medicine, Pharmacy, Hygiene, and Domestic Economy
DESIGNED AS A COMPREHENSIVE
SUPPLEMENT TO THE PHARMACOPŒIA
AND
GENERAL BOOK OF REFERENCE
FOR THE MANUFACTURER, TRADESMAN, AMATEUR, AND
HEADS OF FAMILIES
SIXTH EDITION
REVISED AND GREATLY ENLARGED BY
RICHARD V. TUSON, F.I.C., F.C.S.
PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY IN THE ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE;
FORMERLY LECTURER
ON CHEMISTRY AT THE CHARING CROSS HOSPITAL.
VOL. II
[Illustration]
LONDON
J. & A. CHURCHILL, NEW BURLINGTON STREET
1880
A CYCLOPÆDIA
OF
PRACTICAL RECEIPTS, &c.
VOLUME II
=Ink, Lithograph′ic.= _Prep._ 1. Mastic (in tears), 8 oz.; shell-lac, 12
oz.; Venice turpentine, 1 oz.; melt together, add, of wax, 1 lb.; tallow,
6 oz.; when dissolved, further add of hard tallow soap (in shavings), 6
oz.; and when the whole is perfectly combined add of lampblack, 4 oz.;
lastly, mix well, cool a little, and then pour it into moulds, or upon a
slab, and when cold cut it into square pieces.
2. (Lasteyrie.) Dry tallow soap, mastic (in tears), and common soda (in
fine powder), of each 30 parts; shell-lac, 150 parts; lampblack, 12 parts;
mix as last. Both the above are used for writing on lithographic stones.
3. (AUTOGRAPHIC.)——_a._ Take of white wax, 8 oz., and white soap, 2 to 3
oz.; melt, and when well combined, add of lampblack, 1 oz.; mix well, heat
it strongly, and then add of shell-lac, 2 oz.; again heat it strongly,
stir well together, cool a little, and pour it out as before. With this
ink lines may be drawn of the finest to the fullest class, without danger
of its spreading, and the copy may be kept for years before being
transferred.
_b._ From white soap and white wax, of each 10 oz.; mutton suet, 3 oz.;
shell-lac and mastic, of each 5 oz.; lampblack, 3-1/2 oz.; mix as above.
Both the above are used for writing on lithographic paper. When the last
is employed, the transfer must be made within a week.
_Obs._ The above inks are rubbed down with a little water in a small cup
or saucer for use, in the same way as common water-colour cakes or Indian
ink. In winter the operation should be performed near the fire, or the
saucer should be placed over a basin containing a little tepid water.
Either a steel pen or a camel-hair pencil may be employed with the ink.
See LITHOGRAPHY.
=Ink, Mark′ing.= _Syn._ INDELIBLE INK, PERMANENT I. Of this there are
several varieties, of which the following are the most valuable and
commonly used:——
1. Nitrate of silver, 1/4 oz.; hot distilled water, 7 fl. dr.; dissolve,
add of mucilage, 1/4 oz.; previously rubbed with sap green or syrup of
buckthorn, q. s. to colour. The linen must be first moistened with ‘liquid
pounce,’ or ‘the preparation,’ as it is commonly called, and when it has
again become dry, written on with a clean quill pen. The ink will bear
dilution if the writing is not required very black.
The POUNCE or PREPARATION. A solution of carbonate of soda, 1-1/2 oz.; in
water, 1 pint, slightly coloured with a little sap green or syrup of
buckthorn, to enable the spots wetted with it to be afterwards known.
2. (WITHOUT PREPARATION.) Take of nitrate of silver, 1/4 oz.; water, 3/4
oz.; dissolve, add as much of the strongest liquor of ammonia as will
dissolve the precipitate formed on its first addition, then further add of
mucilage, 1-1/2 dr., and a little sap green, syrup of buckthorn, or finely
powdered indigo, to colour. Writing executed with this ink turns black on
being passed over a hot Italian iron, or held near the fire.
3. Terchloride of gold, 1-1/2 dr.; water, 7 fl. dr.; mucilage, 2 dr.; sap
green, q. s. to colour. To be written with on a ground prepared with a
weak solution of protochloride of tin, and dried. Dark purple.
4. (Rev. J. B. Reade.) Nitrate of silver, 1 oz., tartaric acid (pure), 3
dr., are triturated together in a mortar in the dry state; a little water
is then added, by which crystals of tartrate of silver are formed, and the
nitric acid set free; the latter is then saturated with liquor of ammonia,
sufficient being added to dissolve all the newly-formed tartrate of
silver, avoiding unnecessary excess; lastly, a little gum and colouring
matter is added.
5. (Rev. J. B. Reade.) To the last is added an ammoniacal solution of a
salt of gold. Mr Reade has used for this purpose the ‘purple of Cassius,’
the hyposulphate, the ammonio-iodide, the ammonio-periodide of gold, but
any other compound of gold which is soluble in ammonia will do as well.
This ink is unacted on by nearly all those reagents which remove writing
executed with solutions of the salts of silver alone, as cyanide of
potassium, the chlorides of lime and soda, &c.
6. (Redwood.) Nitrate of silver and pure bitartrate of potassa, of each 1
oz. (or 4 parts), are rubbed together in a glass or Wedgwood-ware mortar,
and after a short time liquor of ammonia, 4 oz. (16 parts, or q. s.), is
added; when the solution is complete, archil, 4 dr. (or 2 parts); white
sugar, 6 dr. (or 3 parts); and powdered gum, 10 dr. (or 5 parts), are
dissolved in the liquor, after which sufficient water is added to make the
whole measure exactly 6 fl. oz., when it is ready to be bottled for use.
The last three are used in the same manner as No. 2.
7. (Dr Smellie.) From sulphate of iron, 1 dr.; vermilion, 4 dr.; boiled
linseed oil, 1 oz.; triturated together until perfectly smooth. Used with
type.
8. (Soubeiran.) Nitrate of copper, 3 parts; carbonate of soda, 4 parts;
nitrate of silver, 8 parts; mix, and dissolve in liquor of ammonia, 100
parts. Used like No. 2.
9. (Ure.) A strong solution of chloride of platinum, with a little
potassa, and sugar and gum, to thicken.
10. The fluid contained between the kernel and shell of the cashew nut. On
linen and cotton it turns gradually black, and is very durable. This has
been called ANACARDIUM or CASHEW-NUT INK.
11. Sulphate of manganese, 2 parts; lampblack, 1 part; sugar, 4 parts; all
in fine powder, and triturated to a paste with a little water. Used with
types or stencil-plates; the part, when dry, being well rinsed in water.
Brown.
12. Black oxide of manganese and hydrate of potassa are mixed, heated to
redness in a crucible, and then triturated with an equal weight of pure
white clay, and water, q. s. to give it due consistence. Used like the
last. (Brown.)
13. (Aniline Black Marking Ink.) This ink is prepared by means of two
solutions, one of copper, the other of aniline, prepared as follows:——
(1.) COPPER SOLUTION. 8·52 grams of crystallised chloride of copper, 10·65
grams of chlorate of soda, and 5·35 grams of chloride of ammonium are
dissolved in 60 grams of water.
(2.) ANILINE SOLUTION. 20 grams of hydrochlorate of aniline are dissolved
in 30 grams of distilled water, and to this are added 20 grams of solution
of gum Arabic (1 part of gum to 2 of water) and 10 grams of glycerin.
By mixing in the cold 4 parts of the aniline solution, with 1 part of the
copper solution, a greenish liquid is obtained which can be employed
directly for the marking; but as this liquid can only be preserved for a
few days without decomposition, it is advisable to keep the solution
separately, until the ink is required for use.
The ink may be used either with a pen, or a stencil plate and brush; if it
do not flow freely from the pen it may be diluted with a little water
without fear of weakening the intensity of the colour. At first the
writing appears of a pale green colour, but after exposure to the air it
becomes black, or it may be changed to a black colour immediately, by
passing a hot iron over the back of the fabric, or heating it over the
flame of a spirit lamp. As, however, a dry heat is apt to make the fibre
saturated with the ink, brittle, it is preferable to hold the marked
fabric over a vessel, containing water in full ebullition; the heat of the
vapour is sufficient to determine almost immediately, the reaction by
which aniline black is formed. After the steaming, the writing should be
washed in hot soapsuds, which gives the ink a fine blue shade. The ink is
not acted upon by acids or alkalies, and if care be taken that the fibres
are well saturated with it, there is no danger of its being removed by
washing. (‘Dingler’s Journal.’)
14. In addition to the above formulæ, the following of M. Henry may be
worthy of attention in large establishments where economy is an
object:——Take 1 oz. of iron filings and 3 oz. of vinegar, or diluted
acetic acid. Mix the filings with half the vinegar, and agitate them
continually till the mixture becomes thick, then add the rest of the
vinegar and 1 oz. of water. Apply heat to assist the action, and when the
iron is dissolved, add 3 oz. of sulphate of iron, and 1 oz. of gum
previously dissolved in 4 oz. of water; and mix the whole with a gentle
heat. To be used with brush and stencil plates.
15. (Crimson Marking Ink.) Dissolve 1 oz. of nitrate of silver, and 1-1/2
oz. of carbonate of soda in crystals, separately in distilled water, mix
the solutions, collect and wash the precipitate on a filter, introduce the
washed precipitate still moist into a Wedgwood mortar, and add to it
tartaric acid 2 dr. and 40 gr., rubbing together till effervescence has
ceased; dissolve carmine 6 grains, in liquor ammoniæ (·882) 6 oz., and add
to it the tartrate of silver, then mix in white sugar, 6 dr., and powdered
gum Arabic, 10 dr., and add as much distilled water as will make 6 oz.
(‘Pharm. Journal.’)
_Obs._ The products of the first two of the above formulæ constitute the
marking ink of the shops. They have, however, no claim to the title of
‘INDELIBLE INK,’ “which no art can extract without injuring the
fabric”——as is generally represented. On the contrary, they may be
discharged with almost as much facility as common iron-moulds. This may be
easily and cheaply effected by means of ammonia, cyanide of potassium, the
chlorides of lime and soda, and some of the hyposulphites, without in the
least injuring the texture of the fabric to which they may be applied. The
only precaution required is that of rinsing the part in clean water
immediately after the operation. The ‘marking ink without preparation’ is
more easily extracted than that ‘with preparation.’ The former has also
the disadvantage of not keeping so well as the latter, and of depositing a
portion of fulminating silver, under some circumstances, which renders its
use dangerous. The thinner inks, when intended to be used with type or
plates, are thickened by adding a little more gum, or some sugar.
=Ink, Mark′ing.= _Syn._ PACKER’S INK. Ink bottoms. Used by packers for
marking bales, boxes, &c.
=Ink, Perpet′ual.= _Prep._ 1. Pitch, 3 lbs.; melt over the fire, and add
of lampblack, 3/4 lb.; mix well.
2. Trinidad asphaltum and oil of turpentine, equal parts. Used in a melted
state to fill in the letters on tombstones, marbles, &c. Without actual
violence, it will endure as long as the stone itself.
=Ink, Print′er’s.= See PRINTING INK.
=Ink, Pur′ple.= 1. A strong decoction of logwood, to which a little alum
or chloride of tin has been added.
2. (Normandy.) To 12 lbs. of Campeachy wood add as many gallons of boiling
water, pour the solution through a funnel with a strainer made of coarse
flannel, or 1 lb. of hydrate, or acetate of deutoxide of copper finely
powdered (having at the bottom of the funnel a piece of sponge); then add
immediately 14 lbs. of alum, and for every 340 galls. of liquid add 80
lbs. of gum Arabic or gum Senegal. Let these remain for three or four days
and a beautiful purple colour will be produced.
=Ink, Red.= _Prep._ 1. Brazil wood (ground), 4 oz.; white-wine vinegar
(hot), 1-1/4 pint; digest in glass or a well-tinned copper or enamel
saucepan, until the next day, then gently simmer for half an hour, adding
towards the end gum Arabic and alum, of each 1/2 oz.
2. Ground Brazil wood, 10 oz.; white vinegar, 10 pints; macerate for 4 or
5 days; then boil as before to one half, and add of roach alum, 4-1/2 oz.;
gum, 5 oz.; and when dissolved, bottle for use.
3. As the last, but using water or beer instead of vinegar.
4. Cochineal (in powder), 1 oz.; hot water, 1/2 pint; digest, and when
quite cold, add of spirit of hartshorn, 1/4 pint (or liquor of ammonia, 1
oz., diluted with 3 or 4 oz. of water); macerate for a few days longer,
and then decant the clear. Very fine.
5. (Buchner.) Pure carmine, 20 gr.; liquor of ammonia, 3 fl. oz.;
dissolve, then add of powdered gum, 18 gr. Half a drachm of powdered drop
lake may be substituted for the carmine where expense is an object. Colour
superb.
6. (Henzeler.) Brazil wood, 2 oz.; alum and cream of tartar, of each 1/2
oz.; rain water, 16 fl. oz.; boil to one half, strain, add of gum
(dissolved), 1/2 oz.; and when cold, further add a tincture made by
digesting powdered cochineal, 1-1/2 dr., in rectified spirit, 1-1/2 fl.
oz.
7. (Redwood.) Garancine and liquor of ammonia, of each 1 oz.; distilled
water (cold), 1 pint; triturate together in a mortar, filter, and dissolve
in the solution, gum Arabic 1/2 oz.
=Ink, Se′pia.= See SEPIA.
=Ink, Sil′ver.= From silver leaf or powdered silver, as GOLD INK.
=Ink, Sympathet′ic.= _Syn._ DIPLOMATIC INK, INVISIBLE I. Fluids which,
when used for writing, remain invisible until the paper is heated, or
acted on by some other chemical agent. Sympathetic inks have been
frequently employed as the instruments of secret correspondence, and have
often escaped detection; but by heating the paper before the fire until it
begins to grow discoloured by the heat, the whole of them may be rendered
visible.
The following are the most common and amusing sympathetic inks:——1.
Sulphate of copper and sal ammoniac, equal parts, dissolved in water;
writes colourless, but turns YELLOW when heated.——2. Onion juice; like the
last.——3. A weak infusion of galls; turns BLACK when moistened with weak
copperas water:——4. A weak solution of sulphate of iron; turns BLUE when
moistened with a weak solution of prussiate of potassa, and BLACK when
moistened with infusion of galls.——5. The diluted solutions of nitrate of
silver and of terchloride of gold; become respectively DARK BROWN and
PURPLE when exposed to the sunlight.——6. Aqua fortis, spirits of salts,
oil of vitriol, common salt, or saltpetre, dissolved in a large quantity
of water; turns YELLOW or BROWN when heated.——7. Solution of chloride or
nitromuriate of cobalt; turns GREEN when heated, and disappears again on
cooling. If the salt is pure, the marks turn BLUE.——8. Solution of acetate
of cobalt, to which a little nitre has been added; becomes ROSE COLOURED
when heated, and disappears on cooling.——9. A weak solution of the mixed
chlorides of cobalt and nickel; turns GREEN. The last three are about the
best of our sympathetic inks.——10. Solution of acetate of lead; turns
BROWNISH-BLACK when exposed to the fumes of sulphuretted hydrogen.——11. A
weak solution of nitrate of mercury; turned BLACK by heat and sulphuretted
fumes.——12. Rice water or decoction of starch; turned BLUE by a solution
of iodine in weak spirit, and by the fumes of iodine, if the paper is
first slightly moistened by exposure to steam or damp air.
=Ink, Vi′olet.= The same as PURPLE INK, but weaker.
=Ink, Yel′low.= 1. From gamboge (in coarse powder), 1 oz.; hot water, 5
oz.; dissolve, and when cold, add of spirit, 3/4 oz.
2. Boil French berries, 1/2 lb., and alum, 1 oz., in rain water, 1 quart,
for half an hour, or longer, then strain and dissolve in the hot liquor
gum Arabic, 1 oz.
=Ink, Zinc Labels, to write on.= _Syn._ HORTICULTURAL INK. 1. Dissolve 100
gr. of tetrachloride of platinum in a pint of water. A little mucilage and
lamp black may be added.
2. Sal ammoniac 1 dr.; verdigris, 1 dr.; lampblack, 1/2 dr.; water, 10
dr.; mix.
=INK POW′DERS.= _Prep._ 1. Aleppo galls, 4 oz.; sulphate of iron, 1-1/2
oz.; gum Arabic, 1 oz.; lump sugar, 3/4 oz.; (all quite dry and in
powder); mix, and divide into 3 packets. A pint of boiling water poured
over one of them produces, in a few hours, a pint of excellent ink.
2. Aleppo galls, 3 lbs.; copperas, 1 lb.; gum Arabic, 1/2 lb.; white
sugar, 1/4 lb.; all in powder; mix, and divide into two-ounce packets, to
be used as the last. Ink powders are very useful in travelling.
=INK STAINS, to remove.= See SPOTS.
=INOCULA′TION.= _Syn._ INOCULATIO, L. In _medicine_ and _surgery_, the
application of poisonous or infectious matter to any part of the body for
the purpose of propagating a milder form of disease, and thus preventing
or lessening the virulence of future attacks. In this country the term is
generally restricted to the artificial propagation of smallpox. See
VACCINATION.
=INOSIN′IC ACID.= An acid said by Liebig to exist in the juice of the
flesh of animals, after it has deposited its kreatine.
=IN′OSITE.= A species of unfermentable sugar, discovered by Scherer in the
juice of flesh. It forms beautiful crystals.
=IN′SECTS.= _Syn._ INSECTA, L. A class of invertebrate animals belonging
to the subkingdom Annuloso. The true insect is defined as an articulated
animal, having six legs, 2 antennæ, 2 compound eyes; a small brain at the
anterior extremity of a double medullary cord; its circulation is effected
by a pulsating dorsal vessel, provided with numerous valves; its
respiration by tracheæ, which form 2 lateral trunks, and ramify through
the body. The generation of insects is oviparous. There are two distinct
sexes. The adult state is attained through a series of metamorphoses. In
general, every insect possesses 2 pairs of wings; the trunk in the adult
animal is usually composed of 3 chief parts——the head, thorax, and
abdomen. The trunk of an insect may also be described as consisting of 13
segments, of which 1 constitutes the head, 3 constitute the thorax, and 9
the abdomen. Insects are arranged in the following orders:——1.
Hymenoptera, including bees, wasps, ichneumon-flies, &c.——2. Coleoptera,
including all those kinds commonly called beetles.——3. Neuroptera,
dragon-flies, ephemeræ, white ants, &c.——4. Strepsiptera, the stylops,
&c.——5. Lepidoptera, the butterflies and moths.——6. Diptera, the house-fly
and other 2-winged insects.——7. Orthoptera, crickets, grasshoppers,
locusts, earwigs, &c.——8. Hemiptera, bugs, frog-hoppers, aphides, &c.——9.
Aptera, fleas, &c. There are several animals belonging to the classes
MYRIOPODA and ARACHNIDA which are commonly but erroneously called
‘insects.’ Of these the centipedes, spiders, and acarides, or mites, are
well-known examples. Several useful products, as SILK, WAX, HONEY,
COCHINEAL, LAC, CANTHARIDES, &c., are supplied by insects. The class
includes numerous creatures which are extremely destructive, and others
which are regarded as domestic pests. In the articles devoted to these
offensive insects various methods of exterminating them are noticed. A
powder for destroying insects has recently been introduced into this
country, and has been found peculiarly efficacious. This powder, which is
known under various names (INSECTS-DESTROYING POWDER, DUMONT’S
INSECTICIDE, &c.), is produced by the _Pyrethrum roseum Caucasicum_, a
composite flower growing wild in the Caucasus. The central or tubular
florets of the disc are alone employed, and when ground, furnish the
powder of commerce. This powder, though so destructive to insect life, has
no injurious effect upon man or domestic animals. See ACARI, ANT, BEE,
BUG, BITES and STINGS, CANTHARIDES, COCHINEAL, LAC, PEDICULI, SILK, &c.
=INSECT′ICIDE POWDER.= See INSECTS.
=INTEM′PERANCE.= Under this head we refer to habitual indulgence in the
use of spirituous or fermented liquors, whether accompanied or not by fits
of intoxication or drunkenness.
The pernicious influence of intoxicating liquors upon individuals and upon
society has been so often and ably exposed by the clergy, judges, and
magistrates, and by philanthropists of every kind, that it would be folly
to do more than refer to it here. Fully one half of the dark or
disreputable deeds of those who fill our gaols, and fully an equal
proportion of the poverty and wretchedness which pauperises our population
and crowds our workhouses, are traceable to this damning vice of the
Anglo-Saxon race——intemperance.
To cure HABITUAL DRUNKENNESS various means have been proposed, most of
which are more ingenious than useful. The following, however, deserves
respectful notice:——
Dr Kain, an eminent American physician, recommends tartar emetic, given in
alterative and slightly nauseating doses, for the cure of habitual
drunkenness. “Possessing,” he observes, “no positive taste itself, it
communicates a disgusting quality to those fluids in which it is
dissolved. These liquors, with the addition of a very small quantity of
emetic tartar, instead of relieving, increase the sensation of loathing of
food, and quickly produce in the patient an indomitable repugnance to the
vehicle of its administration. My method of prescribing it has varied
according to the habits, age, and constitution of the patient. A
convenient preparation of the medicine is 8 gr., dissolved in 4 oz. of
boiling water; 1/2 an oz. (say a table-spoonful) of the solution to be put
into half a pint, pint, or quart of the patient’s favorite liquor, and to
be taken daily in divided portions. If vomiting and purging ensue” (which
is seldom the case), “I should direct laudanum to allay the irritation,
and diminish the dose. In some cases the change suddenly produced in the
patient’s habits has brought on considerable lassitude and debility,
which, however, were of short duration. In a majority of cases no other
effect has been perceptible than slight nausea, some diarrhœa, and a
gradual but very uniform distaste to the menstruum.”
Dr W. Marcet has described the more or less disordered state of the brain,
nerves, muscles, and stomach, brought on by the continual use of alcohol,
even without intoxication being produced. The symptoms of this state,
which he terms CHRONIC ALCOHOLISM, are quite distinct from those of
DELIRIUM TREMENS, which is an acute and violent disturbance of the
nervous system. From experiments on a large number of patients, Dr Marcet
has arrived at the important conclusion, that oxide of zinc is the true
antidote in cases of slow alcoholic poisoning. It seems to act as a strong
tonic on the nerves, being at the same time a powerful sedative and
antispasmodic.[1]
[Footnote 1: ‘On Chronic Alcoholic Intoxication.’ By W. Marcet, M.D.,
1862.]
The symptoms of actual intoxication, or the disordered condition of the
intellectual functions and volition, produced by taking excessive
quantities of alcoholic liquors, need not be described.
Among the remedies employed to remove the ‘fit of drunkenness,’ the
preparations of ammonia, and the vegetable acids, are the most common and
important. About 2 or 3 fl. dr. of aromatic spirits of ammonia (spirits of
sal volatile), or a like quantity of solution of acetate of ammonia
(mindererus spirit), mixed with a wine-glassful of water, will in general
neutralise or greatly lessen the action of intoxicating liquors. In some
cases these fluids produced vomiting, which is, however, a good symptom,
as nothing tends to restore an inebriated person so soon as the removal of
the liquor from the stomach. Hence tickling the fauces with the finger or
a feather, until sickness comes on, is a method very commonly adopted by
drunkards to restore themselves to a sober state. The use of aromatic
water of ammonia was first suggested by Mr Bromly. With a like intention,
some persons have recourse to soda water, which acts by the free carbonic
acid it contains, and also as a diluent and, from its coldness, as a tonic
on the coats of the stomach. The carbonates and bicarbonates of soda and
potassa are also favourite remedies with habitual drunkards. Among the
vegetable acids, acetic acid is the one that appears to possess the
greatest power of removing intoxication; and after this follow the citric,
tartaric, malic, and carbonic acids. These substances are commonly taken
by soldiers before going to parade. The usual dose of vinegar is a small
teacupful. In the West Indies lime juice and lemon juice are had recourse
to. Both these juices act from the citric acid they contain. The use of
bitter almonds, as a means of lessening or retarding the effects of
fermented liquors was known to antiquity, and is still common among heavy
drinkers at the present day. Even small doses of medicinal prussic acid
have been foolishly taken with a like intention. See ABSTINENCE, ALCOHOL,
EFFECTS OF, DELIRIUM TREMENS, &c.
=INTERMIT′TENT FEVER.= _Syn._ AGUE. A disease consisting of paroxysms or
periods of fever with perfect intermissions or periods without fever.
Marsh miasmata, or the effluvia arising from stagnant water or marshy
ground, when acted upon by heat, are the most frequent causes of this
malady. For the prevention of ague in situations where it prevails
endemically, small doses of quinine should be taken two or three times a
day, and flannel clothing should be constantly worn.
_Symp._ Each febrile paroxysm is of three periods or stages——the cold, the
hot, and the sweating stage, and these occur in regular succession. The
cold stage commences with great languor and aversion to motion; a sense of
coldness down the back soon follows; then the extremities become cold, the
fingers shrunken, and the nails blue; the skin assumes that peculiar
condition which is commonly known as ‘goose-skin,’ the patient shivers,
his teeth chatter, and he is glad to draw close to the fire or envelop
himself in blankets. After this state of things has continued for a
greater or less time, the heat of the surface begins to return, the
patient has flushings and becomes warmer and warmer, and ultimately the
whole surface is of a dry burning heat; intense thirst, restlessness,
severe headache, and sometimes delirium, characterise this second or hot
stage. After this stage has continued for some time, another change comes
over the patient; moisture appears on the face and forehead, the harsh and
hot skin becomes soft, and at last a copious sweat breaks out over the
whole surface. This is the third or sweating stage, and after it has
passed, the several functions of the system return to their ordinary
condition. The paroxysm may return daily (QUOTIDIAN AGUE); or every other
day (TERTIAN A.); or every fourth day, including that of the first attack
(QUARTAN A.).
_Treatm._ During the cold stage everything should be done to bring on the
hot; the patient should be placed in a warm bed, with warm pans or bottles
of water; he may be allowed the free use of warm diluent drinks. In the
hot stage the opposite course should be adopted; the coverings must be
diminished and lemonade and other cooling drink administered. In the
sweating stage there is no occasion for any treatment beyond care to avoid
checking the perspiration by premature exposure. During the intermission
the disease must be fought with the tonics, Peruvian bark, or its chief
alkaloid, quinine. The most effective form of this remedy is the sulphate,
which may be given in doses of from 2 to 4 gr. every three hours, the dose
being greater for a quartan than for a quotidian. See AGUE-CAKE, FEVER,
&c.
=INTOXICA′TION.= See INTEMPERANCE.
=IN′ULIN.= _Syn._ INULINE, ALANTINE, DAHLINE. A peculiar starch-like
substance, first obtained by Rose from the root of _Inula Helenium_ or
_elecampane_. It has been found in several other vegetables.
_Prep._ From the rasped root, by the same method that is adopted for
arrow-root or potato farina; or by boiling the sliced root in 7 or 8 times
its weight of water, and after filtration, whilst hot, allowing the
decoction to repose for a short time.
_Prop., &c._ Only very slightly soluble in cold water; very soluble in
boiling water, but is nearly all deposited as the solution cools; it is
precipitated by alcohol.
Inulin is distinguished from starch by giving a yellow or yellowish-brown
instead of a blue colour with iodine; in the decoction not being
precipitated by either acetate of lead or infusion of galls; and by the
precipitate formed in the cold decoction by an infusion of gall-nuts not
disappearing until the liquid is heated to above 212°, whilst the
precipitate from starch redissolves at 122° Fahr. It appears to be a
substance intermediate between starch and gum.
=I′ODATE′.= _Syn._ IODAS, L. A salt of iodic acid. The iodates closely
resemble the chlorates of the corresponding metals. They are recognised by
the development of free iodine when their solutions are treated with
reducing agents; thus, sulphuretted hydrogen passed into a solution of
iodate of potassium reduces this salt to an iodide, iodine being liberated
and sulphuric acid and water formed. They deflagrate like the chlorates
when heated with combustibles. They are all of sparing solubility, and
many are quite insoluble in water. They may be made by adding iodine to
soluble hydrates or carbonates, and crystallising the sparingly soluble
iodate from the very soluble iodide. See IODIC ACID, IODINE, and
POTASSIUM.
=IODHY′DRIC ACID.= See HYDRIODIC ACID.
=IOD′IC ACID.= HIO_{3}. _Syn._ ACIDUM IODICUM, L.
_Prep._ 1. Iodate of sodium is dissolved in sulphuric acid in considerable
excess, the solution boiled for 15 minutes, and then set aside to
crystallise.
2. Decompose iodate of barium by dilute sulphuric acid.
3. (Boursen.) Iodine, 1 part; nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·5), 40 parts; mix,
keep them at nearly the boiling temperature for several hours, or until
the iodine is dissolved, then evaporate to dryness, and leave the residuum
in the open air at a temperature of about 59° Fahr.; when, by attracting
moisture, it has acquired the consistence of a syrup, put it into a place
where the temperature is higher and the air drier, when in a few days very
fine white crystals of a rhomboidal shape will form.
_Prop., &c._ Iodic acid is a crystalline solid, white or yellowish-white;
it is decomposed into oxygen and iodine by a heat of about 450° to 500°
Fahr.——a property of which we avail ourselves for the conversion of the
salts of this acid (iodates) into iodides. It is very soluble in water,
and is rapidly decomposed when heated with inflammable bodies. Iodic acid
is used as a test for morphia and sulphurous acid. It has been employed as
a tonic, stimulant, and alterative, in catarrhal hoarseness, strumous
cases, incipient phthisis, &c.——_Dose_, 3 to 6 gr.
_Test._ When iodic acid is mixed with an equal quantity of an alkaloid
(preferably quinine), on a capsule or watch-glass, and a drop or two of
water added, several distinct explosions occur, accompanied by the copious
evolution of gas. No other substance exhibits a similar reaction. See
IODATE.
=I′ODIDE.= _Syn._ IODURET*, HYDRIODATE*, IODIDUM, IODURETUM, HYDRIODAS, L.
A compound of iodine with a metal or other basic radical. The iodides
belong to the same class of bodies as the bromides and chlorides, and may
be, for the most part, made in the same manner. All the principal iodides
are noticed under the names of their respective bases. See IODINE, &c.
=I′ODINE.= I. _Syn._ IODUM, B. P.; IODINIUM (Ph. L. & D.), IODINEUM (Ph.
E.), L.; IODE, Fr.; IOD, Ger. An elementary substance accidentally
discovered in 1812, by De Courtois, a saltpetre manufacturer at Paris. It
was first examined and described by M. Clement, in 1813, and its precise
nature was soon afterwards determined by Sir H. Davy and M. Gay-Lussac. In
1819, some six years after its discovery, iodine was first employed in
pharmacy. The merit of the introduction of this powerful curative agent
into medicine is due to Dr Coindet, a physician of Geneva, who in that
year commenced a series of experiments upon it as a remedy for bronchocele
or goitre. It is found in each of the three kingdoms of nature, but exists
in greatest abundance in the vegetable family _Algæ_ (Seaweeds).
_Prep._ Iodine is principally manufactured in the neighbourhood of
Glasgow, from the mother-waters of kelp known as iodine lye.
1. Kelp, the half vitrified ashes of seaweed, is exhausted with water, and
the solution filtered; the liquid is then concentrated by evaporation
until it is reduced to a very small volume, the chloride of sodium,
carbonate of sodium, chloride of potassium, and other salts, being removed
as they successively assume the crystalline form; oil of vitriol is now
added, in excess, to the residual dark-brown mother-liquor (iodine-lye),
and the evolved gases are either kindled or allowed to escape by a flue;
the liquid, after standing some time, is decanted or filtered, heated to
about 140° Fahr., and mixed with as much binoxide of manganese as there
was oil of vitriol employed; the whole is then introduced into a
cylindrical leaden still, furnished with a very short head and connected
with 2 or 3 large globular glass receivers, and heat is applied, when
fumes of iodine are evolved and condensed in the receivers. During the
distillation very great care is taken to watch the process, and prevent
the neck of the still becoming choked with condensed iodine. For this
purpose the head of the still is usually furnished with a movable stopper,
by which the process may be watched, and additions of manganese or
sulphuric acid made, if required. To render the product pure, it should be
pressed between blotting paper, and then resublimed in glass or stoneware.
2. A solution of sulphate of copper, 4 parts, and protosulphate of iron, 9
parts, are added to the mother-liquid of the soda-works, as long as a
white precipitate is thrown down; this precipitate (iodide of copper) is
collected, dried, and mixed with its own weight of finely powdered black
oxide of manganese, and distilled by a strong heat in a retort, when dry
iodine passes over. By the addition of sulphuric acid with the manganese,
a less heat is required, but the product is wet with water, like that of
the last formula.
3. The residual liquor of the manufacture of soap from kelp (or other
iodine lye), of the sp. gr. of 1·374, is heated to 230° Fahr., with
sulphuric acid diluted with half its weight of water, after which the
liquor is allowed to cool, and is either decanted or filtered; to every 12
fl. oz. of the filtrate 1000 gr. of black oxide of manganese, in powder,
are added; the mixture is put into a glass globe or matrass with a wide
neck, over which is inverted another glass globe, and heat is applied by
means of a charcoal chauffer, when iodine sublimes very copiously, and
condenses in the upper vessel; as soon as the latter is warm, it is
replaced by another, and the two globes are thus applied in succession, as
long as violet fumes are evolved. The iodine is washed out of the globes
with a little cold water. A thin disc of wood, having a hole in its
centre, is placed over the shoulder of the matrass, to prevent the heat
from acting on the globular receiver. On the large scale, a leaden still,
as before described, may be employed, and receivers of either stoneware or
glass; and the addition of the sulphuric acid is made in a basin or trough
of stoneware or wood. _Prod._ 12 oz. yield 80 to 100 gr.
4. Another method of preparing iodine has been patented by a Mr Stanford,
which consists of compressing the wet weed, drying in an oven, and
distilling at a high temperature. The inventor claims that double the
usual amount of iodine is obtained besides other useful products.
5. Considerable quantities of iodine are now obtained from the
mother-liquor of Chilian saltpetre or nitre (nitrate of soda). In 1873, a
nitre refinery in Peru which separates the iodine in combination with
copper, as cuprous iodide, by means of bisulphide of soda and sulphate of
copper, produced 15,000 kilos of cuprous iodide, corresponding to 9000
kilos of iodine.
Other methods of obtaining it from Chilian nitre consist in treating the
mother-liquors left after the salt has been crystallised out with
sulphurous acid, until the separated iodine begins to redissolve. Nitrous
acid has also been substituted for sulphurous. The iodine so procured is
purified by sublimation, whilst that which remains in the residual saline
matter is removed by treatment with chlorine.
_Prop._ Iodine is usually met with under the form of semi-crystalline
lumps having a semi-metallic lustre, or in micaceous, friable scales,
somewhat resembling plumbago or gunpowder. By carefully conducted
sublimation, or by the slow evaporation of its solution in hydriodic acid,
it may be obtained in rhombic plates an inch long. It has a greyish-black
colour, a hot acrid taste, and a disagreeable odour not much unlike that
of chlorine. It fuses at 225° into a deep-brown liquid, volatilises slowly
at ordinary temperatures, boils at 347°, forming a magnificent
violet-coloured vapour, when mixed with water it rapidly rises with the
steam at 212° Fahr. It dissolves in about 7000 parts of water, and freely
in alcohol, ether, solutions of the iodides, liquid hydriodic acid,
chloroform, petroleum, bisulphide of carbon, &c. Most of these solutions
have the brown colour of liquid iodine, but some (particularly those
formed by the last three solvents named above) have the beautiful violet
colour of the vapour. It bleaches like chlorine, only more feebly. Iodine
has an extensive range of affinity; with the metals it forms compounds
termed iodides, of which several are used in medicine. Its principal
compounds with oxygen are the iodic and periodic anhydrides. Sp. gr. 4·946
to 4·948. According to Debaugne, the addition of syrup of orange peel or
tannin to water greatly increases its power of dissolving iodine. 2 gr. of
the latter will enable 6 fl. oz. of water to take 10 gr. of iodine. A
knowledge of these facts may prove useful to the pharmaceutist.
_Pur._ It is entirely soluble in rectified spirit, and in a solution of
iodide of potassium. On applying heat to it, it first liquefies, and then
(wholly) sublimes in violet-coloured vapour. The iodine of commerce is
usually that of the first sublimation, and generally contains from 12% to
20% of water. Some of the foreign iodine, prepared by precipitation with
chlorine, without subsequent sublimation, even contains 1-4th part of
water, and has a dead leaden-grey colour, and evolves a sensible odour of
chlorine. Coal, plumbago, oxide of manganese, crude antimony, and
charcoal, are also frequently mixed with iodine to increase its weight.
Water may be detected by the loss of weight it suffers when exposed to
strong pressure between bibulous paper; or more accurately by drying it in
the manner directed below,——chlorine may be detected by the odour, and the
other substances mentioned above, by their insolubility in rectified
spirit and in a solution of iodide of potassium. Before use as a medicine
it should be dried by being placed in a shallow basin, of earthenware, in
a small confined space of air, with 10 or 12 times its weight of
fresh-burnt lime, till it scarcely adheres to the side of a dry bottle, or
else prepared from the commercial iodine as follows:——Place it in a deep
circular porcelain capsule, and having covered it accurately with a glass
matrass filled with cold water, apply a water heat to the capsule for 20
minutes, and then allow the whole to cool; should the sublimate attached
to the bottom of the matrass include acicular prism of a white colour, and
a pungent odour, it must be scraped off with a glass rod, and rejected;
the apparatus is then to be again exposed to a gentle and steady heat
until the whole of the iodine has sublimed; the sublimate is, lastly, to
be collected from the bottom of the matrass, and at once enclosed in a
stoppered bottle.
_Tests._ Free iodine may be recognised by the violet colour of its vapour,
by its imparting a violet colour to bisulphide of carbon, and by its
striking a blue colour with starch. The latter test is so delicate, that
water containing only 1/450000th part of iodine acquires a perceptible
blue tinge on the addition of starch. Free iodine may be eliminated from
solutions of iodides by chlorine, nitric acid, concentrated sulphuric acid
and peroxide of manganese, and may be made evident by adding starch-paste.
This reagent serves to detect minute traces of iodine in insoluble as well
as in soluble compounds of that element. The substance under examination
is mixed in a retort with concentrated nitric acid, and a strip of white
cotton cloth moistened with a solution of starch suspended from the
stopper; in a few hours the cloth will become coloured blue if the most
minute trace of iodine be present. By mixing the liquid containing the
iodine with the starch and acid, and lightly pouring thereon a small
quantity of aqueous chlorine, a very visible blue zone will be developed
at the line of contact, even in very dilute solutions.
Iodides give a pale yellowish precipitate with nitrate of silver, scarcely
soluble in ammonia, and insoluble in dilute nitric acid; a bright yellow
one with acetate of lead; and a scarlet one with bichloride of mercury.
This distinguishes them from the iodates which give white precipitates
with the same reagents. In solutions of alkaline iodides, chloride of
palladium produces a black precipitate.
_Estim._ The proportion of free iodine in a mixture may be estimated: by
separating it by heat, and collecting and weighing the sublimate; by
solution in rectified spirit, adding water, and collecting the resulting
precipitate, which must then be dried and weighed; by dissolving it in a
solution of iodide of potassium, and then adding a standard solution of
hyposulphite of sodium, until the whole of the free iodine is taken up,
and the mixture no longer strikes a blue colour with starch. 24·8 gr. of
the hyposulphite are necessary to absorb 12·7 gr. of free iodine;[2] by
comparing the tint of a solution prepared by chloroform with that of a
standard solution containing a known quantity of iodine, as in Crum’s
process for estimating chlorine.
[Footnote 2: For details of this and other methods of accurately
determining the per-centage of iodine, free or combined, the reader is
referred to Sutton’s “Systematic Handbook of Volumetric Analysis.”]
_Uses, &c._ Iodine is chiefly used as a medicine, a chemical test, and in
photography. Until within the last year it was largely used in the
manufacture of the green coal-tar colours; these latter are now chiefly
made from anthracene. In small doses it appears to be both alterative and
tonic, rapidly diffusing itself through the body, and exerting a
stimulating action on the organs of secretion. It is also said to be
diuretic, and in some cases to have produced diaphoresis and salivation.
Iodine has been exhibited in the following diseases, as well as in most
others depending on an imperfect action of the absorbents, or
accompanied by induration or enlargement of individual glands or
organs:——_Internally_, in bronchocele, goitre, Derbyshire neck, scrofula,
ovarian tumours, enlargement or induration of the lymphatic, prostate, and
parotid glands, amenorrhœa, leucorrhœa, diseases of the muco-genital
tissues, phthisis, chronic nervous diseases, lepra, psoriasis, chronic
rheumatism, dropsies, hydrocele, &c.:——_Externally_, in scrofula, numerous
skin diseases, (especially the scaly), erysipelas, diseased joints,
chilblains, burns, scalds, various wounds, to check ulceration, to promote
absorption, &c.——_Dose_, 1/2 gr. dissolved in spirit, or in water by means
of an equal weight of iodide of potassium. It is seldom exhibited alone,
being usually combined with the last-named substance, which, in fact, is
now generally preferred by practitioners. It is applied externally in the
form of ointment, solution, or tincture.
=Iodine, Bro′mides of.= Bromine and iodine unite rapidly by mere mixture.
By careful distillation a red vapour is obtained, which, on cooling,
condenses into red crystals, of a form resembling fern leaves. This is
said to be the protobromide (IBr). By adding more bromine, these crystals
are converted into a fluid, said to be a pentabromide (IBr_{5}).
=Iodine, Chlo′′rides of.= When dry chlorine is passed over dry iodine, at
common temperatures, heat is evolved, and a yellow solid terchloride
(ICl_{3}) results when the iodine is fully saturated, and an orange-red
liquid protochloride (ICl) when the iodine is in excess. They both absorb
moisture in the air, are volatile, and very soluble in water.
=Iodine and Hydrogen.= HYDRIODIC ACID, HI. _Syn._ IODHYDRIC ACID; ACIDUM
HYDRIODICUM, L. An acid compound of iodine and hydrogen. _Prep._ 1.
(GASEOUS).——_a._ Into a glass tube, closed at one end, introduce a little
iodine, then a small quantity of roughly powdered glass moistened with
water, next a few small fragments of phosphorus, and upon this some more
glass; this order (iodine, glass, phosphorus, glass) is to be repeated
until the tube is one half or two thirds filled; a cork and delivery tube
are then to be fitted, a gentle heat applied, and the gas collected by
‘downward displacement’ or over mercury. If the gas be passed into water a
solution of hydriodic acid will be obtained.
_Obs._ Hydriodic acid gas can only be retained a short time over mercury,
owing to its action on that metal.
_b._ Pour a little water over some pentiodide of phosphorus, previously
put into a glass retort, apply a gentle heat, and collect the gas as
before.
_c._ Heat together in a retort water, iodide of potassium, iodine, and
phosphorus, and collect the gas as in _b_.
_d._ Place pure iodide of barium in a retort, and decompose it with
sulphuric acid.
2. (SOLUTION OF HYDRIODIC ACID.)——_a._ The gas prepared by either of the
above methods passed into cold distilled water.
_b._ Iodine, in fine powder, is suspended in water, and a stream of
sulphuretted hydrogen passed through the mixture as long as sulphur is
deposited, or until it becomes colourless. The liquid is then gently
heated, to expel the excess of sulphuretted hydrogen, and either decanted
or filtered. A cheap and excellent process.
_c._ (MEDICINAL HYDRIODIC ACID.) Dr Buchanan.——Tartaric acid, 264 gr.;
pure iodide of potassium, 330 gr.; dissolve each separately in 1-1/2 fl.
oz. of water; mix the solutions, and when the precipitate has settled
decant the clear liquid, and add a sufficiency of water to make it up to
6-1/4 fl. oz. The liquid retains a little acid tartrate of potassium in
solution, but this does not interfere with its medicinal properties. This
preparation “possesses all the therapeutic powers of iodine without its
irritating properties.” (Pereira.)——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 fl. dr., gradually
increased to 2 or 3 fl. dr., twice or thrice daily.
_Prop., &c._ Gaseous hydriodic acid is colourless, fumes in the air, is
very soluble in water, and has a density of about 4·4. Liquid hydriodic
acid, when strong, is very liable to decompose, and should be kept in
well-stoppered bottles. Both the gas and the solution are decomposed by
potassium, zinc, iron, and other metals, with the evolution of hydrogen
and the formation of salts called iodides.
IODIZED COTTON WOOL. (Mehu.) _Prep._ Finely powdered iodine (5 to 10 per
cent.) is strewn upon loose cotton wool in such a manner that the glass
jar in which this operation is performed contains alternate layers of
cotton wool and iodine. The mixture is gently heated in the open jar on a
water bath to expel the air; when this is accomplished the jar is closed
and the application of heat continued for about two hours, during which
the iodine vapour thoroughly penetrates the wool, imparting to it a yellow
colour.
=IODO′FORM.= CHI_{3}. _Syn._ IODOFORMUM, L. A solid, yellow,
crystallisable substance, obtained by the action of iodine on alcohol.
_Prep._ 1. An alcoholic solution of potash is added to tincture of iodine,
carefully avoiding excess; the whole is then gently evaporated to dryness,
the residuum is washed with water, and then dissolved in alcohol; the
alcoholic solution yields crystals by evaporation.
2. (Paris Pharmaceutical Society.) Pure carbonate of potash, 2 parts;
alcohol (84°) 5 parts; distilled water, 15 parts. The potash, water,
alcohol, and the iodine reduced to powder are placed together in a flask,
and the whole heated in a water bath until the decoloration of the liquid.
Another 1/2 part of iodine is then added and heat again applied, and the
addition of the element is repeated until the liquid remains slightly
brown coloured. It is then decolorised by the addition of one or two drops
of caustic potash solution, and upon cooling crystals of iodoform are
obtained.
These are collected upon a filter, washed lightly with cold distilled
water, then dried upon blotting paper and enclosed in well-stoppered
bottle.
By the evaporation of the mother liquor iodide of potassium is obtained.
_Prop., &c._ Nearly insoluble in water; freely soluble in alcohol; the
solution is decomposed by caustic potassa into formic acid and iodide of
potassa.——_Dose_, 1/2 gr. to 3 gr. Medicinal applications, the same as
those of iodine itself.
=IPECACUAN′HA.= _Syn._ (IPECACUANHA, L.; IPECACUHAN, E., B. P.) RADIX
IPECACUANHÆ, IPECACUANHA (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. The dried root of _Cephaëlis
Ipecacuanha_, or the true ipecacuanha plant, one of the _Cinchonaceæ_.
“Ashy coloured, tortuous, very much cracked, and marked in rings with deep
fissures, having an acrid, aromatic, bitterish taste.” (Ph. L.) It occurs
in pieces 3 or 4 inches long, and about the size of a writing
quill.——_Dose._ As an emetic, 10 to 20 gr., assisted by the copious use of
warm water; as a nauseant, 1 to 3 gr.; as an expectorant and sudorific,
1/2 to 1 gr. It is undoubtedly the safest and most useful medicine of its
class. It has recently been highly recommended in dyspepsia, combined with
other bitters or aperients. Almond meal is sometimes used as an adulterant
in ipecacuanha powder.
The following is Bucholz’s analysis of ipecacuanha root:——
Emetic extractive (emetina) 4·13
Soft resin 2·43
Wax 0·75
Gum 25·17
Starch 9·00
Woody fibre 10·80
Bitter extractive 10·12
Sugar 2·00
Extractive, gum and starch }
extracted by potash } 34·80
Loss 0·80
——————
100·00
The annexed process for the determination of the emetina in ipecacuanha is
by Zenoffsky:——Take 15 grammes of the root, mix with 15 drops of dilute
sulphuric acid, and so much of 85 per cent. alcohol that the volume shall
be 155 c.c. Digest 24 hours, filter, measure 100 c.c. of the filtrate,
evaporate the alcohol, and add a deci-normal solution of iodo-hydrargyrate
of potassium until no more reaction takes place. The number of c.c. of
the reagent used multiplied by 0·0189 (1/10000th of an equivalent of
emetine) gives the amount of emetine in the 10 grammes of root to which
the 100 c.c. of liquid corresponds. The deci-normal solution of
iodo-hydrargyrate of potassium is made by dissolving 13·546 grammes of
mercuric chloride and 49·8 grammes of potassium iodide in water, and
making up to 1 litre.
Quantitative determination showed that one c.c. of such a solution
corresponds to 0·0189 gramme of emetine. To perform the volumetric
estimation, the standard solution is added to the liquid containing the
alkaloid, until no more turbidity is produced. To determine the end of the
reaction, filter a few drops on to a watch-glass (placed on black glazed
paper) and touch with a glass rod previously moistened with the standard
solution. To prevent loss both filter and filtrate should be returned to
the liquor.
=IRID′IUM.= Ir. A rare metal discovered by Descotils in 1803, and by
Tennant in 1804, in the black powder left in dissolving crude platinum.
This powder is an alloy of iridium with osmium. The metal is also found
native and nearly pure amongst the Uralian platinum ores.
_Prep._ The native alloy of iridium and osmium remaining after dissolving
crude platinum in aqua regia is reduced to powder, mixed with an equal
weight of dry chloride of sodium, and heated to redness in a glass tube,
through which a stream of moist chloride gas is transmitted. The further
extremity of the tube is connected with a receiver containing liquor of
ammonia. Chloride of iridium and chloride of osmium are produced; the
former remains in combination with the chloride of sodium; the latter,
being volatile, is carried forward into the receiver, where it is
decomposed into osmic and hydrochloric acids, which combine with the
ammonia. The contents of the tube, when cold, are treated with water to
dissolve out the double chloride of iridium and sodium; the solution thus
formed is mixed with an excess of carbonate of sodium, and evaporated to
dryness. The residue is ignited in a crucible, boiled with water, and
dried; it then consists of a mixture of sesquioxide of iron and a
combination of oxide of iridium with sodium hydrate. It is reduced by
hydrogen at a high temperature, and treated successively with water and
strong hydrochloric acid, which remove the alkali and the iron, leaving
metallic iridium in a divided state. By strong pressure and exposure to a
welding heat, a certain degree of compactness may be given to the product.
_Prop., &c._ Brittle, white, very hard, only fusible by the strongest heat
of Deville’s gas furnace. In its pure state it is not acted upon by any of
the acids, but it is oxidised by fusion and nitre, and by ignition to
redness in the air. An ingot of iridium, weighing 27-3/4 oz., melted by
Deville’s process, was displayed in Messrs Johnson and Matthey’s case at
the International Exhibition of 1862. An alloy of iridium and osmium
(artificial or native) has been employed for tipping the nibs of gold pens
(everlasting pens).
=Iridium, Chlo′rides of.= DICHLORIDE. IrCl_{2}. An olive-green powder
formed by transmitting chlorine over powdered iridium, heated to a dull
red, or by digesting the hydrated protoxide in hydrochloric acid.
SESQUICHLORIDE, Ir_{2}Cl_{6}, obtained by calcining iridium with nitrate
of potassium, digesting in nitric acid, washing with water, and solution
in hydrochloric acid. TETRACHLORIDE, IrCl_{4}, obtained in solution by
adding hydrofluosilicic acid to the tetrachloride of iridium and potassium
(formed when chloride is passed over a heated mixture of iridium and
chloride of potassium). HEXACHLORIDE, IrCl_{6}, obtained in combination
with potassium by heating iridium with nitrate of potassium, dissolving in
aqua regia, and evaporating to dryness.
=Iridium, Ox′ides of.= MONOXIDE, IrO, prepared by adding potassium hydrate
to the hexachloride of iridium, and digesting the precipitate in an acid.
It is a heavy black powder, insoluble in acid. SESQUIOXIDE, Ir_{2}O_{3},
is best prepared by fusing in a silver crucible a mixture of carbonate of
potassium and the double chloride of iridium and potassium, and boiling
the product in water. Bluish-black TRIOXIDE, IrO_{3}, is produced when
carbonate of potassium is gently heated with hexachloride of iridium. A
greyish-yellow hydrate, containing alkali.
=IRITIS.= A very dangerous disease of the eye, producing inflammation in
the iris or coloured circle which surrounds the pupil. Iritis is
frequently produced by rheumatism, as well as by scrofula and gout, and
often places the sight in great peril.
The symptoms are pains around the ball of the eye and on the brow, which
increase at night, cloudiness of the cornea, difficulty, and inequality of
contraction in the pupil, change of colour in the iris, frequently
disturbed vision, and much pain in and watering from the eye when the
patient is placed in the light, particularly a strong light.
We have described the principal symptoms of this serious disorder in order
that any one affected by them may at once seek the assistance of a skilful
surgeon or oculist.
=I′RON.= Fe. _Syn._ FERRUM, L.; FER, Fr.; EISEN, Ger. The history of this
most important metal extends to the remote past. The discovery of an iron
rod in one of the Assyrian bronzes brought to England by Mr Layard
established the interesting fact that this metal was known and commonly
employed, where strength was required, nearly 3000 years ago. Rust of iron
and scales of iron were used as medicines at a period equally remote.
_Sources._ Iron in a metallic state (native iron) is of very rare
occurrence; but it invariably enters into the composition of meteorites.
Combined with oxygen and other elements, as iron ores, it occurs in nearly
every part of the earth. These ores may be divided into the oxides and the
carbonates. The oxides may be again divided into four distinct classes,
viz.——(1) Magnetic iron ore, consisting of 31% protoxide and 69%
sesquioxide, with an insignificant proportion of silica; (2) specular
iron, or iron glance, composed of the sesquioxide, with a small admixture
of magnetic oxide; (3) red hæmatite, consisting of the sesquioxide nearly
in a state of purity; and (4) brown hæmatite, the hydrated sesquioxide of
iron. The carbonates are principally two, viz.——(5) spathose iron, the
protocarbonate of iron in a sparry condition, and (6) clay ironstone or
black band ironstone, which consists of the protocarbonates associated
with clay and carbonaceous matter.
Swedish iron is made almost entirely from No. 1, which occurs in massive
beds at Arendahl and Dannemora, in Sweden. This iron is of great purity,
being perfectly free from sulphur and phosphorus. The titaniferous iron
sand found at Taranaki, in New Zealand, consists almost entirely of No. 1
and the metal titanium. No. 2 found principally in the island of Elba, in
the form of rhombohedral crystals. The micaceous iron ore found in small
quantities in Wales and Lancashire has nearly the same composition, but
crystallises in brilliant plates. No. 3 occurs in radiated fibrous masses
in different parts of the world. It is found in large quantities in Wales
and Lancashire, some of the specimens from the latter locality containing
nearly 99% of the sesquioxide. It makes excellent iron. No. 4 occurs in
reddish-brown masses of a botryoidal form. It is a valuable ore, and is
found in England, Wales, and Scotland. No. 5 is found chiefly at Siegen,
in Prussia. No. 6 is the principal ore of the Staffordshire and Scotch
iron districts, where it occurs in great abundance, associated with the
fuel and the flux required for smelting it. Iron is contained in plants,
and forms an essential component of the blood of the higher animals.
_Prep., &c._ Iron is only prepared on the large scale, and an account of
the manufacture would be out of place here. Those requiring detailed
information must consult the elaborate works of Percy, Hunt, Fairbairn,
Phillips, and other metallurgists.
Pure iron may be prepared by introducing fine iron wire, cut small, 4
parts, and black oxide of iron, 1 part, into a Hessian crucible; covering
with a mixture of white sand, lime, and carbonate of potassium (in the
proportions used for glass-making); and, after applying a closely fitting
cover, exposing the crucible to a very high degree of heat. A button of
pure metal is thus obtained, the traces of carbon and silicon present in
the wire having been removed by the oxygen of the black oxide.
_Prop., &c._ The properties and uses of iron are too well known to require
description. Its applications are almost universal. It is remarkably
ductile, and possesses great tenacity, but is less malleable than many of
the other metals. Its sp. gr. is 7·844. It is the hardest of all the
malleable and ductile metals, and when combined with carbon (steel) admits
of being tempered to almost any degree of hardness or elasticity. In dry
air it does not oxidise at common temperatures; but at a red heat it soon
becomes covered with a scaly coating of black oxide, and at an intense
white heat burns brilliantly with the production of the same substance.
Pure water, free from air or carbonic acid, does not tarnish the surface
of polished iron, but the combined action of air and moisture, especially
when a little acid vapour is present, causes its surface to be soon
covered with rust, which is hydrated sesquioxide of iron (ferric hydrate).
Nearly all acids attack iron; dilute sulphuric and hydrochloric acid do so
with considerable energy and the evolution of hydrogen gas. At a red heat
iron decomposes water rapidly, hydrogen being evolved, and the black oxide
of iron formed. Iron is magnetic up to a dull-red heat, at which point it
loses all traces of that property. It melts at about 3300° Fahr. With
oxygen, chlorine, iodine, the acids, &c., it forms numerous important
compounds. As a remedial agent, when properly exhibited, iron acts as a
genial stimulant and tonic, and generally proves beneficial in cases of
chronic debility, unaccompanied with organic congestion or inflammation.
The carbonate (ferrous carbonate), as it exists in mineral waters, held in
solution by carbonic acid in excess, appears to be the form most congenial
to the human body; and from its state of dilution is rapidly absorbed by
the lacteals, and speedily imparts a ruddy hue to the wan countenance.
Iron is undoubtedly one of the most valuable articles of the materia
medica, and appears from the antiquity of its introduction into medicine,
and the number of its preparations, to have been deservedly appreciated.
_Tests._ Iron forms two classes of salts, namely, ferrous or proto salts,
in which iron exhibits a power of combining with two atoms of any monad
element, and the ferric or persalts in which iron has a capacity of
uniting with three atoms of any monad element.
The ferrous or proto salts have generally a greenish colour, but yield
nearly colourless solutions, except when concentrated. Their solutions
are known by the following reactions:——They are not precipitated by
hydrosulphuric acid when acid, and but incompletely when neutral. Sulphide
of ammonium produces a black precipitate, becoming brown on exposure to
the air, insoluble in alkalies, but easily soluble in the mineral acids.
Ammonia and potassa give a greenish-white precipitate, gradually becoming
green and then brown in the air. This precipitate occasionally is of a
bluish-black if excess of potassa is used. The presence of ammoniacal
salts interferes with the action of these tests. Ferrocyanide of potassium
gives a nearly white precipitate, becoming gradually blue in the air, and
immediately so on the addition of a little weak nitric acid or chlorine
water. Ferricyanide of potassium produces a rich deep-blue precipitate,
insoluble in hydrochloric acid. In highly dilute solutions the effect is
only a deep bluish-green coloration. Phosphate of sodium produces a white
precipitate, which after a time becomes green.
The ferric salts, which are also called the sesqui or persalts of iron,
have for the most part a reddish-yellow colour, yielding deep-coloured
solutions, which exhibit the following reactions:——They redden litmus
paper. Hydrosulphuric acid in acid solutions reduces ferric to ferrous
salts, giving a white or yellow precipitate of sulphur only. In alkaline
solutions it yields a blackish precipitate, consisting of sulphur and
ferrous sulphide. Sulphide of ammonium gives similar reaction. Ammonia and
potassa produce bulky reddish-brown precipitates insoluble in excess.
Ferrocyanide of potassium gives a rich blue precipitate, insoluble in
hydrochloric acid, and readily decomposed by potassa. Ferricyanide of
potassium deepens the colour, but does not give a blue precipitate, as it
does with ferrous salts (proto salts). Sulphocyanide of potassium gives an
intense ruby-red colour to neutral or acid solutions. Tincture and
infusion of galls strike a black colour. Phosphate of sodium gives a white
precipitate, which becomes brown, and finally dissolves on the addition of
ammonia.
_Estim._ The iron may be thrown down in the state of ferric hydrate or
hydrated sesquioxide, washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. The weight, in
grains, multiplied by ·7, indicates the weight of metallic iron.
Fifty gr. of the ore are reduced to powder, dissolved in aqua regia, with
the aid of heat, and the solution filtered in order to separate the silica
and a little alumina which sometimes is left in an insoluble state; an
excess of ammonia is then added to the filtered liquor, which produces a
reddish-brown precipitate of ferric hydrate mixed with alumina which is
collected on a filter, washed, and boiled with a solution of potassa, in
order to dissolve the alumina; the whole is next thrown upon a filter,
washed, dried, carefully ignited, and weighed. The above is well adapted
to determine the quantity of iron in clay ironstone, the most common
ferruginous ore in England.
The sulphur in cast and wrought iron, and steel, may be estimated by the
following process, invented by M. Koppmayer:——10 grammes of iron, finely
produced and sifted, are introduced into a bottle holding from 1/2 to
1/3rd litre. The stopper has three holes. Through one of these passes a
funnel with a ground-glass tap, its neck reaching to the bottom of the
bottle. Through the second passes the tube at right angles, fitted with a
tap and reaching also to the bottom of the bottle.
Through the third hole passes a delivery tube, connecting the bottle to
the condensing apparatus.
This latter consists of a series of bulbs arranged like a staircase, so as
to permit the gas to come into the greatest possible contact with the
standard solution of iodine in iodide of potassium, with which the
condenser is filled, this solution ought not to be exposed to light.
When the apparatus is arranged as above, the atmospheric air is first
driven out of the bottle by means of a current of hydrogen gas, introduced
by the tube bent at right angles. When it is considered that the air is
entirely expelled, the tap of this tube is closed. The funnel is now
filled with hydrochloric acid, its tap is opened, and by means of the
application of heat the acid is allowed to run down upon the iron without
allowing any common air to enter. Hydrogen and sulphuretted hydrogen are
formed which pass into the condenser.
Acid is thus added until all disengagement of gas ceases. The bottle is
then heated till its contents boil, a little water having been first added
by means of the funnel. After these operations, hydrogen is allowed to
enter anew to sweep out all remaining gases. The iodised solution is then
poured out, care being taken to rinse the bulb-tube thoroughly, and
titrated with hyposulphite of soda, so as to find the remaining proportion
of free iodine. The difference between the original amount of free iodine
present in the solution, and the amount thus found, shows the proportion
of iodine which has been converted into hydriodic acid, and which is
proportional to the sulphur contained in the sample under examination.
=Iron, Preparations of=:——
=Ferric Acetate.= Fe_{2}(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{6}. _Syn._ PERACETATE OF IRON;
FERRI SESQUIACETAS, L. _Prep._ Ferric carbonate, 1 part; acetic acid, 6
parts; digest three days and filter. A dark brownish-red, uncrystallisable
liquid, very soluble and powerfully astringent. The calcined sesquioxide
of iron of the shops, commonly sold as carbonate of iron, does not answer
well for this or any of the sesqui-compounds, owing to its being with
difficulty dissolved by acids, especially by the weaker ones.——_Dose._ (Of
the last) 10 to 25 drops, in water or wine.
=Ferric Albuminate.= _Syn._ FERRI ALBUMINAS, L. _Prep._
Precipitate a filtered solution of white of egg with another of ferric
sulphate or persulphate of iron, wash the deposit in water, and dissolve
it in alcohol holding potassium hydrate in solution.
This preparation is highly spoken of by M. Lassaigne as especially adapted
by its nature, on theoretical grounds, for combining with the tissues of
the body.
=Ferric Citrate.= Fe_{2}(C_{6}H_{5}O_{7})_{2}. _Syn._ PERCITRATE OF IRON,
CITRATE OF SESQUIOXIDE OF I., CITRATE OF I.; FERRI CITRAS.
_Prep._ By saturating a solution of citric acid in an equal weight of
water with freshly precipitated moist hydrated ferric hydrate, evaporating
at 150° Fahr. to the consistence of a syrup, and spreading on glass plates
to dry.
By either of the methods adopted for the AMMONIO-CITRATE, merely omitting
the addition of the ammonia. It much resembles the ammonio-citrate, but is
only slightly soluble in water, and has a rather less agreeable
taste.——_Dose_, 3 to 5 gr.
=Ferric and Ammonium Citrate.= _Syn._ AMMONIO-CITRATE OF IRON: AMMONIO
FERRIC CITRATE; FERRI AMMONIO CITRAS. L. There are several preparations in
which the term ‘citrate of iron’ has been applied. That commonly known
under this name is really a double citrate of iron and ammonia, and
appears to be correctly called ‘ammonio-citrate of iron.’
B. P. Liquor Ferric Persulphatis (B. P.), 8; liquor ammonia, 19-1/2;
citric acid (in crystals) 4; distilled water, a sufficiency, mix 14 of the
solution of ammonia, with 40 of water, and all gradually; the solution of
ferric sulphate stir constantly and briskly; let the mixture stand two
hours, and put into a calico filter and allow to drain. Wash well the
precipitate until it no longer gives a precipitate with barium chloride.
Dissolve the citric acid in 8 oz. of the water, and having applied the
heat of a water bath add the precipitate of ferric hydrate previously well
drained, stir them together until the whole or nearly the whole of the
hydrate has dissolved. Let the solution cool, then add 5-1/2 of the
ammonia, filter through flannel, evaporate to the consistency of syrup,
and dry it in thin layers on flat porcelain or glass plates at a
temperature not exceeding 100°.
_Prep._ (Ph. L.) Ferrous sulphate, 12 oz.; carbonate of sodium, 12-1/2
oz.; dissolve each separately in boiling distilled water, 6 pints; mix the
solutions whilst still hot, and allow the precipitate to subside; after a
time decant the supernatant liquor, wash the precipitate frequently with
water (drain it), add of citric acid (in powder), 6 oz., and dissolve by
the aid of a gentle heat; when the whole has cooled, add of liquor of
ammonia, Ph. L., 9 fl. oz., and gently evaporate to the consistence of a
syrup; in this state spread it very thinly on flat earthenware dishes (or
sheets of glass), dry by a gentle heat, and when dry keep it in
well-stoppered bottles.
(Ph. D.) Citric acid, 4 oz.; distilled water, 16 fl. oz.; hydrated ferric
oxide, obtained from the sulphate, 5 oz.; liquor of ammonia, 4 fl. oz., or
q. s.
(Wholesale.) A mixture of iron filings and citric acid, in powder, with
barely sufficient water to cover it, is kept in a warm situation for some
days, occasionally stirring the mass, and replacing the water as it
evaporates. A saturated solution is next made in distilled water, there
being previously added more citric acid (about half the weight of the acid
first used), as required; it is then neutralised with liquor of ammonia
(about 1-1/4 oz. of liquor of ammonia, sp. gr. ·882, to every gallon of
the solution of sp. gr. 1·025), and the solution is concentrated by
evaporation; the process is then completed as in No. 1. The first part of
this process produces a salt of the protoxide of iron, or ferrous citrate,
which is afterwards converted, by exposure to the atmosphere, into a
citrate of the magnetic acid, or ferri, ferro-citrate, and, lastly, into
citrate of peroxide of iron, or ferric citrate.
B. P. Liquor Ferri Persulphatis 8. Liquor ammoniæ 19-1/2. Citric acid (in
crystals) 4. Distilled water, a sufficiency. Mix 14 of the solution of
ammonia with 40 of water, and add gradually the solution of ferric
sulphate. Stir constantly, let the mixture stand 2 hours and filter
through calico, and allow to drain. Wash until the washing ceases to
precipitate barium chloride, dissolve the citric acid in 8 of water, add
the precipitated ferric hydrate, and heat in a water bath until dissolved.
Let the solution cool, add 5-1/2 of the ammonia, filter through flannel,
evaporate to the consistency of syrup, and dry on flat porcelain plates in
thin layers at a temperature below 100° F.
_Obs._ Pharmaceutical writers have been so diffuse in their disquisitions
on the preparation of this salt, as would lead to the inference that there
is some difficulty attending it. The contrary is, however, the case. The
only care necessary is to spread the syrup solution very thinly on warm
sheets of glass to dry, which it will rapidly do if they are placed in an
atmosphere of warm dry air, for which purpose a ‘drying closet’ is the
most convenient. The dry salt may then be easily detached from the glass,
and will form thin scales, or lamellæ, of great brilliancy and beauty. It
is also better to use a little more oxide than the acid will dissolve, as
the remainder will be employed in a future operation. Less water may be
used, or even a larger quantity than that mentioned; but in the first case
the liquid will become difficult to filter——in the latter it will require
more evaporation. Boiling water dissolves about twice its weight of citric
acid, and there remains 13/20ths of this quantity in solution when cold,
and it takes rather more than twice the weight of the citric acid in
moist hydrated protoxide of iron to produce saturation.
_Prop., &c._ This beautiful salt is of a rich ruby colour, and forms
glistening transparent scales, very soluble in aqueous menstrua, and the
resulting solution is less easily decomposed by reagents than the
solutions of most of the other salts of iron. It is ‘compatible’ with the
alkaline of carbonates and bicarbonates, and several other salts, and is
nearly tasteless, advantages which have been perhaps overrated by both
prescriber and patient. It is doubtful whether this article has not
obtained a larger sale from its pleasing appearance than from its
medicinal virtues. Several persons who have prepared it in lumps or
powder, by the simple evaporation of the solution to dryness, have been
unable to sell it under that form, even at a lower price.
Ammonio-citrate of iron is soluble in water; the solution neither changes
the colour of litmus nor turmeric; nor is it turned blue by ferrocyanide
of potassium; but either potassium hydrate or lime water being added, it
throws down ferric hydrate, and ammonia is evolved. From 100 gr. dissolved
in water, potassium hydrate precipitates about 34 gr. of ferric
hydrate.——_Dose_, 3 to 10 gr., in water, wine, or bitter infusions.
=Ferric and Strychnine Citrate.= (U. S.) _Syn._ FERRI ET STRYCHNIÆ CITRAS.
_Prep._ Citrate of iron and ammonia, 500 gr.; strychnia, 5 gr.; citric
acid, 5 gr.; distilled water, 9 fl. dr. Dissolve the citrate of iron and
ammonia in 1 oz. of the water, and the strychnia and nitric acid in 1 dr.
of distilled water. Mix the two solutions, evaporate the mixture over a
water bath, at 140° Fahr., to the thickness of a syrup, and spread on
glass plates, so that the salt, when dry, may be obtained in scales.
=Ferric and Magnesium Citrate.= _Syn._ CITRIC OF IRON AND MAGNESIA; FERRI
MAGNESIO CITRAS; FERRI ET MAGNESIÆ CITRAS, L. _Prep._ As the last, but
using carbonate of magnesium instead of ammonia to neutralise the
solution.——_Dose_, 2 to 10 gr. It has been recommended as a chalybeate in
the dyspepsia of gouty and debilitated habits.
=Ferric and Quinine Citrate.= _Syn._ CITRATE OF QUININE AND IRON;
FERRI-QUINIO-CITRAS, L. As the ammonio-citrate, but using quinine,
recently precipitated, instead of ammonia, to neutralise the acid.
B. P. Pure ferric hydrate is prepared from liquor ferri persulphatis,
4-1/2 pints, and liquor ammoniæ, 8 pints, as in the ferric and ammonium
citrate. Sulphate of quinine 1 is mixed with water 8, and sulphuric acid
1-1/2, and when dissolved, ammonia added until the quinine is
precipitated. The precipitate is collected and washed with 30 of water.
Citric acid 3 is dissolved in 8 of water by the aid of a water bath, and
the ferric hydrate, well drained, added; stir together until dissolved,
and add the quinine, stirring well until all is dissolved, and allow to
cool; add 1-1/2 of solution of ammonia diluted with 2 of water, stirring
the solution briskly until the quinine at first thrown down by the ammonia
is redissolved; filter and evaporate to a syrup, drying in thin layers on
flat porcelain or glass plates at a temperature of 100°.
Ferric citrate, 4 parts; citrate of quinine, 1 part; distilled water,
q. s.; dissolve, gently evaporate, and proceed as directed for
ammonio-citrate of iron. Greenish golden-yellow scales when prepared by
the B. P. process, soluble in 2 parts of water, and somewhat deliquescent;
entirely soluble in ether; taste bitter as well as chalybeate.——_Dose_, 2
to 6 dr.; in cases where the use of both iron and quinine is indicated.
=Ferric and Sodium Citrate.= _Syn._ FERRI SODIO-CITRAS, FERRI ET SODÆ
CITRAS, L. _Prep._ From citric acid, carbonate of sodium, and iron or the
hydrate, as the ammonio-citrate or potassio-citrate.
=Ferric Chlo′ride.= Fe_{2}Cl_{6}. _Syn._ SESQUICHLORIDE OF IRON,
PERCHLORIDE OF IRON, PERMURIATE OF I.; FERRI SESQUICHLORIDUM, L. _Prep._
1. (Anhydrous.) By passing dry chlorine over heated iron filings. Brown
scales.
(Hydrated.) Dissolve ferric hydrate in hydrochloric acid, evaporate to the
consistence of a syrup, and crystallise. Yellow or red scaly crystals. The
impure solution of this salt has been greatly used as a sewage deodoriser.
See TINCTURE.
=Ferric and Ammonium Chloride= (Fe_{2}Cl_{6}NH_{4}Cl.Aq). _Syn._ DOUBLE
CHLORIDES OF IRON AND AMMONIUM, AMMONIO-CHLORIDE OF IRON; FERRI AMMONIUM
CHLORIDUM.
Ferric oxide, 3 oz.; hydrochloric acid, 1/2 pint; digest in a sand bath
until dissolved, then add of ammonium 2-1/2 lbs., dissolved in water, 3
pints; filter the liquid, evaporate to dryness, and reduce the mass to
coarse powder. Orange-coloured crystalline grains readily soluble in
water.
Ammonio-chloride of iron is tonic, emmenagogue, and aperient.——_Dose_, 5
to 15 gr.; in glandular swellings, obstructions, &c.
=Ferric Ferrocy′anide.= (Fe_{4}(FeCy_{6})_{3}. 18Aq). _Syn._
SESQUIFERROCYANIDE OF IRON, PRUSSIAN BLUE; FERRI FERROCYANIDUM, F.
SESQUIFERROCYANIDUM, L. _Prep._ Ferrous sulphate, 4 oz.; water, 1 pint;
dissolve, add to the solution of nitric acid, 6 fl. dr., in small portions
at a time, boiling for a few moments after each addition; next dissolve
ferrocyanide of potassium, 4-1/2 oz., in water, 1 pint, and add this last
solution, by degrees, to the first liquid, stirring well each time;
lastly, collect the precipitate, wash it with boiling water, drain, and
dry it.——_Dose_, 3 to 5 gr., three or four times daily, as an alterative,
febrifuge, and tonic, gradually increasing the quantity until some obvious
effect is produced; in agues, epilepsy, and neuralgia. See PRUSSIAN BLUE.
=Ferric Hydrate.= Fe_{2}(HO)_{6}. See under Ferric Oxide.
=Ferric Iodide.= Fe_{2}I_{6}. _Syn._ FERRI PERIODIDUM, L. _Prep._ Freely
expose a solution of ferrous iodide to the air; or digest iodine, in
excess, on iron, under water, gently evaporate, and sublime. A
deliquescent, volatile red compound, soluble in water and alcohol. It is
rarely employed in medicine.
=Ferric Oxide.= Fe_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON, PEROXIDE OF IRON,
RED OXIDE OF I.; FERRI SESQUIOXYDUM, F. PEROXYDUM, F. OXYDUM RUBRUM, L.
This substance is found native under several forms, but that employed in
the arts is prepared by one or other of the following methods:——
From metallic iron. From iron wire or clean iron filings cut into pieces,
moistened with water, and exposed to the air until completely converted
into rust; it is then ground with water, elutriated, and dried, in a
similar way to that adopted for chalk. For sale, it is usually made up
into small conical loaves or lumps.
By calcination:——(BROWN-RED COLCOTHAR, CROCUS, INDIAN RED, ROUGE,
JEWELLERS’ R.; FERRI OXYDUM RUBRUM, L.)——Calcine ferrous sulphate until
the water of crystallisation is expelled, then roast it with a strong fire
until acid vapours cease to rise; cool, wash the residuum with water until
the latter ceases to affect litmus, and dry it.
Ferrous sulphate, 100 parts; common salt, 42 parts; calcine, wash well
with water, dry, and levigate the residuum. This process yields a cheap
and beautiful product, which is frequently sold for the ferri
sesquioxydum; but it is less soluble, and therefore unfitted for a
substitute for that preparation.
By precipitation;——FERRI SESQUIOXYDUM——B. P., FERRI OXYDUM RUBRUM——Ph. E.
L. By precipitating a solution of ferric sulphate or chloride with
ammonia, in excess, and washing, drying, and igniting in the resulting
hydrate. Pure; anhydrous.
Ferrous sulphate, 4 lbs.; sodium carbonate, 4 lbs. 2 oz.; dissolve each
separately in water, 3 galls.; mix the solution whilst hot, set the
mixture aside, that the precipitate may subside, and subsequently wash and
dry it as before. Contains water, and a trace of alkali.
FERRIC HYDRATE, FERRI PEROXYDUM HYDRATUM——(Ph. D., FERRUGO——Ph. E.)——_a._
(Ph. E.) Ferrous sulphate, 4 oz.; sulphuric acid, 3-1/2 fl. dr.; water, 1
quart; mix, dissolve, boil, and gradually add of nitric acid, 9 fl. dr.;
stirring well and boiling for a minute or two after each addition, until
the liquor yields a yellowish-brown precipitate with ammonia; it must then
be filtered and precipitated with liquor of ammonia (fort.), 3-1/2 fl.
oz.; rapidly added and well mixed in; collect the precipitate, wash it
well with water, drain it on a calico filter, and dry it at a heat not
exceeding 180° Fahr. When intended as an antidote for arsenic it should
not be dried, but kept in the moist or gelatinous state.
FERRIC PEROXIDE, MOIST (B. P.) _Syn._ FERRI PEROXIDUM HUMIDUM. _Prep._ Mix
solution of persulphate of iron (B. P.), 4 fl. oz., with 1 pint of
distilled water, and add it gradually to 33 fl. oz. of solution of soda
(B. P.), stirring constantly and briskly. Let them stand for two hours,
stirring occasionally; then put on a calico filter, and when the liquid
has drained away, wash the precipitate with distilled water till what
passes through ceases to give a precipitate with chloride of barium.
Lastly, enclose the precipitate without drying it in a stoppered bottle,
or other vessel, from which evaporation cannot take place.
DRY HYDRATE OF PEROXIDE OF IRON (B. P.). FERRI PEROXIDUM HYDRATUM. Dry the
moist peroxide, 1 lb., at a temperature not exceeding 212° Fahr., till it
ceases to lose weight. Reduce to a fine powder.——_Dose_, 5 to 30 grains.
_Prop._ Ferric oxide, prepared by precipitation (1, _c_), is an impalpable
powder, of a brownish-red colour, odourless, insoluble in water, freely
soluble in acids, and possessing a slightly styptic taste, especially when
recently prepared. When exposed to heat its colour is brightened, its sp.
gr. increased, and it is rendered less easily soluble in acids. The oxide
prepared by calcination is darker and brighter coloured, less soluble, and
quite tasteless. It has either a scarlet or purplish cast, according to
the heat to which it has been exposed. The finest Indian red, or crocus,
usually undergoes a second calcination, in which it is exposed to a very
intense heat. It is then known as ‘purple brown.’ The best jeweller’s
rouge is prepared by calcining the precipitated oxide until it becomes
scarlet.
The hydrate is of a yellowish-brown colour, and though it can be dried
without decomposition, it requires to be kept in a moist state. It is best
preserved in a well-stoppered bottle, filled with recently distilled or
boiled water.
_Pur._ Medicinal ferric oxide or sesquioxide of iron (FERRI SESQUIOXYDUM,
Ph. L. & D.) is soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid, scarcely
effervescing, and is again thrown down by potassa. The strained liquor is
free from colour, and is not discoloured by the addition of either
sulphuretted hydrogen or ferrocyanide of potassium.
The hydrate (FERRI PEROXYDUM HYDRATUM——Ph. D., FERRUGO——Ph. E.) is
entirely and very easily soluble in hydrochloric acid, without
effervescence; if previously dried at 180° Fahr., a stronger heat drives
off about 18% of water.
_Uses, &c._ The precipitated oxide is employed in medicine as a tonic and
emmenagogue, in doses of 10 to 30 gr.; and as an anthelmintic and in tic
douloureux, in doses of 1 to 4 dr., mixed up with honey. It is also
employed to make some preparations of iron. The calcined oxide is employed
as a pigment, as an ingredient in a plaster, &c. The hydrate is used
medicinally as a tonic in doses of 10 to 30 gr.; and in much larger, as an
antidote in cases of arsenical poisoning.
We are indebted to Bunsen and Berthold for the introduction of this
substance as an antidote to arsenic. A table-spoonful of the moist oxide
may be given every 5 or 10 minutes, or as often as the patient can swallow
it. (Pereira.) When this preparation cannot be obtained, rust of iron or
even the dry so-called carbonate (sesquioxide) may be given along with
water instead. According to Dr Maclagan, 12 parts, and to Devergie, 32
parts, of the hydrate are required to neutralise 1 part of arsenious acid.
Fehling says that the value of this substance as an antidote to arsenic is
materially impaired by age, even when kept in the moist state. The
presence of potassium, sodium, ammonium, hydrates, sulphates, chlorides or
carbonates, is not of consequence, and, therefore, in cases of emergency,
time need not be lost in washing the precipitate, which, in such cases,
need only be drained and squeezed in a calico filter. The magma obtained
by precipitating ferrous sulphate with magnesia, in excess, and which
contains free magnesia and magnesium sulphate, besides ferric hydrate,
precipitates arsenious acid not only more quickly, but in larger quantity,
than ferric hydrate does when alone. It will even render inert Fowler’s
solution, and precipitate both the copper and arsenic from solutions of
Schweinfurt green in vinegar, which the pure gelatinous oxide alone will
not do.
=Soluble Saccharated Oxide of Iron.= (G.) _Syn._ FERRUM OXYDATUM
SACCHARATUM SOLUBILE. _Prep._ Solution or perchloride of iron (sp. gr.
1·480), 2 oz. (by weight); syrup, 2 oz. (by weight); mix, and add
gradually, solution of caustic soda (sp. gr. 1·330); 4 oz. (by weight);
and set aside for 24 hours; then add to the clear liquid 30 fl. oz. of
distilled hot water; agitate and set aside. Pour off the supernatant
liquid from the precipitate which will have formed, and pour on fresh
distilled water; then collect the precipitate on a filter and wash
thoroughly with distilled water.
Put the drained precipitate into a porcelain vessel, and mix with it 9 oz.
of sugar in powder, and evaporate to dryness with constant stirring over a
water bath, then mix in enough sugar in powder to make up 10 oz. by
weight; reduce to powder and keep in a closed vessel. One hundred parts
contain three of metallic iron.
=Ferric Nitrate.= Fe_{2}(NO_{3})_{6}. _Syn._ PROTO NITRATE OF IRON,
NITRATE OF SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON; FERRI PERNITRAS, L. By digesting nitric
acid (diluted with about half its weight of water) on iron or ferric
hydrate. A deep-red liquid, apt to deposit a basic salt. It is used in
dyeing, and has been recommended in dyspepsia, calculous affections, and
chronic diarrhœa.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 or 12 drops.
=Ferric Phosphate.= Fe_{2}H_{3}(PO_{4})_{3}. _Syn._ FERRIC ORTHOPHOSPHATE
(Odling); FERRI SESQUIPHOSPHAS, PHOSPHAS FERRICUS, L. A white powder
obtained by precipitating ferric chloride by sodium phosphate.——_Uses_ and
_dose_. As the last.
FERRIC PYROPHOSPHATE. Fe_{6}(P_{2}O_{7})_{3}. A salt containing ferric
iron combined with the radical of pyrophosphoric acid.
_Prep._ By precipitating a solution of ferric sulphate with one of
pyrophosphate of sodium, taking care to operate at a temperature below 59°
Fahr.
_Prop., &c._ A gelatinous precipitate which dissolves with facility in
excess of pyrophosphate of sodium. The citrate of ammonium is the most
eligible solvent according to M. Robiquet, who first called attention to
this salt as a remedial agent.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.
=Ferric Sulphate.= Fe_{2}(SO_{4})_{3}. _Syn._ PERSULPHATE OF IRON,
SULPHATE OF SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON; FERRI PERSULPHAS, L. _Prep._ By adding to
a solution of ferrous sulphate exactly half as much sulphuric acid as it
already contains, raising the liquid to the boiling-point, and then
dropping in nitric acid, until the liquid ceases to blacken by such
addition. The solution evaporated to dryness furnishes a buff-coloured
mass, slowly soluble in water.
_Prop., &c._ With the sulphates of ammonium and potassium it unites to
form compounds to which the name ‘iron alums’ has been given. It forms the
active ingredient in the ‘liquor oxysulphatis ferri’ of Mr Tyson, and is
said by Dr Osborne to be a constituent of ‘Widow Welch’s pills.’ This salt
is also formed when ferrous sulphate is calcined with free exposure to the
air. Dissolved in water, it is used as a test for hydrocyanic, gallic, and
tannic acids.
=Ferric Sulphide.= _Syn._ PERSULPHIDE OF IRON. This compound is prepared
in the hydrated state (FERRI PERSULPHURETUM HYDRATUM) by adding, very
gradually, a neutral solution of ferric sulphate to a dilute solution of
potassium sulphide, and collecting, &c., the precipitate, as in the case
of the hydrated ferrous sulphide. Proposed by Bouchardat and Sandras as a
substitute for ferrous sulphide, to which they say it is preferable.
=Ferric Tan′nate.= _Syn._ FERRI TANNAS, FERRUM TANNICUM, L. _Prep._ From
tannin, 1 part; boiling water, 150 parts; dissolve, add of freshly
precipitated ferric hydrate (dried at 212° Fahr.), 9 parts; evaporate by a
gentle heat to one half, filter, add of sugar 1 part, complete the
evaporation, and at once put it into bottles.——_Dose_, 3 to 5 gr., thrice
daily; in chlorosis, internal hæmorrhages, &c.
Double Ferric and Ammonium Tartrate. _Syn._ AMMONIO TARTRATE OF IRON,
DOUBLE TARTRATE OF IRON AND AMMONIUM; AMMONIO FERRIC TARTRATE, FERRI
AMMONIO TARTRATE; FERRI AMMONIO TARTRAS.
_Prep._ (Aikin.) Tartaric acid, 1 part; iron filings, 3 parts; digest in a
sufficient quantity of hot water to barely cover the mixture for 2 or 3
days, observing to stir it frequently, and to add just enough water to
allow the evolved gas to escape freely; next add ammonia, in slight
excess, stir well, dilute with water, decant, wash the undissolved portion
of iron, filter the mixed liquors, and evaporate to dryness; dissolve the
residuum in water, add a little more ammonia, filter, and again gently
evaporate to dryness, or to the consistence of a thick syrup, when it may
be spread upon hot plates of glass or on earthenware dishes and dried in a
stove-room, as directed for the corresponding citrate.
Tartaric acid, 6-1/2 oz.; water, 7 pints; dissolve, neutralise the
selection with sesquicarbonate of ammonium, and add 6-1/4 oz. more
tartaric acid; to the solution heated in a water bath, further add moist
hydrated oxide of iron (obtained from sesquioxide of iron, 53-1/2 dr.,
dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and precipitated by ammonia); when
dissolved, filter, and evaporate, &c., as before.
_Prop., &c._ Glossy, brittle lamellæ, or irregular pieces, of a deep
garnet colour, almost black, very soluble in water, and possessing a
sweetish and slightly ferruginous taste. By repeated re-solution and
evaporation its sweetness is increased, probably from the conversion of a
part of its acid into sugar. It contains more iron than a given weight of
the sulphate of the same base. It is the most pleasant-tasted of all the
preparations of iron except the ammonio-citrate, last noticed.——_Dose_, 3
to 10 gr.
=Ferric and Potassium Tartrate.= _Syn._ TARTRATE OF POTASSA AND IRON,
FERRO-TARTRATE OF POTASSA; FERRIC TARTRATE OF P.; FERRI TARTARATUM (B.
P.), FERRI POTASSIO-TARTRAS (Ph. L.), FERRUM TARTARIZATUM (Ph. E.), FERRI
TARTARUM (Ph. D.), FERRI ET POTASSÆ TARTRAS (Ph. U. S.), L. _Prep._ (B.
P.) Prepare ferric hydrate from 4 fl. oz. of liq. ferri persulphas, B. P.,
as in making the double citrate, and add it to 2 oz. of the acid tartrate
of potassium, dissolved in 30 oz. of water. Digest for 6 hours at 140°,
allow to cool, and decant off the clear solution, which is to be
evaporated down and dried on glass plates.——(Ph. L.) Ferrous sulphate, 4
oz., is dissolved in water, 1 pint, previously mixed with sulphuric acid,
1/2 fl. oz.; heat is applied to the solution, and nitric acid, 1 fl. oz.,
gradually added; the solution is boiled to the consistence of a syrup, and
then diluted with water, 4 galls. (less the pint already used); liquor of
ammonia, 10 fl. oz., is next added, and the precipitate washed, and set
aside for 24 hours; at the end of this time, the water being decanted, the
still moist precipitate is added, gradually, to a mixture of bitartrate of
potassium, 2 oz., and water, 1/2 pint, heated to 140° Fahr.; after a time
the undissolved oxide is separated by a linen cloth, and the clear
solution either gently evaporated to dryness or treated in the same manner
as the citrate (lastly, preserve it in well-stoppered bottles). The
formulæ of the Ph. E., D., & U. S., are essentially the same. The Ph. D.
orders a heat not beyond 150° Fahr. to be applied to the mixture of the
oxide and bitartrate, with occasional stirring for 6 hours, and the
desiccation to be conducted at the same temperature.
_Obs._ This preparation is a double salt of potassium and iron; it is
therefore wrongly called ‘tartrate of iron’ as is commonly heard. It is
totally soluble in water; the solution is neutral to litmus and turmeric,
unaffected by ferrocyanide of potassium, and not precipitated by acids nor
alkalies, nor acted on by the magnet. Heated with potassa, 100 gr. throws
down about 34 gr. of sesquioxide of iron. Entirely soluble in cold water;
taste freely chalybeate. That of commerce has generally a feebly inky
taste a slight alkaline reaction, is slightly deliquescent, dissolves in 4
parts of water, and is nearly insoluble in alcohol.
Potassio-tartrate of iron is an excellent ferruginous tonic.——_Dose_, 10
to 20 gr., made into a bolus with aromatics, or dissolved in water or
other convenient menstruum.
=Ferric Valerianate.= _Syn._ VALERIANATE OF SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON, VALERIATE
OF IRON; FERRI VALERIANAS (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. D.) By adding a
solution of sodium valerianate to another of ferric sulphate, and
collecting and washing the precipitate, which is to be dried by placing it
for some days folded in bibulous paper, on a porous brick; after which it
is to be carefully kept from the air.
_Prop., &c._ A reddish-brown amorphous powder; nearly insoluble in water;
soluble in rectified spirit, and in the dilute acids with decomposition.
Citrate or tartrate, flavoured with oil of valerian, is frequently sold
for it.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 gr.; in anæmia and chlorosis complicated with
hysteria.
=Ferroso-Ferric Hydrate.= Fe_{3}(HO)_{6}. _Syn._ HYDRATED FERROSO-FERRIC
OXIDE, HYDRATED MAGNETIC OXIDE. (B. P.) Liquor ferri persulphas, 5-1/2;
ferri sulphas, 2; solution of soda, 80; distilled water, a sufficiency.
Dissolve the ferrous sulphate in 40 of water, add the solution of soda,
stirring them well, boil the mixture, let it stand for two hours, put in a
calico filter, wash with distilled water until the washing gives no
precipitate with barium chloride, and dry at a temperature not exceeding
120.
Ferrous sulphate, 6 oz.; sulphuric acid, 160 minims; nitric acid, 4 fl.
dr.; stronger solution of ammonia, 4-1/2 fl. oz.; boiling water, 3 pints;
dissolve half of the sulphate in half of the water, add the oil of
vitriol, boil, add the nitric acid gradually, boiling after each addition
for a few minutes; dissolve the remaining half of the sulphate in the rest
of the boiling water; mix the two solutions, add the ammonia, stirring
well (and boil for a short time); collect the precipitate on a calico
filter, wash it with water until it ceases to precipitate a solution of
nitrate of barium, and dry at a heat not exceeding 183° Fahr. The formulæ
of Gregory and Dr Jephson are similar.
Ferrous sulphate, 8 oz., dissolved in a mixture of water, 10 fl. oz., and
sulphuric acid, 6 fl. dr., is converted by means of nitric acid, 4 fl.
dr., diluted with water, 2 fl. oz., into ferric sulphates; this solution
is then added to another, formed by dissolving ferrous sulphate, 4 oz., in
water, 1/2 pint; the whole is then mixed with liquor of potassium hydrate,
2-3/4 pints, and after being boiled for 5 minutes is collected on a calico
filter, and washed, &c., as before; and is to be preserved in a
well-stoppered bottle.
_Prop., &c._ The hydrate is a black sand-like substance, consisting of
very minute crystals. When pure it is attracted by the magnet, and is
entirely soluble in hydrochloric acid; and ammonia added to the solution
throws down a black precipitate. The oxide is the chief product of the
oxidation of iron at a high temperature in the air and in aqueous vapour.
It is more permanent than ferrous oxide, but incapable of forming
salts.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 gr. two or three times a day.
=Ferroso-ferric Oxide.= Fe_{3}O_{4}. _Syn._ MAGNETIC O. OF I.; FERRI
OXYDUM NIGRUM, F. O. MAGNETICUM (Ph. D.), OXYDUM FERROSO-FERRICUM, L. This
occurs native, but that used in medicine is prepared artificially.
From the black scales of iron that fall around the smith’s anvil, by
washing, drying, detaching them from impurities by means of a magnet, and
then treating them by grinding and elutriation, as directed for prepared
chalk. The product of this process is inferior as a medicine to the
hydrate obtained as below, being less easily soluble in the juices of the
stomach.
=Ferroso-ferric Oxide.= Fe_{3}O_{4}. _Syn._ MAGNETIC OXIDE. See
FERROSO-FERRIC OXIDE.
=Iron, Black Oxide of.= (B. P.) _Syn._ FERRI OXYDUM MAGNETICUM; FERRI
OXYDUM NIGRUM; MARTIAL ÆTHIOPS. _Prep._ Dissolve sulphate of iron, 2 oz.,
in 2 pints of distilled water, and add solution of persulphate of iron (B.
P.), 5-1/2 fl. oz., then mix with solution of soda, 4 pints (B. P.),
stirring well together. Boil the mixture, let it stand for 2 hours,
stirring occasionally, then put it on a calico filter, and when the liquid
has drained away wash the precipitate with distilled water till what
passes through ceases to precipitate chloride of barium. Finally, dry the
precipitate at a temperature not exceeding 120° Fahr.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.
=Ferrous Acetate.= Fe(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}. _Syn._ FERRI ACETAS, L.
_Prep._ 1. From freshly precipitated ferrous carbonate dissolved in dilute
acetic acid.
2. By adding a solution of calcium acetate to another of ferrous sulphate,
and evaporating the filtered liquid, out of contact with the air. Small,
colourless, or pale-greenish needles or prisms, very soluble and prone to
oxidation.
=Ferrous Arsenate.= Fe_{3}(AsO_{4})_{2}. _Syn._ FERRI ARSENIAS, L. _Prep._
1. From a solution of sodium arseniate, added to a solution of ferrous
sulphate, the precipitate being collected, washed in a little cold water,
and dried.——_Dose_, 1/20 to 1/12 gr., made into a pill; in lupus,
psoriasis, cancerous affections, &c. Externally, combined with 4 times its
weight of ferrous phosphate and a little water, as a paint to destroy the
vitality of cancerous formations. An ointment (20 to 30 gr. to the oz.) is
also used for the same purpose. They are all dangerous remedies in
non-professional hands.
2. (B. P.) _Prep._ Sulphate of iron, 9 oz.; arseniate of soda dried at
300° F., 4 oz.; acetate of soda, 3 oz. Dissolve the arseniate and the
acetate of soda in 2 pints, and the sulphate of iron in 3 pints, of
boiling distilled water, mix the two solutions, collect the white
precipitate which forms on a calico filter, and wash until the washings
cease to be affected by a dilute solution of chloride of barium. Squeeze
the washed precipitate between folds of strong linen in a screw-press, and
dry it on porous bricks in a warm air-chamber whose temperature shall not
exceed 100° F.——Dose, 1/16th of a gr.
=Ferrous Arsenite.= Fe(AsO_{2})_{2}. _Syn._ FERRI ARSENIS, L. From the
potassium arsenite, and ferrous sulphate, as the last. A yellowish-brown
powder, occasionally used in medicine as a tonic, alterative, and
febrifuge.——_Dose_, 1/16 to 1/12 gr.
=Ferrous Bromide.= FeBr_{2}. _Syn._ FERRI BROMIDUM, L. _Prep._ (Moir.)
Bromine and iron filings, of each 1 part; water, 3 parts; mix in a
stoppered phial, set it aside, occasionally shaking it, for 2 or 3 days,
and when the colour of the bromine has disappeared, and the liquid becomes
greenish, filter and evaporate to dryness.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 gr., as a
tonic, diuretic, and resolvent, in similar cases to those in which iodide
of iron is given.
FERROUS CARBONATE. Fe(CO_{3}). _Syn._ PROTOCARBONATE OF IRON; FERRI
CARBONAS, F. SUBCARBONAS, L. This occurs in nature as SPATHOSE ORE, the
chief constituent as of CLAY IRONSTONE, and in many CHALYBEATE WATERS.
_Prep._ (B. P.) Ferrous sulphate (sulphate of iron), 2; ammonium
carbonate, 1-1/4; boiling distilled water, 320; refined sugar, 1. Dissolve
the sulphate and ammonium carbonate each in 1/4 of the water, and mix;
allow to stand for 24 hours and decant, of the clear solution, add the
remainder of the water to the precipitate, stir well, allow to settle, and
decant off. Collect the deposit in a calico filter, press, rub in the
sugar in a porcelain mortar, and dry at a temperature not exceeding 212°
Fahr. Small coherent grey lumps. Precipitate a solution of ferrous
sulphate with a solution of sodium carbonate, well wash the green powder
with water which has been boiled, and dry it out of contact with the air.
On the slightest exposure to air it is converted into ferrous hydrate or
oxide. This change is for the most part prevented by combining it with
sugar, as in the following preparation.
With sugar: FERRI CARBONAS SACCHARATA, B. P.; SACCHARINE C. OF I.; FERRUM
CARBONICUM SACCHARATUM, FERRI CARBONAS CUM SACCHARO——Ph. L., FERRI
CARBONAS SACCHARATUM——Ph. E. & D. L.——(Ph. L.) Ferrous sulphate, 4 oz.;
sodium carbonate, 4-1/4 oz.; dissolve each separately in quart of boiling
water, and mix the solutions whilst hot; after a time collect the
precipitate, wash it frequently with water, and add of sugar, 2 oz.,
previously dissolved in water, 2 fl. oz.; lastly, evaporate the mixture
over a water bath to dryness, and keep it in a well-closed bottle.
_Prop., &c._ A sweet-tasted greenish mass or powder, consisting chiefly of
carbonate of iron. It is one of the best of the chalybeates.——_Dose_, 5 to
10 gr. When pure, it should be easily soluble in hydrochloric acid with
brisk effervescence.
=Ferrous Chloride.= FeCl_{2}. _Syn._ PROTOCHLORIDE OF IRON; MURIATE OF
IRON; FERRI CHLORIDUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Anhydrous.) By passing dry
hydrochloric acid gas over ignited metallic iron. The chloride sublimes in
yellowish crystals.
2. (Hydrated.) Dissolve iron filings or scale in hydrochloric acid,
evaporate and crystallise. Soluble green crystals.
=Ferrous Citrate.= Fe_{3}(C_{6}H_{5}O_{7})_{2}. _Syn._ PROTOCITRATE OF
IRON, CITRATE OF PROTOXIDE OF IRON. This salt is easily formed by
digesting iron filings or wire with citric acid, and evaporating the
solution as quickly as possible out of contact with the air. It presents
the appearance of a white powder, nearly insoluble in water, and rapidly
passing to a higher state of oxidation by exposure to the air. Its taste
is very metallic. It is exhibited under the form of pills, mixed with gum
or syrup, to prevent it from being prematurely decomposed.
=Ferrous Ferricy′anide.= _Syn._ FERRIDCYANIDE OF IRON. _Prep._ By adding a
solution of potassium ferricyanide (‘red prussiate of potash’) to a
solution of ferrous sulphate (or any other soluble ferrous salt), and
collecting and drying and precipitate. A bright-blue powder. (See
TURNBULL’S BLUE.)
=Ferrous Hydrate.= Fe_{2}(HO)_{2}. See under FERROUS OXIDE.
=Ferrous Hydrate.= Fe(HO)_{2}. May be precipitated from ferrous solutions
as a white powder, by alkaline hydrates. It rapidly absorbs oxygen, and
turns first green, and then red, by exposure to the air. Both the oxide
and hydrate are very powerful bases, neutralising the acids and forming
stable salts, which, when soluble, have commonly a pale green colour, and
a nauseous metallic taste.
=Ferrous Hypophosphite.= _Syn._ FERRI HYPOPHOSPHIS. From the double
decomposition of hypophosphite of lime and sulphate of iron, as
hypophosphite of potash.
=Ferrous Iodide.= FeI_{2}. _Syn._ PROTOIODIDE OF IRON, IODIDE OF IRON; F.
IODIDUM, FERRI HYDRIODAS, F. IODURETUM, L. _Prep._ (B. P.) Fine iron wire,
1; iodine, 2; distilled water, 10. Introduce the iron, iodine, and 8 of
water into a flask, heat it about ten minutes, and boil until all the red
colour is gone. Filter through paper into a polished iron dish, washing
with the rest of the water, and boil until a drop of the solution taken
out on iron wire solidifies on cooling. Pour on porcelain and cool. (Ph.
L. 1836.) Iodine, 6 oz.; iron filings, 2 oz.; water, 4-1/2 pints; mix,
boil in a sand bath until the liquid turns to a pale green, filter, wash
the residuum with a little water, evaporate the mixed liquors in an iron
vessel at 212° Fahr. to dryness, and immediately put the iodide into
well-stoppered bottles.
Iodine, 1 oz., and clean iron filings or turnings, 1/2 oz., are put into a
Florence flask with distilled water, 4 fl. oz., and having applied a
gentle heat for 10 minutes, the liquid is boiled until it loses its red
colour; it is then at once filtered into a second flask, the filter washed
with water, 1 fl. oz., and the mixed liquid is boiled down, until it
solidifies on cooling.
With sugar: SACCHARINE IODIDE OF IRON, SACCHARUM FERRI IODIDI, FERRI
IODIDUM SACCHARATUM, L. Iron (in powder), 1 dr.; water, 5 dr.; iodine, 4
dr.; obtain a solution of iodide of iron, as above, and add to it of sugar
of milk (in powder), 1-1/4 oz.; evaporate at a temperature not exceeding
122° Fahr., until the mass has a tenacious consistence, then further add
of sugar of milk, 1 oz., reduce the mixture to powder, and preserve it in
a well-stoppered bottle. Every 6 gr. contains 1 gr. of iodide of iron.
From “syrup of iodide of iron” exposed in a shallow vessel, in a warm
place, until it crystallises; the crystals are collected, dried, and
powdered. A simpler plan is to gently evaporate the whole to dryness, and
to powder the residuum. The saccharine iodide may be kept for some time in
a corked bottle without undergoing decomposition.
_Obs._ The preparation of the above compound, like that of the citrates,
has formed a fertile subject during some years for pharmaceutical amateurs
to dilate upon. There is in reality not the least difficulty in the
process. As soon as iodine and iron are mixed together under water much
heat is evolved, and if too much water be not used the combination is soon
complete, and the liquor merely requires to be evaporated to dryness, out
of contact with the air, at a heat not exceeding 212° Fahr. This is most
cheaply and easily performed by employing a glass flask, with a thin broad
bottom and a narrow mouth, by which means the evolved steam excludes air
from the vessel. The whole of the uncombined water may be known to be
evaporated when vapour ceases to condense on a piece of cold glass held
over the mouth of the flask. A piece of moistened starch paper
occasionally applied in the same way will indicate whether free iodine is
evolved; should such be the case, the heat should be immediately lessened.
When the evaporation is completed, the mouth of the flask should be
stopped up by laying a piece of sheet india rubber on it, and over that a
flat weight; the flask must be then removed, and when cold broken to
pieces, the iodide weighed, and put into dry and warm stoppered wide-mouth
glass phials, which must be immediately closed, tied over with bladder,
and the stoppers dipped into melted wax.
_Prop., &c._ Ferrous iodide evolves violet vapours by heat, and ferric
oxide remains. When freshly made it is totally soluble in water, and from
this solution, when kept in a badly stoppered vessel, ferric hydrate is
very soon precipitated; but with iron wire immersed in it, it may be kept
clear in a well-stoppered bottle.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 gr., or more, as a
tonic, stimulant, and resolvent. It has been given with advantage in
anæmia, chlorosis, debility, scrofula, and various glandular affections.
=Ferrous Lactate.= Fe(C_{3}H_{5}O_{3})_{2}. _Syn._ PROTOLACTATE OF IRON;
FERRI LACTAS, FERRUM LACTICUM, L. _Prep._ Boil iron filings in lactic acid
diluted with water, until gas ceases to be evolved, and filter whilst hot
into a suitable vessel, which must be at once closely stopped; as the
solution cools, crystals will be deposited, which after being washed,
first with a little cold water, and then with alcohol, are to be carefully
dried. The mother liquor, on being digested, as before, with fresh iron,
will yield more crystals.
Into sour whey, 2 lbs., sprinkle sugar of milk and iron filings, of each,
in fine powder, 1 oz.; digest at about 100° Fahr., until the sugar of milk
is dissolved, then add a second portion, and as soon as a white
crystalline powder begins to form, boil the whole gently, and filter into
a clean vessel; lastly, collect, wash, and dry the crystals as before.
_Prop., &c._ Ferrous lactate is a greenish-white salt; and when pure,
forms small acicular or prismatic crystals, which have a sweetish
ferruginous taste, and are soluble in about 48 parts of cold and in 12
parts of boiling water. It has been regarded by many high authorities as
superior to every other preparation of iron for internal use, as being at
once miscible with the lactic acid of the gastric juice, instead of having
to be converted into a lactate at the expense of that fluid, as it is
asserted is the case with the other preparations of iron.——_Dose_, 2 to 6
gr., frequently, in any form most convenient.
=Ferrous Ma′late (Impure).= _Syn._ FERRI MALAS IMPURUS, L. _Prep._ (P.
Cod., 1839.) Porphyrised iron filings, 1 part; juice of sour apples, 8
parts; digest for 3 days in an iron vessel, evaporate to one half, strain
through linen whilst hot, further evaporate to the consistence of an
extract, and preserve it from the air.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 gr., where the use
of iron is indicated.
=Ferrous Nitrate.= (FeNO_{3})_{2}. _Syn._ PROTONITRATE OF IRON, NITRATE OF
PROTOXIDE OF IRON; FERRI NITRAS, L. By dissolving ferrous sulphide in
dilute sulphuric acid, in the cold, and evaporating the solution _in
vacuo_. Small green crystals, very soluble, and prone to oxidation.
=Ferrous Oxalate.= (U. S.) _Syn._ FERRI OXALAS. _Prep._ Sulphate of iron,
2 oz.; oxalic acid, 396 gr.; distilled water, q. s. Dissolve the sulphate
in 30 oz. (old measure), and the acid in 15 oz. (old measure) of distilled
water. Filter the solutions, mix them, shake together, and set aside until
the precipitate is formed. Decant the clear liquid, wash the precipitate
thoroughly, and dry it with a gentle heat.
=Ferrous Oxide.= FeO. _Syn._ PROTOXIDE OF IRON, FERRI PROTOXYDUM, L. This
substance is almost unknown in a pure state, from its extreme proneness to
absorb oxygen and pass into the sesquioxide.
=Ferrous Phosphate.= _Syn._ PHOSPHATE OF IRON, NEUTRAL P. OF PROTOXIDE OF
IRON, BIMETALLIC FERROUS ORTHOPHOSPHATE (Odling); FERRI PHOSPHAS (Ph. U.
S.), L. A salt formed from ordinary or tribasic phosphoric acid.
_Prep._ (B. P.) Ferrous sulphate, 3; sodium phosphate, 2-1/2; sodium
acetate, 1; boiling distilled water, 80; dissolve the sulphate and sodium
salts, each in half the water, mix, and stir carefully, filter through
calico, wash with hot distilled water until it ceases to give a
precipitate with barium chloride, dry at a heat not exceeding 120° Fahr.
(Ph. U. S.) Ferrous sulphate, 5 oz.; sodium phosphate, 6 oz.; dissolve
each separate in 2 quarts of water, mix the solutions, and after repose
for a short time wash and dry the precipitate.
_Prop., &c._ A slate-coloured powder; insoluble in water; soluble in
dilute nitric and hydrochloric acid.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.; in amenorrhœa,
diabetes, dyspepsia, scrofula, &c.; and _externally_, as an application to
cancerous ulcers.
=Ferrous Sulphate.= FeSO_{4}.7Aq. _Syn._ PROTOSULPHATE OF IRON, SULPHATE
OF IRON, COPPERAS, GREEN VITRIOL, SHOEMAKER’S BLACK; FERRI SULPHAS (B. P.,
Ph. L. E. & D.), VITRIOLUM FERRI. The crude sulphate of iron or green
vitriol of commerce (FERRI SULPHAS VENALIS, Ph. L.) is prepared by
exposing heaps of moistened iron pyrites or native bisulphuret of iron to
the air for several months, either in its unprepared state or after it has
been roasted. When decomposition is sufficiently advanced, the newly
formed salt is dissolved out with water, and the solution crystallised by
evaporation. In this state it is very impure. The ferrous sulphate or
sulphate of iron employed in medicine is prepared as follows:——
_Prep._ (B. P.) Iron wire, 4; sulphuric acid, 4; distilled water, 30. Pour
the water on the iron, add the acid, and when the disengagement of gas has
nearly ceased, boil for ten minutes. Filter through paper. Allow to stand
twenty-four hours, and collect the crystals. Sulphuric acid, 1 fl. oz.;
water, 4 pints; mix, and add of commercial sulphate of iron, 4 lbs.; iron
wire, 1 oz.; digest with heat and occasional agitation until the sulphate
is dissolved, strain whilst hot, and set aside the liquor that crystals
may form; evaporate the mother-liquor for more crystals, and dry the
whole.
Dissolve the transparent green crystals of the impure sulphate of iron in
their own weight of water, acidulated with sulphuric acid, and
re-crystallise.
The formula of the Ph. U. S. is similar.
Dried; FERRI SULPHAS EXSICCATA, B. P.; FERRI SULPHAS EXSICCATUM——Ph. E.,
F. S. SICCATUM——Ph. D. From ferrous sulphate, heated in a shallow
porcelain or earthen vessel, not glazed with lead, till it becomes a
greenish-grey mass, and then reduced to powder. The heat should be that of
an oven, or not exceeding 400° Fahr. Five parts of the crystallised
sulphate lose very nearly 2 parts by drying.
Granulated; FERRI SULPHAS GRANULATA, L. (B. P.) A solution of iron wire, 4
oz., in sulphuric acid, 4 fl. oz., diluted with water, 1-1/2 pint, after
being boiled for a few minutes, is filtered into a vessel containing
rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz., and the whole stirred until cold, when the
granular crystals are collected on a filter, washed with rectified spirit,
2 fl. oz., and dried, first by pressure between bibulous paper, and next
beneath a bell-glass over sulphuric acid, after which they are put into a
stoppered bottle, to preserve them from the air.
_Prop., &c._ Ferrous sulphate forms pale bluish-green rhombic prisms,
having an acid, styptic taste, and acid reaction; it dissolves in two
parts of cold and less than one part of boiling water; at a dull-red heat
it suffers decomposition; sp. gr. 1·82. It is perfectly soluble in water;
a piece of iron put into the solution should not be covered with metallic
copper. By exposure to the air it effloresces slightly, and is partly
converted into a basic ferric sulphate.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 4 gr., in pills or
solution; externally, as an astringent or styptic. In the arts, as
sulphate of iron (copperas), it is extensively used in dyeing, and for
various other purposes. The dried sulphate (ferri sulphus exsiccatum) is
chiefly used to make pills.
Crude sulphate of iron is frequently contaminated with the sulphates of
copper, zinc, manganese, aluminium, magnesium, and calcium, which, with
the exception of the first, are removed with difficulty. It also contains
variable proportions of the neutral and basic ferric sulphates. The
preparation obtained by direct solution of iron in dilute sulphuric acid
should, therefore, be alone used in medicine.
In commerce there are four varieties of crude sulphate of iron or copperas
known,——greenish-blue, obtained from acid liquors,——pale green, from
neutral liquors,——emerald green, from liquors containing ferric
sulphate,——and ochrey brown, which arises from age and exposure of the
other varieties to the air. Even the first two of these contain traces of
ferric sulphate, and hence give a bluish precipitate with ferrocyanide of
potassium; whereas the pure sulphate gives one which is at first nearly
white.
=Ferrous Sulphide.= FeS. _Syn._ SULPHURET OF IRON, SULPHIDE OF I.,
PROTOSULPHIDE OF I.; FERRI SULPHURETUM (Ph. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. E. &
D.) Expose a bar of iron to a full white heat, and instantly apply a solid
mass of sulphur to it, observing to let the melted product fall into
water; afterwards separate the sulphide from the sulphur, dry, and
preserve it in a closed vessel.
From sublimed sulphur, 4 parts; iron filings, 7 parts; mixed together and
heated in a common fire till the mixture begins to glow, and then removing
the crucible from the heat, and covering it up, until the reaction is at
an end, and the whole has become cold.
Hydrated; FERRI PROTOSULPHURETUM HYDRATUM, L. By adding a solution of
ammonium sulphide or of potassium sulphide to a neutral solution of
ferrous sulphate made with recently distilled or boiled water; the
precipitate is collected on a filter, washed as quickly as possible with
recently boiled water, squeezed in a linen cloth, and preserved in the
pasty state, under water, as directed under ferric hydrate.
_Prop., &c._ The sulphide prepared in the dry way is a blackish brittle
substance, attracted by the magnet. It is largely used in the laboratory
as a source of sulphuretted hydrogen. The hydrated sulphide is a black,
insoluble substance, rapidly decomposed by exposure to the air. Proposed
by Mialhe as an antidote to the salts of arsenic, antimony, bismuth, lead,
mercury, silver, and tin, and to arsenious acid; more especially to white
arsenic and corrosive sublimate. A gargle containing a little hydrated
sulphide of iron will instantly remove the metallic taste caused by
putting a little corrosive sublimate into the mouth. (Mialhe.) On contact
with the latter substance it is instantly converted into ferrous chloride
and mercurous sulphide, two comparatively inert substances. It is
administered in the same way as ferrous hydrate. When taken immediately
after the ingestion of corrosive sublimate, it instantly renders it
innocuous; but when the administration is delayed until 15 or 20 minutes
after the poison has been swallowed, it is almost useless.
=Ferrous Tar′trate.= _Syn._ FERRI TARTRAS, FERRI PROTOTARTRAS, L. _Prep._
1. From iron filings, 2 parts; tartaric acid, 1 part; hot water, q. s.;
digest together until reaction ceases, agitate the liquid, pour off the
turbid solution, and collect, wash, and dry the powder as quickly as
possible, and keep it out of contact with the air.
2. Crystallised potassium tartrate, 132 parts; ferrous sulphate, 139
parts; dissolve each separately, mix the solutions, and collect the
precipitate as before. A nearly insoluble powder; seldom used.
_Obs._ By dissolving the corresponding hydrates in a solution of tartaric
acid, employing the former in slight excess, and evaporating, both the
ferrous and ferric tartrate are easily obtained.
=IRON AL′UM.= See ALUMS.
=IRON CEMENT′.= See CEMENTS.
=IRON, DIALYSED.= (Paris Pharmaceutical Society.) _Syn._ FERRUM
DIALYSATUM. OXIDE DE FER DIALYSÉ. _Prep._ Solution of ferric chloride (sp.
gr. 1·245), 100 grams; solution of ammonia (sp. gr. 1·169), 35 grams; add
the ammonia in small quantities to the ferric chloride; at first the
precipitate formed is redissolved very rapidly, but afterwards disappears
more slowly. When the liquor has again become transparent, it is
introduced into the dialyser; the distilled water in which the vessel
containing the ferruginous solution is placed, must be frequently renewed.
After a time the highly coloured solution is no longer precipitated by
silver nitrate, and gives no acid reaction. It is then absolutely free
from the disagreeable taste of certain ferruginous preparations. A small
quantity of hydrochloric acid always remains in the liquor, which may be
shown by precipitating the oxide of iron by a slight excess of ammonia,
filtering, adding an excess of nitric acid, and then silver nitrate. Ten
c.c. are evaporated, and from the residue must be calculated how much
distilled water is required to be added to produce a 10 per cent.
solution.
2. (‘American Journal of Pharmacy.’) Take 10 parts of liq. ferri perchlor.
(B. P.), precipitate by _liquor ammoniæ_, and wash the precipitate
thoroughly. Mix this with 12 parts of liq. ferri perchlor. (B. P.), and
place in a dialyser. The dialyser is placed in a suitable vessel with
distilled water, the water under it renewed every 24 hours. The operation
is continued until no trace of chlorine exists, at which time the
preparation is found to be neutral. It usually takes from twelve to
fifteen days to complete the process.
The resulting preparation, which should be of a deep dark red colour,
contains about 5 per cent. of the oxide of iron. If the solution after
completion of the operation should contain more than 5 per cent. of iron,
it may be diluted with dialysed water till it reaches that point.
The above formula is said to furnish an article precisely similar to the
original Bravais’ dialysed iron.
3. (E. B. Shuttleworth.) Add ammonia to a solution of perchloride of iron
as long as the precipitate formed is redissolved. A solution is produced
which contains ferric hydrate dissolved in ferric chloride, with free
chloride of ammonium. Either the liquor ferri perchlor. fort. (B. P.), or
the liquor ferri chloridi (U. S.), may be conveniently used, and the
liquor ammoniæ, sp. gr. ·959 or ·960, of either Pharmacopœia will be found
a convenient strength. If the ammonia be added to the strong solution of
iron, considerable heat is evolved, and, on cooling, the preparation
becomes gelatinised——often so much so that the vessel containing it may be
inverted. It is better to avoid this result, and to such end the solution
of perchloride must be diluted until of a sp. gr. of about 1·300. This
degree may be nearly enough approached by diluting two measures of the B.
P. liquor with one of water; or adding one measure of water to five of the
U. S. preparation. This solution will generally remain permanently bright
and fluid. The amount of liquor ammoniæ required will of course vary with
the acidity of the perchloride. The liquor ferri B. P. will sometimes bear
as much as an equal volume. A gelatinised solution, even when made from
the undiluted liquor, will often become fluid when put upon the dialyser,
but, as I have said before, it is better to work with bright solutions.
4. (Dr Pile.) Dr Pile, noticing the fact that chloride of sodium is one of
the most rapid crystalloids to dialyse, used a solution of carbonate of
sodium to add to the solution of ferric chloride in place of the ammonia
so generally recommended, and with great success. The solution of ferric
chloride (U. S.) which has been neutralised by a cold solution of
carbonate of sodium is poured into a floating dialyser. Starting with 1
pint of solution of ferric chloride, which on being treated with the
sodium solution and ready to dialyse, had a sp. gr. of 1·175, it had in 5
days increased to 5 pints. The water in which the dialyser floated was
changed daily. At the end of five days it had passed through the membrane
all the crystalloids, was free from taste of foreign substances, and owing
to increase of bulk had now the sp. gr. of 1·0295, and on evaporation
yielded 5 per cent. dry oxide of iron. Too long dialysation will cause the
solution of iron to become gelatinous.
Mr Shuttleworth[3] says that an efficient dialyser may be made out of one
of the flat hoops of an ordinary flour barrel, a bell jar, or even an
inverted glass funnel. He gives the preference to the former, and limits
its diameter to ten or twelve inches; if it exceeds this, the septum is
liable to bulge in the centre, and to make the layer of liquid too deep
at that point.
[Footnote 3: ‘Canadian Pharmaceutical Journal,’ Oct., 1877.]
The parchment paper employed for the septum must be entirely free from
holes; this is an essential condition, and if any should be discovered——by
the simple process of sponging the upper surface of the paper with water,
and then carefully examining the under surface,——they must be stopped by
means of a little white of egg, applied and coagulated by heat, or by a
drop of collodion.
The parchment paper is not the kind ordinarily known under that name, but
a less porous description, which has been made by previous immersion in
dilute sulphuric acid.
Well-washed bladder, deprived of its outer coat, also makes a good septum.
The septum should be tied around the hoop with twine, but not too tightly,
and should be so arranged that its edges shall be left standing up around
the hoop, so as to absorb any liquid escaping from the hoop at its
junction with the septum. The dialyser being ready for use, the liquid
intended for dialysis is poured into it to a depth of not more than half
an inch, and the dialyser with its contents is then floated on the surface
of some distilled water, contained in a suitable receptacle.
The hoop must only be allowed to sink just below the level of the water;
if it gets below this point, it will be necessary to keep it up by some
support or the other.
It is necessary to change the water in the outer vessel daily. For the
first two or three days distilled water should always be used. When this
is not obtainable rain water should be employed. When the water shows the
absence of chlorides, and the preparation ceases to have a ferruginous
taste, the operation may be regarded as finished. The process generally
occupies one or two weeks.
“A pig’s bladder, completely filled with the iron solution, securely tied,
and immersed in water frequently changed, answers well for making this
preparation. The process requires a longer time than with a carefully
regulated and properly conducted dialysis, but it entails considerably
less trouble. I consider it an advantage to procure the bladder perfectly
fresh, as it is then easily cleaned by pure water, and alkaline ley need
not be used. Great care is necessary in tying the neck carefully. This can
be best accomplished by a few turns of iron wire. Above this may be
secured a piece of twine, to suspend the bladder, by means of a stick, or
rod, placed on the edge of the vessel containing the water. The bladder
should be perfectly full, and immersed altogether in water. The attraction
of the solution for the water is so great, that considerable pressure is
manifested, and should any parts or holes be in the bladder, the liquid
will be forced out, water will take its place, and failure result.”[4]
[Footnote 4: ‘Canadian Pharmaceutical Journal,’ Oct., 1877.]
Pretty general consent appears to have fixed the strength of the solution
of dialysed iron at five per cent. Where it exceeds this, the solution
must be diluted with distilled water; and where it falls short of the
amount, it will have to be reduced to the required volume by standing it
in a warm and dry situation. The employment of much heat must be
particularly avoided as it very frequently leads to the destruction of the
compound; hence every care should be taken to render the evaporation of
the fluid unnecessary.
There seems little doubt that the so-called “dialysed iron” is an
oxychloride of the metal. Prof. Maisch[5] believes it to be a very basic
oxychloride of iron. On the supposition that the oxychloride and chloride
of iron are both present in the liquid put into the dialyser, the origin
of the oxychloride admits of easy explanation:——The chloride being a
crystalloid, diffuses through the septum into the outer water, and thus
becomes separated from the oxychloride, which being a colloid, and
incapable of a passage through the membrane, remains in solution in the
dialyser.
[Footnote 5: Ibid., Oct., 1877.]
The comparative freedom from taste and easy assimilation of the
oxychloride of iron render it a valuable therapeutic agent. The dose of
the five per cent. solution is 15 to 50 drops daily, in divided doses.
Syrup forms a pleasant vehicle for its administration.
Dialysed iron has been successfully employed in a case of arsenical
poisoning. The ‘American Journal of Pharmacy’ for January, 1878, contains
an interesting paper by Dr Mattison detailing a series of experiments,
which conclusively prove its value as an antidote to arsenic. Dr Mattison
recommends the administration of the iron to be immediately followed by a
teaspoonful or more of common salt.
=IRON FI′′LINGS.= _Syn._ FERRI RAMENTA (Ph. L. 1836). FERRI LIMATURA (Ph.
E.), FERRI SCOBS (Ph. D.). The usual method of preparing iron filings for
medical purposes has been already noticed; the only way, however, to
obtain them pure, is to act on a piece of soft iron with a clean file. The
Fr. Cod. orders them to be forcibly beaten in an iron mortar, and to be
separated from oxide and dust by means of a fine sieve, and from the
grosser parts by means of a coarse hair-sieve.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr., in
sugar or honey, as a chalybeate; in larger doses it is an excellent
vermifuge, especially for ascarides or the small thread-worm.
=IRON LIQ′UOR.= _Syn._ PYROLIGNITE OF IRON, DYER’S ACETATE OF I., BLACK
LIQUOR, TAR IRON L.; FERRI ACETAS VENALIS, L. This article, so extensively
used in dyeing, is a crude mixed acetate of the protoxide and sesquioxide
of iron. It is usually prepared by one or other of the following
methods:——
1. Old scraps of iron (hoops, worn-out tin-plate, &c.) are left in a cask
of pyroligneous acid, occasional agitation being had recourse to, until a
sufficiently strong solution is obtained. By keeping the acid moderately
warm in suitable vessels it will become saturated with the iron in a few
days. With cold acid, on a large scale, forty days or more are required to
complete the process.
2. A solution of pyrolignite or crude acetate of lime, is added to another
of green copperas, as long as a precipitate is formed; after repose, the
clear liquor is decanted.
=IRON, REDUCED.= _Syn._ QUEVENNE IRON; FERRUM REDACTUM (B. P.), FERRI
PULVIS, L.; FER REDUIT, F. _Prep._ This preparation, which consists of
metallic iron in a fine state of division mixed with a variable amount of
magnetic oxide of iron, is made by passing perfectly dry hydrogen over
peroxide of iron heated to redness in a gun-barrel.
_Prop._ A greyish-black powder, attracted by the magnet, and exhibiting
metallic streaks when rubbed with firm pressure in a mortar. Rapidly
absorbs oxygen, and must, therefore, be preserved from the air in
well-stoppered bottles. It dissolves in hydrochloric acid with the
evolution of hydrogen. 10 grains added to an aqueous solution of 50 grains
of iodine and 50 grains of iodide of potassium, and digested with them in
a small flask at a gentle heat, should leave not more than 5 grains
undissolved, which should be entirely soluble in hydrochloric acid.
_Uses._ In _medicine_ it is chiefly given to restore the condition of the
blood in all anæmic states of the system. There is no pulverulent state of
iron so convenient as this for children, as it has no taste, and only a
very small dose is required.——_Dose_, 1 to 5 grains (children, 1/4 to 1
grain), in powder, pill, or between bread and butter.
=Iron reduced by Electricity.= See ELECTRICITY, Iron reduced by.
=Iron, to remove Rust from Polished.= Rust of iron may be removed from a
polished grate by means of emery paper, or by scraping some Bath-brick to
a fine powder, mixing it with a little oil and rubbing the spots well with
a piece of flannel dipped in this mixture; after which some whiting should
be applied by diligent friction. This operation requires daily repetition
until the rust has disappeared. Steel fire-irons, fenders, &c., when put
aside in the summer, should be previously smeared thinly over with a
species of paraffin, known to druggists by the name of ‘vaseline’ or
‘cosmoline,’ or with grease, mercurial ointment, &c.
=Iron, to remove the Stains of, from Marble.= Rub on very cautiously
(confining it to the surface only occupied by the spot) some strong
hydrochloric acid, removing it directly the spot disappears. Should this
cause any diminution in the polish, this may be restored by means of emery
paper.
=IRON WIRE.= _Syn._ FERRUM IN FILA TRACTUM (Ph. L.), FERRI FILUM (Ph. E.),
FERRI FILA (Ph. D.), L. This is the only form of metallic iron retained
in the Ph. L. It is used to make preparations of iron.
=ISATINE.= C_{16}H_{10}N_{2}O_{4}. A yellow crystalline body obtained by
the oxidation of indigo. When acted upon by potash it becomes converted
into aniline. Isatine may be formed by heating indigo in a dilute solution
of dichromate of potash and sulphuric acid, or by treating indigo under
proper conditions with nitric acid.
=ISCHU′RIA.= In _pathology_, retention, stoppage, or suppression of the
urine.
=I′′SINGLASS.= _Syn._ ICHTHYOCOLLA, L. The finest kinds of isinglass are
obtained from various species of the genus _Acipenser_, or sturgeon, that
from the great sturgeon being perhaps the most esteemed. It is the
air-bag, swimming bladder, or sound, dried without any other preparation
than opening, folding, or twisting it. The picked or cut isinglass of the
shops consists of the lamps of staple isinglass picked in shreds by women
and children, or cut by machines.
_Prop., &c._ Good isinglass is the purest natural gelatin known. Its
quality is determined by its whiteness, absence of the least fishy odour,
and ready and almost entire solubility in boiling water; the solution
forming a nearly white, scentless, semi-transparent, solid jelly, when
cold. It is soluble in weak acids, and this solution is precipitated by
alkalies. The aqueous solution is not precipitated by spirit of the common
strengths. 1 part of good isinglass dissolved in 25 parts of hot water
forms a rich, tremulous jelly. It is very commonly adulterated. Of the
different varieties of isinglass, the Russian is the best and most
soluble. See GELATIN.
=ISOM′ERISM.= In _chemistry_, identity of composition, with dissimilarity
of properties. Isomeric compounds (isomerides) are such as contain the
same elements in the same proportions, but which differ from each other in
their chemical properties; thus, formate of ethyl and acetate of methyl
are isomeric, having precisely the same ultimate composition, though
differing in the arrangement of their elements.
=ISOMOR′PHISM.= In _chemistry_, the quality possessed by bodies
differently composed of assuming the same crystalline form. Isomorphous
substances are found to be closely allied in their chemical nature; and
the fact of two bodies crystallising in the same form has often led to the
discovery of other points of similarity between them. The alums, for
instance, no matter what their components, all crystallise in octahedra,
and a crystal of potassium-alum, if transferred to a solution of
chrome-alum, will continue to increase with perfect regularity from the
deposition of the latter salt.
=IS′SUE.= _Syn._ FONICULUS, L. In _surgery_, a small artificial ulcer
formed on any part of the body by means of caustic or the lancet, and kept
open by daily introducing an ISSUE PEA covered with some digestive or
stimulating ointment; the whole being duly secured by an appropriate
bandage.
=ISSUE PEAS.= _Syn._ PISÆ PRO FONTICULIS, L. Those of the shops are the
immature fruit of the orange tree (ORANGE BERRIES). They are usually
smoothed in a lathe. Issue peas are also ‘turned’ from orris root. The
following compound issue peas are occasionally employed:——
1. Orris root (in powder) and Venice turpentine, of each 1 part; turmeric,
2 parts; beeswax, 3 parts; melted together and made into peas whilst warm.
2. Beeswax, 3 parts; melt, add of Venice turpentine, 1 part; mix, and
further add, of turmeric, 2 parts; orris root (in powder), 1 part; mix
well, and form the mass into peas whilst warm. More irritating than the
common pea.
3. (Dr Gray.) Beeswax, 12 parts; verdigris and white hellebore, of each 4
parts; orris root, 3 parts; cantharides, 2 parts; Venice turpentine, q. s.
Used to open issues instead of caustic, but their employment requires
care.
=ISSUE PLAS′TERS.= See PLASTERS.
=ITCH.= _Syn._ YOUK‡, SCOTCH FIDDLE‡; PSORA, SCABIES, L.; GALE, Fr. In
_pathology_, a cutaneous disease, caused by a minute insect lodging under
the skin, and readily communicated by contact. There are four varieties of
itch, distinguished by nosologists by the names——_scabies papuliformis_,
or rank itch;——_scabies lymphatica_, or watery itch; _scabies purulenta_,
or pocky itch; _scabies cachectica_, a species exhibiting appearances
resembling each of the previous varieties. Our space will not permit more
than a general notice of the common symptoms, and the mode of cure which
is equally applicable to each species, and will not prove injurious to
other skin diseases simulating the itch.
The common itch consists of an eruption of minute vesicles, principally
between the fingers, bend of the wrist, &c., accompanied by intense
itching of the parts, which is only aggravated by scratching. The usual
treatment is repeated applications of sulphur ointment (simple or
compound), well rubbed in once or twice a day, until a cure is effected;
accompanying its use by the internal exhibition of a spoonful or more of
flowers of sulphur, mixed with treacle or milk night and morning. Where
the use of sulphur ointment is objectionable, a sulphur bath, or a lotion
or bath of sulphurated potash, or of chloride of lime, may be employed
instead.
In the ‘Canadian Pharmaceutical Journal’ for 1872 is a paper by Professor
Rothmund recommending the employment of balsam of Peru in this
objectionable disease. The writer states that one application generally
effects a cure, and that its use does away with the necessity of baths. He
recommends the balsam being rubbed all over the naked body. Carbolic acid
is another and much cheaper remedy proposed by the same author. To obviate
its caustic action he advises the acid to be mixed with glycerin or
linseed oil, in the proportion of one scruple of the acid to two ounces of
either excipient. He considers the objection to this remedy may be that it
enters too rapidly into the circulation. Another agent employed by
Professor Rothmund is a lotion composed of one part of carbolate of sodium
dissolved in 12 parts of water. The affected parts of the skin are to be
rubbed with this three times a day.
It is further recommended to continue this treatment 8 or 10 days after
the cure, in order to kill any acari or their eggs that may have lurked
among the clothes or bed-linen. See BATH, LOTION (Itch), OINTMENT,
PSORIASIS, &c.
=I′VORY.= The osseous portion of the tusks and teeth of the male elephant,
the hippopotamus, wild boar, &c. That of the narwhal or seahorse is the
most esteemed, on account of its superior hardness, toughness,
translucency, and whiteness. The dust or shavings (IVORY DUST, IVORY
SHAVINGS) of the turner form a beautiful size or jelly when boiled in
water. VEGETABLE IVORY is the hard albumen of the seed of the _Phytelephas
macrocarpa_, one of the Palm family.
Ivory may be dyed or stained by any of the ordinary methods employed for
woollen, after being freed from dirt and grease; but more quickly as
follows:——
1. BLACK. The ivory, well washed in an alkaline lye, is steeped in a weak
neutral solution of nitrate of silver, and then exposed to the light, or
dried and dipped into a weak solution of sulphide of ammonium.
2. BLUE. Steep it in a weak solution of sulphate of indigo which has been
nearly neutralised with salt of tartar, or in a solution of soluble
Prussian blue. A still better plan is to steep it in the dyer’s green
indigo-vat.
3. BROWN. As for black, but using a weaker solution of silver.
4. GREEN. Dissolve verdigris in vinegar, and steep the pieces therein for
a short time, observing to use a glass or stoneware vessel; or, in a
solution of verdigris, 2 parts; and sal ammoniac, 1 part, in soft water.
5. PURPLE. Steep it in a weak neutral solution of terchloride of gold, and
then expose it to the light.
6. RED. Make an infusion of cochineal in liquor of ammonia, then immerse
the pieces therein, having previously soaked them for a few minutes in
water very slightly acidulated with aquafortis.
7. YELLOW. _a._ Steep the pieces for some hours in a solution of sugar of
lead, then take them out, and when dry, immerse them in a solution of
chromate of potassa.
_b._ Dissolve as much of the best orpiment in solution of ammonia as it
will take up, then steep the pieces therein for some hours; lastly, take
them out and dry them in a warm place, when they will turn yellow.
Ivory is etched or engraved by covering it with an etching ground or wax,
and employing oil of vitriol as the etching fluid.
Ivory is rendered flexible by immersion in a solution of pure phosphoric
acid (sp. gr. 1·13), until it loses, or partially loses, its opacity, when
it is washed in clean cold soft water, and dried. In this state it is as
flexible as leather, but gradually hardens by exposure to dry air.
Immersion in hot water, however, restores its softness and pliancy.
According to Dr Ure, the necks of some descriptions of INFANTS’ FEEDING
BOTTLES are thus made.
Ivory is whitened or bleached by rubbing it with finely powdered
pumice-stone and water, and exposing it to the sun whilst still moist,
under a glass shade, to prevent desiccation and the occurrence of
fissures; observing to repeat the process until a proper effect is
produced. Ivory may also be bleached by immersion for a short time in
water holding a little sulphurous acid, chloride of lime, or chlorine, in
solution; or by exposure in the moist state to the fumes of burning
sulphur, largely diluted with air. Cloez recommends the ivory or bones to
be immersed in turpentine and exposed for three or four days to sunlight.
The object to be bleached should be kept an eighth or a fourth of an inch
above the bottom of the bath by means of zinc supports. For the
preparation of ivory intended for miniature painting Mr Ernest Spon in his
useful work, ‘Workshop Receipts,’ says: “The bleaching of ivory may be
more expeditiously performed by placing the ivory before a good fire,
which will dispel the wavy lines if they are not very strongly marked,
that frequently destroy the uniformity of surface.”
Ivory may be gilded by immersing it in a fresh solution of proto-sulphate
of iron, and afterwards in solution of chloride of gold.
Ivory is wrought, turned, and fashioned in a similar manner and with
similar tools to those used for bone and soft brass.
_Obs._ Bone for ornamental purposes is treated in a similar way to ivory,
but less carefully, owing to its inferior value. The bones of living
animals may be dyed by mixing madder with their food. The bones of young
pigeons may thus be tinged of a rose colour in 24 hours, and of a deep
scarlet in 3 or 4 days; but the bones of adult animals take fully a
fortnight to acquire a rose colour. The bones nearest the heart become
tinged the soonest. In the same way logwood and extract of logwood will
tinge the bones of young pigeons purple. (Gibson.)
=1.= =Ivory, Artificial.= Let a paste be made of isinglass, egg-shell in
very fine powder, and brandy. Give it the desired colour, and pour it
while warm into oiled moulds. Leave the paste in the moulds until it
becomes hard.
=2.= (L’Union Pharmaceutique.) Two parts of caoutchouc are dissolved in 36
parts of chloroform, and the solution is saturated with pure gaseous
ammonia. The chloroform is then distilled off at a temperature of 85° C.
The residue is mixed with phosphate of lime or carbonate of zinc, pressed
into moulds and dried. When phosphate of lime is used the product
possesses to a considerable degree the nature and composition of ivory.
=IVORY BLACK.= See BLACK PIGMENTS.
=JABORANDI.= _Syn._ IABORANDI, JAMBORANDI. The above names are given by
the natives of Brazil, Paraguay, and other parts of South America to any
indigenous plants possessing strongly stimulant, diaphoretic, and
sialagogue properties, which are principally employed in those countries
as antidotes for the bites and stings of venomous snakes and insects.
As far as they have been examined, all the plants known under the generic
name ‘jaborandi’ have been traced to the two natural orders, _Rutaceæ_ and
_Piperaceæ_. Those exercising the most marked physiological effects appear
to belong to the former or the rutaceous division, and are very probably
different species of _Pilocarpus_. The drug was first introduced into
Europe by Dr Coutinho, of Pernambuco, who some four years since sent a
sample of it to Dr Gubler, of Paris, by whom it was administered to some
of the patients of the Beaujon Hospital there. The jaborandi with which
these experiments were made was identified by Professor Baillon, of Paris,
as belonging to the _Pilocarpus pinnatus_ (_pinnatifolius_). Four to six
grams of the bruised leaves and twigs were infused in a cup of water, and
the patient being put to bed, in ten minutes after taking the draught,
finds himself bathed in a perspiration lasting for four or five hours,
this being so profuse as to render several changes of linen necessary
during the time. Accompanying the diaphoresis are great salivary and
bronchial secretions, which sometimes will not permit the patient to speak
without his mouth becoming filled with water.
The quantity of saliva is stated to have sometimes equalled a litre in
measure. These experiments have been repeated in this country with
analogous effects; in one case reported with jaborandi obtained from the
Beaujon Hospital, and in another from London; results the similarity of
which strongly point to a corresponding composition in the two specimens
of the plant used, if, as seems not improbable, they may have belonged to
different species. A case of impaired vision following the administration
of jaborandi is also recorded; but this seems evidently to have been the
effect of an overdose of the drug.[6]
[Footnote 6: ‘Pharm. Journal,’ 3rd series, V, 364 and 561.]
When jaborandi is administered in divided doses instead of producing
salivation or sweating, it acts as an active diuretic only, increasing
the flow of urine to nearly double the usual amount. M. Albert Robins
says:——“The effect of jaborandi on animals is very marked; guinea-pigs are
seized with salivation, weeping and diarrhœa, true ecchymoses being found
in the intestines, and dogs become instantly salivated, their gastric
secretion being also much increased.”[7]
[Footnote 7: ‘Medical Times and Gazette.’]
Drs Coutinho and Gubler affirm they have employed jaborandi in dropsy,
bronchitis, diabetes, and various other diseases, and that they have found
it fully answer their expectations; and in one case of albuminuria it is
narrated that a permanent diminution of albumen from 14·40 to 12 grammes
followed its use.
An alkaloid has been obtained from the piperaceous jaborandi by Parodi,
and named by him _jaborandine_. Some short time afterwards Mr A. W.
Gerrard succeeded in separating the alkaloid from the rutaceous jaborandi,
to which, in accordance with Mr Holmes’ suggestion, and because Parodi had
anticipated him in the adoption of the previous title, he gave the name
_pilocarpine_.
Mr Gerrard recommends the following process for the preparation of
_pilocarpine_:——“Prepare a soft extract either with leaf or bark, with 50
per cent. alcohol. Digest this with water, filter and wash. Evaporate the
filtrate to a short extract, cautiously add ammonia in slight excess,
shake well with chloroform, separate the chloroform solution, and allow it
to evaporate; the residue is the alkaloidal pilocarpine with probably a
small amount of impurity.” Mr Gerrard has also succeeded in preparing a
crystalline nitrate and hydrochlorate of the alkaloid, both of which
possess the medicinal powers of the jaborandi.
[Illustration: _Pilocarpus pinnatifolius._ _a_, flower; _b_, flower with
the petals removed; _c_, carpels.]
The abridged description of a sample of jaborandi from Pernambuco is from
Mr Holmes’ paper in the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal.’[8] The cut is from the
last edition of Royle’s ‘Materia Medica.’ “The specimens of the plant
examined appear to belong to a shrub about 5 feet high. The root is
cylindrical, hardly tapering at all, nearly 3/4 inch in diameter for the
first 12 inches, and very sparingly branched. Bark of root of a pale
yellowish brown, about a line in thickness, and has a short fracture. The
root has an odour like a mixture of bruised pea-pods and orange-peel. Its
taste is first like that of green peas; this soon disappears, and gives
rise to a tingling sensation. The stem is 1/2 inch in diameter near the
root, narrowing to 1/4 inch in the upper branches. The bark is thin,
greyish-brown, longitudinally striated, and in some specimens sprinkled
over with a number of white dots. The wood of the stem is yellowish-white
and remarkably fibrous. The leaves (one of which is represented in the
drawing) are imparipinnate, about 9 inches long, with from 3 to 5 pairs of
opposite leaflets, which are articulated to the rachis, and have very
short, slightly swollen petiolates. The rachis of the leaf is swollen at
the base.
[Footnote 8: 3rd series, V, 581.]
The pairs of leaflets are usually about 1-1/4 inch apart, the lowest pair
being about 4 inches from the base of the rachis. The leaflets are very
variable in size, even on the same leaf. Their general outline is
oblong-lanceolate. They are entire, with an emarginate or even retuse apex
and an unequal base, and texture coriaceous. The veins are prominent on
both sides of the leaf, and branch from the midrib at an obtuse angle in a
pinnate manner. When held up to the light the leaflets are seen to be
densely pellucidly punctate. These pellucid dots, which are receptacles of
secretion, are not arranged, as in another kind of jaborandi, in lines
along the veinlets, but are irregularly scattered all over the leaf, and
appear equally numerous in every part. The whole plant is glabrous.”
Mr Holmes says there appear to be two varieties, if not species, of this
_Pilocarpus_, the one being perfectly smooth in every part, as above
described, and the other having the stems, petioles, and under surface of
the leaves covered with a dense velvety pubescence composed of simple
hairs.
=JAG′GERY.= _Syn._ PALM SUGAR. A coarse brown sugar made in India by the
evaporation of the juice of several species of palms. The following are
the principal varieties of this product:——
1. COCOA JAGGERY. From the juice of the Cocoa-nut palm (_Cocos nucifera_).
2. MALABAR JAGGERY. From the juice of the Gummuti palm (_Saguerus
saccherifer_).
3. MYSORE JAGGERY. From the juice of the wild Date-palm (_Phœnix
sylvestris_); 17 galls. yields 46 lbs.
4. PALMYRA JAGGERY. From the juice of the Palmyra palm (_Borassus
flabelliformis_); 6 pints yield 1 lb.
=JA′LAP.= _Syn._ JALAPÆ RADIX, JALAPA, B. P. (Ph. L. & D.) CONVOLVULI
JALAPÆ RADIX (Ph. E.), L. The dried tubercles of the _Exogonium purga_,
_I. jalapa_——(Royle.) Jalap is a powerful stimulant and drastic purgative,
producing copious liquid stools; but when judiciously administered, both
safe and efficacious. It appears to be intermediate in its action between
aloes and scammony.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr., in powder; in constipation,
cerebral affections, dropsies, obstructed menstruation, worms, &c. Owing
to its irritant properties, its use is contra-indicated in inflammatory
affections of the alimentary canal, and after surgical operations
connected with the abdomen and pelvis. It is usually administered in
combination with sulphate of potassa or bitartrate of potassa and ginger;
with mercurials, as the case may indicate. The powder is very generally
adulterated.
=Jalap Biscuits.= 1. An ounce of jalap mixed with 16 ounces of the
materials for gingerbread or other kind of cake.
2. Pure resin of jalap, 56 grams, powdered sugar and flour, 1000 grams;
tincture of vanilla, 10 grams, white of egg, No. 20, yolk of egg, No. 40.
Let the resin be emulsified with the yolks of the egg, add successively
the sugar, tincture, and flour, and mix thoroughly into a paste, with
which thoroughly incorporate the whites of eggs, previously beaten up. Let
the mass be divided into 144 biscuits, and bake.
=Jalap, Res′in of.= _Syn._ RESINA JALAPÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) See
EXTRACT OF JALAP.
2. (Nativelle.) Jalap root is digested in boiling water for 24 hours, and
after being reduced to thin slices more water is added, and the whole
boiled for 10 minutes, with occasional agitation; the liquid is then
expressed in a tincture press, and the boiling and pressing repeated a
second and third time (these decoctions by evaporation yield AQUEOUS
EXTRACT OF JALAP); the pressed root is next treated with rectified spirit,
q. s., and boiled for 10 minutes, and then allowed to cool; the tincture
is then pressed out, and the boiling with fresh alcohol and expression is
repeated twice; a little animal charcoal is added to the mixed tinctures,
and, after thorough agitation, the latter are filtered; the liquid is now
distilled until nothing passes over, the supernatant fluid is poured off
the fluid resin, and the latter dried by spreading it over the surface of
the capsule, and continuing the heat. The product is a friable and nearly
colourless resin, which forms a white powder resembling starch. _Prod._
Fully 10% of pure resin.
3. (Planche.) Resinous extract of jalap is dissolved in rectified spirit,
the tincture agitated with animal charcoal, and after filtration gently
evaporated to dryness.
_Pur._ The jalap resin of commerce is generally adulterated with scammony,
gum, guaiacum or resin. When in a state of purity, it does not form an
emulsion with milk, like scammony resin, but runs into a solid mass. It is
insoluble in fixed oils and turpentine, whilst the common resins are
freely soluble in those menstrua. Its alcoholic solution, dropped on a
piece of absorbent white paper, and exposed to the action of nitrous gas,
does not acquire a green or blue colour; if it does, guaiacum resin is
present. 2% of this adulteration may be thus detected. (Gobley.) It is
insoluble in ether; but guaiacum resin, common resin, and some others, are
so; the decanted ether should not become opalescent when mixed with
water, and should evaporate without leaving any residuum. Powdered jalap
resin placed in cold water does not dissolve, but forms a semi-fluid,
transparent mass, as if it had been melted. Dissolved in a watch-glass
with a little oil of vitriol, a rich crimson-coloured solution is
obtained, from which, in a few hours, a brown viscid resin separates.
These last two characteristics distinguish it from other resins.
_Obs._ Earthenware or well-tinned copper vessels must alone be used in the
above processes, as contact with copper or iron turns the resin black, and
this tinge can only be removed by redissolving the resin in alcohol, the
addition of animal charcoal, and re-evaporation.
Jalap resin is an energetic cathartic.——_Dose_, 1 to 5 gr. See JALAPIN.
=Jalap, Factitious Resin of.= _Syn._ RESINÆ JALAPÆ FACTITIA, L. A
substance frequently sold for jalap resin is made by fusing a mixture of
pale yellow resin and scammony resin, and adding, when it has cooled a
little, but still semi-fluid, a few drops of balsam of Peru or tolu; the
mixture is then poured into small paper capsules or tin moulds. Its
effects resemble those of jalap resin, but it inflames less. (Landerer.)
=Jalap, Soap of.= _Syn._ SAPO JALAPÆ, SAPO JALAPINUS, L. _Prep._ (Ph.
Bor.) Resin of jalap and Castile soap, of each 1 part; rectified spirit, 2
parts, or q. s. to dissolve the ingredients softened by a gentle heat;
subsequently evaporate the mixture by the heat of a water bath until
reduced to 4-1/2 oz., or it has acquired the consistence of a pill-mass.
_Prop., &c._ A greyish-brown mass, soluble in rectified spirit. Said to be
milder in its action than the resin alone.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 oz.
=JALAP′IC ACID.= _Syn._ ODOROUS PRINCIPLE OF JALAP.——Pereira. _Prep._ Add
an alcoholic solution of acetate of lead to a similar solution of jalap
resin, collect the precipitate (jalapate of lead), and throw down the lead
by means of sulphuretted hydrogen. (See ABSINTHIC ACID.) A brownish, soft,
greasy substance, smelling strongly of jalap, soluble in alcohol and
alkali, and slightly so in ether. Jalap resin contains about 13% of this
substance.
=JAL′APIN.= C_{34}H_{56}O_{16}. _Syn._ JALAPINA. Jalap resin is commonly
sold under this name, but pure jalapin is prepared by one or other of the
following formulæ:——
_Prep._ 1. The liquid filtered from the jalapate of lead in preparing
jalapic acid is a solution of acetate of jalapin, which, after any trace
of lead is removed, by adding a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid, and
filtration, yields the whole of its jalapin, as a precipitate, on the
addition of 5 or 6 times its volume of water; this is collected, washed
with a little cold distilled water, and dried by exposure to a current of
warm dry air.
2. (Hume.) Coarsely powdered jalap is digested in strong acetic acid for
14 days, the tincture filtered ammonia added in excess, and the whole
agitated strongly; the mixture is then filtered, the deposit washed in
cold water, redissolved in acetic acid, reprecipitated by ammonia, and
again washed and dried.
3. (Kayser.) Pure jalap resin, in powder, is digested for some time in
boiling ether, by which means the jalapic acid is removed, and pure
jalapin remains undissolved.
_Prop., &c._ A transparent, colourless, scentless, insipid resin, very
soluble in alcohol, but insoluble in ether. It is the active purgative
principle of crude jalap resin.
=JAMAI′CINE.= _Syn._ JAMAICINA. A peculiar alkaloid obtained by
Huttenschmidt from the bark of the Cabbage-tree (_Andira inermis_).
_Prep._ The aqueous solution of cabbage-tree bark, treated with
sulphuretted hydrogen and evaporated.
_Prop._ Yellow crystals soluble in water and, to a limited extent, in
alcohol; fusible, and very bitter tasted. It forms salts with the acids,
which, in small doses, produce restlessness and trembling; and in larger
ones, purging. It is said to be vermifuge.
=JAMES’S POWDER.= See POWDERS.
=JAMS.= _Syn._ PRESERVES. Conserves of fruit with sugar, prepared by
boiling. In the latter respect they differ from the conserves of the
apothecary.
_Prep._ The pulped or bruised fruit is boiled along with 1/2 to 2/3 of its
weight of loaf sugar, until the mixture jellies, when a little is placed
on a cold plate; the semi-fluid mass is then passed through a coarse hair
sieve whilst hot, to remove the stones and skins of the fruit, and as soon
as it has cooled a little is poured into pots or glasses. It is usual to
tie these over, when cold, with paper which has been dipped in brandy. The
pots must then be placed aside in a dry and rather cold situation.
The following fruits are those from which jams are commonly
prepared:——Apricots, cherries (various), cranberries, currants (black,
red, and white), gooseberries (ripe and green), mulberries, Orleans plums,
raspberries, and strawberries. Red currants are commonly added to the
last, to remove insipidity.
=JAPAN′.= See VARNISH, and _below_.
=JAPAN′NING.= The art of covering paper, wood, or metal, with a coating of
hard, brilliant, and durable varnish. The varnishes or lacquers employed
for this purpose in Japan, China, and the Indian Archipelago, are resinous
juices derived from various trees belonging to the natural order
_Anacardiaceæ_, especially _Stagmaria verniciflua_, _Holigarna
longifolia_, _Semecarpus Anacardium_, and species of _Rus_ (Sumach). For
use, they are purified by a defecation and straining, and are afterwards
mixed with a little oil, and with colouring matter, as required. In this
country varnishes of amber, asphaltum, or copal, or mixtures of them, pass
under the names of ‘JAPAN’ and ‘JAPAN VARNISH,’
_Proc._ The surface is coloured or painted with devices, &c., as desired,
next covered with a highly transparent varnish (amber or copal), then
dried at a high temperature (135° to 165° Fahr.), and, lastly, polished.
Wood and paper are first sized, polished, and varnished. For plain
surfaces, asphaltum, varnish or japan is used. See VARNISHING.
=JAPON′IC ACID.= C_{12}H_{10}O_{5}. When catechu is exposed to the air in
contact with caustic alkalies, black solutions (alkaline japonates) are
formed; with carbonated alkalies, red solutions (alkaline rubates); the
acid of the former may be separated. It is a black powder, insoluble in
water, soluble in alkalies, and precipitated by acids. Buric acid forms
red insoluble compounds with the earths and some other metallic oxides.
=JARAVE.= The Spanish name for SARSAPARILLA BEER. See BEERS (in
_pharmacy_).
=JASPER.= _Syn._ IASPIS, L. A mineral of the quartz family, occurring in
rocky masses. It takes various shades of red, yellow, brown, and green,
and is occasionally banded, spotted, or variegated. It was formerly used
as an amulet against hæmorrhages and fluxes. It is now extensively worked
up into rings, seals, snuff-boxes, vases, &c., for which it is well
calculated from its extreme hardness and susceptibility of receiving a
fine polish.
=JATRO′PHIC ACID.= _Syn._ CROTONIC ACID, IATROPHIC A. A peculiar fatty
acid discovered by Pelletier and Caventon, and originally regarded by them
as the cathartic principle of croton oil and croton seeds, but since shown
by Redwood and Pereira to be nearly inert.
_Prep._ The oil is saponified by caustic potassa, and the resulting soap
is decomposed by tartaric acid; the fatty matter which floats on the
surface of the liquid is then skimmed off the aqueous portion, and the
latter submitted to distillation; the liquid in the receiver is a solution
of jatrophic acid.
_Prop., &c._ Volatile; very acid; has a nauseous odour; is solid at 23°,
and vaporizes at 35° Fahr. It forms salts with the bases, none of which
possess any practical importance.
=JAU′MANGE.= _Prep._ From isinglass, 1 oz.; boiling water, 12 oz.;
dissolve, add of any sweet white wine, 1/2 pint; the yolks of 2 eggs
beaten to a froth, and the grated yellow peel of two lemons; mix well, and
heat the whole over the fire until sufficiently thickened, stirring all
the time; lastly, serve it up or pour it into moulds.
=JAUN′DICE.= _Syn._ ICTERUS, MORBUS LUTEOLUS, L. A disease characterised
by a yellow colour of the eyes and skin, deep-coloured urine, and pale
alvine evacuations. It appears to arise from a disordered action of the
biliary organs. The treatment consists of the administration of saline
aperients, and small doses of blue-pill, followed by tonics and
diaphoretics. The action of these remedies should be promoted by the
copious use of diluents (particularly saline water), and exertion in the
open air, when possible. When there is much pain and vomiting, anodynes
(or opium, morphia, &c.) may be administered. Jaundice is not in itself a
dangerous disease, but it sometimes lays the patient open to attacks of
others which are so.
_Animals._——Jaundice affects cattle, giving rise to a tawny hue of the
skin and membranes. Pleuro-pneumonia is frequently followed by jaundice.
The best remedies are large doses of Epsom salts combined with ginger; and
if these fail to remove the costiveness, a drachm of calomel should be
added. If necessary, the above purge must be repeated next day, the action
being assisted by giving the animal warm fluids.
Tonics and stimulants are also sometimes superadded to the above
treatment.
=JEL′LY.= _Syn._ GELATINA, L. A term now very loosely applied to various
substances which are liquid or semi-liquid whilst warm, and become
gelatinous on cooling.
Jellies are coloured by the addition of the usual stains used by
confectioners, and are rendered transparent by clarification with white of
egg.
=Jelly, Almond.= _Syn._ GELATINA AMYGDALARUM, L. _Prep._ From rich almond
milk, 1/4 pint; thick hartshorn jelly, 1/2 pint; sugar, 2 oz.; with 2 or 3
bitter almonds and a little lemon peel, to flavour, heated together,
strained, and moulded.
=Jelly, Ar′row-root.= _Syn._ GELATINA MARANTÆ, L. From arrow-root, 1-1/2
oz., to water, 1 pint. Tous les mois jelly is made in the same way.
=Jelly, Bis′cuit.= _Prep._ From white biscuit (crushed beneath the
rolling-pin), 4 oz.; cold water, 2 quarts; soak for some hours, boil to
one half, strain, evaporate to 1 pint, and add, of white sugar, 3/4 lb.,
red wine, 4 oz., and cinnamon, 1 teaspoonful. In weakness of the stomach,
and in dysentery and diarrhœa, and in convalescence combined with rich
beef gravy or soup.
=Jelly, Bladder-wrack.= (Dr Russell.) _Syn._ GELATINA FUCI. _Prep._
Bladder-wrack (_Fucus vesiculosus_), 2 lbs.; sea water, 2 lbs.; macerate
for 15 days. Applied to glandular tumours.
=Jelly, Bread.= _Syn._ PANADA; GELATINA PANIS, L. _Prep._ Cut a French
roll into slices, toast them on each side, and boil in water, 1 quart,
until the whole forms a jelly, adding more water if required; strain, and
add sugar, milk, &c., to palate. It may be made with broth from which the
fat has been skimmed, instead of water. Used as the last.
=Jelly, Broth.= _Syn._ SOUP-JELLY. From broth or soup from which the fat
has been skimmed, evaporated until it becomes gelatinous on cooling. A few
shreds of isinglass are commonly added. See SOUP (Portable).
=Jelly, Calves’ Feet.= _Prep._ For each foot take of water 3 pints, and
boil to one half; cool, skim off the fat, and again boil for 2 or 3
minutes with the peel of a lemon and a little spice; remove it from the
fire, strain through a jelly bag (see FILTRATION), add the juice of a
lemon and a glass of wine, and when it has cooled a little put it into
glasses or ‘forms.’
_Obs._ If this jelly is required to be very transparent it must be treated
as follows:——After the fat is removed it should be gently warmed, just
enough to melt it, next well beaten with the white of an egg and the
seasoning, and then brought to a boil for a minute or two, when it will be
ready for straining, &c. The calves’ feet should not be bought ready
boiled, but only scalded. Cows’ feet (‘COW HEELS’) make nearly as good
jelly as that from calves’ feet, and are much more economical.
=Jelly, Ceylon Moss.= _Syn._ GELATINA GRACILARIÆ, L. _Prep._ (Dr Sigmond.)
Boil Ceylon moss (_Granularia lichenoides_), 1/2 oz. in water, 1 quart,
for 25 minutes, or till the liquid jellies on cooling; strain and flavour.
Very nutritious; recommended in irritation of the mucous membranes and
phthisis.
=Jelly, Copaiba.= (M. Caillot.) _Syn._ GELATINA COPAIBA. _Prep._
Isinglass, 4 parts; water, 40 parts; dissolve in a water bath, and add 20
parts of sugar; pour the clear liquid jelly into a warm mortar, and add
copaiba, 60 parts; triturate, and pour in a vessel to jelly. Flavour with
some aromatic essential oil or balsam of tolu.
=Jelly, Cor′sican Moss.= _Syn._ GELATINA HELMINTHOCORTI, L. _Prep._ (P.
Cod.) Corsican moss (_Gracilaria Helminthocorton_), 1 oz.; water, q. s.;
boil 1 hour, and strain 8 fl. oz.; to this add of isinglass (previously
soaked in a little water), 1 dr.; refined sugar, 2 oz.; white wine, a
wine-glassful. Vermifuge. See DECOCTION.
=Jelly, Fruit.= Under this head we include those jellies made from the
juices of fruits.
_Prep._ The strained juice mixed with 1/3 to 1/2 its weight of refined
sugar, until it ‘jellies’ on cooling, observing to carefully remove the
scum as it rises. The process should be conducted by a gentle heat, and it
is preferable not to add the sugar until the juice is somewhat
concentrated, as by lengthened boiling the quality of the sugar is
injured.
_Obs._ Jellies are sold in pots or glasses, like JAMS. Both jams and fruit
jellies are refrigerant and laxative; they are, however, mostly employed
as relishes, especially during fevers and convalescences. The principal
fruit jellies are:——APPLE, BARBERRY, CHERRY (from either Cornelian or
Kentish cherries), CURRANT (black, white, and red), ELDERBERRY,
GOOSEBERRY, PLUM, QUINCE, RASPBERRY. See LEMON and ORANGE JELLY.
=Jelly, Glycerin.= _Syn._ GELATINA GLYCERINI. Mix glycerin to the required
consistence with compound tragacanth powder. Or take powdered gum Arabic,
1/2 oz.; syrup, 4 oz. (3 oz. of sugar to 1 oz. of water); the yolks of 3
eggs; olive oil, 4 oz.; glycerin, 2 oz. Rub the gum and syrup well
together, add the yolks, and when mixed add the oil and glycerine,
previously triturated together. Applied to chapped hands, abrasions, &c.
See GLYCERIN OF STARCH.
=Jelly, Gra′′vy.= By evaporating meat gravies.
=Jelly, Harts′horn.= _Syn._ GELATINA CORNU CERVI, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.)
Hartshorn shavings, 8 oz.; wash it in water, then boil in clean water, 3
pints, till reduced to one half; strain, press, add of sugar, 4 oz., the
juice of one lemon, and the white of an egg beaten up with a little cold
water; mix well, clarify by heat, evaporate till it jellies on cooling,
then add the peel of the lemon, and set it in a cool place. It may be
flavoured with wine, spices, &c. Very nutritious.
=Jelly, Ice′land Moss.= _Syn._ GELATINA LICHENIS, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.)
Iceland moss, 2 oz.; soak for 1 or 2 days in cold water, then boil for 1
hour in water, q. s. to yield a strong solution; strain, decant the clear
after repose, apply heat, and dissolve therein of isinglass, 1 dr.;
evaporate the whole to a proper consistence, put it into pots, and set
them in a cool place. Nutritious. Recommended in phthisis. The jelly of
Iceland moss and cinchona (GELATINA LICHENIS CUM CINCHONA——P. Cod.) is
made by adding to the above syrup of cinchona, 6 fl. oz.
=Jelly, Iceland Moss (Sweetened).= (P. C.) _Syn._ GELATINA LICHENIS
SACCHARATA. _Prep._ Saccharated Iceland moss (see ICELAND MOSS,
SACCHARATED), 7-1/2 oz.; sugar, 7-1/2 oz.; water, 15 oz.; orange-flower
water, 1 oz. Boil the first three substances and remove the scum which
forms, and then let the jelly flow into a vessel which contains the
orange-flower water.
=Jelly, I′′rish Moss.= _Syn._ GELATINA CHONDRI, L. _Prep._ From Irish or
carrageen moss. See DECOCTION.
=Jelly, I′′singlass.= _Syn._ CONFECTIONERS’ JELLY; GELATINA ICHTHYOCOLLÆ,
L. _Prep._ From isinglass dissolved in water by boiling, and evaporated
till it ‘jellies’ on cooling, adding flavouring, as desired. 1-1/2 oz. of
good isinglass makes fully a pint of very strong jelly. See BLANCMANGE,
ISINGLASS, CALVES-FEET JELLY, &c.
=Jelly, Lem′on.= From isinglass, 2 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil, add of sugar
1 lb., clarify, and when nearly cold add the juice of 5 lemons, and the
grated yellow rinds of 2 oranges and of 2 lemons; mix well, strain off the
peel, and put it into glasses.
=Jelly No′yeau.= As PUNCH JELLY, but strongly flavoured with bitter
almonds.
=Jelly, Or′ange.= From orange juice, 1 pint; let it stand over the grated
yellow rind of 3 or 4 of the oranges for a few hours, then strain, and
add, of loaf sugar, 1/2 lb., or more, isinglass 1/2 oz., dissolved in
water, 1 pint; mix, and put it into glasses before it cools.
=Jelly, Punch.= From isinglass, 2 oz.; sugar, 1-3/4 lb.; water, 1 pint;
dissolve, add of lemon juice, 1/2 pint; the peels of 2 lemons and of 2
oranges; rum and brandy, of each 1/4 pint; keep it in a covered vessel
until cold, then liquefy it by a very gentle heat, strain, and pour it
into moulds. A pleasant and deceptive way of swallowing alcohol.
=Jelly, Quince.= (E. P., 1744.) _Syn._ GELATINA CYDONIORUM. _Prep._ Juice
of quinces, 3 lbs.; sugar, 1 lb.; boil to a jelly.
=Jelly, Rice.= _Syn._ CRÊME DE RIZ. From rice boiled in water, sweetened,
and flavoured.
=Jelly, Sago.= _Prep._ Soak sago in cold water for 1 hour, strain, and
boil in fresh soft water until it becomes transparent; then add wine,
sugar, clear broth, milk, or spices, to flavour. 1 oz. of sugar makes a
pint of good jelly.
=Jelly, Salep.= (Soubeiran). _Syn._ GELATINA SALEPÆ. _Prep._ Ground salep,
4 dr.; sugar, 4 oz.; water, a sufficient quantity. Boil to 12 oz., and
flavour to the taste.
=Jelly, Ta′pioca.= As SAGO JELLY, but using tapioca in lieu of sago.
=JERVINE.= C_{60}H_{5}N_{2}O_{5} An alkaloid discovered in 1837, by Simon,
in the root of the _Veratrum album_, and by Mitchell, in 1874, in the root
of the _Veratrum viride_. Dr H. C. Wood, jun., describing the
physiological effects of jervine, says they consist “in general weakness,
lowering of arterial pressure, a slow pulse, profuse salivation, and
finally convulsions.” Jervine was analysed by Will, who ascribed to it the
above composition.
=JES′UIT’S BARK.= See CINCHONA.
=JESUIT’S DROPS.= See DROPS.
=JESUIT’S POWDER.= Powdered cinchona bark.
=JET.= A variety of mineral bituminous carbon, very hard, and susceptible
of a fine polish.
=JEW′ELS.= See DIAMOND, EMERALD, GEMS, &c.
=JEWEL′RY.= The gold in articles of jewelry, whether solid or plated,
which are not intended to be exposed to very rough usage, is generally
‘coloured,’ as it is called in the trade. This is done as follows:——
1. (RED GOLD COLOUR.) The article, after being coated with the amalgam, is
gently heated, and, whilst hot, is covered with gilder’s wax; it is then
‘flamed’ over a wood fire, and strongly heated, during which time it is
kept in a state of continual motion, to equalise the action of the fire on
the surface. When all the composition has burned away, the piece is
plunged into water, cleansed with the ‘scratch-brush’ and vinegar, and
then washed and burnished. To bring up the beauty of the colour, the piece
is sometimes washed with a strong solution of verdigris in vinegar, next
gently heated, plunged whilst hot into water, and then washed, first in
vinegar, or water soured with nitric acid, and then in pure water; it is,
lastly, burnished, and again washed and dried.
2. (OR-MOLU COLOUR.) This is given by covering the parts with a mixture of
powdered hematite, alum, common salt, and vinegar, and applying heat until
the coating blackens, when the piece is plunged into cold water, rubbed
with a brush dipped in vinegar, or in water strongly soured with nitric
acid, again washed in pure water, and dried. During this process, the
parts not to be dried in ‘or-molu colour’ should be carefully protected.
The frauds practised in reference to the ‘fineness’ of the metal used in
jewelry is noticed under GOLD (Jeweller’s). See also ASSAYING, DIAMOND,
GEMS, GILDING LIQUOR, GILDING WAX, &c.
=JEW’S PITCH.= See ASPHALTUM.
=JOURNAL BOXES, Alloy for.= Copper, 24 parts; tin 24 parts; antimony, 8
parts. First melt the copper, then add the tin, and lastly the antimony.
=JUICE (Spanish).= See EXTRACT and LIQUORICE.
=JU′JUBE.= A fruit resembling a small plum, produced by various species of
_Zizyphus_. Combined with sugar, it forms the JUJUBE PASTE of the shops,
when genuine; but that now almost always sold under the name is a mixture
of gum and sugar, slightly coloured and flavoured.
=JU′LEP.= _Syn._ JULAP; JULEPUM, JULEPUS, JULAPIUM, L. A term usually
regarded as synonymous with ‘MIXTURE’; but according to the best
authorities, implying a medicine which is used as a vehicle for other
forms of medicine. The word comes through the French, from a Persian
expression, which signifies ‘sweet drink.’ A julep, according to
Continental writers, is a drink of little activity, generally composed of
distilled waters, infusions, and syrups, to which mucilages and acids are
sometimes added; “but never powders or oily substances, which could
interfere with its transparency.” In England the juleps of old pharmacy
are now classed under ‘MIXTURES,’
=JU′′NIPER BERRIES.= _Syn._ JUNIPERI BACCÆ, J. COMMUNIS BACCÆ (Ph. E.),
JUNIPERUS (Ph. L.), L. The fruit of the _Juniperus communis_, or common
juniper tree. In the old Ph. L. & D. both the tops and berries (JUNIPERI
FRUCTUS ET CACUMINA——Ph. L. 1836; JUNIPERUS——BACCÆ, CACUMINA——Ph. D. 1862)
were ordered. The berries are stomachic and diuretic, and have been long
employed in dropsies, either alone or combined with foxglove and squills.
The tops (SUMMITATES) have been highly praised in scurvy and certain
cutaneous affections.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr., made into a conserve with
sugar, or in the form of infusion or tea.
Douath found 100 parts of the berries to contain——
Water 29·44
Volatile oil ·91
Formic acid 1·86
Acetic acid ·94
Malic acid (combined) ·21
Oxalic acid traces
Wax-like fatty matter ·64
Green resin (from ethereal
solution) 8·46
Hard brown resin (from
alcoholic solution) 1·29
Bitter principle (called
juniperin) ·37
Pectin ·73
Albuminous substances 4·45
Sugar 29·65
Cellulose 15·83
Mineral substances 2·33
——————
97·11
=JUN′KET.= _Syn._ DEVONSHIRE JUNKET, CURD JELLY. From warm milk put into a
bowl, and then turned with a little rennet; some scalded cream and sugar
are next added with a sprinkling of cinnamon on the top, without breaking
the curd. Much esteemed by holiday folk in the western counties during the
hot weather of summer. Sometimes, very strangely, a little brandy finds
its way into these trifles.
=JUTE.= This is the fibre yielded by the _Corchorus capsularis_, a lime
tree growing in India and China. It is the material of which sacks, gunny
bags, and coarse thread are made. It mixes even with linen or cotton, and
hence may not improbably be employed as a sophisticant of these
substances.
The plates on page 930 exhibit the different microscopic appearances of
the three substances.
=KALEIDOSCOPE.= _Syn._ FLOWER-GLASS. A pleasing philosophical toy invented
by Sir David Brewster, which presents to the eye a series of symmetrical
changing views. It is formed as follows:——Two slips of silvered glass,
from 6 to 10 inches long, and from 1 to 1-1/2 inch wide, and rather
narrower at one end than the other, are joined together lengthwise, by one
of their edges, by means of a piece of silk or cloth glued on their backs;
they are then placed in a tube of tin or pasteboard, blackened inside, and
a little longer than is necessary to contain them, and are fixed by means
of small pieces of cork, with their faces at an angle to each other that
is an even aliquot part of 4 right angles (as the 1/6, 1/8, 1/10, &c.).
The other end of the tube is then closed with an opaque screen or cover,
through which a small eyehole is made in the centre; and the other end is
fitted, first with a plate of common glass, and at the distance of about
1/8th of an inch, with a plain piece of slightly ground glass, parallel to
the former; in the intermediate place or cell are placed the objects to
form the images. These consist of coloured pieces of glass, glass beads,
or any other coloured diaphanous bodies, sufficiently small to move
freely in the cell, and to assume new positions when the tube is shaken or
turned round. A tube so prepared presents an infinite number of changing
and symmetrical pictures, no one of which can be exactly reproduced. This
toy is so easily constructed, is so very inexpensive, and at the same time
so capable of affording an almost inexhaustible fund of amusement to the
young, that we advise our juvenile friends to try their hands at its
construction. Any common tube of tin or pasteboard may be used, and strips
of glass smoked on one side will answer for mirrors.
=KA′LI.= The name formerly applied to a species of _Salsola_ employed for
making BARILLA. It is sometimes used as a designation for the crude
alkalies, and is the German synonym for ‘potassa.’
=Kali, Acid′ulated.= _Syn._ LEMON AND KALI, LEMONATED K. A common
preparation of the shops for making a pleasant effervescing draught. It is
sometimes incorrectly styled ‘citrate of potash.’ _Prep._ 1. Carbonate of
soda and tartaric acid, of each 5 oz.; lump sugar, 1 lb.; all in the state
of fine powder, and separately dried by a very gentle heat, after which
they are mixed together, flavoured with essence of lemon, 1 dr., rubbed
through a gauze sieve in a warm dry situation, put into bottles, and
corked down immediately.
2. Finely powdered white sugar, 16 lbs.; tartaric acid, 4-1/4 lbs.;
carbonate of soda, 4 lbs.; essence of lemon, 1 oz.; as the last. Keeps
well. A dessert-spoonful of either thrown into a glassful of water makes a
pleasant effervescing draught.
=KA′LIUM.= [L.] Potassium.
=KAL′YDOR.= A cosmetic lotion; it resembles ‘GOWLAND’S LOTION,’ but is got
up in a rather more pleasing style. See LOTION.
=KAMALA.= A powder consisting of the minute glands obtained from the
capsules of the _Rottlera tinctoria_, a plant belonging to the nat. ord.
_Euphorbiaceæ_. Kamala is imported from India, where it is known under the
name of kameela. The rottlera, from which it is obtained, is a tree from
15 to 20 feet in height, indigenous to India and to many of the East
Indian Islands.
Kamala has long been employed in India as a remedy for tapeworm, and
within the last few years has been given for the same purpose in this
country with very general success. It may be administered in doses of from
thirty grains to three drachms, suspended in water, rubbed up with
mucilage, or mixed with syrup. In large doses, such as three drachms, it
sometimes purges violently. After the third or fourth motion the worm is
generally evacuated dead. A second dose may be taken in about four hours
should the first fail to act; or instead of a second dose, some castor oil
may be given. Kamala is also used externally by the natives of India in
various skin complaints, particularly in scabies. It is also said to have
proved useful in herpetic ringworm.
[Illustration: COTTON, LINEN AND JUTE.]
Dr Anderson obtained from the resinous colouring matter, which is the
principal constituent of kamala, a yellow crystalline substance, to which
he gave the name _rottlerin_. The existence of rottlerin has since been
confirmed by Mr Groves, who found that it becomes changed by exposure, a
circumstance to which he attributes its non-detection in old specimens of
the drug, and to which may very reasonably be attributed Leube’s failure
to find it.
The ‘British Pharmacopœia’ ascribes the following ‘characters’ to
kamala:——“A fine granular mobile powder, of a brick-red colour; it is with
difficulty mixed with water, but when boiled with alcohol the greater part
is dissolved, forming a red solution. Ether dissolves most of it, the
residue consisting principally of tufted hairs. It should be free from
sand or earthy impurities.”
Kamala forms a very considerable article of export from India, it being a
valuable dye.
=KA′OLIN.= _Syn._ CHINA CLAY, PORCELAIN C. A fine white clay, derived from
the decomposition of the felspar of granitic rocks. The potteries and
porcelain works of this country are chiefly supplied with this substance
from extensive tracts of it which occur near St Austie, Cornwall. See
CLAY.
Elsner[9] gives the following process for distinguishing kaolin from
ordinary clay:——He agitates it in a test-tube with pure strong sulphuric
acid till a uniform mixture is produced, decants the acid after
subsidence, dilutes it carefully with six volumes of water, and
supersaturates the cooled solution with ammonia.
[Footnote 9: Dingl., ‘Pot. Journ.’ (Watts).]
Kaolin thus treated separates but slowly from the strong acid, and the
diluted acid solution gives an immediate white precipitate with ammonia,
whereas ordinary clay is but slightly attacked by the acid, separates
quickly from it, and the acid after dilution gives but an insignificant
precipitate with ammonia.
=KAP′NOMOR.= _Syn._ CAPNOMOR. A colourless oil obtained from crude
kreasote by distillation with potassa. It boils at 360° Fahr., has a
peculiar odour, and is insoluble in water, but readily soluble in an
alkaline solution of kreasote.
=KATAL′YSIS.= _Syn._ CATALYSIS, CONTACT ACTION. Terms applied to a class
of chemical actions in which the decompositions, and the recombination of
the elements of compound bodies, is apparently excited by the mere
presence of, or contact with, other bodies, which do not themselves suffer
such a change.
=KAVA-KAVA.= See AVA.
=KELP.= The alkaline ashes obtained by burning various species of
sea-weed, formerly much used for the preparation of carbonate of soda. The
weeds most valued for the purpose are the _Fucus vesiculosus_, _nodosus_,
and _serratus_, and the _Laminaria bulbosa_ and _digitata_.
Of late years the manufacture of kelp, like that of barilla, has been
almost abandoned except as a source of iodine. Mr E. C. C. Stanford, by
carefully collecting and compressing the weed, and afterwards submitting
it to dry distillation, doubles the yield of iodine and bromine, and
obtains in addition various valuable hydrocarbons. See BARILLA, IODINE,
SODA, &c.
=KER′MES.= _Syn._ KERMES-GRAINS, ALKERMES; GRANUM TINCTORIUM, L. The dried
bodies of the female _Coccus Ilicis_ of Linnæus, a small insect of the
order _Hemiptera_, which flourishes on the Ilex oak. It has been used as a
red and scarlet dye-stuff ever since the time of Moses; but is now
superseded in this country by cochineal, which gives colours of much
greater brilliancy.
=KER′MES MIN′ERAL.= _Syn._ KERMES MINERALE, K. MINERALIS, L. An amorphous
tersulphide of antimony, containing a small admixture of teroxide of
antimony and sulphuride of potassium. _Prep._ 1. IN THE HUMID WAY.——_a._
(P. Cod.) Carbonate of soda (cryst.), 128 parts (say 21 parts), is
dissolved in water, 1280 parts (say 210 parts), contained in a cast-iron
pan; tersulphide of antimony (in fine powder), 6 parts (say 1 part), is
next added, and the whole boiled for an hour, with constant agitation with
a wooden spatula; the boiling liquid is then filtered into a heated
earthen pan containing a small quantity of very hot water, and the
solution is allowed to cool as slowly as possible; the red powder which is
deposited is collected on a cloth, on which it is well washed with cold
water, and the superfluous water being removed by pressure, the powder is
dried by a gentle heat, and is, lastly, passed through a fine silk-gauze
sieve, and preserved from light and air.
_b._ (Wholesale.) From black sulphuride of antimony, 4 lbs.; carbonate of
potassa, 1 lb.; boil in water, 2 galls., for half an hour, filter, &c., as
before. The undissolved portion of sesquisulphuret of antimony may be
boiled again several times with fresh potassa and water, until the whole
is dissolved. Inferior to the last.
_c._ (CLUZELL’S KERMES.) From tersulphide of antimony, 4 parts;
crystallised carbonate of soda, 90 parts; water, 1000 parts; boil, &c., as
in 1, _a_, and dry the powder, folded up in paper, at a heat not exceeding
90° Fahr.
2. IN THE DRY WAY.——_a._ (P. Cod.) Carbonate of potassa, 100 parts;
tersulphide of antimony, 50 parts; sulphur, 3 parts; mix, fuse in a
Hessian crucible, pour the melted mass into an iron mortar, and when cold
reduce it to powder; next boil it in water, 1000 parts, contained in an
iron vessel, filter the solution, and otherwise proceed as before.
_Product_: large, but of inferior quality.
_b._ (Fownes.) From tersulphide of antimony, 5 parts; carbonate of soda
(dry), 3 parts; water, 80 parts; fuse, &c., as before. Nearly equal to 1,
_a_.
_c._ (Berzelius.) Carbonate of potassa (pure), 3 parts, tersulphide of
antimony, 8 parts; water, q. s. Resembles the last.
_Prop., &c._ An odourless, tasteless powder, insoluble in both water and
alcohol, and, when pure and carefully prepared, entirely soluble in
hydrosulphate of ammonia. As prepared by the formulæ 1, _a_, and 1, _c_,
it is a very dark crimson powder, of a velvety smoothness; but that from
the other formulæ has a brownish-red colour, more or less deep. The secret
of preparing this compound of a fine and velvety quality, like that
imported from the Continent, consists simply in filtering the solution
whilst boiling hot, and allowing it to cool very slowly, by placing the
vessel in an appropriate situation for that purpose. Another important
point, according to Rose, is to employ sufficient alkali to keep the whole
of the teroxide of antimony in solution as the liquid cools, instead of
allowing a part of it to be deposited with the kermes. This is the reason
of the superior quality and mildness of that prepared according to the
directions of the French Codex. The liquor decanted from the ‘kermes
mineral’ yields the golden sulphide of antimony on the addition of an
acid, for which purpose the acetic is generally employed.
_Dose_, 1/2 gr. to 3 or 4 gr., as a diaphoretic, cathartic, or emetic. It
occupies in foreign practice the place of our James’s Powder.
=KETCH′UP.= _Syn._ CATCHUP, CATSUP, KATCHUP. The juice of certain
vegetables strongly salted and spiced, so as to be used as sauce; or a
simple sauce made without the natural juice as a substitute for the true
ketchup. The following are the principal varieties:——
=Ketchup, Camp.= _Prep._ Take of good old beer, 2 quarts; white wine, 1
quart; anchovies, 4 oz.; mix, heat it to the boiling-point, remove it from
the fire, and add of peeled shalots, 3 oz.; mace, nutmegs, ginger, and
black pepper, of each, bruised, 1/2 oz.; macerate for 14 days, with
frequent agitation, then allow it to settle, and decant and bottle the
clear portion.
=Ketchup, Cu′cumber.= _Prep._ From ripe cucumbers, in the same way as
mushroom ketchup. Very luscious. Mixed with cream, or melted butter, it
forms an excellent white sauce for fowls, &c.
=Ketchup, Marine′.= _Prep._ Take of strong old beer, 1 gall.; anchovies,
1-1/2 lb.; peeled shalots (crushed), 1 lb.; bruised mace, mustard seed,
and cloves, of each 1/2 oz.; bruised pepper and ginger, of each 1/4 oz.;
mushroom ketchup and vinegar, of each 1 quart; beat the mixture to the
boiling point, put it into a bottle, and macerate for 14 days, frequently
shaking; then strain through flannel, and bottle it for use. Excellent
with anything; like the last, it makes good white sauce, and keeps well.
=Ketchup, Mush′room.= _Prep._ 1. Sprinkle mushroom flaps, gathered in
September, with common salt, stir them occasionally for 2 or 3 days, then
lightly squeeze out the juice, and add to each gallon cloves and mustard
seed, of each, bruised, 1/2 oz.; allspice, black pepper, and ginger, of
each, bruised, 1 oz.; gently heat to the boiling-point in a covered
vessel, macerate for 14 days, and decant or strain. Should it exhibit any
indications of change in a few weeks, bring it again to the boiling-point,
with a little more spice, and a table-spoonful more salt.
2. Take of mushroom juice, 2 galls.; pimento, 2 oz.; cloves, black pepper,
mustard seed, and ginger, of each, bruised, 1 oz.; salt, 1 lb. (or to
taste); shalots, 3 oz.; gently simmer for 1 hour in a covered vessel,
cool, strain, and bottle.
3. Take of mushroom juice, 100 galls.; black pepper, 9 lbs.; allspice, 7
lbs.; ginger, 5 lbs.; cloves, 1 lb. (all bruised); salt, q. s.; gently
simmer in a covered tin boiler for 1 hour.
=Ketchup, Oys′ter.= _Prep._ Pulp the oysters, and to each pint add, of
sherry wine, or very strong old ale, 1 pint; salt, 1 oz.; mace, 1/4 oz.;
black pepper, 1 dr.; simmer very gently for 10 minutes, strain, cool,
bottle, and to each bottle add a spoonful or two of brandy, and keep them
in a cool situation. COCKLE KETCHUP and MUSSEL KETCHUP are made in the
same way. Used to flavour sauces when the fish are out of season;
excellent with rump steak, &c.
=Ketchup, Pon′tac.= _Prep._ Take of the juice of elderberries and strong
vinegar, of each 1 pint; anchovies, 1/2 lb.; shalots and spice, q. s. to
flavour; boil for 5 minutes, cool, strain, and bottle. Used to make fish
sauces.
=Ketchup, Toma′to.= _Prep._ Prepared from tomatoes or love apples, like
mushroom ketchup, except that a little very strong Chili vinegar is
commonly added. An admirable relish for ‘high’ or rich flavoured viands.
=Ketchup, Wal′nut.= _Prep._ 1. Take of the expressed juice of young
walnuts, when tender, 1 gall.; boil 10 minutes, skim, add of anchovies, 2
lbs.; shalots, 1 lb.; cloves and mace, of each 1 oz.; 1 clove of garlic,
sliced; simmer in a covered vessel for 15 minutes, strain, cool, and
bottle, adding a little fresh spice to each bottle, and salt, q. s. Will
keep good in a cool place for 20 years.
2. Take of green walnut shells, 16 galls.; salt, 5 lbs.; mix and beat
together for a week, press out the liquor, and to every gallon add, of
allspice, 4 oz.; ginger, 3 oz.; pepper and cloves, of each 2 oz.; all
bruised; simmer for half an hour, and set aside in a closed vessel and in
a cool situation until sufficiently clear.
3. Take of walnut juice, 1 gall.; vinegar, 1 quart; British anchovies
(sprats), 3 or 4 lbs.; pimento, 3 oz.; ginger, 1/4 oz.; long pepper, 1/2
oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; shalots, 2 oz.; boil and bottle, as before.
4. From the juice of walnut shells, 30 galls.; salt, 1 bushel; allspice
and shalots, of each 6 lbs.; ginger, garlic, and horse-radish, of each 3
lbs.; essence of anchovies, 3 galls.; as before.
=Ketchup, Wine.= _Prep._ Take of mushroom or walnut ketchup, 1 quart;
chopped anchovies, 1/2 lb.; 20 shalots; scraped horse-radish, 2 oz.;
spice, q. s.; simmer for 15 minutes, cool, and add of white and red wine,
of each 1 pint; macerate for 1 week, strain, and bottle.
_General Remarks._ In preparing the above articles, vessels of glazed
earthenware, or stoneware, or well-tinned copper pans, should alone be
used to contain them whilst being boiled or heated, as salt and vegetable
juices rapidly corrode copper, and render the ketchup poisonous. Nothing
in the shape of copper, lead or pewter should be allowed to touch them.
Even a plated copper spoon left in a bottle of ketchup for some time will
render its contents poisonous. Unpleasant and even dangerous fits of
vomiting, colic, and diarrhœa have resulted from the neglect of this
precaution. See SAUCE, &c.
=KIBES.= The vulgar name for ulcerated chilblains.
=KID′NEYS.= _Syn._ RENES, L. (In _anatomy_.) The kidneys, as almost every
one knows, are abdominal viscera which secrete the urine, and form the
great channels by which the effete nitrogenous matter is removed from the
blood. They are subject to various affections, both functional and
organic, chronic and acute, of which some are imperfectly understood, and
others only admit of alleviation, but not of being cured. See URINE and
URINARY AFFECTIONS.
=Kidneys.= (In _cookery_.) Soyer recommends kidneys to be dressed by
gently broiling them, having previously split them, “so as nearly to
divide them, leaving the fat in the middle,” and “run a skewer through
them, that they may remain open.” After being rubbed with a little butter,
and seasoned with salt and pepper, “they may be served on toast, or with
any sauce.” “You may also egg and bread-crumb them.” “Five minutes suffice
for a sheep or lamb’s kidney of common size.” (Soyer.) One or two lamb’s
kidneys, plainly broiled and served up with the gravy in them, eaten along
with a little dry-toasted bread, form a most excellent and appropriate
luncheon or dinner for a dyspeptic or convalescent.
=KIESERITE.= A sulphate of magnesia found in the refuse salt (abraumsalz)
of Stassfurth, near Magdeburg. It forms about 12% of the _abraumsalz_. It
is employed for washing wool and for the manufacture of ‘permanent white’
by treatment with chloride of barium; also for the preparation of Glauber
salts, and of hypochlorite of magnesia for bleaching linen. See LINEN.
=KING’S CUP.= _Prep._ Yellow peel of 1 lemon; lump sugar, 1-1/2 oz.; cold
water, 1 pint; infuse 8 or 10 hours, and strain. The addition of a
teaspoonful of orange-flower water is a great improvement. Used as a
diluent in cases where acid liquors are inadmissible. See LEMONADE.
=KING’S EVIL.= See SCROFULA.
=KING’S YELLOW.= See YELLOW PIGMENTS.
=KI′NIC ACID.= HC_{7}H_{11}O_{6}. _Syn._ QUINIC ACID, CINCHONIC ACID. A
peculiar monobasic acid occurring in the cinchona barks, in which it
exists associated with the alkaloids.
Kinic acid is somewhat extensively diffused throughout the vegetable
kingdom, being found in the bark of every species of the true cinchonas,
as well as in the leaves of the oak, the elm, the ash, the ivy, the
privet, and the coffee plant and berries. It occurs in the cinchona barks
most probably combined with the alkaloids, which therefore exist in the
plant as kinates.
It is readily obtained from kinate of lime by the action of dilute
sulphuric acid; the filtered solution evaporated to the consistence of a
syrup, gradually deposits large crystals resembling those of tartaric
acid.
Henry and Plisson give the following directions for the preparation of
kinic acid:——Make a decoction of cinchona bark with water containing some
sulphuric acid, and filter whilst hot, and to the filtrate add gradually
freshly precipitated oxide of lead, until the liquid becomes neutral, and
changes from a red to a pale yellow colour; care must be taken to add
sufficient oxide. The filtrate is freed from lead by passing sulphuretted
hydrogen through it, and filtered milk of lime is then added to
precipitate the quinine and cinchonine; and the filtered liquid is
evaporated to a syrup, which yields on cooling crystalline calcic kinate.
To separate the acid from the calcic salt, Berzelius directs an aqueous
solution of the salt to be made and to be precipitated by basic acetate of
lead; the washed precipitate, suspended in water, is then decomposed by
sulphuretted hydrogen, and the solution filtered and evaporated. Or the
calcium kinate may be decomposed by an aqueous or alcoholic solution of
sulphuric acid.[10]
[Footnote 10: Watts.]
Kinic acid is, in the form of large tubular crystals, fusible at 161° C.
These crystals dissolve in two parts of water; they are also soluble in
spirits of wine, but scarcely, if at all, in ether.
It forms salts called kinates. Kinate of calcium is obtained from an
acidulated infusion of cinchona bark, by adding an excess of lime,
filtering, evaporating to a syrup, and setting the liquid aside to
crystallise. These crystals are purified by re-dissolving them, treating
the solution with a little animal charcoal, and crystallising the salt as
before. The liquid from which the bark-alkaloids have been precipitated by
hydrate of lime affords an almost inexhaustible supply of this salt. See
KINONE.
=KI′NO.= _Syn._ GUM KINO; KINO (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.) The juice flowing
from the incised bark of the _Pterocarpus Marsupium_ or Indian, hardened
in the sun.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr., in powder; as an astringent in chronic
diarrhœa, &c.
=Kino, Factitious=, met with in the shops, is made as follows:——Logwood,
48 lbs.; tormentil root, 16 lbs.; madder root, 12 lbs.; exhaust by coction
with water, q. s.; to the liquor add of catechu, 16 lbs.; dissolve,
strain, and evaporate to dryness. _Prod._ 24 lbs. Extract of mahogany is
also commonly sold for kino.
=KIRSCH′WASSER= (-văs ser) [Ger.]. _Syn._ KIRSCHENWASSER. A spirituous
liquor distilled in Germany and Switzerland from bruised cherries. From
the rude manner in which it is obtained, and from the distillation of the
cherry-stones (which contain prussic acid) with the liquor, it has often a
nauseous taste, and is frequently poisonous. When properly made and
sweetened, it resembles noyeau.
=KISH.= An artificial graphite occasionally produced in iron-smelting
furnaces. It occurs in brilliant scales, and is said to possess peculiar
efficacy in certain forms of anæmia and chlorosis.
=KITCH′EN.= The late Alexis Soyer set down as one of the crying faults of
our countrymen the employment of an apartment for the kitchen which is
either too small or inconveniently situated, and which, in general, is not
sufficiently provided with ‘kitchen requisites.’ “As a workman cannot work
properly without the requisite tools, or the painter produce the proper
shade without the necessary colours, in like manner does every person
wishing to economise his food and to cook it properly require the proper
furniture wherewith to do it.” The neglect of these matters, which is so
general, is, undoubtedly, a mischievous and deceptive economy.
=KNIVES, to Clean.= After being used all knives should be wiped on a
coarse cloth, so as to ensure their freedom from grease previous to being
cleaned. The practice of dipping the blades in hot water not only fails to
remove any grease that may be on them, but is almost sure to loosen the
handles. It is very essential to remove any grease from them, since if
this remain it will spoil the knife-board.
For cleaning knives, a proper knife-cleaning machine, purchased of a good
maker, is best. But where this is not used, the knife-board ought to be
covered with very thick leather, upon which emery powder should be placed.
The emery gives a good polish to the knives, and does not wear them out so
quickly as Bath-brick. When the points of the knives become worn very
thin, they should be rounded by the knife-grinder. Where the handles are
good it will sometimes be worth while to fit them to new blades.
=KNOX’S POW′DER.= _Prep._ From common salt, 8 parts; chloride of lime, 3
parts; mixed together. An ounce of it dissolved in a tumblerful of water
furnishes a solution which is similar to Labarraque’s disinfecting fluid.
=KŒCHLIN’S LIQUID.= _Prep._ From copper filings, 96 gr.; liquor of
ammonia, 2 fl. oz.; digested together until it turns of a full blue
colour, and then mixed with hydrochloric acid, 5 fl. dr.; distilled water,
5 lbs.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls daily; in scrofula. It is poisonous in
large doses.
=KOOCH′LA NUT.= See NUX VOMICA.
=KOU′MISS.= A liquor prepared by the Calmucs, by fermenting mare’s milk,
previously kept until sour, and then skimmed. By distillation it yields a
spirit called rack, racky, or araka. 21 lbs. of fermented milk yield about
3/4 pint of low wines, and this, by rectification, gives fully 1/4 pint of
strong alcohol. It has lately come into use as a remedy for phthisis and
general debility.
The following formula from the _Zeitschrift des Oesterr. Apoth. Ver._
(1876, 526), for the preparation of so-called KOUMISS EXTRACT, is said to
be a good one:——
Powdered sugar of milk 100 parts
Glucose (prepared from starch) 100 ”
Cane sugar 300 ”
Bicarbonate of potassium 36 ”
Common salt 33 ”
Dissolve these ingredients in 600 parts of boiling fresh whey of milk,
allow the solution to cool, then add 100 parts of rectified spirit, and
afterwards 100 parts of strained fresh beer yeast. Stir the mixture well
and put into bottles containing a quarter of a litre each. The bottles
must be well corked and kept in a cool place.
For the preparation of Koumiss add 5 to 6 tablespoonfuls of this extract
to a litre of skimmed, lukewarm milk, contained in a bottle of thick
glass; cork well, keep the bottle for half a day in a moderately warm room
(at 16°-20° C.), and afterwards in a cool cellar, shaking occasionally.
The bottle should be filled to within 3-4 centimètres of the cork. After
two days the Koumiss is ready for use.
=KOUS′SO.= _Syn._ CUSSO, KOSSO. This substance is the dried flowers of the
_Brayera anthelmintica_, an Abyssinian tree which grows to the height of
about 20 feet, and belongs to the natural order Rosaceæ. It is one of the
most effective remedies known for both varieties of tapeworm. The dose for
an adult is 3 to 5 dr., in powder, mixed with about half a pint of warm
water, and allowed to macerate for 15 or 20 minutes. The method prescribed
for its successful administration is as follows:——The patient is to be
prepared by a purgative or a lavement, and the use of a very slight diet
the day before. The next morning, fasting, a little lemon juice is to be
swallowed, or a portion of a lemon sucked, followed by the dose of kousso
(both liquid and powder), at 3 or 4 draughts, at short intervals of each
other, each of which is to be washed down with cold water acidulated with
lemon juice. The action of the medicine is subsequently promoted by
drinking weak tea without either milk or sugar, or water flavoured with
lemon juice or toasted bread; and if it does not operate in the course of
3 or 4 hours, a dose of castor oil or a saline purgative is taken.
The flavour of kousso is rather disagreeable and nauseating. Its operation
is speedy and effectual; but at the same time it is apt to produce, in
large doses, great prostration of strength, and other severe symptoms,
which unfit it for administration to the delicate of both sexes, or during
pregnancy or affections of the lower viscera. Care should be taken not to
purchase it in powder, as, owing to its high price, it is uniformly
adulterated. The powdered kousso of the shops is, in general, nothing more
than the root-bark of pomegranate, coloured and scented.
=KRE′ASOTE.= _Syn._ CREASOTE, CREOSOTE, KREOSOTE; CREASOTUM (B. P., Ph. L.
& D.), CREAZOTUM (Ph. E.), L. A peculiar substance, discovered by
Reichenbach, and so named on account of its powerful antiseptic property.
It is a product of the dry distillation of organic bodies, and is the
preservative principle of wood smoke and pyroligneous acid.
_Prep._ Kreasote is manufactured from wood-tar, in which it is sometimes
contained to the amount of 20% to 35%, and from crude pyroligneous acid
and pyroxilic oil.
1. (P. Cod.) Wood-tar is distilled in a wrought-iron retort until white
vapours of paraffin appear; the heavy oily matter which forms the lower
layer of the product is collected, washed with water slightly acidulated
with sulphuric acid, and then distilled in a glass retort, rejecting the
first portions, which are chiefly eupion; the distillate is treated with a
solution of potassa (sp. gr. 1·12), the mixed liquids being shaken
strongly together; after it is settled, the layer of eupion which forms is
removed from the surface, and the potash-solution of kreasote exposed to
the air until it becomes black; it is then saturated with dilute sulphuric
acid, the water liquid rejected, and the remainder (consisting of crude
kreasote) submitted to distillation in glass; the treatment by exposure,
potassa, sulphuric acid, and distillation is repeated three times or
oftener, until the combination of kreasote and potassa ceases to become
coloured by the action of the air; it is, lastly, saturated with
concentrated phosphoric acid, and again distilled, rejecting the first
portion that comes over.
2. (M. Simon.) A copper still, capable of containing 80 Berlin quarts, is
filled to one third with the oil of wood-tar, and heat is applied; first,
the more volatile matters pass over; these do not contain kreasote, and
are, therefore, rejected; but when, by gradually increasing the
temperature, there passes over a very acid liquid, which becomes turbid,
and at the same time an oil separates from it when mixed with water, the
product is collected, and the distillation continued until the operator
notices a squirting in the still, when this part of the process is
complete; the distilled product is then nearly saturated with potassa and
returned to the still, which, in the meantime, has been well cleaned out,
and about half filled with water, and the distillation is recommenced; at
first an oil comes over, which floats on water, and which consists chiefly
of eupion, and is, therefore, rejected; as soon, however, as the oil
begins to sink in the water which comes over with it, it is charged with
kreasote, and is carefully collected; the distilling aqueous fluid being
reintroduced from time to time into the still, and the distillation
continued so long as any oil continues to come over with it; the heavy
oily distillate is now agitated with liquor of potassa, sp. gr. 1·120; the
portion which remains undissolved is eupion, and is skimmed off; the
potassa-solution of kreasote still, however, contains a considerable
quantity of eupion, the greater portion of which may be separated by
dilution and distillation with an equal quantity, or with at least 4/5ths
of its volume of water, fresh water being added from time to time, as long
as any eupion comes over with the distilled liquor; when this has ceased
to pass over, sulphuric acid is poured into the still in quantity exactly
sufficient to saturate 1/3rd only of the potassa formerly employed, and
the distillation is again renewed; kreasote now distils over, the first
portions of which, however, still contain eupion, after which pure
kreasote follows; that is to say, “a kreasote which, when mixed with 6 or
8 times its quantity of a solution of pure potassa, furnishes a mixture
which, by the addition of any further quantity whatever of water, does not
become turbid.” The combination of kreasote remaining in the still is now
mixed with sulphuric acid in slight excess, and the distillation renewed,
the water coming over with it being from time to time returned into the
still; and when no further oil passes over with the water, the process is
complete. The kreasote thus obtained is redistilled with the water which
has passed over with it, whilst the distilled water, as before, is allowed
from time to time to run back into the still. The kreasote thus obtained
is then colourless; but it contains a considerable quantity of water in
solution, which is separated by distillation in a glass retort. The water
distils first, and then kreasote, which, after cleaning the neck of the
retort from the water, must be received in another dry receiver. If the
kreasote assumes a red colour after being exposed for some time to the
air, it must be re-distilled, and then it keeps very well. Korne found
that tar prepared from turf furnishes much more kreasote than that from
fir-wood, &c.
3. (Ure.) In operating upon pyroligneous acid, if we dissolve effloresced
sulphate of soda in it to saturation, at the temperature of 267° Fahr.,
the kreasote separates, and floats upon the surface; it is then decanted,
and left in repose for some days, during which it deposits a fresh
portion of salt and vinegar; it is next saturated whilst hot with
carbonate of potassa, and distilled along with water; a pale yellow oily
liquid passes over, which is rectified with phosphoric acid, &c., like the
crude product of kreasote from tar.
_Prop._ Kreasote is a colourless, transparent liquid, heavier than water,
of a peculiar unpleasant penetrating odour resembling that of smoked meat,
and a very pungent and caustic taste; its vapour irritates the eyes; it
boils at 400° Fahr., and is still fluid at -16·6° Fahr.; it produces on
white filter paper greasy spots, which disappear if exposed to a heat of
212° Fahr.; dissolves in 80 parts of water, and mixes in all proportions
with spirit of wine, the essential and fatty oils, acetic acid, naphtha,
disulphide of carbon, ammonia, and potassa; it dissolves iodine,
phosphorus, sulphur, resins, the alkaloids, indigo blue, several salts
(especially the acetates and the chlorides of calcium and tin); reduces
the nitrate and acetate of silver; is resinified by chlorine, and
decomposed by the stronger acids. The aqueous solution is neutral, and
precipitates solutions of gum and the white of eggs. It kindles with
difficulty, and burns with a smoky flame. When quite pure, it is unaltered
by exposure to the air. Sp. gr. 1·071, at 68° Fahr. A slip of deal dipped
into it, and afterwards in hydrochloric acid, and then allowed to dry in
the air, acquires a greenish-blue colour. It turns a ray of polarised
light to the right, whereas carbolic acid does not affect polarisation.
_Pur._ The fluid commonly sold in the shops for kreasote is a mixture of
kreasote, picamar, and light oil of tar; in many cases it is little else
than impure carbolic acid, with scarcely a trace of kreasote. Pure
kreasote is perfectly soluble in both acetic acid and solution of potassa;
shaken with an equal volume of water in a narrow test-tube, not more than
the 1-80th part disappears; otherwise it contains water, of which kreasote
is able to assume 1-10th without becoming turbid. If it can be dissolved
completely in 80 parts by weight of water, at a medium temperature, it
then forms a perfectly neutral liquid. An oily residue floating on the
surface betrays the presence of other foreign products (EUPION, KAPNOMOR,
PICAMAR), which are obtained at the same time with the kreasote during the
dry distillation of organic substances.
Kreasote is “devoid of colour, has a peculiar odour, and is soluble in
acetic acid. When it is dropped on bibulous paper, and a boiling heat is
applied for a short time, it entirely escapes, leaving no transparent
stain.” (Ph. L.) “Entirely and easily soluble in its own weight of acetic
acid.” (Ph. E.) Sp. gr. 1·046 (Ph. L.), 1·066 (Ph. E. & D.). The density
and boiling point of absolutely pure kreasote is given above. When
prescribed in pills with oxide of silver, the mass will take fire unless
the oxide be first mixed with liquorice or other powder. (Squire.)
_Uses._ Kreasote has been recommended in several diseases of the organs of
digestion and respiration, in rheumatism, gout, torpid nervous fever,
spasms, diabetes, tapeworm, &c.; but its use has not, in general, been
attended with satisfactory results. It is given in the form of pills,
emulsion, or an ethereal or spirituous solution. Externally it has been
employed in various chronic diseases of the skin, sores of different
kinds, mortifications, scalds, burns, wounds (as a styptic), caries of the
teeth, &c.; mostly in the form of an aqueous solution (1 to 80); or mixed
with lard (5 drops to 1 dr.), as an ointment; dissolved in rectified
spirit, it forms a useful and a popular remedy for toothache arising from
decay or rottenness. In the _arts_, kreasote is extensively employed to
preserve animal substances, either by washing it over them, or by
immersing them in its aqueous solution. A few drops in a saucer, or on a
piece of spongy paper, if placed in a larder, will effectually drive away
insects, and make the meat keep several days longer than it otherwise
would. A small quantity added to brine or vinegar is commonly employed to
impart a smoky flavour to meat and fish, and its solution in acetic acid
is used to give the flavour of whisky to malt spirit. See CARBOLIC ACID.
=KRE′ATIN.= C_{4}H_{9}N_{3}O_{2}·Aq. _Syn._ CREATIN. A crystallisable
substance obtained from the juice of the muscular fibre of animals. It was
first obtained by Chevreul, but has recently been carefully studied by
Liebig.
_Prep._ (Liebig.) Lean flesh is reduced to shreds, and then exhausted with
successive portions of cold water, employing pressure; the mixed liquid is
heated to coagulate the albumen and colouring matter of the blood, and is
then strained through a cloth; pure baryta water is next added as long as
a precipitate forms, the liquid is filtered, and the filtrate is gently
evaporated to the consistence of a syrup; after repose for some days in a
warm situation, crystals of kreatin are deposited; these are purified by
redissolving them in water, agitating the solution with animal charcoal,
and evaporating, &c., so that crystals may form.
_Prop., &c._ Brilliant, colourless, prismatic crystals; readily soluble in
boiling water, sparingly so in cold water and in alcohol; the aqueous
solution is neutral, bitter tasted, and soon putrefies.
=KREAT′ININ.= C_{4}H_{7}N_{3}O. This substance exists in small quantities,
both in the juice of flesh and in conjunction with kreatin in urine. It is
also produced by the action of the stronger acids on kreatin. It forms
colourless prismatic crystals, which are soluble in water, and the
solution has a strongly alkaline reaction. It is a powerful organic base,
and produces crystallisable salts with the acids.
=KRE′NIC ACID.= See CRENIC ACID.
=KRYSTAL′LINE.= The name originally applied by Unverdorben to ANILINE.
=KUSTITIEN’S METAL.= _Prep._ Take of malleable iron, 3 parts; beat it to
whiteness, and add of antimony, 1 part; Molucca tin, 72 parts; mix under
charcoal, and cool. Used to coat iron and other metals with a surface of
tin; it polishes without a blue tint, is hard, and has the advantage of
being free from lead and arsenic.
=KYANI′ZING.= A method of preserving wood and cordage from decay, long
known and practised; patented by Mr Kyan many years since. It consists in
immersing the materials in a solution of corrosive sublimate, 1 part, and
water, 50 or 60 parts, either under strong pressure or the contrary, as
the urgency of the case or the dimensions of the articles operated on may
require. See DRY ROT.
=KY′ANOL.= A substance obtained from coal-tar oil, and at first thought to
be an independent principle, but since shown to be identical with ANILINE.
=LABARRAQUE’S FLUID.= See SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF SODA.
=LAB′DANUM.= _Syn._ LADANUM. An odorous, resinous substance found on the
leaves and twigs of the _Cystus creticus_, a plant growing in the island
of Candia and in Syria. It was formerly much used for making stimulating
plasters. The following compound is often vended for it:——
=Labdanum, Facti′′tious.= _Prep._ From gum anime, resin, Venetian
turpentine, and sand, of each 6 parts; Spanish juice and gum Arabic, of
each (dissolved in a little water), 3 parts; Canada balsam, 2 parts; ivory
black, 1 part; balsam of Peru, q. s. to give a faint odour.
=LA′BELS= capable of resisting the action of OILS, SPIRITS, WATER, SYRUPS
and DILUTE ACIDS, may be obtained as follows:——Lay a coat of strained
white of egg over the label (an ordinary paper one), and immediately put
the vessel into the upper portion of a common steam-pan, or otherwise
expose it to a gentle heat till the albumen coagulates and turns opaque,
then take it out and dry it before the fire, or in an oven, at a white
heat of about 212° Fahr.; the opaque white film will then become hard and
transparent. The labels on bottles containing STRONG ACIDS or ALKALINE
SOLUTIONS should be either etched upon the glass by means of hydrofluoric
acid, or be written with incorrodible ink. See ETCHING and INK.
=LAB′ORATORY.= _Syn._ LABORATORIUM, L. A place fitted up for the
performance of experimental or manufacturing operations in chemistry,
pharmacy, and pyrotechny. For full information respecting the best mode of
fitting up a chemical laboratory, the reader is referred to works
especially devoted to chemical manipulation.[11] Almost any well-lighted
spare room may be fitted up as a small laboratory at very little expense.
The gas-furnaces and improved lamps introduced of later years have to a
certain extent rendered chemists independent of brick furnaces. A strong
working bench, fitted with drawers and cupboards, and having gas-pipes at
intervals for attaching different kinds of jets, is an indispensable
fixture. A close cupboard or closet, which is connected by a pipe with the
chimney or the external air, is required to receive vessels emitting
corrosive or evil-smelling vapours; the door of this closet should be of
glass. A sink, with a copious supply of water, must be at hand, for
washing apparatus. A glass, a stoneware barrel, with a tap of the same
material, is required for holding distilled water. Shelves, supports for
apparatus, and drawers, should be provided in abundance. The fine balances
and other delicate instruments should be kept in a separate apartment.
With regard to apparatus, we may state that the articles most frequently
required in a laboratory are the gas or alcohol lamps; iron pans for sand
bath and water bath; evaporating dishes; precipitating jars, funnels, and
wash-bottles; retorts, flasks, and test-tubes; mortars and pestles;
retort- and filtering-stands; rat-tail and triangular files, and glass rod
and tubing.
[Footnote 11: The latest and best work is the ‘Handbook of Chemical
Manipulation,’ by Greville Williams. Faraday’s famous work on the same
subject has long been out of print.]
The principal philosophical instrument-makers sell chests or cabinets
filled with apparatus and chemicals, under the name of ‘PORTABLE
LABORATORIES,’ Those sold by Mr J. J. Griffin and by Messrs Jackson and
Townson are, perhaps, the most complete. They are well adapted for
illustrating all the more valuable facts of chemical science, and
performing all the ordinary operations of qualitative analysis.
=LABURNINE.= A poisonous alkaloid, found in the unripe seeds of the
laburnum plant, associated with another poisonous alkaloid called
_Cytisine_.
=LAC.= _Syn._ LACCA, L. A resinous substance combined with much colouring
matter, produced by the puncture of the female of a small insect, called
the _Coccus lacca_ or _ficus_, upon the young branches of several tropical
trees, especially the _Ficus Indica_, _Ficus religiosa_, and _Croton
lacciferum_. The crude resinous exudation constitutes the STICK-LAC of
commerce. SHELL-LAC or SHELLAC is prepared by spreading the resin into
thin plates after being melted and strained. SEED-LAC is the residue
obtained after dissolving out most of the colouring matter contained in
the resin.
Shell-lac is the kind most commonly employed in the arts. The
palest is the best, and is known as ‘orange-lac.’ The darker
varieties——‘liver-coloured,’ ‘ruby,’ ‘garnet,’ &c.——respectively diminish
in value in proportion to the depth of their colour.
_Uses, &c._ Lac was formerly much used in medicine; its action, if any,
is probably that of a very mild diuretic. It is now chiefly used in
DENTIFRICES, VARNISHES, LACQUERS, and SEALING-WAX.
=Lac, Bleached.= _Syn._ WHITE LAC; LACCA ALBA, L. By dissolving lac in a
boiling lye of pearlash or caustic potassa, filtering and passing chlorine
through the solution until all the lac is precipitated; this is collected,
well washed and pulled in hot water, and, finally, twisted into sticks,
and thrown into cold water to harden. Used to make pale varnishes and the
more delicate coloured sealing-wax.
=LAC DYE.= _Syn._ LAC, LAC-LAKE, INDIAN COCHINEAL. A colouring substance
used to dye scarlet, imported from India.
_Prep._ By dissolving out the colour of ground stick-lac by means of a
weak alkaline solution, and then precipitating it along with alumina by
adding a solution of alum.
_Obs._ To prepare the lac for dyeing, it is ground and mixed with diluted
‘lac spirit,’ and the whole allowed to stand for about a week. The ‘cloth’
is first mordanted with a mixture of tartar and ‘lac spirit,’ and
afterwards kept near the boil for three quarters of an hour, in a bath
formed by adding a proportion of the prepared lac dye to the mixture used
for mordanting. Lac dye is only applicable to woollen and silk. The
colours it yields are similar to those obtained from cochineal, but less
brilliant.
=LAC SPIRIT.= See TIN MORDANTS.
=LACE.= This decorative fabric is made by interweaving threads of linen,
cotton, or silk, into various patterns and designs. Although in some
instances lace is made by hand, the greater part is now manufactured by
machinery worked by steam or water. The hand-made lace was called bone,
pillow, or bobbin lace, these two latter names having been given it from
its having been woven upon a pillow or cushion by means of a bobbin. The
manufactured article is bobbin net. Lace and the machinery by which it is
produced is of so complex a nature that Dr Ure says of one particular form
of it “it is as much beyond the most curious chronometer in the
multiplicity of mechanical device as that is beyond a common roasting
jack.”
Owing to the improvements in machinery introduced of late years, it may be
mentioned that a piece of lace which twenty years since could only be
produced at a cost of 3s. 6d. for labour, may now be turned out for 1d.,
and a quantity of the fabric which sold for £17, now realizes only 7s. A
pair of curtains, each four yards long, may be made in one frame in two
hours.
The following statistics relating to the British lace industry are of
interest:——“In 1843 there were 3200 twist net and 800 warp frames,
returning £2,740,000 that year; in 1851, 3200 bobbin net and 800 warp,
giving a return of £3,846,000; and in 1866, 3552 bobbin and 400 warp,
returning £5,130,000. There has since been no actual census, but about
the same number is now at work, and the returns and profits are greatly
increased by improved quality and patterns of goods produced. The returns
of 1872 were certainly £6,000,000 at least; and from advancing wages and
demand for Lever’s laces, must still rapidly increase. Men are now earning
by making them from £4 to £6 for 56 hours’ weekly labour.”[12]
[Footnote 12: ‘British Manufacturing Industries.’ Stanford.]
=Lace, Gold and Silver, to Clean.= Reduce to fine crumbs the interior of a
2-lb. stale loaf, and mix with them 1/4 lb. of powder blue. Sprinkle some
of this mixture plentifully on the lace, afterwards rubbing it on with a
piece of flannel. After brushing off the crumbs rub the lace with a piece
of crimson velvet.
=Lace, to Scour.= Take a perfectly clean wine bottle; wind the lace
smoothly and carefully round it; then gently sponge it in tepid soap and
water; and when clean, and before it becomes dry, pass it through a weak
solution of gum and water. Next pick it out and place it in the sun to
dry. If it be desired to bleach the lace, it should be rinsed in some very
weak solution of chloride of lime, after removal from which it must be
rinsed in cold water. Starch and expose it; then boil and starch, and
again expose it if it has not become sufficiently white.
The following method is also said to whiten lace:——It is first ironed
slightly, then folded and sewn into a clean linen bag, which is then
placed for 24 hours in pure olive oil. Afterwards the bag, with the lace
in it, is to be boiled in a solution of soap and water for 15 minutes,
then well rinsed in lukewarm water, and finally dipped in water containing
a small quantity of starch. The lace is then to be taken from the bag, and
stretched on pins to dry.
To scour point lace proceed as follows:——“Fix the lace in a prepared tent,
draw it tight and straight, make a warm lather of Castile soap, and with a
fine brush dipped in rub over the lace gently, and when clean on one side
do the same on the other; then throw some clean water on it, in which a
little alum has been dissolved, to take off the suds; and, having some
thin starch, go over with it on the wrong side, and iron it on the same
side when dry; then open with a bodkin and set it in order. To clean the
same, if not very dirty, without washing, fix it as before, and go over
with fine bread, the crust being pared off, and when done, dust out the
crumbs.” (Ernest Spon.)
Black lace may be cleaned by passing it through warm water containing some
ox-gall, rinsing it in cold water, and then passing it through water in
which a small quantity of glue has been previously dissolved by means of
heat; it should then be taken out, clapped between the hands, and dried on
a frame.
=LAC′QUER.= A solution of shell-lac in alcohol, tinged with saffron,
annotta, aloes, or other colouring substances. It is applied to wood and
metals to impart a golden colour. See VARNISH.
=LACTALBU′MEN.= See CASEIN.
=LAC′TATE.= _Syn._ LACTAS, L. A salt of lactic acid. The lactates are
characterised by yielding an enormous quantity of perfectly pure carbonic
oxide gas when heated with 5 or 6 parts of oil of vitriol. Most of these
salts may be directly formed by dissolving the hydrate or carbonate of the
metal in the dilute acid.
=LACTA′TION.= See INFANCY, NURSING, &c.
=LACTIC ACID.= H_{2}C_{6}H_{10}O_{6}. _Syn._ ACID OF MILK; ACIDUM
LACTICUM, L. A sour, syrupy liquid, discovered by Scheele in whey. It is
also found in some other animal fluids, and in several vegetable juices,
especially in that of beet-root.
Lactic acid is by no means an unimportant constituent of the human
organism. It is contained in the gastric juice, and is frequently formed
in the sweat. It has also been detected in the saliva of persons suffering
from diabetes. A modification of the acid, termed sarkolactic acid, occurs
in the fluids of the muscular tissue.
It is likewise a product of the fermentation of many vegetable juices,
such as turnips, carrots, beet-root, and cabbage, which latter vegetable,
after undergoing the lactic fermentation, becomes converted into the sauer
kraut of the Germans.
In the form of calcic lactate it occurs in nux vomica.
_Prep._ 1. Dissolve lactate of barium in water, precipitate the barium
with dilute sulphuric acid, carefully avoiding excess, and gently
evaporate to the consistence of a syrup, or until it acquires the density
1·215. Lactate of calcium may be used instead of lactate of barium, in
which case a solution of oxalic acid must be employed as the precipitant.
Pure. (See No. 5.)
2. Milk (skimmed or stale), 1 gall.; bicarbonate of sodium, 1/2 lb.;
dissolve and expose the liquid to the air for some days, until it becomes
sour, then saturate the excess of acid with some more bicarbonate of
sodium, and again expose it to the air; repeat this as often as the liquid
becomes sour; next heat the liquid to the boiling point, filter, evaporate
to dryness (or nearly), and exhaust the residuum with rectified spirit;
filter the alcoholic solution, which contains lactate of sodium, add
sulphuric acid as long as it causes a precipitate to form, again filter,
and concentrate the clear liquid by evaporation.
3. (Boutron and Fremy.) Milk, 3 or 4 quarts; sugar of milk, 200 to 300
gr.; mix, and expose for 2 or 3 days in an open vessel at 70° to 80°
Fahr., then saturate with bicarbonate of sodium, again expose at a
moderate temperature, saturate with more bicarbonate of sodium, and repeat
the process until the whole of the sugar of milk is decomposed; then
coagulate the casein by heat, filter, evaporate, extract the acid lactate
of sodium by alcohol of sp. gr. ·810, and decompose it by the cautious
addition of dilute sulphuric acid; again filter, distil off the alcohol,
and evaporate as before.
4. (Scheele.) Evaporate sour whey to 1/8th of its bulk, saturate with
slaked lime, filter, add 3 or 4 times the quantity of water, cautiously
precipitate the lime with a solution of oxalic acid, filter, and gently
evaporate to dryness in a warm bath; digest the residuum in strong
rectified spirit, and again filter and evaporate.
5. (Wackenroder.) Sugar of lead, 25 parts; finely powdered chalk, 20
parts; skimmed milk, 100 parts; water, 200 parts; digested together at
about 75° Fahr. In six weeks the chalk will be dissolved; the whole is
then heated, but not to boiling; the cheese is strained off, pressed, and
the decanted liquid is clarified by albumen and evaporated, to let the
lactate of calcium crystallise; the salt is recrystallised and decomposed,
either by sulphuric acid or by the exact quantity of oxalic acid. This is,
perhaps, the most effective mode of preparing lactic acid.
6. (Wholesale.)——_a._ Good raw cane-sugar, 7 lbs., is dissolved in milk
(skimmed or stale), 2 galls., and cheese (in a moist or putrescent state),
1/2 lb., and chalk, 4 lbs., previously rubbed to a cream with water, 1-1/2
gall., is then added; the mixture is then exposed in a loosely covered
jar, at a temperature of 80° to 86° Fahr., with occasional stirring, for 2
or 3 weeks, or until the whole is converted into a semi-solid mass of
crystals of lactate of calcium; this is purified either by draining off
and expressing the liquid portion, dissolving the residue in water, and
evaporating the solution for crystals; or the whole is put into a
stoneware vessel and heated to the boiling-point, by which the casein is
coagulated, and the lactate of calcium is dissolved; the solution filtered
whilst hot, furnishes the salt in crystals on cooling; these crystals are
subsequently dissolved in water, and the filtered solution decomposed by
oxalic acid, as before.
_b._ From cane-sugar, 4 parts; moist cheese, 1 part; chalk, 3 parts;
water, 20 parts; as the last.
_Obs._ Lactic acid prepared by any of the used formulæ may be rendered
quite pure by dilution with water, saturation with baryta, evaporation,
crystallisation, re-solution in water, and the careful addition of dilute
sulphuric acid, as in No. 1; the liquid is, lastly, again filtered and
evaporated. Another plan is to convert the acid into lactate of zinc, by
the addition of commercial zinc-white, and to redissolve the new salt in
water, and then decompose the solution with a stream of sulphuretted
hydrogen. In all cases the evaporation should be conducted at a very
gentle heat, and, when possible, finished over sulphuric acid, or _in
vacuo_. For particular purposes this last product must be dissolved in
ether, filtered, and the ether removed by a very gentle heat. Care must
also be taken to remove the solid lactate of calcium at the proper period
from the fermenting liquid, as otherwise it will gradually redissolve and
disappear, and on examination the liquid will be found to consist chiefly
of a solution of butyrate of calcium.
_Prop._ The product of the above formulæ is a solution of lactic acid. It
may be concentrated _in vacuo_ over a surface of oil of vitriol until it
appears as a syrupy liquid of sp. gr. 1·215; soluble in water, alcohol,
and ether; exhibiting the usual acid properties, and forming salts with
the metals, called LACTATES. Heated in a retort to 266° Fahr.; a small
portion distils over, and the residuum on cooling concretes into a
yellowish, solid, fusible mass, very bitter, and nearly insoluble in
water. This is lactic acid, which has lost half (1 equiv.) of its basic
water. By long boiling in water this substance is reconverted into lactic
acid. Heated to 480° Fahr., it suffers decomposition, lactide (the
anhydrous, concrete, or sublimed lactic acid of former writers) and other
products being formed. This new substance may be purified by pressure
between bibulous paper and solution in boiling alcohol from which it
separates in dazzling white crystals on cooling. By solution in hot water
and evaporation to a syrup, it furnishes common lactic acid.
_Uses._ Lactic acid has been given in dyspepsia, gout, phosphatic urinary
deposits, &c. From its being one of the natural constituents of the
gastric juice, and from its power of dissolving a considerable quantity of
phosphate of calcium, it appears very probable that it may prove
beneficial in the above complaints.——_Dose_, 1 to 5 gr.; in the form of
lozenges, or solution in sweetened water.
=LAC′TIC FERMENTA′TION.= The peculiar change by which saccharine matter is
converted into lactic acid. Nitrogenous substances, which in an advanced
state of putrefactive change act as alcohol-ferments, often possess, at
certain periods of their decay, the property of inducing an acid
fermentation in sugar, by which that substance is changed into lactic
acid. Thus, the nitrogenised matter of malt, when suffered to putrefy in
water for a few days only, acquires the power of acidifying the sugar
which accompanies it; whilst in a more advanced state of decomposition it
converts, under similar circumstances, the sugar into alcohol. The gluten
of grain behaves in the same manner. Wheat flour, made into a paste with
water, and left for four or five days in a warm situation, becomes a true
lactic acid ferment; but if left a day or two longer, it changes its
character, and then acts like common yeast, occasioning the ordinary
panary or vinous fermentation. Moist animal membranes, in a slightly
decaying condition, often act energetically in developing lactic acid. The
rennet employed in the manufacture of cheese furnishes a well-known
example of this class of substances.
In preparing lactic acid from milk, the acid formed, after a time,
coagulates and renders insoluble the casein, and the production of the
acid ceases. By carefully neutralising the free acid by carbonate of
sodium, the casein becomes soluble, and resuming its activity, changes a
fresh quantity of sugar into lactic acid, which may be also neutralised,
and by a sufficient number of repetitions of this process all the sugar of
milk present may, in time, be acidified. This is the rationale of the
common process by which lactic acid is obtained. Cane-sugar (probably by
previously becoming grape-sugar) and the sugar of milk both yield lactic
acid; the latter, however, most readily, the grape-sugar having a strong
tendency towards the alcoholic fermentation. If the lactic fermentation be
allowed to proceed too far, the second stage of the process of
transmutation commences, hydrogen gas and carbonic acid gas are evolved,
and the butyric fermentation, by which oily acids are formed, is
established.
Pasteur ascribes the lactic fermentation to the agency of a specific kind
of ferment, which occurs in the form of a greyish layer deposited upon the
surface of the sediment formed during the fermentation of the sugar,
casein, and chalk (see Lactic acid, _b_), in the manufacture of lactic
acid.
If to a mixture of yeast, or any nitrogenous substance, and water, sugar,
and then chalk, be added, and finally a very small quantity of this
greyish substance, taken from a portion of a liquid undergoing active
lactic fermentation, lactic acid fermentation is almost immediately set
up, the chalk disappears owing to the formation of calcic lactate, and the
greyish substance is copiously deposited. When placed under the microscope
this ferment is seen to be composed of “little globules, or very short
articulations, either isolated or in threads, constituting irregular
flocculent particles, much smaller than those of beer yeast, and
exhibiting a rapid gyratory motion.” If these little particles be washed
thoroughly in pure water, and then placed in a solution of sugar, lactic
acidification immediately commences in the saccharine liquid, and goes on
steadily until stopped by the excess of free acid.
=LAC′TIDE.= See LACTIC ACID.
=LAC′TIN.= See SUGAR OF MILK.
=LAC′TOMETER.= _Syn._ GALACTOMETER. An instrument for ascertaining the
quality of milk. Milk may be roughly tested by placing it in a long
graduated tube sold for the purpose, and allowing it to remain until all
the cream has separated and measured, then decanting off the clear whey,
and taking its specific gravity; the result of the two operations, when
compared with the known quantity of cream and the density of the whey of
an average sample of milk, gives the value of the sample tested. See
MILK.
A little instrument called a ‘milk-tester’ is sold in London at a low
price. It is essentially a hydrometer which sinks to a given mark on the
stem in pure water, and floats at another mark at the opposite end of the
scale in pure milk. The intermediate space indicates the quantity of water
(if any) employed to adulterate the article. As the sp. gr. of pure milk
varies, the indications of the ‘tester’ cannot be depended on.
=LAC′TOSE.= See SUGAR OF MILK.
=LAC′TUCA.= (B. P.) _Syn._ LETTUCE. The leaves and flowering tops of the
wild indigenous plant _Lactuca virosa_. They are sedative, narcotic, and
powerfully diuretic; also mildly laxative and diaphoretic. Given in dropsy
and visceral obstructions. See LETTUCE, EXTRACT OF.
=LACTUCA′′RIUM.= _Syn._ LETTUCE OPIUM. THRIDACE; LACTUCARIUM (Ph. E. &
D.). The inspissated milky juice of the _Lactuca sativa_ (common garden
lettuce), or the _Lactuca virosa_ (strong-scented wild lettuce), obtained,
by incision, from the flowering stems, and dried in the air. The latter
species yields by far the greatest quantity. M. Arnaud, of Nancy, adopts
the following method of procuring this substance, which appears to be the
most productive and simple of any yet published:——Before the development
of the lateral branches, the stems of twelve plants are cut, one after
another, a little below the commencement of these branches; returning to
the first one, a milky exudation is found on the cut portion, and on that
which remains fixed in the earth; this milky exudation is adroitly
collected with the end of the finger (or with a bone knife), which is
afterwards scraped on the edge of a small glass; the same operation is
performed on twelve other heads, and so on; on the third day it is
repeated on every portion of the plant remaining in the ground, a thin
slice being first cut off the top; this is done every day until the root
is reached. As soon as the lactucarium is collected it coagulates; the
harvest of each day is divided into small pieces, which are placed on
plates, very near each other, but without touching, and allowed to dry for
two days, after which they are set aside in a bottle. In this way 15 or 20
times the ordinary product is obtained.
_Prop., &c._ Lactucarium is anodyne, hypnotic, antispasmodic, and
sedative, allaying pain and diminishing the force of the circulation. It
has been recommended in cases in which opium is inadmissible, and has been
administered with advantage in chronic rheumatism, colic, diarrhœa,
asthma, and troublesome cough of phthisis, the irritability and
watchfulness in febrile disorders, &c.——_Dose_, 2 to 5 gr.; made into
pills, lozenges, or tincture.
=LACTU′CIN.= _Syn._ LACTUCINUM, L. This is the active principle of
lactucarium, and is found in the juice of several species of lettuce.
_Prep._ Exhaust lactucarium with hot rectified spirit, agitate the
tincture with a little animal charcoal, filter, add a little milk of
lime, and evaporate to dryness; digest the residuum in hot rectified
spirit; filter, and evaporate by a gentle heat, so that crystals may form.
_Prop., &c._ A nearly colourless, odourless, fusible, neutral, bitter
substance; sparingly soluble in cold water and in ether, but freely
soluble in alcohol. It possesses feeble basic properties. Good lactucarium
contains fully 20% of this substance.
=LAD′ANUM.= See LABDANUM.
=LAENNEC’S CONTRA-STIMULANT.= See DRAUGHT.
=LAKE=. _Syn._ LACCA, L. Animal or vegetable colouring matter,
precipitated in combination with oxide of tin or alumina; usually the
latter. The term was formerly restricted to red preparations of this kind,
but is now indiscriminately applied to all compounds of alumina and
colouring matter. The term ‘LAKE,’ when unqualified by an adjective, is,
however, understood to apply exclusively to that prepared from cochineal.
_Prep._ Lakes are made——1. By adding a solution of alum, either alone or
partly saturated with carbonate of potassa, to a filtered infusion or
decoction of the colouring substance, and after agitation precipitating
the mixture with a solution of carbonate of potash.——2. By precipitating a
decoction or infusion of the colouring substance made with a weak alkaline
lye, by adding a solution of alum.——3. By agitating recently precipitated
alumina with a solution of the colouring matter, prepared as before, until
the liquid is nearly decoloured, or the alumina acquires a sufficiently
dark tint. The first method is usually employed for acidulous solutions of
colouring matter, or for those whose tint is injured by alkalies; the
second, for those that are brightened, or at least uninjured, by alkalies;
the third, for those colouring matters that have a great affinity for
gelatinous alumina, and readily combine with it by mere agitation. By
attention to these general rules, lakes may be prepared from almost all
animal and vegetable colouring substances that yield their colour to
water, many of which will be found to possess great beauty and permanence.
The precise process adapted to each particular substance may be easily
ascertained by taking a few drops of its infusion or decoction, and
observing the effects of alkalies and acids on the colour. The quantity of
alum or of alumina employed should be nearly sufficient to decolour the
dye liquor; and the quantity of carbonate of potassa should be so
proportioned to the alum as to exactly precipitate the alumina without
leaving free or carbonated alkali in the liquid. The first portion of the
precipitate has the deepest colour, and the shade gradually becomes paler
as the operation proceeds. A beautiful ‘tone’ of violet, red, and even
purple, may be communicated to the colouring matter of cochineal by the
addition of perchloride of tin; the addition of arseniate of potassa
(neutral arsenical salt) in like manner gives shades which may be sought
for in vain with alum or alumina. After the lake is precipitated, it must
be carefully collected, washed with cold distilled water, or the purest
rain water, until it ceases to give out colour, and then carefully dried
in the shade. In this state it forms a soft velvety powder. That of the
shops is generally made up into conical or pyramidal drops (drop lake),
which is done by dropping the moist lake through a small funnel on a clean
board or slab, and drying it by a gentle heat as before. A very little
clear gum water is commonly added to the paste to give the drops
consistence when dry.
=Lake, Blue.= _Syn._ LACCA CŒRULEA, L. Prepared from some of the
blue-coloured flowers; fugitive. The name is also applied to lump archil
(lacca cœrulea), to moist alumina coloured with indigo, and to mixed
solutions of pearlash and prussiate of potash, precipitated with another
solution of sulphate of iron and alum. These are permanent and beautiful,
but are seldom used, in consequence of indigo and Prussian blue supplying
all that is wanted in this class of colours.
=Lake, Brazil-wood.= _Syn._ DROP LAKE; LACCA IN GLOBULIS, L. _Prep._ 1.
Take of ground Brazil-wood, 1 lb.; water, 4 galls.; digest for 24 hours,
then boil for 30 or 40 minutes, and add of alum, 1-1/2 lb., dissolved in a
little water; mix, decant, strain, and add of solution of tin, 1/2 lb.;
again mix well and filter; to the clear liquid add, cautiously, a solution
of salt of tartar or carbonate of soda, as long as a deep-coloured
precipitate forms, carefully avoiding excess; collect, wash, dry, &c., as
directed above.
_Obs._ The product is deep red. By collecting the precipitate in separate
portions, lakes varying in richness and depth of colour may be obtained.
The first portion of the precipitated lake has the brightest colour. An
excess of alkali turns it on the violet, and the addition of cream of
tartar, on the brownish red. The tint turns more on the violet red when
the solution of tin is omitted. Some persons use less, others more, alum.
2. Add washed and recently precipitated alumina to a strong and filtered
decoction of Brazil wood. Inferior to the last.
=Lake, Carminated.= _Syn._ COCHINEAL LAKE, FLORENCE L., FLORENTINE L.,
PARIS L., VIENNA L.; LACCA FLORENTINA, L. _Prep._ 1. The residuum of the
cochineal left in making carmine is boiled with repeated portions of
water, until it is exhausted of colour; the resulting liquor is mixed with
that decanted off the carmine, and at once filtered; some recently
precipitated alumina is then added, and the whole gently heated, and well
agitated for a short time; as soon as the alumina has absorbed sufficient
colour, the mixture is allowed to settle, after which the clear portion is
decanted, the lake collected on a filter, washed, and dried, as before.
The decanted liquor, if still coloured, is now treated with fresh alumina
until exhausted, and thus a lake of a second quality is obtained. Very
fine.
2. To the coloured liquor obtained from the carmine and cochineal as
above, a solution of alum is added, the filtered liquor precipitated with
a solution of carbonate of potassa, and the alum or alumina; this
brightens the lake collected and treated as before. Scarcely so good as
the last.
_Obs._ Some makers mix a little solution of tin with the coloured liquor
before adding colour. The above lake is a good glazing colour with oil,
but has little body. It may be made directly from a decoction of
cochineal. (See _below_.)
=Lake, Cochineal.= _Prep._ 1. Cochineal (in coarse powder), 1 oz.; water
and rectified spirit, of each 2-1/2 oz.; digest for a week, filter, and
precipitate the tincture with a few drops of solution of tin, added every
two hours, until the whole of the colouring matter is thrown down; lastly,
wash the precipitate in distilled water, and dry it. Very fine.
2. Digest powdered cochineal in ammonia water for a week, dilute the
solution with a little water, and add the liquid to a solution of alum, as
long as a precipitate falls, which is the lake. Equal to the last.
3. Coarsely powdered cochineal, 1 lb.; water, 2 galls.; boil 1 hour,
decant, strain, add a solution of salt of tartar, 1 lb., and precipitate
with a solution of alum. By adding the alum first, and precipitating the
lake with the alkali, the colour will be slightly varied. All the above
are sold as CARMINATED or FLORENCE LAKE, to which they are often superior.
=Lake, Green.= Made by mixing blue and yellow lake together. Seldom kept
in the shops, being generally prepared extemporaneously by the artist on
his palette.
=Lake, Lac.= _Prep._ Boil fresh stick-lac in a solution of carbonate of
soda, filter the solution, precipitate with a solution of alum, and
proceed as before.
=Lake, Lichen.= See ORCEIN.
=Lake, Madder.= _Syn._ LACCA RUBIÆ, L. COLUMBINA, L. _Prep._ 1. (Sir H. C.
Inglefield.) Take of Dutch grappe or crop madder, 2 oz.; tie it in a
cloth, beat it well in a pint of water in a stone mortar, and repeat the
process with fresh water (about 5 pints) until it ceases to yield colour;
next boil the mixed liquor in an earthen vessel, pour it into a large
basin, and add of alum 1 oz., previously dissolved in boiling water, 1
pint; stir well, and while stirring, pour in gradually of a strong
solution of carbonate of potassa (‘oil of tartar’), 1-1/2 oz.; let the
whole stand until cold, then pour off the supernatant yellow liquor,
drain, agitate the residue with boiling water, 1 quart (in separate
portions), decant, drain, and dry. _Product_, 1/2 oz. The Society of Arts
voted their gold medal to the author of the above formula.
2. Add a little solution of acetate of lead to a decoction of madder, to
throw down the brown colouring matter, filter, add a solution of tin or
alum, precipitate with a solution of carbonate of soda or of potassa, and
otherwise proceed as before.
3. (Ure.) Ground madder, 2 lbs.; water, 1 gall.; macerate with agitation
for 10 minutes, strain off the water, and press the remainder quite dry;
repeat the process a second and a third time; then add to the mixed
liquors, alum 1/2 lb., dissolved in water, 3 quarts; and heat in a water
bath for 3 or 4 hours, adding water as it evaporates; next filter, first
through flannel, and, when sufficiently cold, through paper; then add a
solution of carbonate of potassa as long as a precipitate falls, which
must be washed until the water comes off colourless, and, lastly, dried.
If the alkali be added in 3 successive doses, 3 different lakes will be
obtained, successively diminishing in beauty. See MADDER, MADDER, RED, &c.
=Lake, Or′ange.= _Prep._ Take of the best Spanish annotta, 4 oz.;
pearlash, 3/4 lb.; water, 1 gall.; boil for half an hour, strain,
precipitate with alum, 1 lb., dissolved in water, 1 gall., observing not
to add the latter solution when it ceases to produce an effervescence or a
precipitate; strain, and dry the sediment in small squares, lozenges, or
drops. The addition of some solution of tin turns this lake on the LEMON
YELLOW; acids redden it. See LAKE, YELLOW.
=Lake, Red.= _Prep._ Take of pearlash, 1 lb.; clean shreds of scarlet
cloth, 3-1/2 lbs.; water, 5 galls.; boil till the cloth is decoloured,
filter the decoction, and precipitate with a solution of alum, as before.
See the LAKES noticed above (Brazil-wood, Carminated, Cochineal, and
Madder).
=Lake, Yellow.= _Prep._ 1. Boil French berries, quercitron bark, or
turmeric, 1 lb., and salt of tartar, 1 oz., in water, 1 gall., until
reduced to one half, then strain the decoction, and precipitate with a
solution of alum.
2. Boil 1 lb. of the dye-stuff with alum, 1/2 lb.; water, 1 gall., as
before, and precipitate the decoction with a solution of carbonate of
potash. See LAKE, ORANGE (_above_).
=LAMB= in its general qualities closely resembles mutton, of which,
indeed, it is merely a younger and more delicate kind. It is well adapted
as an occasional article of food for the convalescent and dyspeptic; but
it is unequal for frequent use, more especially for the healthy and
robust, to the flesh of the adult animal.
=LAMBS, DISEASES OF.= Among other diseases, these animals are particularly
prone to one affecting the lungs, in consequence of the existence of
parasites (_Strongylus bronchialis_) in the air-passages. See PARASITES.
=LAMP.= A contrivance for producing artificial light or heat by the
combustion of inflammable liquids. The term ‘lamp’ is also applied to a
portable gas-burner (GAS-LAMP), and to a tubular candle-holder, which, by
the aid of a simple mechanical device, keeps the flame at one height
(CANDLE-LAMP).
OIL LAMPS were employed for illumination among the nations of antiquity,
at the earliest period of which any record exists. The Assyrian, Greek,
and Roman lamps preserved in our museums are generally noble specimens of
art-workmanship. Though elegant in form, and rich in external
embellishment, the ancient lamp was simply a vessel to contain the oil,
with a short depression or spout on the one side, in which the wick is
laid. Lamps of this rude construction are still in common use in many
countries.
No important improvement in the principle and construction of lamps as a
source of light occurred until a comparatively recent date; the smoke,
dirt, and disagreeable odour of the common lamp having previously led to
its disuse among the superior classes in favour of candles. At length, in
1789, M. Argand made a revolution in illumination by the invention and
introduction of the well-known lamp which bears his name. In the ARGAND
LAMP a hollow tubular wick of woven cotton replaces the solid bundles of
fibres, and is so arranged that air passes through it into the interior of
the flame. Over the burner is placed a cylindrical glass chimney, open at
the bottom, and surrounding the flame at a short distance from it, by
which another current of air is made to act on the exterior portion of the
flame. In this way a due supply of oxygen is secured, and sufficient heat
generated for the perfect combustion of the gaseous products of the oil,
and the smoke and soot which escape from the ordinary lamp are converted
into a brilliant and smokeless flame.
The earliest table-lamps constructed on Argand’s principle had one serious
defect——the oil vessels had to be placed almost on a level with the
burners, in a position which caused them to cast objectionable shadows.
This defect was almost entirely removed by making the oil vessel in the
form of a flattish ring, connected by slender tubes with the burner. The
more elegant contrivances, known as the MODERATOR LAMP and CARCEL LAMP,
which are now so much used for burning colza and similar oils, cast no
shadow. In these the oil, instead of being sucked up by the wick, or
descending to it by the force of gravity, is driven up by mechanical means
from the oil-reservoir contained in the foot or pedestal. A spiral spring,
acting upon a piston, elevates the oil in the ‘moderator,’ while a little
pump worked by clockwork does the same duty in the ‘Carcel.’ The burner
and wick in each are formed on Argand’s principle.
For burning the hydrocarbon oils distilled from coal and petroleum, lamps
of very simple construction are used. These oils, in consequence of their
diffusive character, rise to a considerable height up a wick, and
therefore do not require mechanical lamps. The wicks of HYDRO-CARBON LAMPS
are usually flat, but sometimes circular. To cause perfect combustion, a
strong draught of air is created by placing over the flame a tall glass
chimney, usually much contracted above the flame. A metallic cap, with an
orifice the shape of the flame, is placed over the burner, its use being
to deflect the currents of air upon the flame. The reservoirs of
hydro-carbon lamps ought always to be constructed of some bad conductor of
heat, as glass or porcelain.
[Illustration]
For chemical operations, many forms of lamp are used. The ordinary glass
SPIRIT-LAMP, fitted with a ground-glass cap, is quite indispensable for
minor experiments. (See _engr._ 1.) Stoneware wick-holders are preferable
to those of brass, which become greatly heated, and endanger the splitting
of the glass. “An effective spirit-lamp may at any time be constructed out
of a vial having a glass tube passing through the cork, a cover being
formed from a test-tube inverted over the wick, and fitting with moderate
tightness on the superior extremity of the cork” (Greville Williams).
Alcohol or wood spirit is the fuel used.
The ARGAND LAMP, when intended as a source of heat for chemical purposes,
is so modified as to adapt it to burn either oil, spirit of wine, or
wood-spirit, and the combustion is greatly aided by the chimney, which in
this case is made of copper. (See _engr._ 2 and 3.) The lamp itself is
also made of metal, and furnished with ground caps to the wick-holder and
aperture by which the spirit is introduced, in order to prevent loss of
spirit by evaporation when the lamp is not in use. When in use this
aperture must always be left open, otherwise an accident is sure to
happen, as the heat expands the air in the lamp, and the spirit is
forcibly expelled.
In those situations in which coal-gas is cheap, it may be used with great
economy and advantage as a source of heat in most chemical operations.
Retorts, flasks, capsules, and other vessels, can be thus exposed to an
easily regulated and constant temperature for many successive hours. Small
platinum crucibles may be ignited to redness by placing them over the
flame on a little wire triangle. Of the various gas-lamps now used in the
laboratory, the first and most simple consists of a common Argand
gas-burner fixed on a heavy and low foot, and connected with a flexible
gas-tube of caoutchouc or other material. (See _engr._ 4.) With this
arrangement it is possible to obtain any degree of heat, from that of the
smallest blue flame to that which is sufficient to raise a moderately
large platinum crucible to dull redness. When gas mixed with a certain
proportion of air is burnt, a pale blue flame, free from smoke, and
possessing great heating power, is obtained. A lamp for burning the
mixture may easily be made by fitting a close cover of fine wire gauze
over the top of the chimney of the last-mentioned contrivance. The gas is
turned on, and after a few minutes ignited above the wire gauze. (See page
946). The ingenious and useful burners of Bunsen and Griffin are so
constructed that gas and air mixed in any proportions, or gas alone, may
be burnt at pleasure. Bunsen’s is a most efficient and convenient form of
burner. (See illustration on next page.) It consists of a gas jet,
surrounded by a metal tube, about 6 to 9 inches high and about 1/2 inch in
diameter; having at the bottom four large holes. On the admission of air,
when the gas is turned on, the air rushes in by these orifices, and
mingling with the gas, the mixture ascends to the top of the tube and is
there ignited, giving rise to a flame of great heat, but without
luminosity, owing to the simultaneous combustion of the carbon and the
hydrogen. The burner, however, is so contrived that by shutting off the
supply of air entirely, or limiting it, the flame may be made more or less
luminous at pleasure. To distribute the flame, a rosette burner is placed
on the top of the tube.
[Illustration]
An improved variety of this burner has been designed by Bunsen, and is
figured below.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.——IMPROVED BUNSEN BURNER.]
It is so contrived as to give a flame that is a very much better
substitute for the flame of the blowpipe, than the ordinary Bunsen’s
burner, and may hence be employed for reducing, oxidising, fusing, and
volatilising, as well as for the observation of coloured flames. Fig. 1 is
a sheath which, by turning round, regulates the admission of air. When it
is used the conical chimney, _d d d d_, is placed in _e e_; it is of a
size sufficient to allow of the flame burning tranquilly. In fig. 1 the
flame is represented of half its natural size. This flame it will be seen
consists of three divisions, viz.——1, _a a a a_ the dark zone, which is
composed of cold gas mixed with about 62 per cent. of air. 2, _a c a b_
the mantle formed by the burning mixture of gas and air. 3, _a b a_, the
luminous tip of the dark cone, which only appears when the orifices for
the air are partially closed. Reductions may be performed in this part of
the flame.
Bunsen, however, divides the flame into six parts, to which he attributes
as many functions. These six divisions of the flame he names as follows:——
1. _The base_ at α has a relatively low temperature, because the burning
gas is here cooled by the constant current of fresh air, and also because
the lamp itself conducts the heat away. This part of the flame serves for
discovering the colours produced by readily volatile bodies, when less
volatile matters which colour the flame are also present. At the
relatively low temperature of this part of the flame, the former vaporises
alone instantaneously, and the resulting colour imparted to the flame is
for a moment visible unmixed with other colours.
2. _The Fusing Zone._ This lies at β, at a distance from the bottom of
somewhat more than one third of the height of the flame, equidistant from
the outside and the inside of the mantle, which is broadest at this part.
This is the hottest part of the flame, viz., about 2300°, and it therefore
serves for testing substances, as to their fusibility, volatility,
emission of light, and for all processes of fusion at a high temperature.
3. _The lower Oxidising Zone_ lies in the outer border of the fusing zone
at γ, and is especially suitable for the oxidation of oxides dissolved in
vitreous fluxes.
4. _The upper Oxidising Flame_ at ε consists of the non-luminous tip of
the flame. Its action is strongest when the air holes of the lamp are
fully open. It is used for the roasting away of volatile products of
oxidation, and generally for all processes of oxidation, when the highest
temperature is not required.
5. _The lower Reducing Zone_ lies at δ, in the inner border of the fusing
zone next to the dark cone. The reducing gases are here mixed with oxygen,
and, therefore, do not possess their full power, hence they are without
action on many substances which are deoxidised in the upper reducing
flame. This part of the flame is especially suited for reduction on
charcoal or in vitreous fluxes.
6. _The upper Reducing Flame_ lies at η, in the luminous tip of the dark
inner cone, which, as already explained, may be produced by diminishing
the supply of air. This part of the flame must not be allowed to get large
enough to blacken a test tube filled with water and held in it. It
contains no free oxygen, is rich in separated incandescent carbon, and
therefore has a much stronger action than the lower reducing zone. It is
used more particularly for the reduction of metals collected in the form
of incrustations.
The subjoined is a drawing of the gauze burner, which is an open cylinder
with wire gauze at the top.
[Illustration: Argand’s lamp, with wire-gauze cap.]
When this is placed over the gas burner, a supply of air is drawn in at
the bottom by the ascending current of gas, and the mixture burns above
the gauze, with a very hot flame, quite free from smoke, the metallic
meshes preventing the flame from passing down to the gas below. See
ILLUMINATION, FUEL, FURNACE, GAS, LABORATORY, &c.
=Lamp, Flame′less.= _Syn._ GLOW LAMP. A coil of fine platinum wire is
slipped over the wick of a spirit lamp, the greater part being raised
above the cotton; the lamp is supplied with ether or alcohol, lighted for
a moment and then blown out. The coil continues to glow in the mixed
atmosphere of air and combustible vapour, until the liquid in the lamp is
exhausted.
=Lamp, Monochromat′ic.= A lamp fed with a mixture of a solution of common
salt and spirit of wine. It gives a yellow light, and makes every object
illuminated by it appear either yellow or black. The human features are
changed in a remarkable degree; the countenance appearing truly ghastly
and unearthly.
=Lamp, Safety.= _Syn._ MINER’S LAMP, DAVY, GEORDY. The safety lamp of Sir
H. Davy and George Stephenson are similar in principle, and were
independently invented about the same time. That of Sir H. Davy consists
of a common oil lamp, surmounted with a cylinder of wire gauze, the
apertures of which are not greater than the 1/20th of an inch square, and
the wire of which it is made to the 1/40th to the 1/60th of an inch in
diameter. (See _engr._) The fire-damp (carbonetted hydrogen) along with
air passes through the meshes into the interior of the gauze cylinder.
Here it ignites, but the flame which is produced by its combustion cannot
explode a mixture of fire-damp and air by which the lamp may be
surrounded. The flame is prevented from passing to the exterior of the
gauze by the cooling action of the metal of which it is constructed. When
this lamp is taken into an explosive atmosphere, although the fire-damp
may burn within the cage with such energy as sometimes to heat the
metallic tissue to dull redness, the flame is not communicated to the
mixture on the outside. These appearances are so remarkable, that the lamp
becomes an admirable indicator of the state of the air in different parts
of the mine, and if its admonitions are attended to, gives the miner time
to withdraw before an explosion takes place.
[Illustration]
=Lamp, Telescope.= This ingenious contrivance, invented by Messrs Murray
and Heath, is intended for microscopic illumination. It consists of three
brass tubes, sliding one within the other, the oil vessel being contained
in the inner tube. The height of the lamp is regulated to the greatest
nicety by simply turning one tube in the other, interior spiral guides
preventing all chance of slipping. The great advantage of this arrangement
is absence of the stand and bar usually employed for raising and lowering
the lamp, which enables it to be used on all sides, and to be brought much
closer to the microscope than other lamps. See _engr._, below.
[Illustration]
=LAMP BLACK.= See BLACK PIGMENTS.
=LAMP′REY.= _Syn_. GREAT LAMPREY, SEAL. This fish is the _Petromizon
marinus_ of Linnæus. It generally quits the sea in the spring, for the
purpose of spawning, and remains in our rivers for a few months. Its flesh
is soft and glutinous, and though esteemed a delicacy, is extremely
difficult of digestion, if not otherwise unwholesome. Potted lampreys are
usually so highly seasoned as to become a dangerous article of food. Henry
I is said to have lost his life from the effects of a surfeit of lampreys.
=LAUDANINE.= C_{20}H_{25}NO_{3}. An alkaloid obtained by Hesse from the
aqueous extract of opium. It is homologous with morphine and codeine. It
dissolves in strong sulphuric acid with a rose-red colour, in strong
nitric acid with an orange red colour, and in ferric chloride with emerald
green colour.
=LANTHA′NIUM.= La_{92}. A rare metal, discovered by Mosander, associated
with oxide of cerium. Oxide of lanthanium is a pale salmon-coloured
powder, unaffected by ignition in open vessels. According to Zschiesche
the atomic weight of lanthanium is 90·18. See CERIUM.
=LANTHOPINE.= C_{23}H_{25}NO_{4}. A base obtained by Hesse in small
quantity, associated with other bases from the aqueous extract of opium.
It is homologous with papaverine. Strong nitric acid dissolves it, giving
rise to an orange red colour. Strong sulphuric acid gives with it a faint
violet colour.
=LA′PIS.= [L.] A stone. The term was much employed by the old chemists,
and is still commonly applied to several preparations used in medicine.
=Lapis Causticus.= See POTASSIUM.
=Lapis Divi′nus.= _Syn._ DIVINE STONE; LAPIS OPHTHALMICUS, L.; PIERRE
DIVINE, Fr. _Prep._ 1. (Beer.) Verdigris, nitre, and alum, equal parts,
melted together.
2. (P. Cod.) Alum, nitre, and blue vitriol, of each 3 oz.; camphor, 1 dr.;
as last.
3. (Woolfuss.) Blue vitriol, nitre, alum, and camphor, equal parts, melted
together, adding the camphor last. Astringent and detergent. 1 oz.,
dissolved in water, 1 pint, formed a once celebrated lotion. 1 dr. in
water, 1 pint, is still used as a collyrium.
=Lapis Inferna′lis.= See NITRATE OF SILVER.
=Lapis Lazu′li.= See ULTRAMARINE.
=Lapis Lydius.= _Syn._ LYDIAN STONE. A siliceous slate, used as a
touchstone by jewellers.
=Lapis Medicamento′sus.= _Syn._ MEDICINAL STONE; LAPIS MIRABILIS, L.
_Prep._ (Ph. L. 1746.) Alum, litharge, and Armenian bole, of each 6 oz.;
colcothar of green vitriol, 3 oz.; vinegar, 4 fl. oz.; mix, and evaporate
to dryness. Formerly used to make an astringent and detergent lotion:——1
oz. to water, 1 pint. Once a popular application to ulcers, and in other
cases; now disused.
=Lapis Vulnerar′ius.= Very similar to LAPIS DIVINUS.
=LARCH BARK.= The inner bark of the _Larix Europœa_, the common larch, has
been lately introduced, under the form of a tincture, into the British
Pharmacopœia.
Dr Stenhouse obtained from the bark a peculiar volatile constituent,
possessed of acid properties for which the name of lariximic acid has been
proposed. The other trees of the pine family are deficient in this acid.
The young bark abounds most in it. Gum, starch, resin, and that variety of
tannic acid, which forms olive green precipitates with the salts of iron,
have also been found, in addition to other substances, in larch bark.
The inner bark, employed internally, has a special action on the mucous
membranes, and acts as an astringent and mild stimulant. It is said to
have been given with excellent results in hæmoptysis, as well as in
bronchitis attended with copious expectoration, and in diseases of the
urinary passages. Externally has been found serviceable in psoriasis,
chronic eczema, and some other skin diseases. It is best to combine its
extract or tincture with glycerin when it is to be used outwardly. See
TINCTURE OF LARCH BARK.
=LARD.= _Syn._ HOG’S LARD, AXUNGE; ADEPS (Ph. L.), AXUNGIA (Ph. E.), A.
SUILLUS (Ph. D.), A. PORCI, A. PRÆPARATUS (B. P.), L. The fat of the pig
(_Sus scrofa_——Linn.) melted by a gentle heat, and strained through
flannel or a hair sieve. The fat about the loins yields the whitest and
hardest lard. “That which has been cured with chloride of sodium is not to
be employed.” (Ph. L.) “It is not to be used without being first carefully
washed with water.” (Ph. L. 1866.) Used chiefly to make ointments, and in
cookery. See ADEPS.
=LARD′ING.= By many this is regarded as belonging to the higher style of
cookery only, and too troublesome and extravagant to be adapted to the
kitchens of the middle classes and the poor. This, we are assured, is not
the case. On the contrary, “it is an economical process, and will make
lean meat go much farther than without it.” The process of larding is as
follows:——“Get what is called a larding needle, that is, a piece of steel
from 6 to 9 inches long, pointed at one end, and having four slits at the
other to hold a small strip of bacon when put between them. It will,
perhaps, cost tenpence. Cut the bacon into pieces 2 or 3 inches long, and
1/4 to 1/2 an inch square; put each one after the other in the pin, insert
it in the meat, and leave only about half an inch out; using 8 pieces to
each pound.” (Soyer.)
=LARK.= The _Alauda arvensis_ (SKYLARK) and the _Alauda cristata_
(FIELD-LARK), with several other species of the same genus, form a light
and nutritious article of food, by many esteemed a delicacy. The last,
according to Galen and Dioscorides, eaten either roasted or boiled, ‘helps
the colic.’ The heart, applied to the thigh, was also regarded to possess
the same virtue.
=LARYNGITIS.= Inflammation of the larynx, or upper part of the windpipe.
The symptoms that indicate this most dangerous malady are sore throat,
accompanied with considerable pain in front of the throat, difficulty in
breathing and swallowing, considerable hoarseness, change or loss of
voice, a sense of suffocation, fever, restlessness, flushing of the face,
and an eager desire for fresh air. We have described the accompaniments of
this dread disease, in order that any one seized with an attack may know
its nature, and at once send for his medical attendant. Should
circumstances prevent his doing so immediately, as many leeches as
possible should be applied to the centre of the throat.
=LAUD′ANUM.= This name is now understood to denote, exclusively, the
common tincture of opium of the Pharmacopœia; but formerly the term was
applied to several preparations of opium differing greatly from each
other, both in their strength and mode of preparation. (See _below_.)
=Laudanum, Dutchman’s.= From the flowers of bull’s hoof or Dutchman’s
laudanum (_Passiflora merucuja_——Linn.) infused in rum. Narcotic. Used as
a substitute for tincture of opium in the West Indies.
=Laudanum, Ford’s.= This is merely the common tincture of opium aromatised
with a little cloves and cinnamon.
=Laudanum, Houlton’s.= _Prep_. From opium 2-1/2 oz.; distilled vinegar,
1-1/2 pint; digested together for a week, the filtered tincture gently
evaporated nearly to dryness, and then redissolved in weak spirit (1 of
rectified spirit to 7 of water), 1 quart.——_Dose_, 10 to 60 drops.
=Laudanum, Neumann’s.= A fermented infusion of opium evaporated to the
consistence of honey.
=Laudanum, Quince.= _Syn_. EXTRACTUM OPII CYDONIATUM, LAUDANUM CYDONIATUM,
L. _Prep_. 1. Extract of opium made with quince juice; a few drops of the
oils of cinnamon, cloves, and mace being added before the mass cools. Now
seldom used.
2. LAUDANUM, LIQUID-QUINCE; (LAUDANUM LIQUIDUM CYDONIATUM, L.) (L. C.
PARATUM FERMENTATIONE, L.) A fermented infusion of opium prepared with
quince juice, aromatised with cloves, cinnamon, aloes wood, and yellow
sandal wood, and evaporated so as to possess about twice the strength of
the ordinary tincture. Now obsolete.
=Laudanum, Rousseau’s.= Wine of opium prepared by fermentation. See WINE.
=Laudanum, Smith’s Concentrated.= Resembles Battley’s LIQUOR OPII
SEDATIVUS, but possesses about 6 times its strength.
=Laudanum, Swediaur’s.= _Prep_. From extract of opium, 2 parts, dissolved
in a mixture of alcohol, 1 part, distilled water, 8 parts. Every 5 drops
contain 1 gr. of opium.
=Laudanum, Sydenham’s Liquid.= _Syn_. LAUDANUM LIQUIDUM SYDENHAMI, L.
Similar to WINE OF OPIUM——Ph. L., but rather stronger, and aromatised with
a little cloves and cinnamon. Wine of opium is now always sold for it.
=Laudanum, Tartarised.= _Syn._ LAUDANUM LIQUIDUM TARTARIZATUM, L. A
tincture of opium prepared with spirit alkalised with salt of tartar, and
flavoured with aromatics. Obsolete.
=LAUGH′ING GAS.= See NITROUS OXIDE.
=LAUR′EL.= See CHERRY LAUREL, SWEET BAY, OIL, &c.
=LA′VA.= The matter thrown out by volcanoes. The beautiful ornamental
vases, jugs, and other objects sold under the name, are a superior sort of
unglazed coloured porcelain.
=LAVE′MENT.= See ENEMA.
=LAV′ENDER.= The flowers or flowering tops of _Lavandula vera_ or common
garden lavender. An essential oil, spirit, and tincture, prepared from it,
are officinal in the Pharmacopœias.
=Lavender Dye= (for COTTON). For 100 yards of material. Take 1 lb. of
logwood, and 2 lbs. of sumach, and scald them separately. Then decant them
into a proper sized tub, let them cool to 150° Fahr., and add 2 gills of
vitriol. Winch the goods in this 20 minutes; lift, and run them slightly
through acetate of iron; wash them in two waters; then give 1 lb. of
logwood as before, raise with a pint of chloride of tin, wash in two
waters; then in a tub of cold water put 4 oz. extract of indigo, enter and
winch in this 15 minutes, lift; give one water, and dry.
=Lavender Dye= (for WOOL). Boil 5-1/2 lbs. of logwood with 2 lbs. of alum.
Then add 10 oz. of extract of indigo. When cold put in the goods, and
gradually raise to the boiling point. For 50 lbs.
=Lavender, Red.= See TINCTURE.
=Lavender, Smith’s British.= _Prep._ From English oil of lavender, 2 oz.;
essence of ambergris, 1 oz.; eau de Cologne, 1 pint; rectified spirit, 1
quart. Very fragrant. See WATER (Lavender).
=Lavender, to Dye Silk.= (Mustpratt.) Into a vessel with warm water, as
hot as the hand can bear, dissolve a little white soap, enough to raise a
lather; then add one gill of archil liquor, and work the goods in this for
fifteen minutes; ring out and dry.
Boil one ounce of cudbear, and add the solution to the soap and water
instead of archil, which will give a lavender having a redder tint than
with the archil. If a still redder shade of lavender be required the soap
may be dispensed with.
=Lavender Water.= See SPIRITS, PERFUMED.
=LAX′ATIVES.= _Syn._ LENITIVES; LAXATIVA, LAXANTIA, LENITIVA, L. Mild
purgatives or cathartics. The principal of these are——almond oil, cassia
pulp, castor oil, confection of senna, cream of tartar, figs, grapes,
honey, phosphate of soda, prunes, salad oil, tamarinds, &c.
=LAY′ERS.= Among gardeners, a mode of propagating plants, by laying down
the shoots of young twigs, and covering a portion of them with the soil,
without detaching them from the parent plant. To facilitate the rooting of
such layers, the part beneath the soil is fractured by twisting or
bruising it, or it is partly cut through with a sharp knife, immediately
under a bud. When the layer has taken root, it is divided from the parent
stem, and transplanted or potted. In this way, with a little care, nearly
all plants may be multiplied.
=LEAD.= Pb. Eq. 207. _Syn._ PLUMBUM. This metal, like gold, silver, and
iron, appears to have been known in the most remote ages of antiquity. The
ore from which it is almost exclusively extracted, as being the only one
found in abundance, is the native sulphide or sulphuret of lead, called by
mineralogists galena.
_Prep._ On the large scale lead is obtained by roasting galena in a
reverberatory furnace, and smelting the residue along with coal and lime.
The lead thus obtained generally contains small quantities of both silver
and gold, which it often pays to extract, by a method termed ‘Pattinson’s
process.’ This process is founded on the circumstance that, when melted,
lead containing silver is allowed to cool. The lead crystallises out
first, leaving an alloy of lead and silver still fused. By removing the
crystals of lead, as formed, until about four fifths are removed, the
residue is an alloy of lead and silver much richer than the original.
Repeated several times, this yields a rich alloy of silver and lead that
is expelled and the silver obtained.
Another method for the removal of silver from lead is one employed in
Glasgow, and known as the ‘Flack-Guillim’ process. It is thus described in
‘Dingler’s Polytechnic Journal,’ ccxxxv, 67-70, and in ‘Engineering’ for
September 15th, 1876. “Eighteen tons of rich lead are melted, and one per
cent. of zinc added. The molten mass then allowed to cool, the crust which
forms is removed, and the lead sweated out in a small pot. The lead in the
large pot is then treated with another half per cent. of zinc in the same
way. A third addition of a quarter per cent. of zinc suffices to remove
the greater part of the remaining silver, 5 dwts. being left in the lead
per ton. This lead is then run into the improving pan, and the last traces
of zinc oxidised out.”
Pure lead for chemical purposes may be obtained as follows, although the
lead of commerce is nearly pure:
By reducing nitrate of lead with charcoal.
By heating the oxide left by igniting pure acetate of lead with black
flux.
_Prop., &c._ The general properties of lead are too well known to require
notice here. The sp. gr. of that of commerce is about 11·35; but in a
state of absolute purity its greatest density is 11·45. It melts at about
600° Fahr., and when very slowly cooled, crystallises in octahedrons. At a
white heat it boils, and is volatilised. When exposed to moist air, it
soon becomes covered with a grey film. It is scarcely acted on by
hydrochloric or sulphuric acids, although after some time both coat it
with a film of chloride or sulphate. It is rapidly acted on by nitric
acid, with formation of the nitrate. Pure water put into a leaden vessel
and exposed to the air soon corrodes it, and dissolves the newly formed
oxide; but river and spring water have little action upon lead, provided
there is no free carbonic acid present, the carbonates and sulphates in
such water destroying their solvent powers. It has been found that a very
small amount of phosphate of sodium or of iodide of potassium, dissolved
in distilled water, prevents its corrosive action on this metal. The lead
in contact with such water gradually becomes covered with a superficial
film of an insoluble salt of lead, which adheres tenaciously, and prevents
further change. From this it appears that ordinary water (‘hard water’),
which abounds in mineral salts, may be more or less safely kept in leaden
cisterns; but distilled water and rain water, and all other varieties that
contain scarcely any saline matter, speedily corrode, and dissolve a
portion of lead, when kept in vessels of that metal. When, however, leaden
cisterns have iron or zinc fastenings or braces, a galvanic action is set
up, the preservative power of saline matter ceases, and the water speedily
becomes contaminated with lead, and unfit for consumption as a beverage.
Water containing carbonic anhydride also acts on lead, and this is the
reason why the water of some springs (although loaded with saline matter),
when kept in leaden cisterns, or raised by leaden pumps, possesses
unwholesome properties.
M. Fordos, in a communication to the ‘Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie,’
xix, 20, states that in the course of some experiments on the
applicability of lead for water pipes and cisterns he could not detect a
trace of lead in ten litres of river water taken from the leaden cistern
of one of the Paris hospitals. But upon shaking pure water with shot and
air, a coating of carbonate of lead was formed on the sides of the bottle,
which almost rendered the glass opaque. On dissolving the film in nitric
acid, and estimating the lead, it was found that one litre of water had
produced five milligrammes of the carbonate. Wine and vinegar would also
dissolve that film; and as shot is commonly used for cleaning wine
bottles, lead frequently finds its way into wines, a fact which may
account for many of the cases of chronic poisoning by lead which occur in
large towns. The detection of small quantities of lead in forensic
investigation would afford, therefore, no proof of any intentional
poisoning.
Orfila’s erroneous statement that lead is a normal constituent of the
human organism may also be accounted for in this way.
Free carbonic acid is evolved during the fermentation or decay of
vegetable matter, and hence the absolute necessity of preventing the
leaves of trees falling into water-cisterns formed of lead. The ‘eau de
rose’ and the ‘eau d’orange’ of commerce, which are pure distilled water
holding in solution small quantities of essential oil, and are imported in
leaden canisters, always contain a small quantity of lead, and deposit a
sediment, which is not the case when they are kept in glass or
incorrodible vessels.
Lead and all its preparations are highly poisonous; and whether imbibed in
almost infinitesimal quantities with our daily beverages and food, or
swallowed in larger and appreciable doses, is productive of the most
disastrous consequences, the real cause being unfortunately seldom
suspected.
Mr G. Bischof[13] writes:——Some eight months ago a tube was passed in my
laboratory, which is supplied with water by the New River Company, into
the slate cistern so as to act as a syphon to supply some apparatus with
water. The external surface of the tube inside the cistern was therefore
alternately exposed to the action of air and water, according to the level
of water in the cistern.
[Footnote 13: ‘Journal of the Chemical Society,’ April, 1867.]
Recently I noticed a white efflorescence on the greater part of the tube
inside the cistern. An adjoining cistern of sheet lead, with a lead
overflow pipe fixed into the bottom, shows nowhere any such corrosion.
On cutting the tube it became evident that it is a composition tube, that
is to say, a lead tube, containing some antimony. On analysis it was found
to be composed of——
Lead 98·3
Antimony 1·7
————
100·0
Although the external diameter of the tube is only half an inch, 0·29 gram
of efflorescence was obtained per foot by gentle rubbing. This dried at
100° C. contained 1·02 per cent. of sulphuric acid, corresponding with 4·1
per cent. of sulphate of lead. The remainder, except 1·13 per cent. of a
residue insoluble in nitric acid, is carbonate of lead.
The alternate exposure to air and water appears not essential to the
corrosion, as I have observed a similar effect when the same tubing
remained constantly under water. The interior of the tube has also been
corroded, although of course no permanent efflorescence could be formed,
owing to the rapid flow of the water.
The frequent practice of plumbers of using composition tubing in
connection with water supplies is therefore highly reprehensible, being
fraught with considerable danger to the health of those using the water
for drinking or cooking.
Mr Louis Siebold detected lead in eight out of ten samples of concentrated
solution of acetate of ammonia as well as in a sample of the ordinary
solution of the British Pharmacopœia. In pursuing his investigations Mr
Siebold found that solutions of acetate of ammonium are capable of
dissolving lead from glass. He therefore advises that all forms of the
solution, more particularly the concentrated liquor employed by many
chemists for making the weaker solutions, should be kept in bottles free
from lead.
With the acids lead or its oxides form salts, usually white in colour, and
in the majority nearly insoluble in water, but readily soluble in acids.
_Tests._ The oxides and salts of lead, mixed with a little carbonate of
soda, and exposed on a charcoal support to the reducing flame of the
blowpipe, readily yield a soft and ductile globule of metallic lead, and
the charcoal, at the same time, becomes covered with a yellowish
incrustation of oxide of lead. Both metallic lead and its oxides are
soluble in nitric acid, furnishing a solution which may be examined with
ease.
Solution of lead salts may be recognised by the following
reactions:——Sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphydrate of ammonium, and the
alkaline sulphides, give black precipitates, insoluble in the cold dilute
acids, alkalies, alkaline sulphides, and cyanide of potassium. Potassium
and sodium hydrates give a white precipitate, soluble in excess. Ammonia
(except with the acetate) gives a white precipitate, insoluble in excess.
The carbonates of potassium, sodium, and ammonium, give a white
precipitate, insoluble in excess. Dilute sulphuric acid (in excess), and
solutions of the sulphates give a white precipitate, sparingly soluble in
dilute acids, but soluble in a hot boiling solution of potassium
carbonate. Chromate and bichromate of potassium give yellow precipitates
insoluble in dilute nitric acid, and soluble in solution of potassium
hydrate. Iodide of potassium gives a yellow precipitate, soluble in great
excess by heat, and separating in small, brilliant, golden-yellow scales,
as the liquid cools. A piece of polished zinc precipitates metallic lead
in an arborescent form, hence called the lead tree. To prepare for these
tests, a solid supposed to contain lead should be digested in nitric acid,
when the solution, evaporated to dryness and redissolved in water, may be
tested as above.
_Estim._ This has been already referred to under previous heads. The ores
of lead (galena) may be digested in nitric acid, when the solution may be
treated with sulphuric acid, and the lead estimated from the weight of the
precipitated sulphate. This is called an assay in the wet way. The method
adopted by practical mineralogists is an assay in the dry way, and is
conducted as follows:——A small but powerful air-furnace, charged with
coke, is brought to as high a temperature as possible, and a conical
wrought-iron crucible plunged into the midst of it; as soon as the
crucible has attained a dull-red heat, 1000 gr. of the galena, reduced to
powder, are thrown into it, and stirred gently with a long piece of stiff
iron wire flattened at the one end, in order to expose as large a surface
of the powdered ore to the air as possible, observing now and then to
withdraw the wire, to prevent it becoming red hot, in which case some of
the ore would permanently adhere to it, and be reduced before the intended
time; the roasting is completed in 3 or 4 minutes, and any portion of the
ore adhering to the stirrer being detached by a knife, and returned into
the crucible, the latter is covered up, and allowed to attain a full
cherry-red heat, when about 2 or 3 spoonfuls of reducing flux are added,
and the whole brought to a full white heat; in 12 to 15 minutes, the
portion of metal and scoria adhering to the sides of the crucible are
scraped down into the melted mass with a small stick of moist green wood,
after which the crucible is again covered, and the heat urged for 2 or 3
minutes longer, so as to keep the mass in a perfectly liquid state during
the whole time; the crucible is then removed from the fire with the
crucible-tongs, and adroitly tilted so as to discharge its contents into a
small, ingot-mould of brass, observing to rake the scoria from the surface
to the sides of the crucible, so as to allow the molten lead to be poured
out without it; the scoria is then reheated in the crucible with about 1/2
spoonful of flux, and after being cleansed with a piece of green wood, as
before, is at once poured into a second mould, which is instantly
inverted; the little button of lead thus obtained is added to the lead in
the other mould, and the whole is accurately weighed. The weight, divided
by 10, gives the per-centage of lead (including silver, if present) in the
ore examined.
One half of the lead thus obtained is put into a dry cupel of bone ash,
and placed in the cupelling furnace, and treated as described in the
article on assaying; the metallic button left on the cupel is then
detached and weighed. The weight, divided by 5, gives the per-centage of
pure silver.
_Obs._ The flux commonly employed in the above assay is composed of red
argol, 6 parts; nitre, 4 parts; borax, 2 parts; fluor spar, 1 part; well
pulverised and thoroughly mixed together. When the ore is very refractory,
about a spoonful of carbonate of potassium should be added for each 1000
grains of ore, in which case the roasting may be dispensed with. The
quantity of silver in argentiferous galena varies from 3/10000 to 1/3 part
of the whole. Whenever this ore contains above 2 parts of silver in the
1000, it is found to be profitable to extract the latter. Indeed, by
Pattison’s process it is found that as small a proportion as 1 in 8000 can
be extracted with profit.
_Uses._ The uses of lead in the arts are well known. It enters into the
composition of many important alloys (pewter, type-metal, shot-metal,
solder, &c.), it furnishes us with several valuable pigments (chrome
yellow, &c.), and it is extensively used in dyeing. Some of its
preparations are employed in medicine.
_Ant., &c._ Administer an emetic of sulphate of zinc or sulphate of
copper, and, if necessary, tickle the fauces with the finger or a feather,
to induce vomiting. Should this not succeed the stomach-pump may be had
recourse to. Epsom or Glauber’s salts, or alum, dissolved in water, or
water acidulated with sulphuric acid, followed by tea, water gruel, or
barley water, are the proper antidotes, and should be taken as soon after
the poison has been swallowed as possible. In poisoning by white lead, Dr
Alfred Taylor recommends the administration of a mixture of sulphate of
magnesium and vinegar, as preferable to the sulphate alone. When the
symptoms are those of painter’s colic, the treatment recommended under
that head should be adopted. In paralysis arising from lead, small doses
of strychnine and its preparations may be cautiously administered. A
symptom of poisoning by lead is the formation of a narrow leaden blue
line, from 1/20th to 1/6th of an inch wide, bordering the edges of the
gums, attached to the neck of two or more teeth of either jaw. (Dr
Burton.) This discoloration may often be detected or rendered more
conspicuous by rinsing the mouth out with water holding a little
sulphuretted hydrogen or sulphydrate of ammonium in solution. Chevallier
and Rayer recommend the use of sulphurous or hepatic mineral waters, or of
artificial solutions of sulphuretted hydrogen or alkaline sulphides in
water, both in cases of acute and chronic poisoning by lead; but the
practical success of this plan does not appear to have been in proportion
to theoretical anticipations. The moist and freshly precipitated sulphides
of iron are said by their advocates to be infallible if taken sufficiently
early.
=Lead in Aerated Water.= Some time since Sir Robert Christison condemned
the use of syphons for lemonade, owing to the action of free tartaric acid
upon lead, and the rapidity with which waters containing any free acid
become charged with lead in syphons. According to Professor Miller, 0·0175
gr. of lead per gallon is not an unusual amount for average cistern water.
Mr John S. Thompson, however, reports to the Edinburgh University Chemical
Society that, after such water has been aerated and put into a syphon, the
amount of lead dissolved in it begins to rise in a rapid manner. Thus in
potash water, drawn from a syphon, 0·0408 grain of lead per gallon was
found to be present, being nearly 25 times the quantity found in the same
water before it entered the syphon. Pure aerated water again drawn in a
similar manner from a syphon gave 0·0816 gr. of lead per gallon, or
exactly double the amount found in the potash water, showing at once the
well-known protective action that salts of the alkalies and alkaline
earths have on lead. “Although,” says the ‘Medical Journal,’ “these
results are sufficiently high and alarming; still, when the water is drawn
off in small quantities at a time, as is frequently the case with
invalids, the results are found to be still higher; thus, when potash
water was so treated, 0·0455 gr. of lead per gallon was found, while
aerated water, drawn off in small quantities, gave 0·0933 gr. of lead per
gallon, showing a very marked rise in both cases. The cause of this
increase in quantity of the lead appears to be owing, not so much to the
lengthened period of contact between the liquid and the metal as to the
fact that the nozzle of the syphon, being exposed to the atmosphere in a
moist state, becomes rapidly oxidised or carbonated, and is left in the
most suitable condition for entering into solution, so that, when merely
small portions of the liquid are drawn off each time, a comparatively
concentrated solution of lead is obtained. These results,” continues the
same authority, “compare accurately with those which were obtained by
Messrs Savory and Moore, in examining the contents of a series of syphons
of aerated water for Dr George Owen Rees, F.R.S., whose attention was
drawn to the subject by detecting symptoms of lead-poisoning in himself
after he had been in the habit for some time of drinking such aerated
water.”
=Lead, Acetate of.= Pb(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}. _Syn._ PLUMBIC ACETATE, SUGAR
OF LEAD, PLUMBI ACETAS. (B. P.) _Prep._ Litharge (in fine powder) 24;
acetic acid, 40; distilled water, 20; mix the acetic acid and the water,
add the litharge, and dissolve with the aid of a gentle heat, filter,
evaporate until a pellicle forms, and crystallise. Drain and dry the
crystal.
Acetic acid (sp. gr. 1·0843), 23 parts, is gently heated in a copper
boiler rendered electro-negative by means of a large flat piece of lead
soldered within it, and litharge (pure, and in fine powder), 13 parts, is
sprinkled in; the heat is then continued, with constant stirring, until
the acid is saturated, when the mother-waters of a former process, if any,
are added, and the whole is heated to the boiling point, and allowed to
settle until cold; the clear portion is now decanted, and evaporated in a
similar vessel until the liquor has the sp. gr. 1·266 or 1·267, when it is
run into salt-glazed stone-ware vessels (the edges of which have been well
smeared with candle grease), and allowed to crystallise. The product is 38
to 38-1/2 parts of crystallised sugar of lead. It is found to be
advantageous to preserve a very slight excess of acid during the boiling
and crystallisation, to prevent the formation of any basic acetate the
presence of which impedes the formation of regular crystals.
From litharge, 112 lbs.; acetic acid (sp. gr. 1·057), 128 lbs. _Prop._ 180
to 184 lbs.
_Prop._ Pure acetate of lead forms colourless, transparent, prismatic
crystals, slightly efflorescent in dry air; it is soluble in 8 parts of
alcohol and in 1-1/4 part of cold water; the aqueous solution has a sweet
astringent taste, and feebly reddens litmus, but turns turmeric and the
juice of violets green; when gently heated, it melts in its water of
crystallisation; by continuing the heat, the whole of the water is
expelled, and the dry acetate obtained; at a higher temperature the salt
suffers decomposition, and acetic acid, acetone, &c., is given off.
Commercial acetate of lead is in general a confused crystalline mass,
somewhat resembling broken lump sugar. It is powerfully astringent and
poisonous.
When pure it is completely soluble in distilled water acidulated with
acetic acid forming a transparent colourless solution, “38 grains
dissolved in water require for complete precipitation 200 grains measures
of the volumetric solution of oxalic acid.” (B. P.)
_Uses, &c._ Acetate of lead is extensively employed in dyeing and
calico-printing. In _medicine_ it is used as an astringent, styptic, and
hæmostatic; in pulmonary, uterine, and intestinal hæmorrhage, colliquative
diarrhœa, phthisical sweats, &c. It is usually combined with morphia or
opium, and with acetic acid to prevent it passing into the state of the
poisonous carbonate in the stomach.——_Dose_, 1/2 gr. to 2 gr. (Collier); 1
to 2 gr. to 8 or 10 gr., twice or thrice a day (Pereira); 3 gr. to 10 gr.,
every 6 or 8 hours (A. T. Thomson). _Externally_, as a collyrium, 10 gr.
to water, 8 fl. oz. (A. T. Thomson); as a lotion, 20 gr. (A. T. Thomson),
1 dr. (Collier) to water, 8 or 10 fl. oz.; as an injection, 40 gr. to rose
water, 1/2 pint. The lotion is cooling and sedative, and is commonly used
in excoriations, local inflammations, &c.
=Basic Acetates.= There are several of these salts, but only one is of any
importance.
=Tribasic Lead Acetate or Double Plumbic Acetate, and Dioxide.=
Pb(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2} 2PbO. _Syn._ SUBACETATE OF LEAD; BASIC LEAD
CITRATE; GOULARD’S ACETATE OF LEAD; PLUMBI SUBACETAS (B. P.). _Prep._
Litharge, 7; acetate of lead, 10; and distilled water, 40; are boiled half
an hour, and evaporated down, and allowed to crystallise out of contact
with air.
Used under the form of “Plumbi subacetas liquor” v. (B. P.)
=Lead, Arse′′niate of.= Pb_{3}(AsO_{4})_{2}. _Syn._ ARSENATE OF L.; PLUMBI
ARSENIAS, L. _Prep._ Gradually add a solution of acetate of lead to
another of arseniate of sodium. A white, insoluble powder. Proposed as an
external application in certain forms of cancer.
=Lead, Bro′mide of.= PbBr_{2}. _Syn._ PLUMBI BROMIDUM, L. _Prep._ By
precipitating a solution of neutral acetate or nitrate of lead with a
solution of bromide of potassium. A white, crystalline powder, sparingly
soluble in water. It fuses by heat into a red liquid, which turns yellow
when cold. It has been used in the same cases as iodide of lead.
=Lead, Car′bonate of.= PbCO_{3}. _Syn._ PLUMBI CARBONAS, L. _Prep._ By
precipitating a cold solution of either acetate or nitrate of lead with a
solution of an alkaline carbonate, observing to well wash the precipitate
and dry it in the shade. This preparation is seldom employed, the
commercial carbonate (WHITE LEAD) being substituted for it. See WHITE
PIGMENTS.
=Lead, Chloride of.= PbCl_{2}. _Syn._ CHLORIDE LEAD; PLUMBI CHLORIDUM (Ph.
L. 1836). _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1836). Dissolve acetate of lead, 19 oz., in
boiling water, 3 pints; next dissolve chloride of sodium, 6 oz., in
boiling water, 1 pint; mix the two solutions, and when cold wash and dry
the precipitate. A white, crystalline powder.
Dissolve finely powdered litharge in boiling dilute hydrochloric acid,
and set aside the filtered solution to cool. Brilliant colourless needles.
_Prop._ Soluble in 135 parts of cold and in 22 parts of boiling water; it
melts when heated, and solidifies on cooling, forming a horn-like
substance (horn lead; plumbi corneum).
_Uses, &c._ In the Ph. L. 1836, chloride of lead was ordered to be
employed in the preparation of ‘hydrochlorate of morphia.’ Mr Tuson highly
recommends it in cancerous affections, to allay pain and restrain morbid
action, either in the form of a lotion or ointment.
Various mixtures of lead chlorides and oxide are employed as a white
pigment under the name of ‘Pattison’s white.’ It is prepared by rapidly
mixing a boiling solution of lead chloride with an equal volume of lime
water. Another similar compound is called ‘patent yellow’ or ‘Turner’s
yellow.’
=Lead, Chromate of.= PbCrO_{4}. _Syn._ LEMON YELLOW, LEIPSIG YELLOW, PARIS
YELLOW. _Prep._ By adding a filtered solution of acetate or nitrate of
lead to a like solution of chromate of potassium, as long as the
precipitate forms, which is collected, washed with water, and dried. For
information respecting the manufacture of this substance on the large
scale, as a colouring substance (chrome yellow), see YELLOW PIGMENTS.
=Lead, Dichromate of.= _Syn._ CHROME ORANGE, CHROME RED. PbCrO_{4}.PbO.
_Prep._ By adding to a solution of nitrate or acetate of lead a solution
of chromate of potassium, to which an equivalent of potassa has been
added. This compound is of a splendid scarlet colour. See RED PIGMENTS.
=Lead, Cy′anide of.= PbCy_{2}. _Syn._ PLUMBI CYANIDUM, L. _Prep._ By
adding hydrocyanic acid to a solution of acetate of lead, as long as a
precipitate forms, which, after being washed with distilled water, is
dried by a very gentle heat, and preserved from the light and air.
Sometimes used as a source of medicinal hydrocyanic acid.
=Lead, Iodide of.= PbI_{2}. _Syn._ LEAD IODIDE; PLUMBI IODIDUM (B. P., Ph.
L. E. D.). _Prep._ (B. P.) Nitrate of lead, 4; iodide of potassium, 4;
distilled water, a sufficiency. Dissolve with the aid of heat the nitrate
of lead in 30 of water, and the iodide of potassium in 10 of water, mix,
collect the precipitate, wash, and dry at a gentle heat.
_Prop., &c._ A rich yellow-coloured powder, soluble in acetic acid,
alcohol, and boiling water; when heated, it fuses and volatilises in
yellow vapour, but with a higher degree of heat, violet vapours of iodine
are evolved, leaving a residuum (lead) which is wholly soluble in nitric
acid.——_Dose_, 1/4 gr. to 4 gr. or more, made into a pill; as a
deobstruent and resolvent, in enlargements of the cervical, axillary, and
mesenteric glands, and in scrofulous affections and scirrhous tumours.
=Lead, Nitrate of.= Pb(NO_{3})_{2}. _Syn._ PLUMBI NITRAS, L. (B. P., Ph.
E. D.)
_Prep._ (Ph. D.) Litharge (in fine powder), 1 oz.; pure nitric acid, 2 fl.
oz., diluted with water, 1/2 pint; mix, apply a sand-heat, and evaporate
to dryness, occasionally stirring; boil the residuum in water, 2-1/2
pints; filter, acidulate with a few drops of nitric acid, evaporate to a
pellicle, and set the liquid aside to cool; lastly, dry the deposited
crystals on bibulous paper, and preserve them in a well closed bottle.
(Commercial.) By dissolving white lead in dilute nitric acid, and
crystallising.
_Uses, &c._ This salt is extensively used in calico printing, and in the
preparation of the iodide and other salts of lead. It was formerly much
esteemed in asthmas, hæmorrhages, and epilepsy. It is now often used in an
external application in cancer, ulcers, wounds, and various cutaneous
affections. It is the basis of Liebert’s celebrated ‘cosmétique
infallible,’ and of Ledoyen’s ‘disinfecting fluid.’ A very weak solution
is an excellent application to chapped nipples, lips, hands, &c.——_Dose_,
1/2 to 1 gr.; in the form of pill or solution, washed down with a
tablespoonful of water very slightly acidulated with nitric acid.
=Lead, Nitro-sac′charate of.= _Syn._ PLUMBI NITROSACCHARAS, L. _Prep._ (Dr
S. E. Hoskins.) Nitric acid, 1 part; water, 19 parts; mix; in this dilute
acid saccharate of lead (in fine powder) is to be dissolved, and set aside
that crystals may form, which are to be dried by pressure between the
folds of bibulous paper. A weak solution of the salt, acidulated with
saccharic acid, has been employed by Dr Hoskins as a solvent for
phosphatic calculi, with apparent success.
=Lead, Oxide of.= PbO. _Syn._ MONOXIDE OF LEAD, PROTOXIDE OF LEAD, YELLOW
OXIDE OF LEAD, PLUMBI OXYDUM (B. P.) _Prep._ This substance is obtained
perfectly pure by expelling the acid from nitrate of lead, by exposing it
to heat in a platinum crucible; or, still better, by adding ammonia to a
cold solution of nitrate of lead until the liquid becomes faintly
alkaline, washing the precipitate with cold water, drying it, and heating
it to moderate redness for 1 hour.
_Prop., &c._ Pure protoxide of lead has a lemon-yellow colour, and is the
best of all the salts of lead. It is very heavy, slightly soluble in
water, and freely so in acids, particularly when in the hydrated state;
the aqueous solution has an alkaline reaction; at a red heat it melts, and
assumes a semi-crystalline form on cooling; in the melted state it rapidly
attacks and dissolves siliceous matter, with which it unites to form glass
(flint glass); when heated along with organic substances of any kind, it
is easily reduced to the metallic state.
On the commercial scale, this oxide is prepared by heating the grey film
or dross that forms on the surface of melted lead when freely exposed to
the air. When the process is arrested, as soon as the oxide acquires a
uniform yellow colour, it is called massicot; when the heat is still
further increased, until it fuses or partially vitrifies, it forms
litharge of which there are several varieties. See LITHARGE, MASSICOT.
=Lead, Red Oxide of.= _Syn._ RED LEAD, MINIUM. _Prep._ This is prepared by
exposing unfused protoxide of lead to the air for a long time, at a dull
red heat. It is a very heavy powder, of a fine red colour, decomposed by a
strong heat into protoxide of lead, and oxygen gas, which is evolved.
Somewhat uncertain in its composition, but is generally of the composition
Pb_{3}O_{4} or PbO_{2}2PbO. See RED PIGMENT.
=Lead, Dioxide.= PbO_{2}. _Syn._ BINIODIDE OF LEAD, PEROXIDE OF LEAD, PUCE
OXIDE OF LEAD. _Prep._ By digesting red oxide of lead in dilute nitric
acid; or by infusing a mixture of protoxide of lead and chlorate of
potassium at a heat a little below redness, and washing the powdered mass
in water; or by transmitting a current of chlorine gas through a solution
of neutral acetate of lead. This oxide gives up half its oxygen at a red
heat; acids also decompose it. Its chief use is in chemical analysis, to
separate sulphurous acid from certain gaseous mixtures, which it converts
into sulphuric acid, which it at the same time absorbs, forming sulphate
of lead. It has recently been employed as an oxidising agent in the
manufacture of the ANILINE DYES.
=Lead, Pyrolig′nite of.= Sugar of lead made with rough pyroligneous acid.
Used in dyeing, chiefly for the preparation of acetate of alumina.
=Lead, Sac′charate of.= _Syn._ PLUMBI SACCHARAS, L. _Prep._ (Dr S. E.
Hoskins.) Nitric acid, 2 parts; water, 10 parts; mix in a porcelain
capsule, add of sugar, 1 part; and apply heat until reaction ceases; then
dilute the liquid with distilled water, neutralise it with powdered chalk,
filter, and add to the filtrate a solution of acetate of lead, as long as
a precipitate (saccharate of lead) forms; lastly, collect the precipitate
on a filter, wash and dry it. Used to make nitro-saccharate of lead, and
as a source of saccharic acid.
=Lead, Sul′phate of.= PbSO_{4}. _Syn._ PLUMBI SULPHAS, L. This salt occurs
native in transparent octohedra (lead vitriol), and is obtained in large
quantities as a by-product in the preparation of acetate of aluminum for
dyeing.
_Prep._ By adding dilute sulphuric acid to a solution of a soluble salt of
lead. It is very sparingly soluble in water and in dilute sulphuric acid,
soluble in strong hydrochloric acid and bitartrate of ammonium.
=Lead, Sul′phide of.= PbS. _Syn._ PLUMBI SULPHIDE. This occurs abundantly
in nature in the form of GALENA.
_Prep._ By fusing metallic lead with sulphur or by passing sulphuretted
hydrogen through a solution of a salt of lead.
=Lead, Tan′nate of.= _Syn._ PLUMBI TANNAS, L. _Prep._ Precipitate a
solution of acetate of lead with an infusion of galls, and wash and dry
the precipitate. Astringent, sedative, and hæmostatic.——_Dose_, 1 gr. and
upwards, made into a pill. It has been highly recommended in the form of
ointment and cataplasms, in bed-sores, chronic ulcers of the feet, white
swellings, &c.
=Lead, Tar′trate of.= _Syn._ PLUMBI TARTRAS, L. _Prep._ By precipitating
acetate of lead, by tartrate of ammonium, washing and drying.
=LEAD DUST.= _Syn._ PULVIS PLUMBI, PLUMBUM DIVISUM, L. _Prep._ By melting
new lead, adding bruised charcoal, mixing with violent agitation, which
must be continued until the metal ‘sets,’ and then pounding and washing
away the charcoal. Used by potters.
=LEAD, GRANULATED.= _Prep._ By melting new lead, and pouring it in a small
stream from an iron ladle with a hole drilled in its bottom, into a pail
of water. Used to make solutions and alloys.
=LEAD, RED.= See RED PIGMENTS.
=LEAD, WHITE.= See WHITE PIGMENT.
=LEAD PYROPH′ORUS.= See PYROPHORUS.
=LEATH′ER.= _Syn._ CORIUM, CORIUS, L. Leather is the skin of animals which
has been prepared by one or other of several processes adopted for the
purpose, having the common object of preventing its spontaneous
destruction by putrefaction, besides other objects, which are more or less
peculiar to each variety of this useful substance.
Leather is only prepared on the large scale, and primarily either by the
process of ‘TANNING’ or ‘TAWING,’ in the manner briefly described under
these heads.
CURRIED LEATHER is leather which has been tanned, and sold to the currier,
who, after soaking it in water, and rubbing it to soften it, pares it even
with a broad, sharp knife, rubs it with a piece of polished stone or wood,
and, whilst still wet, besmears it with oil or grease (DUBBING), which
gradually penetrates the leather as the moisture evaporates. It next
undergoes the operation of ‘waxing,’ which consists of first rubbing it on
the flesh side with a mixture of oil and lamp black; it is then
‘black-sized’ with a brush or sponge, and, when dry, is lastly ‘tallowed’
with a proper cloth, and ‘slicked’ upon the flesh side with a broad and
polished lump of glass. Leather curried on the hair or grain side, termed
‘black on the grain,’ is blackened by wetting it with iron liquor, and
rubbing it with an iron ‘slicker’ before applying the oil or grease. The
grain is finally raised by the ‘pommel’ or ‘graining board’ passed over it
in various directions.
Leather is dyed or stained by the application, with an ordinary brush, of
any of the strong liquid dyes, in the cold or only gently heated, to the
surface of the skin previously stretched on a board. The surface, when
dry, is commonly finished off with white of egg and the pommel or
smoothing stick. Bookbinders generally employ copperas water as a black
stain or sprinkle; a solution of indigo as a blue one; and a solution of
salt of tartar or common soda, as a brown one.
Leather, before being japanned or varnished, as in the preparation of what
is called ‘ENAMELLED’ and ‘PATENT LEATHER,’ is carefully freed from grease
by the application of absorbent substances or hard pressure between
rollers, and the surface is nicely shaved, smoothed, and polished by
appropriate tools, the varnish is then applied to the grain side for the
former, and the flesh side of the skin for the latter, which is previously
stretched out tight on a board to receive it. The whole is, lastly,
submitted to a gentle stove-heat to harden the varnish; and the process is
repeated, if necessary.
_Uses, &c._ These are well known, and are all but universal. The leather
manufacture of Great Britain is equal in importance and utility to any
other department of our industry, and inferior in point of value and
extent only to those of cotton, wool, and iron. “If we look abroad on the
instruments of husbandry, on the implements used in most of the mechanic
trades, on the structure of a multitude of engines and machines; or if we
contemplate at home the necessary parts of our clothing——breeches, shoes,
boots, gloves——or the furniture of our houses, the books on our shelves,
the harness of our horses, or even the substance of our carriages; what do
we see but instances of human industry exerted upon leather? What an
aptitude has this single material in a variety of circumstances for the
relief of our necessities, and supplying conveniences in every state and
stage of life! Without it, or even without it in the plenty we have it, to
what difficulties should we be exposed?” (Dr Campbell.) Leather is a kind
of natural felt, but of much closer and firmer texture than that of
artificial origin. “The thinner and softer kinds of leather are sometimes
used as body-clothing; but its special and proper purpose is the
manufacture of coverings for the feet, to protect them from cold and
water.” (Eras. Wilson.) See JAPANNING, VARNISH, &c.
=Leather, destruction of, by Gas.= It is well-known that the binding of
books suffer considerable damage, when the books are kept in apartments
lighted by coal gas. That the cause of this deterioration is due, as was
believed, to the combustion of the bisulphide of carbon contained in the
gas, and its consequent oxidation into sulphuric acid, is exemplified by
the following interesting communication from Professor Church, published
in the ‘Chemical News’ for October 19th, 1877. He says:——“Vellum seems
unaffected; morocco suffers least; calf is much injured, and russia still
more so. The disintegration is most rapid with books on the upper shelves
of a library, whither the heated products of combustion ascend, and where
they are absorbed and condensed.
By comparing specimens of old leather, with specimens of new, it is quite
clear that the destructive influence of gas is due mainly to its sulphur.
True there are traces of sulphates in the dye and size of new leather
bindings, but the quantity is insignificant and there is practically no
free sulphuric acid. That leather may be destroyed by the oil of vitriol
produced by the burning of gas in a library is proved by the following
observations and analyses.
The librarian of one of our public libraries forwarded to me the backs of
several volumes, which had been ‘shed’ by the books on the upper shelves
in an apartment lighted by gas. The leather of one of these backs (a
volume of the ‘Archæologia’) was carefully scraped off so as to avoid any
paper or size from underneath. This task of scraping was easy enough, for
the leather was reduced to the consistency of Scotch snuff. On analysis of
the watery extract of this leather, the following figures were obtained:——
Free sulphuric acid in decayed
leather 6·21 per cent.
Combined 2·21 ”
————
8·42
=LEAV′EN.= Dough which has become sour or run into a state of incipient
putrefaction. When a small quantity of it is added to recent dough, it
excites fermentation, but is apt to produce a disagreeable taste and odour
in the bread. It is now superseded by yeast. Both these substances are
used in the same way.
=LEAVES (Medicated).= _Syn._ FOLIA MEDICATA, L. On the Continent several
preparations of this kind are in use. In many cases the leaves of tobacco
deprived of nicotine, by soaking them in water, are dried, and then
moistened or steeped in a tincture or infusion of the medicinal substance.
In this way belladonna, camphor, and henbane, are often administered.
Cruveilhier recommends opiated belladonna leaves for smoking in
troublesome coughs, phthisis, spasmodic asthmas, &c., to be prepared as
follows:——Belladonna leaves, 1 oz., are steeped in an infusion of opium,
10 gr., in water, 1 fl. oz. (or less), and are then carefully dried in the
shade. “MUSTARD LEAVES (Riggollot’s) consist of mustard moistened with
water, spread on paper, and dried.” (Squire.) See CIGARS (in _pharmacy_),
and VEGETABLES.
=Leaves, How to Dissect.= “For the dissection of leaves,” says Mrs
Cussons, “I find the process of maceration too long and tedious, to say
nothing of the uncertainty as to the results. I have therefore adopted the
use of alkali in saturated solution, the specimens to be introduced while
the liquid is heated to the boiling point; the time of immersion to be
regulated by the character of the various leaves and the nature of the
epidermis to be removed. When the specimen is freed from epidermis and
cellular tissue, it must be subjected to the action of chlorine to destroy
the colouring matter. The introduction of peroxide of hydrogen not only
serves to render the lace-like specimen purer in colour, but also
preserves it. In destroying the colouring matter in ferns this also is
invaluable; added to the chlorine it gives a solidity to the bleached
fronds, and appears to equalise the action of the chlorine. For
skeletonising capsules the slow process of maceration by steeping in
rain-water is alone available; a moderate heat may be applied to hasten
the process, but alkali is useless. The only known flower which can be
dissected is the _Hydrangea japonica_. The fibrous nature of the petals
renders it easy to skeletonise in the perfect truss in which it grows.
Skeletonised leaves and capsules appear to gain in the process a toughness
and durability not possessed by them in their natural state.”
=LECANOR′IC ACID.= See ORSELLINIC ACID.
=LEECH.= _Syn._ HIRUDO (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), L. The officinal leech
of the Pharmacopœias is the _Sanguisuga medicinalis_ (_Hirudo
medicinalis_——Cuv.), familiarly known as the ‘old English’ or ‘speckled
leech.’ It is also occasionally called the ‘Hamburg grey’ or ‘Russian
leech,’ from being imported from those parts. Its characteristics
are——Back, greenish or olive green, sometimes almost black or intense
brown, with 6 rusty-red or yellowish longitudinal stripes, which are
mostly spotted with black.——Belly, dirty yellow or light olive green,
spotted more or less with black. The spots are very variable in size and
number; in some cases few, in others so numerous as to form the prevailing
tint of the belly. This variety, which is the most valuable of the
commercial leeches, is chiefly imported from Hamburg.
Another variety of leech, the _Sanguisuga officinalis_, familiarly known
as the ‘Hamburg’ or ‘French green leech,’ is imported from Bordeaux,
Lisbon, and Hamburg. Its characteristics are——Back, brownish olive-green,
with 6 reddish or rusty yellow longitudinal bands.——Belly, light dirty
pea-green, or yellowish green, free from spots, but exhibiting two lateral
stripes. This leech is vastly inferior to the preceding variety, and some
of those imported from France and Portugal are absolutely useless, from
their indisposition to bite, arising from the fraud practised by the
collectors and dealers of gorging them with blood to improve their
appearance before sending them to market. The above are the species of
leech commonly employed in medicine in this country, but many others are
noticed by writers on the subject.
Leeches are best preserved in water obtained from a pond, and occasionally
changed; when kept in spring water they soon die. The introduction of a
hand to which an ill-flavoured medicine or odour adheres into the water in
which they are kept is often sufficient to poison them. The application
of saline matter to the skin of leeches, even in very small quantities,
immediately occasions the expulsion of the contents of the stomach; hence
a few grains of common salt are frequently sprinkled over them, to make
them disgorge the blood which they have swallowed. The frequent changing
of the water in which leeches are kept is injudicious. Once a month in
winter, and once a week in summer, is deemed sufficiently often by the
large dealers, unless the water becomes discoloured or bloody, when it
should be changed every day, or every other day. When clean pond water
cannot be obtained, clean rain water that has been well exposed to the air
should alone be employed. Mr J. R. Kenworthy recommends placing in the
water a few balls of irregular lumps of pure clay, about 2-1/2 inches in
diameter; a method which we can recommend as both simple and successful.
The plan adopted by M. Fée is as follows:——Place 7 inches of a mixture of
moss, turf, and charcoal, in a marble or stone trough, over which sprinkle
some small pebbles. At one end of the trough, and about half way up, place
a thin shelf of stone or marble, pierced with small holes, on which put
first some moss, or portions of marsh horse-tail (_Equisetum palustre_),
and on this a layer of pebbles to keep it down; then pour in water
sufficiently high just to moisten the moss and pebbles, put in the
leeches, and tie over the mouth of the trough with a cloth. Another plan
consists in keeping the leeches in a glass tank, or aquarium, provided
with a pebbly bottom and a few healthy aquatic plants.
_Propag._ According to Dr Wagner, an annual feast on living blood is
necessary to render leeches able to grow and propagate. These conditions
can only be fulfilled by restoring to the breeding cisterns those which
have been already employed. All artificial methods of feeding them by
bladders or sponges of blood have been found to fail. He recommends the
employment of two tanks, with the bottom formed of loam, clay, or turf,
surrounded by an inner border of a similar substance, and an outer one of
sand——the one for leeches fit for medical use——and the other for breeding,
or for such leeches as have been applied. No leeches are to be taken from
the breeding tank until a year has elapsed after their having been applied
and fed with human blood; and their removal to the first tank should take
place in September, or October, as by this time the breeding season is
over. By this plan all leeches that have been applied are to be carefully
restored to the breeding tank, without making them disgorge the blood they
have swallowed.
=LEECH′ING.= This consists in the application of leeches to any vascular
part of the body, for the purpose of withdrawing blood from it, and thus
allaying local inflammation, distension of vessels, &c. Leeches are most
conveniently applied by means of a common pill-box or a wine glass. The
part should be previously washed perfectly clean, and if covered with hair
should be closely shaved. Sometimes leeches are indisposed to bite; in
such cases, allowing them to crawl over a piece of dry linen or calico,
rolling them in porter, moistening the part with a little milk or
sweetened milk, or drawing a little blood by a slight puncture or scratch,
will usually make them bite freely. To stop the bleeding from leech-bites
various plans are adopted, among which the application of nitrate of
silver or creasote, or gentle pressure for some hours with the finger, are
the most successful. Of late years a piece of matico leaf or soldier’s
herb, applied in the same manner as a piece of lint, has been commonly
adopted to stop the bleeding of leech-bites.
=LEEK.= _Syn._ PORRUM, L. The _Allium porrum_ (Linn.). Its general
properties are intermediate between those of the onion and garlic. The
juice is said to be powerfully diuretic, and capable of dissolving
phosphate calculi.
=LEGU′MIN.= Vegetable casein. It is found most abundantly in the seeds of
leguminous (podded) plants, _e.g._ beans, peas, &c., as well as in the
sweet and bitter almond.
In properties it closely resembles the casein of milk.
Legumin may be obtained from peas or from almonds as follows:——After
digesting the crushed seeds for 2 or 3 hours in warm water, the
undissolved portion is removed by straining through linen, and the
strained liquid, after depositing the starch suspended in it, is next
filtered and mixed with diluted acetic acid. The white flocculent
precipitate which is thus produced, is then collected on a filter and
washed. It is afterwards dried, powdered, and digested, first in alcohol,
and afterwards in ether.
Rochleder considered that, as thus obtained by Dumas and Cahours, it was
not absolutely pure, since as it was not entirely soluble in a cold
concentrated solution of potash, he recommended the alkaline solution
being decanted from the undissolved portion, and again precipitated by the
addition of acetic acid.
Legumin as thus prepared was believed by Rochleder to be pure, and was
found on analysis to give results analogous to those furnished by casein.
In the seed, legumin occurs associated with considerable quantities of the
phosphates of calcium, magnesium, and potassium. Rennet coagulates it like
it does the casein of milk, its similarity to which is exemplified by the
manufacture of a kind of cheese from peas and beans by the Chinese.
Dried peas contain about a fourth of their weight of legumin.
=LEM′ON.= _Syn._ LIMO, L. The fruit of the _Citrus limonum_ or lemon tree.
The juice, peel, and essential oil are officinal. See OIL, and _below_.
=LEM′ON AC′ID.= See CITRIC ACID.
=LEM′ON FLA′VOUR.= See ESSENCE OF LEMON.
=LEM′ON JUICE.= _Syn._ LIMONIS SUCCUS (B. P.), SUCCUS LIMONUM (Ph. L. &
D.), L. The juice of the lemon, obtained by squeezing and straining. When
freshly expressed, it is turbid, owing to the presence of mucilage and
extractive matter. These substances render the juice liable to
decomposition, and various methods have from time to time been proposed
for preserving it. Amongst these may be mentioned the addition to the
fresh juice of one per cent. of bisulphite of calcium, or ten per cent. of
proof spirit.
“We have examined the juice expressed from two varieties of lemons, viz.
Palermo and Messina, with the following results:
Palermo. Messina.
“Ounces of juice yielded
by 100 lemons 108 96
Specific gravity of juice 1044·85 1038·56
Percentage of citric acid 8·12 7·04
Percentage of ash 0·289 0·301
“100 parts of the ash of the juice of Palermo lemons gave:
“Sulphuric acid 10·59
Carbonic acid 16·33
Chlorine 0·81
Phosphoric acid 6·74
Ferric phosphate 1·32
Lime 8·89
Magnesia 3·02
Potash 47·84
Soda 3·32
Silica 0·72
Loss 0·42
——————
100·00
“If lemons are kept a few months before squeezing, the yield of juice is
slightly increased, but its specific gravity and percentage of citric acid
remains unaltered. It is erroneous to suppose that the acid of the lemon
is, by keeping, changed into sugar. We have kept lemons for 12 months, and
found that the percentage of acid was not diminished. A certain proportion
of sugar was formed, but at the expense of the soluble starch contained in
the cell-walls of the lemon. Lemon juice on being kept is found to
decrease in density, but the amount of acid remains the same.” (Harkness.)
Lemon juice may be preserved by heating it to 150° Fahr., filtering, and
setting it aside in bottles completely filled. If this process be
performed in the winter, the juice, it is said, may be kept perfectly good
for 12 months. Fresh lemon juice is prevented from decomposition and
rendered fit for exportation by mixing it with 1/10th of alcohol.
(Schweitzer.)
The Merchant Shipping Act of 1867 requires that after a ship has been at
sea ten days 1 oz. of lime or lemon juice, mixed with 1 oz. of sugar and
1/2 pint of water, shall be served out to each of the crew between the
hours of 12 and 1 in the day.
_Adult._ Lemon juice is frequently adulterated, the adulterants being
water, sugar, or gum, and sulphuric or acetic acid. The _modus operandi_
is, to dilute the genuine juice with water, and then bring up the density
with the sugar or gum, and the percentage of acid with one or other of the
above acids. The examination of lemon and lime juice supplied to the navy
is now conducted in the Inland Revenue Laboratory, Somerset House, and it
speaks well for that department when we say that cases of scurvy on board
ships are now of very rare occurrence. No juice is passed unless it comes
up to a certain standard in specific gravity, and percentage of citric
acid, and any sample containing any other acid is at once rejected.
_Prop._ Lemon juice is refrigerant and antiscorbutic, and has long been
extensively employed in the preparation of cooling drinks and effervescing
draughts, which are justly esteemed as wholesome summer beverages, as well
as palliatives in fevers, nausea, &c. In scurvy, there is no remedy equal
to freshly expressed lemon juice; and in acute rheumatism and gout,
according to the united testimony of Dr Owen Rees, Dr Babington, and
numerous Continental practitioners, it has been exhibited with
considerable success. In agues, dysentery, English cholera, nausea, and
vomiting, heartburn, putrid sore-throat, hospital gangrene, syphilis, and
numerous skin diseases, it has proved most serviceable. See CITRIC ACID,
GOUT, &c.
=Lemon Juice, Facti′′tious.= _Syn._ SOLUTIO ACIDI CITRICI, SUCCUS LIMONUM
FACTITIUS, L. _Prep._ 1. Citric acid, 1-1/4 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 45
gr.; white sugar, 2-1/2 oz.; cold water, 1 pint; dissolve, add the yellow
peel of a lemon, and in 24 hours strain through a hair sieve or a piece of
muslin.
2. As the last, but using 15 or 16 drops of oil of lemon, to flavour
instead of the lemon peel.
_Obs._ The above is an excellent substitute for lemon juice, and keeps
well in a cool place. Tartaric acid, and even vinegar, are sometimes used
instead of citric acid; but it is evident that it then loses all claim to
being considered as an imitation of lemon juice, and to employ it in lieu
of which would be absurd.
=LEM′ON PEEL.= _Syn._ CORTEX LIMONUM (B. P., Ph. L.), L. “The fresh outer
part of the rind.” (B. P.) “The fresh and the dried exterior rind of the
fruit;” the latter dried “in the month of April or May.” (Ph. L.) Candied
lemon peel (CORTEX LIMONUM CONDITUS) is employed as a dessert, and as a
flavouring ingredient by cooks and confectioners. It is reputed stomachic.
See CANDYING.
=LEMON PIC′KLE.= See SAUCE.
=LEMONADE′.= _Syn._ LEMON SHERBET, KING’S CUP; LIMONADUM, L.; LIMONADE,
Fr. _Prep._ 1. Lemons (sliced), 2 in no.; sugar, 2-1/2 oz.; boiling water,
1-1/2 pint; mix, cover up the vessel, and let it stand, with occasional
stirring until cold, then pour off the clear through a piece of muslin or
a clean hair sieve.
2. Juice of 3 lemons; yellow peel of 1 lemon; sugar, 1/4 lb.; cold water,
1 quart; digest for 5 or 6 hours, or all night, and decant or strain as
before.
3. Citric acid, 1 to 1-1/2 dr.; essence of lemon, 10 drops; sugar, 2 oz.;
cold water, 1 pint; agitate together until dissolved.
_Obs._ Lemonade is a pleasant, cooling summer beverage, and when made as
above may be drank in large quantities with perfect safety. It also forms
an excellent refrigerant and antiseptic drink in fevers and putrid
diseases generally. Tartaric acid is commonly substituted for citric acid,
from being cheaper; it is, however, much, inferior, being less wholesome
and less agreeable. Lemonade for icing is prepared as above, only using a
little more sugar. Orange sherbet, or orangeade for icing is made in a
similar way from oranges.
=Lemonade, Aera′ted.= _Syn._ LIMONADUM AERATUM, L.; LIMONADE GAZEUSE, Fr.
_Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.) Water, charged with 5 times its volume of carbonic
acid gas, 1 pint; syrup of lemon, 2 oz.; mix.
2. (Without a bottling machine.)——_a._ Into each bottle put lemon syrup, 1
to 1-1/2 oz.; essence of lemon, 3 drops; sesquicarbonate of soda, 1/2 dr.;
water, q. s. to nearly fill the bottle; have the cork fitted and ready at
hand, then add of tartaric acid (cryst.), 1 dr.; instantly close the
bottle, and wire down the cork; it should be kept inverted in a cool
place, and, preferably, immersed in a vessel of ice-cold water.
_b._ As the last, but substituting lump sugar, 3/4 oz., for the lemon
syrup.
_c._ From lump sugar, 1 oz.; essence of lemon, 3 drops; bicarbonate of
potassa, 25 gr.; water q. s., as No. 1; then add citric acid (cryst.), 45
gr., and cork, &c., as before. The last is most wholesome, especially for
the scorbutic, dyspeptic, gouty, and rheumatic.
_Obs._ The best aerated lemonade of the London makers is prepared by
putting 1-1/2 fl. oz. of rich lemon syrup into each bottle, which is then
filled up with aerated water at the bottling machine.
=Lemonade, Antimo′′niated.= _Syn._ LIMONADUM ANTIMONIATUM, L. _Prep._ By
adding tartar emetic, 1 gr., to each pint of ordinary lemonade.——_Dose._ A
wineglassful every 1/2 hour or hour; as a diaphoretic and expectorant. See
ANTIMONY (Potassio-tartrate).
=Lemonade, Ape′′rient.= _Syn._ LIMONADUM LAXATIVUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Sugar, 1
oz.; lemon juice, 3/4 fl. oz.; sulphate of soda, 3 dr.; water, 8 fl. oz.;
put them into a soda-water bottle without shaking, have the cork ready
fitted, add of sesquicarbonate of soda (in cryst.), 1/2 dr., and instantly
cork the bottle, wire it down, and keep it in a cool place, inverted. For
a dose.
2. Heavy carbonate of magnesia, 1-1/2 dr.; refined sugar, 1 oz.; essence
of lemon, 5 or 6 drops; water, 8 fl. oz.; bottle as last, then add of
citric acid (cryst.), 3 dr., and instantly cork, &c., as before. For a
dose. It should be kept for at least 24 hours before being taken.
=Lemonade, Lactic.= _Syn._ LIMONADUM LACTICUM, L. _Prep._ (Magendie.)
Lactic acid, 1 to 4 dr.; syrup, 2 oz.; water, 1 pint; mix. Recommended in
dyspepsia, &c.
=Lemonade, Milk.= _Syn._ LIMONADUM LACTIS, L. _Prep._ Take of sugar, 1/2
lb.; water, 1 pint; dissolve, add the juice of 3 lemons; milk or whey, 1/2
pint; stir the whole together and strain through a hair sieve. Some
persons add a glassful of sherry.
=Lemonade, Min′eral.= _Syn._ LIMONADE MINERALE, Fr. On the Continent this
name is applied to various drinks consisting of water acidulated with the
mineral acids and sweetened with sugar. Thus we have limonade
chlorhydrique, nitrique, phosphorique, sulphurique, &c., all of which are
used as cooling drinks in fevers, inflammations, skin diseases, &c.
=Lemonade, Port′able.= See POWDERS.
=LEMONADE POWDERS.= See POWDERS.
=LEMONATED KALI.= See KALI, POTASSIUM (Citrate), &c.
=LEN′ITIVES.= In _medicine_, purgatives which act in a gentle manner, and
have a soothing effect. See LAXATIVES.
=LENS.= In _optics_, a piece of glass or other transparent medium, having
one or two curved surfaces, either convex or concave. A description of the
different kinds of lenses belongs to a work on optics. It may, however, be
useful to the chemical student to remark here that the CODDINGTON and
STANHOPE LENSES, which may now be bought at any of the opticians, neatly
mounted and of great power, for a few shillings, will be found of the
greatest service in examining minute crystals, precipitates, &c.; and for
all ordinary purposes offer a cheap and efficient substitute for more
complicated microscopes. An extemporaneous instrument, possessing
considerable power, may be made by simply piercing a small circular hole
in a slip of metal, and introducing into it a drop of water, which then
assumes a spherical form on each side of the metal, while the latter is
held in a horizontal position. The ingenious little TOY MICROSCOPES sold
about the streets of London, under the form of a perforated pill-box, at
one penny each, consist of such a lens made with Canada balsam instead of
water, which has the property of hardening without losing its transparency
after exposure for a few hours to the air. A still simpler substitute for
a lens is a piece of blackened card-paper with the smallest possible
needle-hole pierced through it. Any very small object held in a strong
light, and viewed through this hole at the distance of about an inch, will
appear quite distinct, and from 10 to 12 times larger than its usual size.
We have often found this little instrument of incalculable service in
situations and under circumstances in which a more powerful or complicated
apparatus was unattainable or could not be applied.
Another method for the manufacture of an extemporaneous lens, by Mr
Francis, is the following:——Procure a piece of thin platinum wire, and
twine it once or twice round a pin’s point, so as to form a minute ring
with a handle to it. Break up a piece of flint glass into fragments a
little larger than a mustard seed; place one of these pieces on the ring
of wire, and hold it in the point of the flame of a candle or of a
gas-light. The glass will melt and assume a complete lens-light or
globular form. Let it cool gradually and keep it for mounting. It may be
mounted by placing it between two pieces of brass which have corresponding
circular holes cut in them of such a size as to hold the edge of the lens.
=LEN′TIL.= _Syn._ LENS, L. The seed of the _Ervum Lens_, a plant of the
natural order _Leguminosæ_. The lentil is considerably smaller than an
ordinary pea, and is of the shape of a double convex lens. Several
varieties are cultivated on the Continent of Europe and in many parts of
Asia, where they are largely consumed as human food. Lentils are more
nourishing than any other description of pulse, but are reputed difficult
of digestion, apt to disorder the bowels, and injurious to the eyes.
Several alimentary preparations, sold at high prices as cures for
dyspepsia, constipation, &c., contain lentil flour as the principal
ingredient.
_Composition of Lentils._
Nitrogenous matter 25·2
Starch, &c. 56·0
Cellulose 2·4
Fatty matter 2·6
Mineral matter 2·3
Water 11·5
——————
100·00
(PAYEN.)
Lentils on account of their difficult digestibility require to be very
thoroughly cooked. See ERVALENTA and REVALENTA.
=LEPROSY.= _Syn._ LEPRA. A disease of the skin distinguished by circular
scaly patches.
=LEPTANDRIN.= A peculiar crystalline principle obtained from the root of
_Leptandra Virginica_, a North American plant belonging to the nat. order
_Scrophulariaceæ_. Leptandrin is chiefly employed in American medical
practice as a cathartic and cholagogue, in which latter function it has
been recommended as a substitute for mercury. It is stated to be very
serviceable in cases of duodenal indigestion and chronic
constipation.——_Dose_, 1/4 to 1/2 grain.
Mr Wayne obtained leptandrin by adding subacetate of lead to an infusion
of the root, filtering, precipitating the excess of lead by carbonate of
sodium, removing the carbonate of lead by filtration, passing the filtered
liquid through animal charcoal to absorb all the active matter, washing
the charcoal with water till the washings began to be bitter, then
treating it with boiling alcohol, and allowing the alcoholic solution to
evaporate spontaneously. By dissolving the powder thus obtained in water,
treating this with ether, and allowing the ether to evaporate,
needle-shaped crystals were obtained, which had the bitter taste of the
root. Leptandrin is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether.
=LETH′ARGY.= _Syn._ LETHARGUS, L. A heavy, unnatural sleep, sometimes
bordering upon apoplexy, with scarcely any intervals of waking, from which
the patient is with difficulty aroused, and into which he again sinks as
soon as the excitement is withdrawn. It frequently arises from plethora,
in which case depletion is indicated; or from the suppression of some
usual discharge or secretion, which it should then be our business to
re-establish. It also often arises from over mental fatigue and nervous
debility, when relaxation from business, the use of a liberal diet, and
ammoniacal stimulants and antispasmodics, are found useful. When depending
on a determination of blood to the head, cupping may be had recourse to,
and all sources of excitement avoided. In all cases the bowels should be
moved as soon as possible by means of mild purgatives.
=LET′TUCE.= _Syn._ LACTUCA, L. The early leaves or head of the _Lactuca
sativa_, or garden lettuce, forms a common and wholesome salad. They are
reputed as slightly anodyne, laxative, hypnotic, and antaphrodisaic, and
have been recommended to be eaten at supper by those troubled by
watchfulness, and in whom there exists no tendency to apoplexy. The leaves
and flowering tops of _L. virosa_ are officinal in the B. P., the
“flowering herb” (LACTUCA), in the Ph. L.; the “inspissated juice,” in the
Ph. E.; and the “inspissated juice and leaves,” in the Ph. D. The
“inspissated juice” of _Lactuca virosa_, or strong-scented wild lettuce,
is also officinal in the Ph. E.; and both the “leaves and inspissated
juice” of the same variety are ordered in the Ph. D. The last species is
more powerful than the cultivated lettuce. See EXTRACT and LACTUCARIUM.
=LEUCORRHŒ′A.= _Syn._ WHITES; CATARRHUS VAGINÆ, FLUOR ALBUS, L. The
symptoms of this disease are well known to most adult females. The common
causes are debility, a poor diet, excessive use of hot tea, profuse
menstruation or purgation, late hours, immoderate indulgence of the
passions, frequent miscarriages, protracted or difficult labours, or local
relaxation. Occasionally it is symptomatic of other affections. The
treatment must be directed to the restoration of the general health, and
imparting tonicity to the parts affected. Tepid or sea bathing, or shower
baths; bark, chalybeates, and other tonics; with local affusions of cold
water, and mild astringent injections, as those of black tea or oak bark,
are generally found successful in ordinary cases.
=LEVANT′ NUT.= See COCCULUS INDICUS.
=LEVIGA′TION.= _Syn._ LEVIGATIO, L. The process of reducing substances to
fine powder, by making them into a paste with water, and grinding the mass
upon a hard smooth stone or slab, with a conical piece of stone having a
flat, smooth, under surface, called a ‘muller.’ Levigation is resorted to
in the preparation of paints on the small scale, and in the elutriation of
powders. The term is also, sometimes, incorrectly applied to the
lengthened trituration of a substance in a marble or Wedgwood-ware mortar.
=LEVORACE′MIC ACID.= See RACEMIC ACID.
=LEY′DEN JAR.= _Syn._ LEYDEN PHIAL, ELECTRICAL JAR. An instrument for the
accumulation of the electric fluid. Its simplest form is that of a
wide-mouthed jar of rather thin glass, coated on both sides with tin-foil,
except on the upper portion, which is left uncoated, and having a cover of
baked wood, through which passes a brass wire, terminating in a metallic
knob, and communicating with the inner coating. To charge the jar, the
outer coating is connected with the earth, and the knob put in contact
with the conductor of an electrical machine. The inner and outer surfaces
of the glass thus become respectively positive and negative, and the
particles of the glass become strongly polarised. On making connection
between the two coatings with a conducting substance, discharge takes
place by a bright spark and a loud snap; and if any part of the body be
interposed in the circuit, a shock is felt.
=LIBAVIUS’S LIQUOR.= See TIN (TIN CHLORIDE).
=LI′CHEN.= In _pathology_, a dry papulous or pimply eruption of the skin,
terminating in scurfy exfoliations. “Lichen exhibits great variety in its
outward characters in different individuals; in one the pimples are
brightly red; in another, of debilitated constitution, they are bluish and
livid; in a third they are developed around the base of hairs; in a fourth
they appear as circular groups, and increase by their circumference, while
they fade in the centre, forming so many rings of various size; in a
fifth, a modification of the preceding, they have the appearance of
flexuous bands; while in a sixth they are remarkable for producing
intensity of suffering, or unusual disorganisation of the skin. They are
all occasioned by constitutional disturbance, sometimes referable to the
digestive, and sometimes to the nervous system. In some instances,
however, they depend upon a local cause. I have had a crop of lichenous
pimples on the backs of my hands from rowing in hot weather; and in hot
climates that annoying disorder called prickly heat is a lichen.” (Eras.
Wilson.) The treatment of this affection is noticed under ERUPTIONS
(Papular).
=LICHENS.= _Syn._ LICHENES——Juss., LICHENALES——Lind., L. In _botany_,
these are cryptogamous plants, which appear under the form of thin, flat
crusts, covering rocks and the barks of trees. Some of them, like Iceland
moss (_Cetraria Islandica_), are esculent and medicinal and employed
either as medicine or food; and others, when exposed in a moistened state
to the action of ammonia, yield purple or blue colouring principles,
which, like indigo, do not pre-exist in the plant. Thus, the _Rocella
tinctoria_, the _Variolaria orcina_, the _Lecanora tartarea_, _&c._, when
ground to a paste with water, mixed with putrid urine or solution of
carbonate of ammonia, and left for some time freely exposed to the air,
furnish the archil, litmus, and cudbear of commerce, very similar
substances, differing chiefly in the details of their preparation. From
these the colouring matter is easily extracted by water or very dilute
solution of ammonia. See ARCHIL, CUDBEAR, and LITMUS.
=LIEBER’S HERBS OF HEALTH——Gesundeheitskräuter Liebersche——Blankenheimer
Thee——Blankenheimer Tea=——Herba Galeopsidis Grandifloræ Concisa (Yellow
Hemp Nettle).
=LIG′ATURE.= In _surgery_, a small waxed piece of cord or string formed of
silk or thread, employed for the purpose of tying arteries, veins, and
other parts, to prevent hæmorrhage, or to cause their extirpation. To be
safe and useful they should be round, smooth, and sufficiently strong to
permit of being tied with security without incurring the danger of
breaking or slipping. There are many cases recorded in which emigrants,
soldiers, and travellers have lost their lives from the simple inability
of those around them to apply a ligature.
=LIGHT.= _Syn._ LUMEN, LUX, L. Light acts as a vivifying or vital stimulus
on organised beings, just as privation of light, or darkness, disposes to
inactivity and sleep. “In maladies characterised by imperfect nutrition
and sanguinification, as scrofula, rickets, and anæmia, and in weakly
subjects with œdematous (dropsical) limbs, &c., free exposure to solar
light is sometimes attended with very happy results. Open and elevated
situations probably owe part of their healthy qualities to their position
with regard to it.” On the contrary, “in diseases of the eye, attended
with local vascular or nervous excitement, in inflammatory conditions of
the brain, in fever, and in mental irritation, whether attended or not
with vascular excitement, the stimulus of light proves injurious, and, in
such cases, darkness of the chamber should be enjoined. After parturition,
severe wounds, and surgical operations, and in all inflammatory
conditions, exclusion of strong light, contributes to the well-doing of
the patient.” (Pereira.)
=LIGHT, ELECTRIC.= We believe we are correct in stating, that within the
last two or three years some 600 registrations for patents, more or less,
have been taken out for electricity applied to the purposes of artificial
illumination. Conceding that many, if not the greater part, of these
inventions may prove useless, their number is nevertheless an index of the
mental activity that has lately been directed to the subject of electric
lighting; and although we are far from affirming that the problem of the
practical application of electricity to the lighting of our streets and
dwellings may eventually be successfully thought out, still, we think,
looking upon these constant endeavours to accomplish the end in view as
links in the chain of that experimental evolution and gradation which has
characterised the course of most great discoveries, we are justified in
regarding them as not altogether improbable auguries and precursors of
subsequent success.
Shortly after Faraday’s discovery in 1830 of electrical induction, or the
power of a bar of magnetised steel to set up in a certain direction a
current of electricity in a coil of insulated wire when introduced into
it, Pixü, reducing the result of Faraday’s researches to practice,
constructed an instrument, which appears to have been the first dynamic
magneto-electric machine. By Pixü’s contrivance a current of electricity
was generated by means of the poles of a permanent horseshoe magnet being
made to revolve across those of an electro, or temporary magnet, the
induced electricity set up in which in its turn established in the
surrounding helix a current of electricity, which being made to escape by
the terminals or ends of the wire coils could be applied to practical use.
The dynamic electro-magnetic machines of Saxton and Clarke, which
succeeded Pixü’s, may be regarded as modifications of this latter, since
they differed only in the arrangement of their parts and mode of action.
All three machines were chiefly in use in chemical and physical
laboratories, whence they have gradually been supplanted by the far more
useful Ruhmkorff’s coil, a very powerful variety of the electro-magnetic
instrument. In a small form Clarke’s is now chiefly used for medical
purposes. That electro-magnetic machines, as cheaper and more convenient
sources of electric force, should have been applied to the purposes of
telegraphy, will be an obvious inference.
Among the most important and effective of the various instruments for
attaining this end, it will suffice to mention the magneto-electric
machine of Messrs Siemens and Halske, first brought into use in 1854.
Except, however, in the case of short distances, or with telegraphs
belonging to private persons or commercial firms, these instruments have
not met with very general adoption. This is owing to the great tension of
the induced current, and the consequent difficulty of insulating the wire,
particularly for long distances, objections from which the old galvanic
apparatus is in a much greater measure free. Mr Henley was the first to
use the dynamic magneto-electric machine for working the electric
telegraph soon after this instrument had been adopted in England; but as
we have seen, the method, except in the cases quoted, have been in great
measure abandoned. A large magneto-electric machine has lately been
invented by Wheatstone, the induced spark from which is used for firing
mines.
The first electro-magnetic machine used for lighting purposes appears to
have been one that was the joint invention of MM. Nollet and Van Malderen,
of Brussels, a circumstance to which it probably owes its name of the
‘Alliance Machine.’
Nollet, who brought out his invention (which is a modification of
Clarke’s) in 1850, originally designed it for the electrolysis of water,
the hydrogen resulting from which it was proposed to pass through
camphine, or some other hydro-carbon illuminant, and to burn as gas.
Additionally it was designed to use the hydrogen as a source of motive
power by exploding it in a suitably constructed engine. Owing to the
improvements, however, effected in the machine by Van Malderen, by which
it became a powerful generator of magneto-electricity, this purpose was
abandoned. ‘The Alliance Machine’ consists of a cast-iron frame, on the
circumference of which 40 powerful horseshoe magnets, each capable of
supporting a weight of 120 to 130 lbs., are fixed, in eight series of 5
magnets each. A number of circular metal discs, around the circumference
of which are attached sixteen bobbins of insulated wire fixed to a
horizontal shelf turned by a pulley, are in such a position with regard to
the magnets, that with each revolution of the shaft each bobbin passes
sixteen alternate poles of the magnets, and will have had sixteen
alternate currents set up or induced in it. Until replaced by the later
and smaller magneto-electric machine, the ‘Alliance’ has been the one
mostly employed for the production of the electric light in France, and it
is still in use in the lighthouses of Hève and Grisnez, as well as in
those of many other places in that country. In 1856 Mr Holmes took out a
patent for a machine, which differs from Nollet’s in increasing the number
of bobbins by arranging them in concentric circles between two brass
discs. By this device the bobbins revolve more quickly in succession in
front of the poles of the magnets, a plan which ensures the generation of
a greater number of currents for every revolution.
Like the first application of Nollet’s, Holmes’ machine was used for
lighthouse illumination. It was in work from December, 1858, until June,
1862, at the South Foreland lighthouse, since which time it has been
removed to Dungeness, in the lighthouse of which station it has been in
use ever since.
When applied to lighting purposes, both the ‘Alliance’ and Holmes’, and
the other machines named, are worked in conjunction with the carbon
points, which when arranged with proper machinery constitute the electric
lamp.
Wild’s and Ladd’s are powerful dynamic magneto-electric instruments,
capable of yielding large quantities of the electric fluid.
Artificial illumination by means of electricity has, however, been more or
less occasionally practised for other than lighthouse purposes.
For instance, in 1854, during the building of the Napoleon Docks at Rouen,
when 800 workmen were engaged nightly for four hours, the electric light
was used for several nights with perfect success, the men being able to
carry on their work at a distance of more than 100 yards from the source
of the light.
In 1862 and 1863 it was frequently employed in Spain during the night in
the construction of railways. During the late Franco-German war in 1870 it
was applied to submarine illumination, and more lately it has been used in
a series of street illumination in St Petersburg.
The electric light apparatus was placed on the tower of the Admiralty
Buildings of that city, and by means of it three of the larger streets
were illuminated at night from 7 until 10 o’clock. In this latter case, as
well as in that of the Rouen Docks, the lamps were supplied with the
electric current generated in batteries.
It may be said, however, to have been only within the last two years that
the question of electric lighting has developed into a burning one, and
that the light itself has become so much more generally and extensively
adopted.
This new era in the history of artificial illumination may be said to date
from the introduction of two forms of dynamic magneto-electric apparatus,
the one invented by Dr Siemens, the eminent telegraphic engineer, the
other by M. Gramme, of Paris, who, from having been formerly a journeyman
carpenter, has now become the head of a manufacture which forms a most
important branch of scientific industry.
In the apparatus of Gramme and Siemens three marked features and
improvements over the older machines have been achieved:——
1. A great reduction in size, and, consequently, in cost, and requisite
space for the machine.
2. The method of generating large quantities of electricity by the mutual
action between the different parts of the same machine, and the induction
therein set up.[14]
[Footnote 14: This discovery was made independently and nearly
simultaneously by Drs Siemens and Sir Charles Wheatstone.]
3. The production of the electric current at a much less expenditure of
motive power.
On this latter point Professor Tyndall, in his report to the elder
brethren of the Trinity House, states that magneto-electric machines of
old construction cost ten times more, occupied twenty-five times the
space, and weighed fourteen times as much as the recent machines, while
they produced only one-fifth of the light with practically the same
driving power; which in effect amounts to this——that taking illuminating
effect in each case into consideration, the new machines cost
one-fiftieth, and are, as regards space occupied, 125 times more
advantageous than the earlier forms.
In all the older and larger machines the current of electricity, as it was
given off from the wire and passed through the carbon points, was
alternate, or first in one direction and then in the opposite——that is, it
was a momentary current, first positive and then negative.
In Siemens’ machine, and in one form of Gramme’s, the current is
direct——that is, it pursues one uniform course in its passage through the
carbon points of the lamp, and in its circuit from the terminal of one
wire to that of the other.
Scientific opinion is somewhat at variance as to the disadvantages of the
indirect current; many electricians consider that it causes the partial
destruction of the contacts, and sets up unnecessary heat in the machine.
In magneto-electric machines employed in electro-metallurgic operations,
it is essential the current should be a direct one.
In the Gramme machine the electro-magnet consists of a ring composed of
soft iron wire attached to a horizontal spindle or axis, which latter is
turned by an endless strap revolving on a pulley. Around this iron ring
are wound a number of coils, each having 300 turns, of insulated copper
wire, each coil being bent inside the ring, and fixed to an insulated
piece of brass.
The wire being continuous, each coil is connected with the adjacent one,
the whole of the coils thus forming a single conductor. The series of
pieces of brass to which the wire is soldered are formed into a circle,
which surrounds the axis of the machine, each piece of brass being
insulated from its neighbour. The iron-wire ring with its attachments is
so arranged, that when the shaft or axis to which it is fixed is turned,
it revolves between the poles of a powerful horseshoe magnet in the same
plane with it. As it turns the ring gives rise in the coils to two
different and diverse currents of electricity, one in one half of the
coils around the ring, and the other in the other half.
These currents are made to pass to the circle composed of the insulated
pieces of brass, which are arranged radially to the axis of the machine.
Two brass brushes press against these insulated brass radii, one on each
side.
These brushes are connected one to each terminal of the machine, and so
contrived as always to be in contact with the coils, not becoming
insulated from one coil until contact is established with the next one, an
arrangement which gives rise to a continuous current of electricity
always, and in the same direction.
The Gramme, although of very small dimensions, is an extremely powerful
machine. It easily decomposes water, and will heat an iron wire 8 inches
in length and a 25th of an inch in diameter to redness.
The following description of the Siemens magneto-electric machine is from
a paper read some few months back at the Society of Arts by Dr Paget
Higgs, and is extracted from the journal published by that body:
“In the latest form of construction of the Siemens magneto-electric
machine the armature, as the revolving coil may be called, consists of
several lengths of insulated copper wire, coiled in several convolutions
upon a cylinder. The whole surface of the cylinder is covered with wire,
laid on in sections, each convolution being parallel to its longitudinal
axis. For about two thirds of its surface the wire cylinder is surrounded
by curved iron bars, there being just sufficient space left between these
curved iron bars and the wire cylinder to allow of its free rotation. The
curved iron bars are prolongations of the cores of large, flat
electro-magnets; the coils of these electro-magnets and the wire on the
cylinder (from brush to brush) form a continuous electrical circuit. On
revolving the cylinder (which is supported on a longitudinal axis in
suitable bearings, the axis carrying a pulley) an initially weak current
is generated into its wires by their passage through the magnetic field,
formed by the residual magnetism of the iron coils of the electro-magnets,
and the current being directed into the coils of the electro-magnets,
increases the magnetism of the cores, which again induce a stronger
current in the wire cylinder. This material action may continue until the
iron has attained its limit of magnetisation. The maximum magnetic power
acting upon each convolution is attained at every revolution of the
armature, when the convolution passes through the centre of both magnetic
fields, and gradually falls to zero as the convolution becomes
perpendicular to that position. Each convolution has, therefore, a neutral
position, and a convolution leaving that position on the one side of the
axis and advancing towards the north pole of the electro-magnet would be
subject to a direct induced current, and that portion of the convolution
on the opposite side of the axis would be traversed by a current of
opposite direction as regards a given point, but of the same direction as
regards circuit. Each of the sections of wire coiled upon the cylinder
consists of two separate coils, leaving four ends; two of these ends are
connected to each of the segments of a circular commutator divided into
parts. But all the coils are connected to the several segments of
commutator in such a manner that the whole of the double sections form a
continuous circuit, but not one continuous helix. Two brushes placed
tangentially to the segments of the commutator collect the electric
currents; these brushes are connected one to each electro-magnet, and the
two free ends of the electro-magnet coils are connected to the conducting
wires leading to the lamp.
“The dimensions, weight, number of revolutions made by the armature, light
equivalent in normal candles, and horse-power required for driving, are
for the three sizes of machines as follows:——
+----------------------+-------+------------+--------+------------+
| Dimension in Inches. |Weight |Revolutions |Candles’|Horse Power.|
+-------+------+-------+in lbs.|of cylinder.| Light. | |
|Length.|Width.|Height.| | | | |
+-------+------+-------+-------+------------+--------+------------+
| 25 | 21 | 8·8 | 298 | 1100 | 1,000 | 1-1/2 to 2 |
| 29 | 26 | 9·5 | 419 | 650 | 6,000 | 3-1/4 to 4 |
| 44 | 28·3 | 12·6 | 1279 | 480 | 14,000 | 9 to 10 |
+-------+------+-------+-------+------------+--------+------------+
“In the lamp which it is preferred to use with the Siemens machine, the
points of the carbons after being separated are brought together again by
the gravitation of the top carbon and its holder. The descent of the top
carbon actuates by means of the straight rack it carries at its lower end,
a large pinion, the spindle of which carries a small pinion, gearing into
a second neck attached to the lower carbon holder, the superior weight of
the top carbon and holder, in conjunction with the multiplying ratio of
the two pinions, producing a continual tendency of the carbons to approach
each other. The large and small pinions are connected to each other, and
to the spindle that carries them, by an arrangement of friction discs, and
the object of this construction is to allow of the two racks being moved
equally and simultaneously up or down for the purpose of focussing the
light when required. This movement is effected by means of bevelled
gearing, and actuated by a milled head, which can be pressed into
position when required. On the spindle carrying the large and small
pinions and the friction discs is placed a toothed wheel, connected with
the spindle by a pawl and ratchet.
“This wheel is the first of a train of wheels and pinions driving a
regulating fly in the usual way. The pawl and ratchet are provided to
allow of the rapid distancing of the carbon holders when it becomes
necessary to introduce fresh carbons. The spindle of the fly also carries
a small finely-toothed ratchet wheel. This ratchet wheel is actuated by a
spring pawl, carried at the end of a lever, which lever is the
continuation of the armature of the electro-magnet, in such a manner that
when the armature is attracted by the electro-magnet, the spring pawl
engages in the teeth of the ratchet wheel, and causes the wheels in
gearing therewith to act upon the racks of the carbon holders to draw them
apart.
“The action of the lamp is as follows:——The current passes from the
conductor to the top carbon holder, thence through the carbons to the
bottom carbon holder, then to the coils of the electro-magnet situated in
the base of the lamp. From the coils of the electro-magnet the circuit is
completed to the other conductor. Upon the current passing through the
circuit, the armature of the electro-magnet is attracted, and the abutment
from the armature lever caused to short-circuit the coils of the
electro-magnet, releasing the armature. The armature being released, the
short-circuit is removed from the coils of the electro-magnet, and the
cycle of movement repeated; in this manner an oscillatory motion is given
to the armature lever, which by the spring pawl actuates the ratchet
wheel, the train of clockwork, and the racks of the carbon holders,
forcing the carbons apart until the distance between their points
sufficiently weakens the current, so that it no longer attracts the
armature of the electro-magnet. Thus, by the combined action of
gravitation of the top carbon in drawing the carbons together, and of the
current to separate the carbons when they approach too closely, a working
distance is maintained between the points with perfect automatism.”
Siemens’ lamp is at the present time employed in the Lizard Lighthouse, in
Messrs Siemens’ Engineering Works in England and Wales, as well as in
other localities or buildings requiring powerfully lighting up.
An interesting illustration of the value of the electric light to the
sailor is furnished by the ‘Telegraph Journal’ of April 5th, 1878. This
publication contains a letter from the captain of the S.S. ‘Faraday,’
narrating how that vessel was by its means prevented from running into
another vessel during a dense fog.
Siemens’ magneto-electric apparatus and lamp were used on the occasion
above referred to.
In every form of contrivance for electrical illumination the lamp or
lighting apparatus consists of carbon points separated by a very slight
interval, through which the current of electricity passes by means of
terminal wires attached to the dynamo-electrical machine.
The lighting effect is produced by the passage of the electric spark
through the small gap which separates the carbon points, in which interval
extremely minute but solid particles of carbon, given off by the points,
are heated up to incandescence in the path of the spark, and thus give
rise to the intensely luminous focus known as ‘the electric light.’ The
brilliancy of the light of course depends upon the quantity of electricity
employed.
A very large number and variety of designs and patents for electric lamps
have made their appearance in England, America, France, and Russia within
the period following the invention of the small, powerful, and economic
dynamo-electric machines of Siemens and Gramme.
The lighting apparatus generally attached to and worked by that variety of
Gramme’s machine generating the continuous current is that known as the
‘Serrin Lamp.’ Two carbon electrodes placed vertically one above the other
(the positive being the upper one) are fixed on brass holders, which are
so connected by a suitably contrived clockwork movement, combined with the
working of an electro-magnet in connection with the electric circuit, as
to maintain the two carbon poles during their combustion at the necessary
distance from each other. Serrin’s lamp differs in detail from Siemens’,
but, like this latter, is automatic in principle. In Paris it was the one
in general use until the introduction of the Jablochkoff candle, and, with
the Duboscq lamp, may be looked upon as the precursor of the various lamps
and regulators now employed in electric lighting. Serrin’s lamp or
regulator, with some slight modification in the machinery, is also used in
the Lontin system of electric illumination, by which separate lights are
supplied by separate circuits of electricity. Lontin’s method is that by
which the Gaiety Theatre in the Strand is lighted; and is also used at the
Western Railway Station (Gare, St Lazare) at Paris. The Jablochkoff
candle, which in Paris has lately superseded the Serrin lamp, probably
because its use renders unnecessary the use of automatic machinery, is the
invention of a Russian engineer, whose name it bears.
It consists of two sticks of gas carbon, about 9 inches long and 1/5th of
an inch thick, which are placed vertically side by side, and insulated
from one another by a very thin strip of kaolin or china clay (a silicate
of alumina and potash), the whole forming a candle. Each carbon rod is
connected with one of the terminal wires of a Gramme dynamo-electric
machine, the electric current from which, however, not being continuous,
sets up an alternate current between the tips or poles of the candles,
which are gradually consumed like an ordinary taper, and with this only
difference in action between Serrin’s and Siemens’ lamps, that whereas in
these latter the spark passes from the top to the bottom carbon point, in
the Jablochkoff candle it jumps from side to side. The inventor contends
that the kaolin by becoming heated diminishes the resistance of the
circuit, and thus permits of the passage of the electric spark more easily
through the carbons, and also, we believe, asserts that the kaolin being
electrolytically decomposed as the carbons are consumed, becomes converted
into silica, which melts and drops down, whilst the aluminium liberated
contributes luminosity during combustion to the flame.
One of the chief advantages, however, claimed by M. Jablochkoff is, that
he can divide the circuit into a number of different lights, as the
resistance of the circuit is uniform.
A large number of Jablochkoff candles are employed in the celebrated
‘Magasins du Louvre,’ one of the most extensive commercial establishments
in Paris for the sale of silks, ribbons, gloves, &c., and clothing of
every description.
The pure white light diffused by electricity admirably adapts it for
viewing colours of all kinds at night, whether seen in pictures or on
fabrics and raiments, and more particularly blues and greens, the hues of
which are frequently indistinguishable from each other by gaslight. The
candle is also used to light the courtyard of the Hotel du Louvre, a large
building contiguous to, and with its apartments running over, the
Magasins, as well as in several shops.
Jablochkoff’s system is also in work in Paris in front of many public
buildings, and by its means the Place and Avenue de l’Opera, together
occupying a space 900 yards long by 30 wide, are brilliantly illuminated
every night.
That celebrated circus, so well known to every visitor to Paris, the
Hippodrome, is also lighted by it.
Another form of electric lamp is that of M. Rapieff, now in use in the
machine-room of the ‘Times’ newspaper office. In this lamp there are four
carbon points instead of two. M. Rapieff, like M. Jablochkoff, states that
by means of his system he is enabled to supply several lamps with the same
electric current. In the Wallace-Farmer lamp slabs of carbon instead of
points are had recourse to.
In the lamps of M. Regnier in one variety two revolving carbon discs are
used, whilst in another a rod of carbon descends upon a disc of the same
material, an arrangement which the inventor states leads to the
subdivision of the current and its separate utilisation by a number of
such lights.
One of the latest and apparently most successful methods for dividing the
electric current, so that one and the same current shall be made
simultaneously to supply and render incandescent a series of carbon
points, and in so doing give rise to as many effective electric
illuminators, is that of Mr Werdermann. Mr Werdermann, observing the
disparity of consumption between the positive and negative poles of the
electrodes, found by experiment that when the sectional area of the
negative pole was sixty-four times greater than the positive one, the
electric arc was so far reduced, that the two carbons were in contact.
Under these conditions the electric arc was infinitely small, the negative
electrode was not consumed, whilst the positive one was incandescent. Two
supplies of electric light, therefore, ensued, one by the electric arc,
and the other by the incandescent carbon of the positive electrode. Under
these circumstances, if it were possible to devise a plan by which the
positive pole as it consumed should be kept in uniform contact with the
negative pole, the difficulty which had hitherto proved the
stumbling-block to using a series of lights from one current would be
annihilated.
Mr Werdermann demonstrated the correctness of his premises by a practical
illustration of his plan very lately (November, 1878) at the British
Telegraph Manufactory, 374, Euston Road. The current from a
dynamo-electric Gramme machine of 2-horse power was conducted to two
electric lamps, each having an illuminating value equal to 360 candles
each. The light so produced is described by a spectator as “being soft and
sun-like, and as being capable of being looked at without discomfort,
though it was not shaded.” These being extinguished, ten smaller lamps
were ignited by means of the same current, each one having an illuminating
power equal to forty candles. “The lamps burned steadily with a beautiful
soft and clear white light. First one of the ten lights was then
extinguished, and afterwards a second, the only effect on the remainder
being that they became slightly more brilliant.”[15]
[Footnote 15: ‘Daily News.’]
Unlike Mr Edison, Mr Werdermann does not believe in the indefinite
divisibility of the electric light. It will be observed that the candle
power of the light becomes diminished by subdivision. Two lights gave a
light equal to 700 candles, whereas the same current divided into ten
lights gave an aggregate light of only 400 candles.
The following extract from the ‘Times’ of December 5th, 1878, illustrates
the financial aspect of the electric light question:——
“At the usual weekly meeting of the Society of Arts, held last evening, Dr
C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., in the chair, a paper on electric lighting was read
by Mr J. N. Shoolbred, M. Inst. C.E. The object of the author was to
present some results of the application of electric lighting to industrial
purposes, especially as regards cost. He noticed first the Holmes and the
Alliance magneto-electric machines, giving alternating currents and single
lights for lighthouse use. Secondly, he referred to the dynamo-electric
machines, producing single lights for general industrial purposes, as well
as for lighthouses, and including the Siemens and the Gramme machines. In
his third group the author included the machines used for producing
divided lights, each group indicating a marked period representing a
clearly defined stage of progress in electric lighting. With regard to
cost, Mr Shoolbred stated that in every instance his figures and
particulars were those afforded by the users of the various lights, and
not by the inventors or their representatives. In the case of the Holmes
machine the annual cost per lighthouse was about £1035, inclusive of
interest, repairs, and wages. With the Siemens machine the annual cost was
about £494 per lighthouse, including interest and the other expenses. With
the Alliance machine as used at Havre the cost was about £474 per annum
per lighthouse, interest, &c., included. The single-light Gramme machine
has been in use in the Paris goods station of the Northern of France
Railway for two years. Six machines have been kept going with one light
each, and the cost is found to be 5_d._ per light per hour, or with
interest on outlay at 10 per cent., 8_d._ per hour. The same light at the
ironworks of Messrs Powell at Rouen was stated to cost 4_d._ per light per
hour, exclusive of interest and charge for motive power, the latter being
derived from one of the engines on the works. In 1877 a series of
experiments were carried out with the Lontin light at the Paris terminus
of the Paris, Lyons, and Mediterranean Railway. The passenger station was
lighted, and the results were so satisfactory that the company have
entered into a permanent contract with the proprietors of the Lontin light
for lighting their Paris goods station with 12 lights, at a cost of 5_d._
per light per hour. The Western of France Railway Company have had 6
Lontin lights in the goods station at the Paris terminus, St Lazare, since
May last, and 12 lights in the passenger station since June. Careful
experiments have shown the cost to be 8_d._ per light per hour, inclusive
of interest. Referring to the Jablochkoff light, Mr Shoolbred placed
before the meeting some particulars with regard to its application in the
Avenue de l’Opéra, Paris, which were afforded him by M. J. Allard, the
chief engineer of the lighting department of the City of Paris. It appears
that the authorities pay the Société Générale d’Électricité 37f. 2c. per
hour for the 62 lamps in use there. These 62 lamps supersede 344 gas-jets
which were previously used, and which cost the authorities 7·244f. per
hour. The electric illumination, however, is considered as equal to 682
gas-jets, or about double the original illumination——that is, to a cost of
14·45f. per hour as against 37·2f. for the electric light, the cost of
which, therefore, is 2·6 times that of the gas. The contract for lighting
by electricity was terminated by the City of Paris on the 30th ult., and
the authorities have declined to renew it except at the price paid for
gas, namely, 7·224f. (or about 6_s._) per hour, and that only until the
15th of January next. These terms have been accepted by the Société, so
that the price paid to them will be at the rate of about 1-1/8_d._ per
light per hour. Mr Shoolbred stated that the Société place their expenses
at 1·06f. (or just 11_d._) per light per hour, which, however, they hope
shortly to reduce by one half. A series of careful photometric experiments
carried out by the municipal authorities with the Jablochkoff lights,
above referred to, showed each naked light to possess a maximum of 300
candles of intensity. With the glass globe this was reduced to 180
candles, showing a loss of 40 per cent., while during the darker periods
through which the lights passed the light was as low as 90 candles. The
foregoing were the only authenticated particulars which the author could
obtain as regards the working of the various electric systems of electric
lighting. In conclusion, Mr Shoolbred referred to the Rapieff light at the
‘Times’ office, which, he observed, worked fairly and with regularity,
which could not be said of all others, and it might therefore be entitled
to take rank as an established application of electric illumination. The
paper was illustrated by the Siemens, Rapieff, Serrin, and other forms of
electric light, which were shown in operation.”
That the electric light is eventually destined to supplant coal gas in
illuminating the fronts of large buildings, open spaces, squares, assembly
rooms, public halls, theatres, picture galleries, workshops and factories,
&c., seems no very extravagant prediction. We have already seen that it
has for some years been employed in one lighthouse; and we have the
testimony of Mr Douglas, of the Trinity House, at a very recent meeting of
the Society of Arts, that at the Souter Point Lighthouse there had been
only two stoppages in eight years, once through a bad carbon breaking, and
once through the lighthouse-keeper going to sleep.
In addition to places above specified, amongst other localities in which
it is in work, we may mention the chocolate factories of M. Menier, at
Noiselle, his india-rubber works at Grenelle, his sugar refinery at Nice,
and Messrs Caille’s works at Paris. In this country it was employed in the
erection of the Tay Bridge, as well as in the works of Messrs Head, at
Stockton-on-Tees, and in London it may be nightly seen burning before the
Gaiety Theatre in the Strand, at Billingsgate Market, and frequently
lighting up the front of the Stereoscopic Company’s premises in Regent
Street. Further, we may add that the Metropolitan Board of Works are
making the experiment of lighting the Victoria Embankment and the City
authorities the Holborn Viaduct, with the Jablochkoff candle. The former
have placed a dynamo-electric apparatus, worked by a steam engine of
20-horse power, close to the foot of Hungerford Bridge, from whence wires
will be carried right and left towards Westminster and Blackfriars
respectively.
We believe the main conducting wire is carried under the coping-stone of
the parapet running along the Embankment, and that the carbon points are
fixed on the top of a certain number of gas standards which now surmount
the wall of the Embankment.
That electricity is more economical as a method of artificial lighting
than coal-gas the figures previously given seem to demonstrate, and there
can be no question as to the much greater luminosity and purity of the
light over the gas flame, qualities which render it an admirable
substitute for the sunlight, the absence of which it may be said to supply
at night. One disadvantage urged against its employment in weaving rooms
is, that it casts such dark and distinct shadows that these are frequently
mistaken for the threads themselves, an objection which is said to have
been remedied by placing the light as near the ceiling as possible. The
non-generation of carbonic acid and sulphurous products such as are given
off by burning gas, although of slight importance when the light is
employed in the open air, becomes a great advantage when it is used in
crowded assembly rooms or theatres, since the atmospheric contamination
caused by carbonic acid becomes of course considerably reduced. The
absence of sulphur compounds especially qualifies the light for use in
large libraries. If it be true that the light gives rise to an appreciable
amount of ozone, this constitutes another point in its favour. Opinion is
at variance as to the possibility of the practical application of the
electric light for illuminating private houses and dwellings in such a
manner as to supply the place of the gas we now burn in them. One serious
impediment to the probable accomplishment of this result certainly seems
to be the fact that electricity for lighting purposes can only practically
be conveyed to short distances from its source, which would necessitate
the establishment and supervision of a number of generating machines near
the houses to be lighted. Another obstacle, which hitherto has not been
overcome, is the circumstance that the current when subdivided yields
proportionately a greatly diminished amount of light. For instance, one
light which had a certain photometric candle valve would yield when
divided into two an aggregate amount of light considerably less than the
one; and if divided into three still less, and so on. This has been
pointed out when noticing Mr Werdermann’s invention for the divisibility
of the light. Mr Edison, an American inventor, asserts that he has
conquered this difficulty, and additionally perfected a machine for
measuring the current used in the electric light. He states that it
consists of an apparatus placed in every house lighted by electricity,
which registers the quantity of electricity consumed, and uses for the
purpose 1000th part of the quantity employed in the building.
Dr Siemens, no mean authority, doubts the practicability of applying
electric lighting to household illumination.
A matter of primary importance in connection with the successful working
of the electric light is the quality of the carbon points. In their
manufacture gas carbon obtained from the necks of the retorts used in
gas-making, as being the hardest and purest, is employed.
Superior, however, as this form of carbon is to every other description of
the substance, it is never chemically pure, and as any foreign substance
imparts to the light the irregularity or flickering that sometimes
accompanies it, it is necessary the impurities should be removed. To
effect their separation the carbon has to undergo several processes, such
as soaking in caustic potash to remove the silica, treatment with strong
acids, several washings, grinding, &c. It is then kneaded and put into
moulds, in which it is subjected to a pressure as high as 12 tons to the
square foot. Subsequently the points so made are baked.
=LIGHTNING.= See ACCIDENTS.
=LIG′NIN.= C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}. _Syn._ CELLULOSE. This is woody fibre
deprived of all foreign matter. It forms about 95 per cent. of baked wood,
and constitutes the woody portion of all vegetable substances. Fine linen
and cotton are almost entirely composed of lignin, the associated
vegetable principles having been removed by the treatment the fibres have
been subjected to during the process of their manufacture.
Pure lignin is tasteless, inodorous, insoluble in water and alcohol, and
absolutely innutritious; dilute acids and alkaline solutions scarcely
affect it, even when hot; oil of vitriol converts it into dextrin or grape
sugar, according to the mode of treatment. When concentrated sulphuric
acid is added very gradually to about half its weight of lint, linen rag,
or any similar substance shredded small, and contained in a glass vessel,
with constant trituration, the fibres gradually swell up and disappear,
without the disengagement of any gas, and a tenacious mucilage is formed,
which is entirely soluble in water. If, after a few hours, the mixture be
diluted with water, the acid neutralised by the addition of chalk, and,
after filtration, any excess of lime thrown down by the cautious addition
of a solution of oxalic acid, the liquid yields, after a second
filtration, and the addition of alcohol in considerable excess, a gummy
mass, which possesses all the characters of pure dextrin. If, instead of
at once saturating the diluted acid solution with chalk, we boil it for 4
or 5 hours, the dextrin is entirely converted into grape sugar, which, by
the addition of chalk and filtration, as before, and evaporation by a
gentle heat to the consistence of a syrup, will, after repose for a few
days, furnish a concrete mass of crystallised sugar. By strong pressure
between folds of porous paper or linen, redissolving it in water,
agitation with animal charcoal, and recrystallisation, brilliant
colourless crystals of grape sugar may be obtained. Hemp, linen, or
cotton, thus treated, yield fully their own weight of gum, and 1 per cent.
of their weight of grape sugar. During the above transformation, the
sulphuric acid is converted into sulpholignic acid, and may be procured in
a separate state. A solution of oxide of copper in ammonia, or solution of
basic carbonate of copper in strong ammonia, dissolves cotton, which may
then be precipitated by acids in colourless flakes.
=LIG′NITE.= _Syn._ BROWN COAL. Wood and other matter more or less
mineralised and converted into coal. The lignites are generally dark
brown, and of obvious woody structure. They are distinguished from true
coals by burning with little flame and much smoke. Those of Germany are
largely used as a source of paraffin and burning oils.
=LIG′NUM VI′TÆ.= See GUAIACUM WOOD.
=LIME.= CaO. _Syn._ OXIDE OF CALCIUM; CHAUX, Fr.; KALK, Ger. Lime, when
pure, and as a chemical and medical reagent, will be found treated of
under CALCIUM (Oxide of). It is prepared on the large scale for commerce
by calcining chalk, marble or limestone, in kilns, and is called
quicklime, caustic lime, burnt lime, stone lime, &c. The lime kilns are
usually of the form of an inverted cone, and are packed with alternate
layers of limestone and fuel, and the burnt lime raked out from the
bottom. The lime thus obtained is a pale yellow powder, combining eagerly
with water, and crumbling to a light white powder, “slaked lime,” with the
evolution of much heat. Lime which slakes well is termed “fat lime,” while
if it slakes badly is termed “poor lime.” The slaked lime, the CALCIS
HYDRAS of the B. P., is fresh lime sprinkled with water till it falls to
powder.
=Lime, Salts of.= See under CALCIUM.
=Lime, Pyrolignite of.= An impure acetate of calcium used for making
mordants in dyeing and calico printing, as a substitute for the more
expensive acetate of lead.
=Lime, Chloride of.= _Syn._ BLEACHING POWDER, CHLORINATED LIME,
HYPOCHLORITE OF CALCIUM.
This article was formerly believed to be a compound of lime and chlorine
(CaO.Cl), and consequently received the name of ‘chloride of lime.’ We now
know, however, that it is not a definite substance, but a mixture of
calcium hypochlorite, calcium chloride, and calcium hydrate. The value of
this preparation is due to the readiness with which the calcium
hypochlorite is decomposed by acids, even by the carbonic acid of the air,
with the evolution of hypochlorous acid which abstracts hydrogen from many
vegetable colouring matters, badly smelling gases, &c.: the former are
thereby bleached and the latter deodorised.
Chloride of lime is most extensively used for bleaching linen, calico, and
similar fabrics, thousands of tons being made near Newcastle alone every
year. It is also largely employed as a deodoriser.
_Prep._ Freshly slaked lime is thinly spread out in a proper vessel and
exposed to an atmosphere of chlorine gas until it is saturated. Now
included in the Materia Medica.
Slaked lime (fresh), 20 parts, common salt, 1 part, are mixed together,
and the powder placed in long earthenware vessels into which chlorine is
passed until the mixture begins to grow damp, or until one part of it,
dissolved in 130 parts of water, is capable of decolouring 4-1/2 parts of
sulphate of indigo (see CHLORIMETRY), when the whole is transferred to dry
bottles.
(Wholesale.) The chlorine is generated from the usual materials mixed in
leaden vessels, heated by steam, and the gas, after passing through water,
is conveyed by a leaden tube into an apartment built of siliceous
sandstone, and arranged with shelves or trays, containing dry fresh slaked
lime, placed one above another, about an inch asunder. The process, to
produce a first-class article, is continued for 4 or 5 days. During this
time the lime is occasionally agitated by means of iron rakes, the handles
of which pass through boxes of lime placed in the walls of the chamber,
which thus act as valves.
The successful manufacture of bleaching powder is dependent upon the
careful observance of a number of conditions, such as the quality of the
limestone,[16] which should be free from iron; the presence of magnesia at
the time is also very objectionable, since it gives rise to the formation
and presence in the bleaching powder of deliquescent chloride of
magnesium; the apportionment of the water in slaking the lime is also a
matter of no inconsiderable importance, the lime forming into balls, which
fail to properly absorb the gas if the water be insufficient, whilst if it
be in excess, it yields a powder deficient in chlorine. When slaked, the
lime is passed through a sieve to free it from small pebbles. After being
slaked it is kept for 2 or 3 days before being used, as it is found that
under these circumstances it absorbs chlorine more readily than when
recently prepared. Previous to its entrance into the lime chamber, the
chlorine is passed through water, to free it from vapour, and solid
particles of chloride of manganese.
[Footnote 16: A very pure kind of limestone, and one which is largely used
in the preparation of bleaching powder, is found at Buxton.]
The temperature of the chamber into which the chlorine is passed ought not
to exceed 62° F. An excess of chlorine has been found to yield a powder
deficient in hypochlorite.
Bleaching powder, unless protected from the air (carbonic acid), slowly
parts with its chlorine. In summer it has been estimated that it loses as
much as 86 per cent. of the gas, and in winter about 26 per cent.
_Prop., &c._ Chloride of lime is a pale, yellowish-white powder, generally
more or less damp, and evolving a chlorine-like odour of hypochlorous
acid. Its soluble constituents dissolve in about 20 parts of water. It is
decomposed by acids with the evolution of chlorine and oxygen
(hypochlorous acid). Good chloride of lime should contain from 32% to 36%
of chlorine, of which, however, but 25% to 30% can be easily liberated by
an acid.
_Estim._ See CHLOROMETRY.
_Uses._ Chloride of lime is employed in medicine as a deodoriser and
disinfectant. An ointment of chloride of lime has been used in scrofula,
and a lotion or bath, moderately dilute, is one of the cleanest and
readiest ways of removing the ‘itch,’ and several other skin diseases. It
is also in great use as a disinfectant, and may be used either in
substance or solution. A small quantity of the powder spread on a flat
dish or plate, and placed on the chimney-piece, and a like quantity in an
opposite part of the room, will continue to evolve sufficient chlorine or
hypochlorous acid to disinfect (? Ed.) the air of an apartment for several
days. The evolution of chlorine is promoted by occasionally renewing the
exposed surface, by stirring it with a piece of stick, and after it
becomes scentless, by the addition of a little acid, as strong vinegar, or
hydrochloric acid, or oil of vitriol, largely diluted with water. Of late,
however, it has been partly superseded by sulphurous acid, carbolic acid,
&c. The most extensive consumption of chloride of lime is, however, for
bleaching textile fabrics. When employed for this purpose, the goods are
first immersed in a dilute solution of this substance, and then
transferred to a vat containing dilute sulphuric acid. The chlorine thus
disengaged in contact with the cloth, causes the destruction of the
colouring matter. This process is generally repeated several times, it
being unsafe to use strong solutions. White patterns may thus be imprinted
upon coloured cloth; the figures being stamped with tartaric acid
thickened with gum water, the stuff is immersed in the chloride bath, when
the parts to which the acid has been applied remain unaltered, while the
printed portions are bleached white.
_Concluding Remarks._——Chloride of lime is now scarcely ever made on the
small scale, as it can be purchased of the large manufacturer of better
quality and cheaper than it could possibly be made by the druggist. The
chief precaution to be observed in the manufacture of good bleaching
powder is to maintain the ingredients at a rather low temperature.
=LIME.= The fruit of _Citrus limetta_. It resembles the lemon, but is
smaller and has a smoother skin. It is imported into Great Britain in a
preserved state for use as a dessert. Its juice is also largely imported
for the preparation of CITRIC ACID, and for the prevention of scurvy on
board ship (see _below_).
=LIME JUICE.= _Syn._ LEMON JUICE. The juice of the fruits of various
species of _Citrus_, principally LIMES, is known in commerce under these
names. It is very variable as to quality, which depends upon the method of
extraction, the quality of the fruit, and the honesty of the shipper.
We have examined the juice expressed from limes sent from the West Indies,
from Jamaica, and from South Africa, with the following results:
W. Indies. Jamaica. S. Africa.
Specific gravity
of juice 1041·30 1044·18 1044·90
Per cent. of
citric acid 7·96 8·66 8·50
Per cent. of ash 0·321 0·401 0·364
The yield from limes is very small, and the freshly expressed juice
contains a large amount of pulp. This, however, on standing a few weeks,
separates, and a clear sherry-coloured liquid is obtained.
A concentrated lime or lemon juice is used by calico printers. It is a
“dark, treacly-looking fluid, marking from 48° to 54° Twaddell,” and
contains about 30 per cent. of pure citric acid.
_Adult._ See LEMON JUICE.
_Estim._ Lime juice is only valuable on account of the citric acid it
contains. If of good quality, 100 gr. will neutralise from 70 to 76 gr. of
pure crystallised carbonate of soda. “For commercial purposes each grain
of carbonate of soda neutralised may represent a half grain of
crystallised citric acid (equal to 38 gr. of dry acid), and the value of
the lime juice be calculated in proportion.” (O’Neill.) As commercial lime
juice contains variable proportions of vegetable extractive matter, the
indications of the hydrometer cannot be depended upon. ACIDIMETRY, CITRIC
ACID, &c.
=LIME′STONE.= A general term applied to a great variety of rocks in which
carbonate of lime is the principal constituent.
_Estim._ The value of chalk, limestone, marble, &c., for hydraulic mortars
and cements, may be determined as follows:
A given weight (say 100 gr.) of the sample is reduced to powder and
digested in hydrochloric acid dilated with about an equal weight of water,
with frequent agitation for an hour or longer; the mixture is then diluted
with thrice its volume of water, thrown upon a filter, and the undissolved
portion washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. This weight indicates the
per-centage of clay and silica or sand, and the loss that of the lime or
calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, and ferric oxide, present in the
substance examined. In most cases these results will be sufficient to show
the quality of the limestone for the purpose of making mortar or cement.
The filtrate and the washings are mixed together, and ammonia is added in
excess; the bulky, reddish-brown precipitate is collected, washed, dried,
ignited, and weighed. This gives the per-centage of ferric oxide.
The filtrate from last is then treated with oxalate of ammonium, and the
quantity of lime determined in the manner described under the head of
CALCIUM.
The liquid filtered from the precipitate in last is boiled for some time
with carbonate of potassium until ammoniacal fumes are no longer evolved;
the precipitate is then collected on a filter, washed with hot water,
dried, and strongly ignited for 3 or 4 hours, and, lastly, weighed. This
gives the per-centage of magnesium.
=LINC′TUS.= [L., Eng.] _Syn._ LOCH, LOHOCH, LINCTURE, LAMBATIVE; LOOCH,
Fr. A medicine of the consistence of honey, intended to be licked off a
spoon. This form of medicine is well adapted to females and children, but
is not much used in England at the present time. Those employed in modern
pharmacy and prescribing are included under the heads CONFECTION,
CONSERVE, or ELECTUARY.——The _Dose_, when it is not otherwise stated, is a
teaspoonful occasionally.
=Linctus, Acid.= (Dr Copland.) _Syn._ LINCTUS ACIDUS. _Prep._ Honey of
roses, 10 dr.; hydrochloric acid, 20 minims; syrup of red poppies, 2 dr.
Mix.
=Linctus of Borax.= (Univ. Coll. Hosp.) _Syn._ LINCTUS BORACIS. _Prep._
Borax, 3 dr.; honey, 1 oz. Melt, and stir together, and then add syrup, 1
oz.
=Linctus, Caca′o.= _Syn._ LINCTUS CACAO, L.; CRÊME DE TRONCHIN, Fr.
_Prep._ From cocoa-butter, 2 oz.; white sugar (in powder), syrup of
capillaire, and syrup of tolu, of each 1 oz.; mix. Demulcent and pectoral;
in coughs, sore throats, hoarseness, &c.
=Linctus, Common.= _Prep._ From oil of almonds and syrup of tolu, of each
1 oz.; powdered white sugar, 2 dr. As the last.
=Linctus, Cough.= _Syn._ PECTORAL LINCTUS; LINCTUS PECTORALIS, L. _Prep._
1. (Dr Latham.) Compound ipecacuanha powder (Dover’s powder), 1/2 dr.;
compound tragacanth powder, 2 dr.; syrup of tolu, confection of hips, and
simple oxymel, of each 1 oz.——_Dose_, 1 teaspoonful, 3 or 4 times a day.
“This linctus has been extensively used, as a remedy for coughs, in the
West-end of London, having been found to be a safe and generally
efficacious remedy.” (Redwood.) The preceding as well as the following are
also useful preparations.
=Linctus, Demulcent.= _Syn._ LINCTUS DEMULCENS L.; LOOCH DE TRONCHIN, Fr.
_Prep._ From oil of almonds, syrup of capillaire, manna and cassia pulp,
of each 2 oz.; powdered gum tragacanth, 20 gr.; orange-flower water, 2
fl. oz. As the last. The above is the quantity for two days, which is as
long as it will keep.
=Linctus of Egg.= _Syn._ LINCTUS OVI; LOHOCH OVI. _Prep._ Oil of almonds,
1/2 dr.; yolk of 1 egg; syrup of marshmallow, 1 oz. Mix.
=Linctus, Emol′lient.= _Syn._ OILY EMULSION; LOHOCH OLEOSUM, EMULSIO
OLEOSA, L.; LOOCH HUILEUX, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Oil of almonds, powdered
gum, and orange-flower water, of each 4 dr.; syrup of marshmallow, 1 oz.;
water, 3 fl. oz. or q. s.; for an emulsion. In troublesome coughs.
=Linctus, Expec′torant.= _Syn._ LINCTUS EXPECTORANS, LOHOCH E., L. _Prep._
1. Oxymel of squills, confection of hips, syrup of marshmallow, and
mucilage of gum Arabic (thick), equal parts. Demulcent and expectorant.
2. (Dr Copland.) Oil of almonds and syrup of lemons, of each 1 fl. oz.;
powdered ipecacuanha 6 gr.; confections of hips, 1 oz.; compound powder of
tragacanth, 3 dr.
3. (Zanetti.) Kermes mineral, 4 gr.; manna, 6 oz.; oil of almonds, syrup
of squills, and syrup of senega, of each 2 dr. Laxative, demulcent, and
expectorant. The above are useful in hoarseness, tickling coughs, sore
throats, &c.
=Linctus, Green.= _Syn._ LINCTUS VIRIDE; LOHOCH VIRIDE. _Prep._ Pistachio
nuts (or sweet almonds), no. 14; syrup of violets, 1 oz.; oil of almonds,
1/2 oz.; gum tragacanth, 15 gr.; tincture of saffron, 1 scruple;
orange-flower water, 2 dr.; water, 4 oz. Mix.
=Linctus of Linseed.= (E. 1744.) _Syn._ LINCTUS LINI; LOHOCH LINI. _Prep._
Fresh drawn linseed oil, 1 oz.; syrup of tolu, 1 oz.; sulphur, 2 dr.;
white sugar, 2 dr. Mix.
=Linctus of Manna.= (E. 1744.) _Syn._ LINCTUS MANNÆ; LOHOCH MANNÆ. _Prep._
Equal parts of manna, oil of almonds, and syrup of violets. Mix.
=Linctus of Naphthalin.= (Dupasquier) _Syn._ LINCTUS NAPHTHALINI; LOHOCH
NAPHTHALINI. _Prep._ To one common lohoch add from 8 gr. to 30 gr. of
naphthalin. The latter must be well triturated with the gum.——_Dose._ One
teaspoonful, as an expectorant.
=Linctus, Pectoral.= _Syn._ FOX LUNGS; LINCTUS PECTORALIS, LOHOCH È
PULMONE VULPIUM, L. _Prep._ From spermaceti and Spanish juice, of each 8
oz.; water, q. s. to soften the liquorice; make a thin electuary, and add
of honey, 3 lbs.; oil of aniseed, 1 oz.; mix well. A popular and excellent
demulcent in coughs. It formerly contained the herb fox lungs, but
spermaceti is now substituted for that article.
=Linctus of Poppies.= (Th. Hosp.) _Syn._ LINCTUS PAPAVERIS. _Prep._
Compound tincture of camphor, syrup of poppies, and syrup of tolu, of each
equal parts. Mix.——_Dose_, 1 fl. dr.
=Linctus of Spermaceti.= (E. 1744.) _Syn._ LINCTUS CETACEI; LOHOCH
CETACEI. _Prep._ Spermaceti, 2 dr.; yolk of egg, q. s.; triturate, and add
gradually oil of almonds, 1/2 oz.; syrup of tolu, 1 oz. Mix.
=Linctus of Syrup of White Poppies.= (P. C.) _Syn._ LINCTUS SYRUPI
PAPAVERIS ALBI; LOHOCH SYRUPUS PAPAVERIS ALBI. _Prep._ White lohoch, 5
parts; syrup of poppies (P. C.), 1 part. Mix.
=Linctus, Turpentine.= _Syn._ LINCTUS STIMULANS, L. TEREBINTHINÆ, LOHOCH
ANTHELMINTICUM, L. _Prep._ (Recamier.) Oil of turpentine, 2 dr.; honey of
roses, 3 oz.; mix.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, night and morning, followed by
a draught of any weak liquid; in worms, more especially tape-worm.
=Linctus, White.= _Syn._ LINCTUS ALBUS, MISTURA ALBA, LOHOCH ALBUM, L.;
LOOCH BLANC, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Jordon almonds, 4-1/2 dr.; bitter
almonds, 1/2 dr.; blanch them by steeping them in hot water and removing
the skins; add of white sugar, 1/2 oz.; gum tragacanth, 20 gr.; beat to a
smooth paste, and further add of oil of almonds and orange-flower water,
of each 4 dr.; pure water, 4 fl. oz. A pleasant demulcent in tickling
coughs.
=LIN′EN.= _Syn._ LINTEUM, L. Linen is a textile fabric made of the
libre-fibres of the _Linum usitatissimum_, or common flax, a plant which
from time immemorial has been cultivated for this purpose. It is
remarkable for the smoothness and softness of its texture, and is hence
highly esteemed in temperate climates as an elegant and agreeable article
of clothing to be worn next the skin. Its fibres are better conductors of
heat, more porous, and more attractive of moisture, than those of cotton,
which render it less adapted for body linen in cold weather, as well as in
hot weather and hot climates, than calico. The latter, however, lacks the
luxurious softness and freshness of linen, whilst the peculiar twisted and
jagged character of its fibres render it apt to excite irritation in
extremely delicate skins. The common prejudice in favour of old linen and
flax lint for dressing wounds is thus shown to have reason on its side,
and, like many other vulgar prejudices, to be supported by the
investigations of science.
_Identif._ Linen fabrics are commonly sophisticated with cotton, which is
a much less costly and a more easily wrought material. Various plans have
been proposed to detect this fraud, many of which are too complicated and
difficult for practical purposes. The following commend themselves for
their simplicity and ease of application:——
1. A small strip (a square inch, for instance) of the suspected cloth is
immersed for 2 or 3 minutes in a boiling mixture of about equal parts of
hydrate of potassium and water, contained in a vessel of silver,
porcelain, or hard glass; after which it is taken out and pressed between
the folds of white blotting paper or porous calico. By separating 8 or 10
threads in each direction, their colour may be readily seen. The deep
yellow threads are LINEN, the white or pale yellow ones are COTTON.
2. A small strip of the cloth, after having been repeatedly washed with
rain water, boiled in the water, and dried, is immersed for 1 to 2 minutes
in sulphuric acid; it is then withdrawn, carefully pressed under water
with the fingers, washed, immersed for a few seconds in ammonia, solution
of carbonate of potassium, or solution of carbonate of sodium, again
washed with water, and dried between filtering paper. By this treatment
the cotton fibres are dissolved, while the linen fibres are merely
rendered thinner and more translucent according to the duration of the
experiment; after a short immersion, the cotton fibres appear transparent,
while the linen fibres remain white and opaque.
3. Böttger recommends the linen stuffs to be dipped into an alcoholic
solution of rosolic acid, then into a concentration solution of sodium
carbonate, and finally washed with water. The linen fibre assumes a pink
colour, whilst the cotton fibre remains unaltered.
[Illustration]
4. (By the MICROSCOPE.) The indications afforded by both the previous
tests, although quite visible to the naked eye, are rendered still more
palpable by the use of a magnifying glass of small power, as the common
pocket lens. Under a good microscope the presence of cotton in a linen
tissue is very perceptible. The fibres of cotton present a distinctly flat
and shrivelled appearance, not unlike that of a narrow, twisted ribbon,
with only occasional joints; whilst those of flax are round, straight, and
jointed. The fibres of cotton, after being exposed to the action of strong
alkaline lyes, untwist themselves, contract in length, and assume a
rounded form, but still continue distinct in appearance from the fibres of
linen. The engraving represents a fibre of linen (1) and a fibre of cotton
(2), as they appear when magnified 155 diameters. The difference between
the two may be perceived, although less distinctly through a good Stanhope
or Coddington lens, provided the object be well illuminated.
_Dyeing._ Linen and cotton, from the similarity of their behaviour with
dye-stuffs, are treated in nearly the same manner. The affinity of their
fibres for colouring matter is very much weaker than that of the fibres of
silk and woollen. On this account they are dyed with greater difficulty
than those substances, and the colours so imparted are, in general, less
brilliant and permanent under similar conditions. Linen shows less
disposition to take dyes than cotton. The yarn or cloth, after being
scoured and bleached in the usual manner, requires to have an additional
tendency given to it, by chemical means, to condense and retain the
materials of the dye-bath in its pores. This is effected by steeping the
goods in solutions (mordants) which have at once an affinity for both the
fibres of the cloth and the colouring matter. A similar process is
employed in dyeing most other substances; but with cotton and linen,
attention to this point is essential to the permanency of the dye. These
matters are more fully explained under the heads DYEING and MORDANT.
The following new process for bleaching linen, having been omitted from
our article on “Bleaching” is inserted here:——
Mr Hodges’ process, which is known in Ireland as the “Chemico-Mechanical
Process,” owing to the patentee turning to account the advantages
derivable from the employment of mechanical contrivances driven by steam,
combined with the introduction of a new method of obtaining the hitherto
little used hypochlorite of magnesia, may be said to date from the
discovery of the substance, known as _Kieserite_ (native sulphate of
magnesia), which occurs as an essential constituent of the Abraumsalts of
Stassfurth. For some time after the introduction of this substance into
the market, it was considered of little value except for the production of
Epsom salts; but Mr. Hodges, in the course of some investigations in
bleaching jute, having had occasion to employ large quantities of
hypochlorite of magnesia, it occurred to him that kieserite might be
substituted for the more expensive crude sulphate of magnesia; and the
importation into Ireland of the sample for this purpose was the first that
was ever sent into that country for the manufacture of a bleaching liquor,
or, indeed, for any other use. Mr. Hodges on experimenting with the
kieserite, found that it not only supplied the place of the crude
sulphate, but acted as a better precipitant for the lime of the bleaching
powder, which is employed in the production of the hypochlorite of
magnesia; and that it also produced a stronger and clearer solution.
Without entering into a minute description of the process (which is at
present successfully carried out in a factory erected for the purpose in
the neighbourhood of Belfast), the following outline will be sufficient to
show the nature of the methods adopted. The kieserite, which is imported
from Germany in square blocks, on arriving at the works, is conveyed to a
house, on the ground-floor of which it is stacked until required, when it
is ground to a fine powder, and placed in barrels, is drawn up by means of
a crane to a room at the top of the building, at one end of which is a row
of three tanks furnished with water taps, agitators, and false bottoms. In
one of the end tanks a definite quantity of the kieserite powder (varying
according to its strength, is ascertained by analysis) is placed and
dissolved in a given quantity of water, the solution being assisted by
agitators, and on settling the clear liquor is siphoned over into the
middle tank. In the third tank bleaching powder (hypochlorite of lime),
varying in quantity according to the strength of the kieserite solution,
is placed. The bleaching powder after being agitated with water is allowed
to settle, and the clear solution is siphoned over into the middle tank
containing the clear kieserite solution, the agitator being kept in
motion, not only during the mixing of the liquids, but for some time
after. The mixed liquids are then allowed to remain undisturbed all night,
after which the clear hypochlorite of magnesia solution is siphoned into a
large settling tank, which is situated in the room below. From this vessel
it is conducted through wooden pipes (which are so contrived that they can
be opened and cleansed at will), into a large cistern standing in the
bleaching house. This cistern is fitted with a ball-cock, by which
arrangement the liquid can be drawn off by a system of wooden pipes as
required. The bleaching house in which the cistern is situated is fitted
up in an original manner, and covers something more than an acre of
ground; whilst the reeling-shed, which is the only part of the works our
limits will permit us describe, is 240 feet long by 24 feet broad, and
contains ten steeps and twelve reel boxes. Each box is provided with
water, a solution of the bleaching agent, and steam pipes, and is capable
of reeling at a time about 500 lbs. of yarn. Above the box is a line of
rails or pillars. A travelling crane runs along the reels, and carries the
reels from one box to another. Attached to this crane is a newly-invented
hydraulic pump, by means of which the reels with the yarn on them can be
lifted in a few seconds from one box to another.
After the yarn has been boiled, washed, and passed through the squeezers
in the usual manner, it is put on to a wagon, in which it is carried, by
means of a line of rails, down to the first reel box. Here it is placed on
to the reels, which are made to revolve by means of steam; first in one
direction and then in another, through a solution of carbonate of soda,
previously heated by means of the steam-pipes before mentioned. The yarn
having been sufficiently scalded and so saturated with soda, the reels to
which it is attached are raised by the hydraulic pump out of the box, and
the yarn allowed to drain for a few minutes, after which the travelling
crane carries it on to the next box. Into this box the yarn is again
lowered by the pump and made to revolve as before, but this time through a
solution of the bleaching agent, which immediately re-acting on the
carbonate of soda with which the yarn is charged, renders this bleaching
agent free from the danger which attends the employment of chlorine, or
the ordinary bleaching powder used in the older methods of bleaching.
After the yarns have been brought to the desired shade in the solution of
Hodges’ bleaching agent they are either removed as before to a new box,
and there washed before being scoured, or they are thrown into one of the
steeps filled with water for the night. These operations are repeated with
weaker solutions in the remaining reel boxes, either once or twice
according to the shade required.
Mr Hodges claims as the chief features of his invention that it consists,
first, in the employment of a bleaching agent which has not hitherto been
practically employed, and a cheap method for its production; second, in
the preparation of the yarn prior to being submitted to the action of the
bleaching agent, this preparation setting free not only the imprisoned
chlorine of the hypochlorite, but also another powerful bleaching agent,
oxygen; third, in new and improved machinery, by which the work of
bleaching the yarn is greatly shortened; fourth, in doing away with the
tedious and expensive operation of exposing the yarn on the grass; if this
last were the only feature in Mr Hodges’ invention, the patentee would
have greatly improved the process of bleaching, not only, however, does
the new process supplant the old long and tedious one, but a great economy
of time is additionally gained in other parts of the process, added to
these advantages it is stated that a superior finish is given to the
yarns, and that in consequence a much greater demand for them has arisen.
Mr Hodges contends that the absence of caustic lime from his new bleaching
compound gives it great advantages over the old bleaching powder,
particularly in its application to finely woven fabrics, such as muslins,
&c. He also says that fabrics bleached by it receive an increased capacity
for imbibing and retaining colouring matter, a fact of considerable
importance to the dyer and calico-printer, as they are thus enabled to
communicate to the fabrics tints which have heretofore been considered
impossible. See KIESERITE.
The domestic management of linen may here receive a few moments’
attention. Fruit stains, iron-moulds, and other spots on linen, may, in
general, be removed by applying to the part, previously washed clean, a
weak solution of chlorine, chloride of lime, spirits of salts, oxalic
acid, or salts of lemons, in warm water, and frequently by merely using a
little lemon juice. When the stain is removed the part should be
thoroughly rinsed in clear warm water (without soap) and dried. Recent
iron-moulds or ink spots on starched linen, as the front of a shirt, may
be conveniently removed by allowing a drop or two of melted tallow from a
common candle to fall upon them before sending the articles to the
laundress. The oxide of iron combines with the grease, and the two are
washed out together. If the spot is not entirely removed the first time,
the process should be repeated. Linen that has acquired a yellow or bad
colour by careless washing may be restored to its former whiteness by
working it well in water to which some strained solution of chloride of
lime has been added, observing to well rinse it in clean water both before
and after the immersion in the bleaching liquor. The attempt to bleach
unwashed linen should be avoided, as also using the liquor too strong, as
in that case the linen will be rendered rotten.
=LING.= The _Galus molua_ (Linn.), an inferior species of the cod-fish
tribe, common in the Northern seas, and used as a coarse article of food
by the poor.
=LIN′IMENT.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM, L. A semifluid ointment, or soapy
application to painful joints, swellings, burns, &c. The term is also
occasionally extended to various spirituous and stimulating external
applications. A preparation of a thinner consistence, but similarly
employed, is called an ‘EMBROCATION,’ These terms are, however, frequently
confounded together, and misapplied. Liniments are generally administered
by friction with the hand or fingers, or with some substance (as a piece
of flannel) capable of producing a certain amount of irritation of the
skin. Sometimes a piece of linen rag dipped in them is simply laid on the
part. In most cases in which liniments are found beneficial, the advantage
obtained from them is attributable rather to the friction or local
irritation than to any medicinal power in the preparation itself. The
greater number of cerates and ointments may be converted into liniments by
simply reducing their consistence with almond or olive oil, or oil of
turpentine.
=Liniment, Ac′id.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM ACIDUM, L. ACIDI SULPHURICI, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Sir B. Brodie.) Salad oil, 3 oz.; oil of vitriol, 1 dr.; mix,
then add of oil of turpentine, 1 oz., and agitate the whole well together.
As a counter-irritant, in rheumatism, stiff joints, &c. It closely
resembles the ‘GULLTONIAN EMBROCATION,’
2. (Hosp. F.) Olive oil, 3 oz.; oil of turpentine, 2 oz.; sulphuric acid,
1 fl. dr. An excellent alterative, stimulant, discutient, and
counter-irritant, in chronic rheumatism, stiff joints, indolent tumours,
and various chronic diseases of the skin.
=Liniment of Albumen.= (Dr Christison.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM ALBUMINIS.
_Prep._ Equal parts of white of egg and rectified spirit, agitated
together. In excoriation from pressure.
=Liniment of Am′ber-oil.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM SUCCINI, L. _Prep._ 1. From
olive oil, 3 parts; oils of amber and cloves, of each 1 part. Resembles
‘ROCHE’S EMBROCATION,’
2. (Opiated; LINIMENTUM SUCCINI OPIATUM, L.) From rectified oil of amber
and tincture of opium, of each 2 fl. oz.; lard, 1 oz. Anodyne,
antispasmodic, and stimulant. A once popular remedy in cramp, stiff
joints, &c.
=Liniment of Ammo′′nia.= _Syn._ AMMONIACAL LINIMENT, VOLATILE L., OIL AND
HARTSHORN; LINIMENTUM AMMONIÆ (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B.
P.) Solution of ammonia, 1; olive oil, 3; mix.
2. (Ph. L. & E.) Liquor of ammonia (sp. gr. ·960), 1 fl. oz.; olive oil, 2
fl. oz.; shake them together until they are mixed.
3. (Ph. D.) To the last add of olive oil, 1 fl. oz. Stimulant and
rubefacient. Used in rheumatism, lumbago, neuralgia, sore throat, spasms,
bruises, &c. When the skin is irritable more oil should be added, or it
should be diluted with a little water.
4. (Camphorated; LINIMENTUM AMMONIÆ CAMPHORATUM, EMBROCATIO AMM.
CAMPHORATA, L.)——_a._ (Hosp. F.) Olive oil, 3 oz.; camphor, 1/2 oz.;
dissolve by a gentle heat, and when cold, add of liquor of ammonia, 1 fl.
oz.
_b._ Soap liniment, 2 oz.; olive oil and liquor of ammonia, of each 2 dr.
As the last; more especially for sprains, bruises, chilblains, &c.
5. (Compound; Dr GRANVILLE’S COUNTER-IRRITANT OR ANTIDYNOUS LOTION;
LINIMENTUM AMMONIÆ COMPOSITUM, L.——Ph. E.)——_a._ (STRONGER.) From liquor
of ammonia (sp. gr. ·880), 5 fl. oz.; tincture of camphor, 2 fl. oz.;
spirit of rosemary, 1 fl. oz.; mix. It should be kept in a well-stoppered
bottle and in a cool situation.
_b._ (WEAKER.) Solution of ammonia (·880), 5 fl. oz.; tincture of camphor,
3 fl. oz.; spirit of rosemary, 2 fl. oz.
_Obs._ The above formulæ are nearly identical with the original ones of Dr
Granville; the principal difference being in his ordering liquor of
ammonia of the sp. gr. ·872, instead of ·880. They are counter-irritant,
rubefacient, vesicant, and cauterising, according to the mode and length
of their application. The milder lotion is sufficiently powerful to
produce considerable rubefaction and irritation in from 1 to 5 or 6
minutes; vesication, in 8 or 10 minutes; and cauterisation, in 4 or 5
minutes longer. For the latter purpose the stronger lotion is generally
employed. According to Dr Granville, these lotions are prompt and powerful
remedies in rheumatism, lumbago, cramp, neuralgia, sprains, swollen and
painful joints, headache, sore throat, and numerous other affections in
which the use of a powerful counter-irritant has been recommended. They
are ordered to be applied by means of a piece of linen, 6 or 7 times
folded, or a piece of thick, coarse flannel wetted with the lotion, the
whole being covered with a thick towel, and firmly pressed against the
part with the hand. The stronger lotion is only intended to be employed in
apoplexy, and to produce cauterisation. See COUNTER-IRRITANTS.
6. (From SESQUICARBONATE OF AMMONIA;——LINIMENTUM AMMONIÆ
SESQUICARBONATIS——Ph. L.) Solution of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 1 fl.
oz.; olive oil, 3 fl. oz.; shake them together until mixed. This
preparation resembles ordinary liniment of ammonia in its general
properties, but it is much less active, owing to the alkali being
carbonated. It is the ‘oil and hartshorn’ and the ‘volatile liniment’ of
the shops.
7. (WITH TURPENTINE.) (Dr Copland.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM AMMONIÆ CUM
TEREBINTHINA. _Prep._ Liniment of ammonia, 1-1/4 fl. oz.; oil of
turpentine, 1/2 fl. oz.; mix.
=Liniment, An′odyne.= See LINIMENTS OF BELLADONNA, MORPHIA, OPIUM, SOAP,
&c.
=Liniment, Antispasmod′ic.= _Syn_. LINIMENTUM ANTISPASMODICUM, L. CAJEPUTI
COMPOSITUM, L. _Prep._ (Hufeland.) Oils of cajeput and mint, of each 1
part; tincture of opium, 3 parts; compound camphor liniment, 24 parts.
Anodyne, stimulant, and rubefacient.
=Liniment, Arceus’s.= Compound elemi ointment.
=Liniment of Arnica.= _Syn._ ARNICA OPODELDOC, LINIMENTUM ARNICÆ. _Prep._
Dissolve by heat Castile soap, 4 parts, and camphor, 1 part, in rectified
spirit, 10 parts. Add tincture of arnica, 5 parts.
=Liniment of Belladon′na.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM BELLADONNÆ, B. P. L. _Prep._
1. (B. P.) Prepared the same as LINIMENTUM ACONITII. A fluid ounce is
equal to a solid ounce. Prescribed with equal parts of soap liniment, or
compound camphor liniment, and is an excellent topical application for
neuralgic pain.
2. Extract of belladonna, 1 dr.; oil of almonds, 2 oz.; lime water, 4 fl.
oz. In eczema, and some other cutaneous affections, to allay irritation,
&c.
3. (Cutan. Hosp.) Extract of belladonna, 4 dr.; glycerine, 1 oz.; soap
liniment, 6 oz. As the last.
4. (Guy’s Hosp.) Extract of belladonna 1 oz.; soap liniment, 8 fl. oz.
5. (Phœbus.) Extract of belladonna, 40 gr.; rectified ether, 1 dr.;
cherry-laurel water, 2 fl. oz. As a friction to the abdomen in lead colic.
_Obs._ The above are reputed excellent stimulants, anodynes,
antispasmodics, and resolvents, in various diseases, as rheumatism,
neuralgia, painful affections of the skin and joints, tumours, &c. &c.
=Liniment of Belladonna and Chloroform.= (Mr Squire.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM
BELLADONNÆ ET CHLOROFORMI. _Prep._ Belladonna liniment, 7 fl. dr.;
belladonna chloroform (made by percolating the root with chloroform) 1 fl.
dr.; sprinkled on piline and applied to the loins, excellent in lumbago.
=Liniment of Borax.= (Swediaur). _Syn._ LINIMENTUM BORACIS. _Prep._ Borax,
2 dr.; tincture of myrrh, 1 oz., distilled water, 1 oz.; honey of roses, 2
oz. Mix.
=Liniment of Caj′eput Oil.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM OLEI CAJEPUTI, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Dr Copland.) Compound camphor liniment and soap liniment, of each 1-1/2
fl. oz.; oil of cajeput, 1 fl. oz.
2. (Dr Williams.) Oil of cajeput, 1/2 fl. dr.; castor oil, 1 fl. dr.;
olive oil, 4-1/2 fl. dr. A warm, antispasmodic, diffusible stimulant and
rubefacient; in spasmodic asthma, colic, chronic rheumatism, spasms, chest
affections, &c. See ANTISPASMODIC L. (_above_).
=Linimentum Calcis.= (B. P.) Solution of lime, 1; olive oil, 1; mix. The
best liniment for burns and scalds.
=Liniment of Cam′phor.= _Syn._ CAMPHORATED OIL, CAMPHOR EMBROCATION;
LINIMENTUM CAMPHORÆ (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), OLEUM CAMPHORATUM, L. _Prep._
1. (B. P.) Camphor, 1; olive oil, 4; dissolve.
2. (Ph. L. & E.) Camphor, 1 oz.; olive oil, 4 fl. oz.; gently heat the
oil, add the camphor (cut small), and agitate until dissolved. The Dublin
College orders only 1/2 the above camphor. Stimulant, anodyne, and
resolvent; in sprains, bruises, rheumatic pains, glandular enlargements,
&c.
3. (Compound; LINIMENTUM CAMPHORÆ COMPOSITUM——B. P., Ph. L. & D.)——_a._
(B. P.) Camphor, 5; English oil of lavender, 1/4; strong solution of
ammonia, 10; rectified spirit, 20. Dissolve the oil and camphor in the
spirit and gradually add the ammonia.
_b._ (Ph. L.) Camphor, 2-1/2 oz.; oil of lavender, 1 fl. dr.; rectified
spirit, 17 fl. oz.; dissolve, then add of stronger liquor of ammonia, 3
fl. oz., and shake them together until they are mixed.
_c._ (Ph. L. 1836.) Liquor of ammonia, 7-1/2 fl. oz.; spirit of lavender,
1 pint; distil off 1 pint, and dissolve in it camphor, 2-1/2 oz. The
formula of the Ph. D. 1826 was nearly similar.
_d._ (Wholesale.) Camphor (clean), 21 oz.; English oil of lavender, 3-3/4
oz.; liquor of ammonia, 2-3/4 lbs.; rectified spirit, 7 pints; mix, close
the vessel, and agitate occasionally, until the camphor is dissolved.
Powerfully stimulant and rubefacient. It closely resembles, and is now
almost universally sold for, Ward’s ‘Essence for the Headache.’
_e._ (Ethereal.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM CAMPHORÆ ETHEREUM. _Prep._ Camphor, 1
dr.; ether, 1 dr.; oil of vipers, 2 dr. Mix.
=Liniment of Canthar′ides.= _Syn._ LINIMENT OF SPANISH FLIES; LINIMENTUM
LYTTÆ, LIN. CANTHARIDIS (Ph. D. & U. S.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr Collier.)
Tincture of cantharides and soap liniment, equal parts.
2. (Ph. D.) Cantharides (in fine powder), 3 oz.; olive oil, 12 fl. oz.;
digest for 3 hours over a waterbath, and strain through flannel, with
expression.
3. (Ph. U. S.) Spanish flies, 1 oz.; oil of turpentine, 8 fl. oz.; proceed
as last. The above are irritant and rubefacient; but should be used
cautiously, lest they produce strangury.
=Liniment of Capsicum.= 1. (Dr Copland.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM CAPSICI.
_Prep._ Compound camphor liniment, 1 fl. oz.; volatile liniment, 1 fl.
oz.; tincture of capsicum, 3 fl. oz.; mix.
2. (Dr Turnbull.) Capsicums, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 3 fl. oz. Macerate 7
days, and strain for use.
=Liniment of Colchicum.= (Ear Infirmary.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM COLCHICI.
_Prep._ Soap liniment, 1 fl. oz.; wine of colchicum seed, 1/2 fl. oz.;
mix.
=Liniment of Colocynth.= (Heim). _Syn._ LINIMENTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS. _Prep._
Tincture of colocynth, 1/2 fl. oz.; castor oil, 1-1/2 oz.
=Liniment of Chlo′′ride of Lime.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM CALCIS CHLORINATÆ, L.
_Prep._ 1. Chloride of lime, 1 dr.; water (added gradually), 3 fl. oz.;
triturate together in a glass mortar for 10 minutes, pour off the liquid
portion, and add of oil of almonds 2 fl. oz.
2. (Kopp.) Solution of chloride of lime (ordinary), 1 part; olive oil, 2
parts.
3. (Waller.) Chloride of lime (in fine powder), 1 part; soft soap, 2
parts; soft water, q. s. to make a liniment.
_Obs._ The above are cleanly and excellent applications in itch, scald
head, herpes, lepra, foul ulcers, &c.
=Liniment of Chlo′′roform.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM CHLOROFORMI, B. P. _Prep._
1. (B. P.) Chloroform, 1; liniment of camphor, 1; mix. The oil in the
camphor liniment prevents the evaporation of the chloroform. Stimulating
on application to a tender skin.
2. Chloroform, 1 fl. dr.; almond oil, 7 fl. dr.; mix in a phial, and
agitate it until the two unite.
3. (Tuson.) Chloroform, 1 fl. dr.; soap liniment, 2 fl. oz.; as the last.
Used as an application in neuralgic pains, rheumatism, &c.
=Liniment of Cod-liver Oil.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM OLEI MORRHUÆ, L. O. JACORIS
ASELLI, L. _Prep._ (Dr Brach.) Cod-liver oil, 2 fl. oz.; liquor of
ammonia, 1 fl. oz.; mix. Resolvent, dispersive; applied to glandular
tumours, scrofulous enlargements, &c.
=Liniment of Cro′ton Oil.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM CROTONIS (B. P., Ph. D.), L.
OLEI CROTONIS, L. O. TIGLII, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Croton oil, 1; oil of
cajeput, 3-1/2; rectified spirit, 3-1/2; mix.
2. (Ph. D.) Croton oil, 1 fl. oz.; oil of turpentine, 7 fl. oz.; mix by
agitation.
3. (J. Allen.) Croton oil and liquor of potassa, of each, 1 fl. dr.;
agitate until mixed, then add of rose water, 2 fl. oz.
4 (Pereira.) Croton oil, 1 part; olive oil, 5 parts.
_Obs._ The above are used as counter-irritants; in rheumatism, neuralgia,
bronchial and pulmonary affections, &c. When rubbed on the skin, redness,
and a pustular eruption ensue, and in general the bowels are acted on.
=Liniment, Diuretic.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM DIURETICUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr
Calini.) Squills (in fine powder), 1 dr.; gastric juice of a calf, 2 oz.;
mix.
2. (Dr Christison.) Soap liniment, tincture of foxglove, and tincture of
squills, equal parts. In dropsies; rubbed over the abdomen or loins twice
or thrice a day.
=Liniment, Emol′lient.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM ALBUM, L. EMOLLIENS, L. _Prep._
From camphor, 1 dr.; Peruvian balsam, 1/2 dr.; oil of almonds, 1 fl. oz.;
dissolve by heat, add of glycerin, 1/2 fl. oz., agitate well, and, when
cold, further add of oil of nutmeg, 15 drops. Excellent for chapped hands,
lips, nipples, &c.
=Liniment of Foxglove.= (Dr Royle.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM DIGITALIS. _Prep._
Infusion of digitalis, 2 fl. oz.; water of ammonia, 2 fl. dr.; oil of
poppy seed, 4 fl. dr.; mix. To be rubbed on the abdomen 3 or 4 times a
day.
=Liniment of Gar′lic.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM ALII, L. _Prep._ From juice of
garlic, 2 parts; olive oil, 3 parts; mix. In hooping-cough, infantile
convulsions, &c.
=Liniment of Gin′ger.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM ZINGIBERIS, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Turnbull.) Ginger, 1 part; rectified spirit, 2 parts; make a tincture or
essence. For short-sightedness. A few drops are occasionally rubbed on the
forehead for 8 or 10 minutes at a time. How this tincture came to be
called a liniment we are at a loss to determine.
=Liniment of Glycerin.= (Mr Startin.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM GLYCERINI. _Prep._
Soap liniment, 3 oz.; glycerin, 1 oz.; extract of belladonna, 1 oz.; mix.
For gouty, rheumatic, and neuralgic pains. A little veratrine is sometimes
added.
=Liniment, Green.= (Dr Campbell.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM VIRIDE. Camphor, 1
oz.; olive oil, 6 oz.; extract of hemlock, 1 oz.; spirit of ammonia, 2 oz.
Mix.
=Liniment of Hellebore.= (Dornbleuth.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM HELLEBORI.
_Prep._ Soft soap, 4 oz.; hellebore powder, 2 oz.; hot water, q. s.
=Liniment, Hunga′′rian.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM HUNGARICUM, L. _Prep._
(Soubeiran.) Powdered cantharides and sliced garlic, of each 1 dr.;
camphor, bruised mustard seed, and black pepper, of each 4 dr.; strong
vinegar, 6 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 12 fl. oz.; macerate a week, and
filter. An excellent rubefacient and counter-irritant.
=Liniment of Hydrochlo′′ric Acid.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM MURIATICUM, L. ACIDI
MURIATICI, L. A. HYDROCHLORICI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Hosp. F.) Olive oil, 2 oz.;
white wax, 2 dr.; dissolve by a gentle heat, add of balsam of Peru, 1 dr.;
hydrochloric acid, 2 dr.; mix well. An excellent application to chilblains
before they break.
2. (W. Cooley.) Olive oil, 1/4 pint; white spermaceti (pure) and camphor,
of each 1/2 oz.; mix with heat, add of hydrochloric acid, 1/2 fl. oz., and
proceed as before. Equal to the last, and cheaper. This was extensively
employed among the seamen of the Royal Navy by Mr Cooley with uniform
success.
=Liniment of I′odide of Potas′sium.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM IODURETUM
GELATINOSUM, L. GELÉE POUR LE GOITRE, Fr. _Prep._ (Foy.) Iodide of
potassium, 4 dr.; proof spirit, 2 oz.; dissolve, and add the liquid to a
solution of curd soap, 6 dr., in proof spirit, 2 oz., both being at the
time gently warmed; lastly, aromatise with rose or neroli, pour it into
wide-mouthed bottles, and keep them closely corked. In goitre, &c.
=Liniment of Iodide of Sulphur.= (Prof. E. Wilson.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM
SULPHURIS IODIDI. _Prep._ Iodide of sulphur, 30 gr.; olive oil, 1 fl. dr.;
triturate together.
=Liniment of I′odine.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM IODI (B. P.); IODURETTED
LINIMENT; LINIMENTUM IODINII, L. IODURETUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Iodine,
5; iodide of potassium, 2; camphor, 1; rectified spirit, 40; dissolve.
2. (Cutan. Hosp.) Compound tincture of iodine and laudanum, equal parts.
3. (Dr Copland.) Soap liniment, 1 oz.; iodine, 8 to 10 gr.
4. (Guibourt.) Iodide of potassium, 1 dr.; water, 1 fl. dr.; dissolve, and
add to it white soap (in shavings) and oil of almonds, of each 10 dr.,
previously melted together. Some perfume may be added. In scrofula,
glandular enlargements, rheumatism, &c.
=Liniment of Ipecacuanha.= (Dr Neligan.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM IPECACUANHÆ.
_Prep._ Ipecacuanha in fine powder, 4 dr.; lard, 2 dr.; olive oil, 1-1/2
fl. oz.
=Liniment of Juniper.= (Dr Sully.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM JUNIPERI. _Prep._ Oil
of juniper, 1-1/2 oz.; lard, 2 oz.; oil of aniseed, 6 drops. For
scald-head.
=Liniment of Labdanum.= (Quincy.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM LABDANI; LINIMENTUM
CRINISCANI. _Prep._ Labdanum, 6 dr.; bear’s grease, 2 oz.; honey, 1/2 oz.;
powdered southernwood, 3 dr.; oil of nutmeg, 1 dr.; balsam of Peru, 2 dr.;
mix. To restore the hair.
=Liniment of Lead.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM PLUMBI, L. _Prep._ (Gaozey.) Acetate
of lead, 40 gr.; soft water, 12 fl. oz.; olive oil, 6 oz.; mix, and
agitate well. Astringent and refrigerant. Useful in excoriations,
especially when accompanied with inflammation.
=Liniment of Lime.= _Syn._ LINIMENT FOR BURNS, CARRON OIL; LINIMENTUM
CALCIS (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. AQUÆ CALCIS, OLEUM LINI CUM CALCIS, L. _Prep._
1. From olive oil (linseed oil——Ph. E.) and lime water, equal parts,
shaken together until they are mixed. Very useful in burns and scalds.
2. (Compound; LINIMENTUM CALCIS COMPOSITUM, L.)——_a._ (Camphorated——W.
Cooley.) Camphor liniment and lime water, equal parts.
_b._ (Opiated——W. Cooley.) Lime water and camphor liniment, of each 1 oz.;
extract of opium, 5 gr.; mix. Both are used as anodynes to allay pain and
irritation in severe burns, chilblains, &c., for which purpose they are
excellent. All the above liniments with lime water should be used as soon
as possible after being prepared, as the ingredients separate by keeping.
=Liniment of Mercury.= _Syn._ MERCURIAL LINIMENT; LINIMENTUM HYDRARGYRI
(B. P., Ph. L.), LIN. H. COMPOSITUM (Ph. L. 1836), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.)
Ointment of mercury, 1; solution of ammonia, 1; liniment of camphor, 1.
Melt the ointment in the liniment, add the ammonia, and shake them
together.
2. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 1 oz.; spirit of wine, 1 fl. dr.; sprinkle the latter
on the former, powder, add of lard and mercurial ointment (stronger), of
each 4 oz.; rub them well together, then gradually add of liquor of
ammonia, 4 fl. oz.; and mix well. Stimulant and discutient. It resembles
mercurial ointment in its effects; but though milder in its operation, it
more quickly produces salivation.
=Liniment of Mor′phia.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM MORPHIÆ, L. _Prep._ (W. Cooley.)
Pure morphia, 3 gr.; put it into a warm mortar, add very gradually, of oil
of almonds (warm), 1 fl. oz., and triturate until the morphia is
dissolved, then add of camphor liniment, 1 oz. An excellent topical
anodyne and antispasmodic, which often allays pain when other means have
failed.
=Liniment of Mus′tard.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM SINAPIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Flour of
mustard (best), 1 oz.; water, tepid, 2 fl. oz.; mix, and add of glycerin,
liquor of ammonia, and olive oil, of each 1 fl. oz.
2. (Béral.) Carbonate of ammonia (in fine powder), 1 part; camphor (in
powder), 2 parts; oil of lavender, 4 parts; tincture of mustard, 6 parts;
mix, dissolve by agitation, add of simple liniment (warm), 56 parts, and
again agitate until the whole is perfectly incorporated.
3. Black mustard seed (ground in pepper-mill or otherwise well bruised),
1/4 lb.; oil of turpentine, 1 pint; digest, express the liquid, filter,
and dissolve it in camphor, 1/2 lb. Stimulant and rubefacient. A popular
and useful remedy in rheumatic pains, lumbago, colic, chilblains, &c. The
last is a close imitation of Whitehead’s ‘Essence of Mustard.’
4. (LIN. OLEI VOLATILIS SINAPIS.)——_a._ From volatile oil of black mustard
seed, 1/2 dr.; oil of almonds, 1 fl. oz. As a rubefacient.
_b._ From volatile oil, 1 part; alcohol (sp. gr. ·815), 1 to 2 parts. As a
vesicant.
=Liniment of Mustard (Compound).= LINIMENTUM SINAPIS COMPOSITUM (B. P.).
Oil of mustard, 1 dr.; ethereal extract of mezereon, 40 gr.; camphor, 2
dr.; castor oil, 5 dr.; rectified spirit, 32 dr.; dissolve.
=Liniment, Narcotic.= (P. Codex.) _Syn._ LINIMENT CALMANT; LINIMENTUM
NARCOTICUM. _Prep._ Anodyne balsam, 8 parts; compound wine of opium, cold
cream, of each 1 part. Mix.
=Liniment of Ni′trate of Mercury.= _Syn._ CITRINE LINIMENT; LINIMENTUM
HYDRARGYRI NITRATIS, L. _Prep._ (Sir H. Halford.) Ointment of nitrate of
mercury and olive oil, equal parts, triturated together in a glass mortar,
or mixed by a gentle heat. This liniment is stimulant, discutient, and
alterative, and in its general properties resembles the ointment of the
same name. For most purposes the quantity of oil should be at least
doubled.
=Liniment of Nux Vom′ica.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM NUCIS VOMICÆ, L. _Prep._
(Magendie.) Tincture of nux vomica, 1 fl. oz.; liquor of ammonia, 2 fl.
dr.; mix. As a stimulating application to paralysed limbs. The addition of
1/2 fl. dr. each of glycerin and salad oil renders it an excellent
application in chronic rheumatism and neuralgia.
=Liniment of Oil of Ergot.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM OLEI ERGOTÆ. _Prep._ Oil of
ergot, 1 dr.; oil of almonds, or sulphuric ether, 3 dr.; mix.
=Liniment of O′pium.= _Syn._ ANODYNE LINIMENT; LINIMENTUM OPII (B. P., Ph.
L. & E.), L. OPII or L. ANODYNUM (Ph. D.), L. SAPONIS CUM OPIO, L. _Prep._
1. (B. P.) Tincture of opium, 1; liniment of soap, 1; mix.
2. Tincture of opium, 2 fl. oz.; soap liniment, 6 fl. oz.; mix.
3. (Ph. E.) Castile soap, 6 oz.; opium, 1-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1
quart; digest for three days, then filter, add of camphor, 3 oz., oil of
rosemary, 6 fl. dr., and agitate briskly.
4. (Ph. D.) Soap liniment and tincture of opium, equal parts.
5. (Wholesale.) Soft soap, 1-1/4 lb.; powdered opium and camphor, of each
1/4 lb.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; digest a week.
_Obs._ This preparation is an excellent anodyne in local pains,
rheumatism, neuralgia, sprains, &c.
=Liniment of Phos′phorus.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM PHOSPHORATUM, L. _Prep._
(Augustin.) Phosphorus, 6 gr.; camphor, 12 gr.; oil of almonds, 1 oz.;
dissolve by heat; when cold, decant the clear portion, and add of
strongest liquor of ammonia 10 drops. A useful friction in gout, chronic
rheumatism, certain obstinate cutaneous affections, &c.
=Liniment de Rosen.= (P. C.) _Prep._ Oil of mace, 4 parts; oil of cloves,
4 parts; oil of juniper, 9 parts. Mix.
=Liniment, Sim′ple.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM SIMPLEX (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph.
E.) White wax, 1 oz.; olive oil, 4 fl. oz.; melt together, and stir the
mixture until it is cold. Emollient; resembles spermaceti ointment in all
except its consistence.
=Liniment of Soap.= _Syn._ OPODELDOC, CAMPHORATED TINCTURE OF SOAP, BALSAM
OF S.; LINIMENTUM SAPONIS (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.) L. SAPONACEUM, TINCTURA
SAPONIS CAMPHORATA, BALSAMUM SAPONIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Hard soap (cut
small), 2-1/2 oz.; camphor, 1-1/4 oz.; English oil of rosemary, 3 dr.;
rectified spirit, 18 oz.; distilled water, 2 oz.; mix the water and
spirit, add the other ingredients, digest at a temperature not exceeding
70° Fahr., agitating occasionally for seven days, and filter.
2. (Ph. L.) Castile soap (cut small), 2-1/2 oz.; camphor (small), 10 dr.;
spirit of rosemary, 18 fl. oz.; water, 2 fl. oz.; digest with frequent
agitation until the solid substances are dissolved.
3. (Ph. E.) Castile soap, 5 oz.; camphor, 2-1/2 oz.; oil of rosemary, 6
fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart.
4. (Ph. D.) Castile soap (in powder), 2 oz.; camphor, 1 oz.; proof spirit,
16 fl. oz.
5. (LINIMENT SAVONNEAU——P. Cod.) Tincture of soap (P. Cod.) and rectified
spirit (·863 or 41 o. p.), of each 8 parts; olive oil, 1 part.
_Obs._ This article, prepared according to the directions of the
Pharmacopœia, from ‘soap made of olive oil and soda’ (Castile soap), is
apt to gelatinise in cold weather, and to deposit crystals of elaidate and
stearate of lime. This may be avoided, when expense is not an objection,
by first well drying the soap, employing a spirit of at least 85%, and
keeping the preparation in well-closed bottles. A cheaper and better plan
is to substitute the ‘soft soap’ of the Ph. L. (‘soap made with olive oil
and potassa’) for the Castile soap ordered by the College. The soft soap
of commerce imparts to the liniment an unpleasant smell. The following
formula, one of those commonly adopted by the wholesale druggists,
produces a very good article, though much weaker than that of the
Pharmacopœia.
6. (Wholesale.) Camphor (cut small), 1-1/2 lb.; soft soap, 7 lbs.; oil of
rosemary, 3 fl. oz.; rectified spirit of wine and water, of each 3-1/2
galls.; digest with occasional agitation for a week, and filter. This is
the ‘opodeldoc’ or ‘soap liniment’ of the shops.
_Uses._ Soap liniment is stimulant, discutient, and lubricating, and is a
popular remedy in rheumatism, local pains, swellings, bruises, sprains,
&c.
7. (With Opium.) See LINIMENT OF OPIUM.
8. (Sulphuretted; LINIMENTUM SAPONIS SULPHURETUM, L. SULPHURO-SAPONACEUM——
Jadelot, L.) Sulphuret of potassium, 3 oz.; soap, 12 oz.; water, q. s.;
melt together, and add of olive oil, 12 oz.; oil of origanum, 1 fl. dr.;
mix well. An excellent remedy for the itch, and some allied skin diseases.
=Liniment of Strychnia.= (Dr Neligan.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM STRYCHNIÆ.
Strychnia, 30 gr.; olive oil, 1-1/2 fl. oz. Ten drops to be rubbed over
the temples in amaurosis.
=Liniment of Sul′phide of Carbon.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM CARBONIS SULPHURETI,
L. _Prep._ 1. From bisulphide of carbon, 1 dr.; camphorated oil, 1 oz.;
mix.
2. (Lampadius.) Camphor, 2 dr.; bisulphuret of carbon, 4 fl. dr.;
dissolve, and add of rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz. In rheumatism, gouty
nodes, &c.
=Liniment of Sulphu′ric Acid.= See LINIMENT, ACID.
=Liniment, Tripharm′ic.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM TRIPHARMICUM (Ph. L. 1746), L.
_Prep._ Take of lead plaster and olive oil, of each 4 oz.; melt, add of
strong vinegar, 1 fl. oz., and stir until cold. Cooling and desiccative;
in excoriations, burns, &c.
=Liniment of Tur′pentine.= _Syn._ KENTISH’S LINIMENT; LINIMENTUM
TEREBINTHINÆ (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), L. TEREBINTHINATUM (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._
1. (B. P.) Oil of turpentine, 16; camphor, 1; soft soap, 2; dissolve the
camphor in the turpentine, then add the soap, and rub till thoroughly
mixed.
2. (Ph. L.) Soft soap, 2 oz.; camphor, 1 oz.; oil of turpentine, 10 fl.
oz.; shake them together until mixed. Stimulant; in lumbago, cholera,
colic, &c.
3. (Ph. L. 1824.) Resin cerate, 6 oz.; oil of turpentine, 4 fl. oz.; mix.
An excellent application to burns.
4. (Ph. E.) Resin ointment, 4 oz.; camphor, 4 dr.; dissolve by a gentle
heat, and stir in oil of turpentine, 5 fl. oz.
5. (Ph. D.) Oil of turpentine, 5 fl. oz.; resin ointment, 8 oz.; mix by a
gentle heat. This forms Dr Kentish’s celebrated application to burns and
scalds. The parts are first bathed with warm oil of turpentine or brandy,
and then covered with pledgets of lint, smeared with the liniment.
6. (Compound——_a._ B. LINIMENTUM TEREBINTHINÆ ACETICUM.) Oil of
turpentine, 1; acetic acid, 1; liniment of camphor, 1; mix.
_b._ (LINIMENTUM TEREBINTHINÆ COMPOSITUM, L.) Acetic: ST JOHN LONG’S
LINIMENT; (LINIMENTUM TEREBINTHINÆ ACETICUM, L.) Oil of turpentine, 3 oz.;
rose water, 2-1/2 fl. oz.; acetic acid, 5 dr.; oil of lemons, 1 dr.; yolk
of egg, 1; make an emulsion. As a counter-irritant in phthisis.
_c._ (Ammoniated——Debreyne.) Lard, 3 oz.; melt, and add, of oil of
turpentine and olive oil, of each 1 oz.; when cold, further add of
camphorated spirit, 4 fl. dr.; liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. dr. In sciatica,
lumbago, &c.
_d._ (Opiated——Recamier.) Oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz.; oil of chamomile,
2 fl. oz.; tincture of opium, 1 fl. dr. In neuralgia, &c.
_e._ (Sulphuric——Ph. Castr. Ruthena.) Oil of turpentine, 2 oz.; olive oil,
5 oz.; mix, and add of dilute sulphuric acid, 1-1/2 dr. See ACID LINIMENT.
=Liniment of Vera′trine.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM VERATRIÆ, L. _Prep._ (Brande.)
Veratrine, 8 gr.; alcohol, 1/2 fl. oz.; dissolve, and add of soap
liniment, 1/2 fl. oz. In neuralgic and rheumatic pains, gout, &c.
=Liniment of Ver′digris.= _Syn._ OXYMEL OF VERDIGRIS; LINIMENTUM ÆRUGINIS
(Ph. L.), OXYMEL ÆRUGINIS (Ph. L. 1738), OXYMEL CUPRI SUBACETATIS (Ph. D.
1826), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Verdigris (in powder), 1 oz.; vinegar, 7 fl.
oz.; dissolve, filter, through linen, add of honey, 14 oz., and evaporate
to a proper consistence.
_Obs._ This preparation is wrongly named a ‘liniment.’ The College, after
‘beating about the bush’ for nearly a century, found a right name for it
in 1788; but, as in many other cases, soon abandoned it for another less
appropriate.
Oxymel of verdigris is stimulant, detergent, and escharotic. It is applied
to indolent ulcers, especially of the throat, by means of a camel-hair
pencil; and, diluted with water, it is used as a gargle. Care must be
taken to avoid swallowing it, as it occasions vomiting and excessive
purging.
=Liniment, Ver′mifuge.= Syn. LINIMENTUM ANTHELMINTICUM, L. VERMIFUGUM, L.
_Prep._ Castor oil, 1 oz.; essential oils of wormwood and tansy, of each
1/2 oz.; Dr Peschier’s ethereal tincture of pennyroyal buds, 20 drops;
mix. Employed in frictions on the abdomen in cases of worms in children.
Its activity may be still further increased by the addition of a little
garlic juice. (‘Journ. de Méd.’) An excellent medicine.
=Liniment, Vesicating.= (Dr Montgomery.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM VESICANS. For
children. Prep. Compound camphor liniment, 4 fl. dr.; oil of turpentine, 2
fl. dr. To produce immediate vesication in adults. Mix one part of the
strongest liquor ammoniæ, with two of olive oil, and apply six drops on
spongio-piline for ten minutes.
=Liniment, Ware’s.= _Prep._ From camphor liniment, 1 oz.; solution of
carbonate of potassa, 1 dr. In amaurosis.
=Liniment, White’s.= The old name for spermaceti ointment.
=Liniment, White.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM ALBUM. _Prep._ Rectified oil of
turpentine, 2 oz.; solution of ammonia, 2 oz.; soap liniment, 3 oz.;
spirit of rosemary, 1 oz. Mix in the above order, and gradually add with
continual agitation, distilled vinegar, 8 oz. For chapped hands.
=Liniment, Wilkinson’s.= _Prep._ (Phœbus.) Prepared chalk, 20 gr.;
sulphur, lard, and tar, of each 1/2 oz.; mix, and add of Boyle’s fuming
liquor, 10 or 15 drops. In certain chronic skin diseases, neuralgia, &c.
=Linimentum Aconiti.= (B. P.) Aconite root, in powder, 20; camphor, 1;
rectified spirit, to percolate, 30. Moisten the root for 3 days, then pack
in a percolator, and pour sufficient rectified spirit upon it to produce
with the camphor 20.
Strength, 1 in 1. Applied with a camel-hair pencil, alone or mixed in
equal proportions, with a soap liniment or compound camphor liniment, and
rubbed on the part. Seven parts of this, and 1 part of chloroformum
belladonna, and sprinkled thinly on impermeable piline, is the best
application for neuralgia or lumbago.
=Linimentum Potassii Iodidi cum Sapone.= (B. P.) Hard soap, in powder,
1-1/2; iodide of potassium, 1-1/2; glycerin, 1; oil of lemon, 1/8; water,
1. Dissolve the soap in 7 of water by heat of a water bath; dissolve the
iodide of potassium in the remainder of the water, and mix by trituration
the two solutions, and when cold add the oil of lemon, and mix thoroughly.
=LINOLEIC ACID.= C_{16}H_{28}O_{2}. This may be obtained by saponifying
linseed oil. It is a liquid acid, and rapidly oxidizes when exposed to the
air, becoming converted into oxylinoleic acid, which is incapable of
solidification even at low temperatures.
=LIN′SEED.= _Syn._ FLAX SEED; LINI SEMINA, L. The seed of _Linum
usitatissimum_ (Linn.), or common flax. (Ph. L.) Oily, emollient,
demulcent, and nutritive. Ground to powder (linseed meal; farina lini), it
is used for poultices. The cake left after expressing the oil (linseed
cake) contains, when of average quality, in 100 parts, moisture, 12·70;
oil, 11·32; albumenoids, 28·21; mucilage, &c., 29·42; indigestible fibre,
12·46; ash, 5·89. It is used for feeding cattle. Under the form of tea or
infusion it is used as a diluent, and to allay irritation in bronchial,
urinary, and other like affections. See INFUSION OF LINSEED.
=LINSEED CAKE.= See LINSEED.
=LINT.= _Syn._ LINTEUM, L. White linen-cloth, scraped by hand or
machinery, so as to render it soft and woolly. The hand-made lint is now
little used; it was prepared from pieces of old linen-cloth. The
machine-made lint is prepared from a fabric woven on purpose. A lint made
from cotton (cotton-lint) is now largely manufactured; it is much inferior
to the true lint, being a bad conductor of heat. Lint is used for dressing
ulcers, either alone or smeared with some suitable ointment or cerate.
=Lint, Medica′ted.= _Syn._ LINTEUM MEDICATUM, L. NIGRUM, L. INFERNALE, L.
_Prep._ 1. Nitrate of silver, 20 to 30 gr.; distilled water, 1 fl. oz.;
dissolve, saturate dry lint, 1/2 oz., with the solution, and expose it in
a saucer or capsule to the light and air, until it has become black and
dry.
2. Nitrate of silver and nitrate of copper, of each 1/2 dr.; lint, 1 oz.;
water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; as the last. Used to dress old and indolent ulcers.
=LIP SALVE.= See SALVE.
=LIQUA′TION.= The process of sweating out by heat the more fusible metals
of an alloy. Metallurgists avail themselves of this method in assaying and
refining the precious metals and procuring antimony and some other metals
from their ores.
=LIQUEFA′′CIENTS.= _Syn._ RESOLVENTS; LIQUEFACIENTIA, RESOLVENTIA, L. In
_pharmacy_, substances or agents which promote secretion and exhalation,
soften and loosen textures, and promote the absorption or removal of
enlargements, indurations, &c. To this class belong the alkalies,
antimony, bromine, chlorine, iodine, mercury, sulphur, &c., and their
preparations.
=LIQUEFAC′TION.= The assumption of the liquid form. It is usually applied
to the conversion of a solid into the liquid state, which may arise from
increase of temperature (fusion), absorption of water from the atmosphere
(deliquescence), or the action of a body already fluid (solution).
=Liquefaction of Gases.= Under the combined influence of pressure and
cold, all the gases may be liquefied, and some even solidified. The first
satisfactory experiments in this direction were made by Faraday, who
succeeded in reducing to the liquid condition eight bodies which had
hitherto been regarded as permanent gases, namely, ammonia, carbonic
anhydride, chlorine, cyanogen, hydrochloric acid, nitrous oxide,
sulphuretted hydrogen, and sulphurous anhydride. His method of proceeding
was very simple:——the materials were sealed up in a strong, narrow, glass
tube, bent so as to form an obtuse angle, together with a little ‘pressure
gauge,’ consisting of a slender tube closed at one end, and having within
it, near the open extremity, a globule of mercury. The gas, being
disengaged by the application of heat or otherwise, accumulated in the
tube, and by its own pressure brought about liquefaction. The force
required for this purpose was judged of by the diminution of volume of the
air in the pressure gauge. By employing powerful condensing syringes, and
an extremely low temperature, Faraday subsequently succeeded in liquefying
olefiant gas, hydriodic and hydrobromic acids, phosphuretted hydrogen, and
the gaseous fluorides of silicon and boron. He failed, however, with
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, nitric oxide, carbonic oxide, and coal-gas,
all of which refused to liquefy at the temperature of -166° Fahr., while
subjected to pressures varying in different cases from 27 to 58
atmospheres.
Within the last year, however, viz. toward the end of 1877, these hitherto
refractory gases have been reduced to the liquid, and, in the case of
hydrogen, to the solid state. These results have been accomplished by
subjecting the gases to a pressure considerably greater than that employed
by Faraday, combined with the expedient of the sudden removal of this
pressure, whereby the escaping gas (previously enormously reduced in
temperature) in the act of expansion robs the remainder of so much of its
heat as to leave it in the fluid condition.
The liquefaction of oxygen was accomplished independently by M. Cailletet,
of Paris, and M. Pictet, of Geneva; the French chemist having effected it
on December 2nd, 1877, and the Swiss one on the 22nd of the same month.
Simultaneously with Cailletet’s announcement of the liquefaction of
oxygen, that of carbonic oxide was made by the same chemist; who, about
three weeks after at a meeting in the Paris Academy of Sciences, stated
that he had also reduced hydrogen, nitrogen, and atmospheric air to the
fluid state.
In the previous November he had been equally successful in converting
gaseous nitric oxide into a liquid.
M. Cailletet, in a communication to the Paris Academy of Sciences, read by
M. Dumas at a meeting of that body on 24th December, 1877, thus describes
the process by which he liquefied the gases oxygen and carbonic oxide.
“If oxygen or pure carbonic oxide be enclosed in a tube such as I have
before described, and placed in an apparatus for compression like that
which has already been worked before the Academy,[17] and the gas be then
lowered in temperature to 29° C., by means of sulphurous acid and at a
pressure of about 300 atmospheres, the two gases preserve their gaseous
state.
[Footnote 17: This apparatus, which consists of a hollow steel cylinder,
to which is attached a strong glass tube, is described in the ‘Comptes
Rendus,’ tome 85, p. 851. The gas is forced into it by means of a
hydraulic pump with the intervention of a cushion of mercury.]
“But if they are allowed to suddenly expand, this expansion, according to
the formula of Poisson, reducing them to a temperature at least 200° C.
below their initial temperature, causes them immediately to assume the
appearance of an intense fog, which is caused by the liquefaction and
perhaps by the solidification of the oxygen or carbonic acid.
“The same phenomenon is also observed, upon the expansion of carbonic
acid, and of protoxide and binoxide of nitrogen, when under strong
pressure.
“This fog is produced with oxygen, even when the gas is at the ordinary
pressure, provided time is allowed for it to part with the heat it
acquires in the mere act of compression.
“This I demonstrated by experiments performed on Sunday, the 16th
December, at the Chemical Laboratory of the Ecole Normale Supérieure,
before a certain number of savants and professors, amongst whom were some
members of the Academy of Sciences. I had hoped to find in Paris, together
with the materials necessary for the production of a high degree of cold
(protoxide of nitrogen or liquid carbonic acid), a pump capable of
supplying the place of my compression apparatus at Châtillon-sur-Seine.
Unfortunately a pump well fixed and suited to this sort of experiment
could not be found in Paris, and I was obliged to send to
Châtillon-sur-Seine for the refrigerating substances for collecting the
condensed matters on the walls of the tube.
“To know whether oxygen and carbonic oxide are in a liquid or a solid
state in the fog would necessitate an optical experiment more easy to
imagine than to accomplish, because of the form and the thickness of the
tubes containing them. Furthermore, chemical reactions will assure me that
the oxygen is not transformed into ozone in the act of compression. I
shall reserve the study of all these questions till the apparatus I am now
having made is complete.
“Under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, even the most
rapid expansion of pure hydrogen gives no trace of nebulous matter. There
remains for me only nitrogen to study, the small solubility of which in
water induces me to believe that it will prove very refractory to all
change of condition.”[18]
[Footnote 18: ‘Comptes Rendus,’ tome 5, p. 1213.]
[Illustration]
M. Pictet’s process for liquefying oxygen, although differing in the
method of working, is similar in principle to that of M. Cailletet. His
paper, which was read at the same sitting of the Academy as M.
Cailletet’s, thus describes it:——
“A and B, in the accompanying figure, are two double section and force
pumps, coupled together on the compound system, one causing a vacuum in
the other in such a manner as to obtain the greatest possible difference
between the pressures of suction and forcing.”
The pumps act on anhydrous sulphurous acid contained in the cylindrical
receiver c. The pressure in this receiver is such that the sulphurous acid
is evaporated from it at a temperature of 65° C. below zero.
The sulphurous acid is forced by the pumps into a condenser, d, cooled by
a current of cold water; here it liquefies at the temperature of 25° above
zero, and at a pressure of about 2-3/4 atmospheres.
The sulphurous acid returns to the receiver C as it liquefies by the
little tube _d_.
E and F are two pumps resembling the preceding, and coupled in the same
manner. They act upon carbonic acid contained in a cylindrical receiver H.
The temperature in this latter receiver is such that the carbonic acid
evaporates from it at a temperature of 140° C. below zero.
The carbonic acid forced on by the pumps is driven into the condenser K,
enclosed in the sulphurous acid receiver C, which has a temperature of 65°
below zero; the carbonic acid here becomes liquefied at a pressure of five
atmospheres.
The carbonic acid, in proportion as it liquefies, returns to the
receptacle H by the small tube _k_.
L is a retort of wrought iron, sufficiently thick to resist a pressure of
500 atmospheres. It contains chlorate of potassium, and is heated in such
a manner as to give off pure oxygen. It communicates by a tubulure with an
inclined tube, M, made of very thick glass, one metre in length, which is
enveloped by the receiver, H, containing carbonic acid at the temperature
of 140° below zero.
A tap, N, situated upon the tubulure of the retort, permits of the opening
of an orifice, P, which leads into the surrounding air.
After the four pumps have been worked for several hours by means of a
steam engine of 15-horse power, and when all the oxygen has been
disengaged, the pressure in the glass tube is 320 atmospheres, and the
temperature at 140° below zero.
Upon suddenly opening the orifice, P, the oxygen escapes with violence,
producing, in doing so, so considerable an expansion and absorption of
heat as to cause a liquefied portion to appear in the glass tube, and to
spirt out from the orifice when the apparatus is sloped.
It ought to be stated that the quantity of liquefied oxygen contained in
the tube one metre long and 0·01 m. in internal diameter, occupied about a
third of its length, and issued from the orifice P in the form of a liquid
jet.
In a communication to M. Dumas, received two days after the above sitting,
M. Pictet described his experiments more fully, prefacing the account by
the following very interesting remarks:——“The end to which I have been
tending for the last 3 years has been to seek to demonstrate
experimentally that molecular cohesion is a general property of bodies
without exception.
“If the permanent gases cannot be liquefied, it must be concluded that
their constituent particles do not attract each other, and are therefore
independent of this law.
“To succeed experimentally in bringing the molecules of a gas into the
closest possible proximity, and thus to obtain its liquefaction, certain
indispensable conditions are necessary, which I thus sum up:
“1. To have a gas that must be perfectly pure and without a trace of
foreign gas.
“2. To have at one’s disposal very powerful means of compression.
“3. To obtain an intense degree of cold, and the abstraction of heat at
these low temperatures.
“4. To have a large surface of condensation maintained at these low
temperatures.
“5. To have the power of utilising the expansion of the gas under
considerable pressure to the atmospheric pressure, which expansion added
to the preceding means compels liquefaction.
“With these five conditions fulfilled, we may formulate the following
problem.
“When a gas is compressed at 500 or 600 atmospheres, and kept at a
temperature of -100° or 140°, and then let expand to the pressure of the
atmosphere, one of two things must occur. Either the gas, obeying the
action of cohesion, liquefies and yields its heat of condensation to the
portion of the gas, which expands and is lost in the gaseous form; or
under the hypothesis that cohesion is not a natural law, the gas passes
beyond absolute zero, that is to say, it becomes inert, a dust without
consistence. The work of expansion would be impossible, and the loss of
heat absolute.”
Spite of M. Cailletet’s supposition that nitrogen would prove a very
incoercible gas, his experiments showed the contrary, since he found that
it easily condensed under a pressure of about 200 atmospheres and at a
temperature of 13° C., the conditions as to its sudden expansion being
observed.
Hydrogen, the lightest of all the gases, which M. Cailletet could only
procure in the form of mist, was unmistakably liquefied by M. Pictet
within less than a fortnight afterwards, under a pressure of 650
atmospheres and 140° of cold.
The tap which confined the gas at this pressure, being opened, a jet of a
steel blue colour escaped from the orifice, accompanied by a hissing
sound, like that given off when a red-hot iron is dipped into cold water.
The jet suddenly became intermittent, and a shower of solid particles of
the hydrogen fell to the ground with a crackling noise. The hydrogen was
obtained by the decomposition of formiate of potash by caustic potash, the
gas thus yielded being absolutely pure.
Cailletet states that he succeeded perfectly in liquefying atmospheric
air, previously deprived of moisture and carbonic acid, but he omits to
mention the pressure and reduction of temperature to which the air was
subjected. He liquefied nitric oxide at the pressure of 104 atmospheres
and at a temperature of -11° C.
Carbonic anhydride is liquefied on the large scale by condensing it in
strong vessels of gun-metal or boiler-plate. Thilorier was the first to
procure it in a solid condition. It requires a pressure of between 27 and
28 atmospheres at 32° F. (Adams.) The liquefied acid is colourless and
limpid, lighter than water, and four times more expansible than air; it
mixes in all proportions with ether, alcohol, naphtha, oil of turpentine,
and sulphide of carbon; and is insoluble in water and fat oils. When a jet
of liquid carbonic anhydride is allowed to issue into the air from a
narrow aperture, such an intense degree of cold is produced by the
evaporation of a part, that the remainder freezes to a solid (solid
carbonic anhydride), and falls in a shower of snow. This substance, which
may be collected, affords a means of producing extreme cold. Mixed with a
little ether, and poured upon a mass of mercury, the latter is almost
instantly frozen. The temperature of this mixture in the air was found to
be -106° Fahr.; when the same mixture was placed beneath the receiver of
an air-pump, and exhaustion rapidly performed, the temperature sank to
-166°. This degree of cold was employed in Faraday’s last experiments on
the liquefaction of gases.
=LIQUEUR.= [Fr.] _Syn._ CORDIAL. A stimulating beverage, formed of weak
spirit, aromatised and sweetened. The manufacture of liqueurs constitutes
the trade of the ‘compounder,’ ‘rectifier,’ or ‘liquoriste.’
The materials employed in the preparation of liqueurs or cordials are rain
or distilled water, white sugar, clean flavourless spirit, and flavouring
ingredients. To these may be added the substances employed as ‘finings,’
when artificial clarification is had recourse to.
The utensils and apparatus required in the business are those ordinarily
found in the wine and spirit cellar; together with a copper still,
furnished with a pewter head and a pewter worm or condenser, when the
method ‘by distillation’ is pursued. A barrel, hogshead, or rum puncheon,
sawn in two, or simply ‘unheaded,’ as the case may demand, forms an
excellent vessel for the solution of the sugar; and 2 or 3 fluted funnels,
with some good white flannel, will occasionally be found useful for
filtering the aromatic essences used for flavouring. Great care is taken
to ensure the whole of the utensils, &c., being perfectly clean and
‘sweet,’ and well ‘seasoned,’ in order that they may neither stain nor
flavour the substances placed in contact with them.
In the preparation or compounding of liqueurs, one of the first objects
which engages the operator’s attention is the production of an alcoholic
solution of the aromatic principles which are to give them their peculiar
aroma and flavour. This is done either by simple solution or maceration,
as in the manufacture of tinctures and medicated spirits, or by maceration
and subsequent distillation. The products, in this country, are called
ESSENCES or SPIRITS, and by the French INFUSIONS, and are added to the
solution of sugar (SYRUP or CAPILLAIRE) or to the dulcified spirit, in the
proportions required. Grain or molasses spirit is the kind usually
employed for this purpose in England. As before observed, it should be of
the best quality; as, if this is not the case, the raw flavour of the
spirit is perceptible in the liquor. Rectified spirit of wine is generally
very free from flavour, and when reduced to a proper strength with clear
soft water, forms a spirit admirably adapted for the preparation of
cordial liquors. Spirit weaker than about 45 o. p., which has been freed
from its own essential oil by careful rectification, is known in trade
under the title of ‘pure,’ ‘flavourless,’ ‘plain,’ or ‘silent spirit.’
Before macerating the ingredients, if they possess the solid form, they
are coarsely pounded, bruised, sliced, or ground, as the peculiar
character of the substance may indicate. This is not done until shortly
before submitting them to the action of the menstruum; as, after they are
bruised they rapidly lose their aromatic properties by exposure to the
air. When it is intended to keep them for any time in the divided state
they should be preserved in well-corked bottles or jars. The practice of
drying the ingredients before pounding them, frequently adopted by
ignorant and lazy workmen for the sake of lessening the labour, is, of
course, even more destructive to their most valuable qualities than mere
exposure to the air. The length of time the ingredients should be digested
in the spirit should never be less than 5 or 6 days, but a longer period
is preferable when distillation is not employed. In either case the time
may be advantageously extended to 10 days or a fortnight, and frequent
agitation should be had recourse to during the whole period. When
essential oils are employed to convey the flavour, they are first
dissolved in a little of the strongest rectified spirit of wine, in the
manner explained under ESSENCE; and when added to the spirit, they are
mixed up with the whole mass as rapidly and as perfectly as possible. In
managing the still, the fire is proportioned to the ponderosity of the oil
or flavouring substance, and the receiver is changed before the faints
come over; as these are unfitted to be mixed with the cordial. In many
cases the addition of a few pounds of common salt to the liquor in the
still facilitates the process and improves the product. Ingredients which
are not volatile are, of course, always added after distillation. The
stronger spirit is reduced to the desired strength by means of either
clear soft water or the clarified syrup used for sweetening. The sugar
employed should be of the finest quality, and is preferably made into
capillaire or syrup before adding it to the aromatised spirit; and not
until this last has been rendered perfectly ‘fine’ or transparent, by
infiltration or clarification, as the case may demand. Some spirits or
infusions, as those of aniseed, caraway, &c., more particularly require
this treatment, which is best performed by running them through a clean
wine bag, made of rather fine cloth, having previously mixed them with a
spoonful or two of magnesia; but in all cases clarification by simple
repose should be preferred. Under proper management, liqueurs or cordials
prepared of good materials will be found perfectly ‘clear’ or ‘bright’ as
soon as made, or will become so after being allowed a few days for
defecation; but in the hands of the inexperienced operator, and when the
spirit employed is insufficient in strength or quantity, it often happens
that they turn out ‘foul’ or ‘milky.’ When this is the case, the liquid
may be ‘fined down’ with the whites of 12 to 20 eggs per hogshead; or a
little alum, either alone or followed by a little carbonate of sodium or
potassium, both dissolved in water, may be added, in the manner described
under FININGS.
An excellent and easy way of manufacturing cordial liquors, especially
when it is inconvenient to keep a large stock on hand, is by simply
‘aromatising’ and ‘colouring,’ as circumstances or business may demand,
spirit 60 or 64 u. p., kept ready sweetened for the purpose. To do this to
the best advantage, two descriptions of sweetened spirit should be
provided, containing respectively 1 lb. and 3 lbs. of sugar to the gallon.
From these, spirit of any intermediate sweetness may be made, which may be
flavoured with any essential oil dissolved in alcohol, or any aromatised
spirit or ‘infusion’ (see _below_), prepared either by digestion or
distillation. As a general rule, the concentrated essences, made by
dissolving 1 oz. of the essential oil in 1 pint of the strongest rectified
spirit of wine, will be found admirably adapted for this purpose. These
essences, which should be kept in well-corked bottles, are employed by
dropping them cautiously into the sweetened spirit until the desired
flavour is produced. During this operation the liquor should be
frequently and violently shaken to produce complete admixture. If by any
accident the essence is added in too large a quantity, the resulting
‘milkiness’ or excess of flavour may be removed by the addition of a
little more spirit, or by clarification. In this way the majority of the
liqueurs in common use may be produced extemporaneously, of nearly equal
quality to those prepared by distillation. For those which are coloured,
simple digestion of the ingredients is almost universally adopted. The
“process by distillation” should, however, be always employed to impart
the flavour and aroma of volatile aromatics to the spirit, when expense,
labour, and time are of less importance than the production of a superior
article.
The French liqueuristes are famed for the preparation of cordials of
superior quality, cream-like smoothness, and delicate flavour. Their
success chiefly arises from the employment of very pure spirit and sugar
(the former in a larger proportion than that adopted by the English
compounder), and in the judicious application of the flavouring
ingredients. They distinguish their cordials as ‘eaux’ and ‘extraits’
(waters, extracts), or liqueurs which, though sweetened, are entirely
devoid of viscidity; and ‘baumes,’ ‘crêmes,’ and ‘huiles’ (balms, creams,
oils), which contain sufficient sugar to impart to them a syrupy
consistence. The greatest possible attention is given to the preparation
of the aromatised or flavouring essences, in France called ‘infusions.’
These are generally made by macerating the aromatic ingredients in spirit
at about 2 to 4 u. p. (sp. gr. ·922 to ·925), placed in well-corked glass
carboys, or stoneware jars or bottles. The maceration is continued, with
occasional agitation, for 3, 4, or even 5 weeks, when the aromatised
spirit is either distilled or filtered; generally the former. The outer
peel of cedrats, lemons, oranges, limettes, bergamottes, &c., is alone
used by our Continental neighbours, and is obtained either by carefully
peeling the fruit with a knife, or by ‘oleo-saccharum,’ by rubbing it off
with a lump of hard white sugar. Aromatic seeds and woods are bruised by
pounding before being submitted to infusion. The substances employed in
France to colour liqueurs are, for——blue, soluble Prussian blue, sulphate
of indigo (nearly neutralised with chalk), and the juice of blue flowers
and berries;——amber, fawn, and brandy colour, burnt sugar or spirit
colouring;——green, spinach or parsley leaves (digested in spirit), and
mixtures of blue and yellow;——red, powdered cochineal or brazil wood,
either alone or mixed with a little alum;——violet, blue violet petals,
litmus, or extract of logwood;——purple, the same as violet, only
deeper;——yellow, an aqueous infusion of safflower or French berries, and
the tinctures of saffron and turmeric.
A frequent cause of failure in the manufacture of liqueurs and cordials is
the addition of too much flavouring matter. Persons unaccustomed to the
use of strong aromatic essences and essential oils seldom sufficiently
estimate their power, and, consequently, are very apt to add too much of
them, by which the liqueur is rendered not only disagreeably high
flavoured, but, from the excess of oil present, also ‘milky,’ or ‘foul,’
either at once, or, what is nearly as bad, on the addition of water. This
source of annoyance, arising entirely from bad manipulation, frequently
discourages the tyro, and cuts short his career as a manufacturer. From
the viscidity of cordials they are less readily ‘fined down’ than
unsweetened liquor, and often give much trouble to clumsy and
inexperienced operators. The most certain way to prevent disappointment in
this respect is to use too little rather than too much flavouring; for if
the quantity proves insufficient, it is readily ‘brought up’ at any time,
but the contrary is not effected without some trouble and delay.
A careful attention to the previous remarks will render this branch of the
rectifier’s art far more perfect and easy of performance than it is at
present, and will, in most cases, produce at once a satisfactory article,
‘fine, sweet, and pleasant.’
The cordials of respectable British ‘compounders’ contain fully 3 lbs. of
white lump sugar per gallon, and are of the strength of 60 to 64 u. p. The
baumes, crêmes, and huiles imported from the Continent are richer both in
spirit and sugar than ours, and to this may be referred much of their
superiority. Mere sweetened or cordialised spirits (eaux, of the Fr.)
contain only from 1 to 1-1/2 lb. of sugar per gallon.
The purity of liqueurs is determined in the manner noticed under BRANDY,
WINE, &c.
The following list embraces nearly all the cordials and liqueurs, both
native and imported, met with in trade in this country:——
=Absinthe.= _Syn._ EXTRAIT D’ABSINTHE DE SUISSE; SWISS EXTRACT OF
WORMWOOD. _Prep._ From the tops of _Absinthum majus_, 4 lbs.; tops of
_Absinthum minus_, 2 lbs.; angelica root, _Calamus aromaticus_, Chinese
aniseed, and leaves of dittany of Crete, of each 15 gr.; brandy or spirit
at 12 u. p., 4 galls.; macerate for 10 days, then add water, 1 gall.;
distil 4 galls. by a gentle heat, and dissolve in the distilled spirit, of
crushed white sugar, 2 lbs. Tonic and stomachic.
=Alker′mes.= This liqueur is highly esteemed in some parts of the South of
Europe.
_Prep._ 1. Bay leaves and mace, of each 1 lb.; nutmegs and cinnamon, of
each 2 oz.; cloves, 1 oz. (all bruised); cognac brandy, 3-1/2 galls.;
macerate for 3 weeks, frequently shaking, then distil over 3 galls., and
add of clarified spirit of kermes, 18 lbs.; orange-flower water, 1 pint;
mix well, and bottle. This is the original formula for the ‘alkermes de
Santa Maria Novella,’ which is much valued.
2. Spice, as last; British brandy, 4 galls. water, 1 gall.; macerate as
before, and draw over 4 galls., to which add, of capillaire, 2 galls., and
sweet spirit of nitre, 1/4 pint. Cassia is often used for cinnamon.
Inferior to the last.
=An′iseed Cordial.= _Prep._ 1. From aniseed, 2 oz. (or essential oil,
1-1/2 dr.), and sugar, 3 lbs. per gall. It should not be weaker than about
45 u. p., as at lower strengths it is impossible to produce a
full-flavoured article without its being milky, or liable to become so.
2. (ANISETTE DE BORDEAUX.)——_a._ (Foreign.) Aniseed, 4 oz.; coriander and
sweet fennel seeds, of each 1 oz. (bruised); rectified spirit, 1/2 gall.;
water, 3 quarts; macerate for 5 or 6 days, then draw over 7 pints, and add
of lump sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.
_b._ (English.) Oil of aniseed, 15 drops; oils of cassia and caraway, of
each 6 drops; rub them with a little sugar, and then dissolve it in spirit
(45 u. p.), 3 quarts, by well shaking them together; filter, if necessary,
and dissolve in the clear liquor sugar, 1-1/2 lb. See PEPPERMINT
(_below_).
=Balm of Molucca.= _Prep._ From mace, 1 dr.; cloves, 1/2 oz.; clean spirit
(22 u. p.), 1 gall.; infuse for a week in a well-corked carboy or jar,
frequently shaking, colour with burnt sugar q. s., and to the clear
tincture add of lump sugar, 4-1/2 lbs.; dissolved in pure soft water, 1/2
gall. On the Continent this takes the place of the ‘cloves’ of the English
retailer.
=Bit′ters.= These have generally from 1 to 1-1/2 lb. of sugar per
gallon.[19]
[Footnote 19: See article BITTERS.]
=Car′away Cordial.= _Prep._ Generally from the essential oil, with only
2-1/2 lbs. of sugar per gall. 1 fl. dr. of the oil is commonly reckoned
equal to 1/4 lb. of the seed. The addition of a very little oil of cassia,
and about half as much of essence of lemon or of orange, improves it. See
BRANDY (Caraway).
=Ce′drat Cordial.= _Prep._ From essence (oil) of cedrat, 1/4 oz.; pure
spirit (at proof), 1 gall.; dissolve, add of water, 3 pints, agitate well;
distil 3 quarts, and add an equal measure of clarified syrup. A delicious
liqueur. See CRÊME and EAU (_below_).
=Cin′namon Cordial.= _Prep._ This is seldom made with cinnamon, owing to
its high price, but with either the essential oil or bark of cassia, with
about 2 lbs. of sugar to the gall. It is preferred coloured, and therefore
may be very well prepared by simple digestion. The addition of 5 or 6
drops each of essence of lemon and orange peel, with about a spoonful of
essence of cardamoms per gall., improves it. 1 oz. of oil of cassia is
considered equal to 8 lbs. of the buds or bark. 1 fl. dr. of the oil is
enough for 2-1/2 galls. It is coloured with burnt sugar.
=Cit′ron Cordial.= _Prep._ From the oil or peel, with 3 lbs. of sugar per
gall., as above. (See _below_.)
=Citronelle.= _Syn._ EAU DE BARBADES. _Prep._ 1. From fresh orange peel,
2 oz.; fresh lemon peel, 4 oz.; cloves, 1/2 dr.; corianders and cinnamon,
of each 1 dr.; proof spirit, 4 pints; digest for 10 days, then add of
water, 1 quart, and distil 1/2 gall.; to the distilled essence add of
white sugar, 2 lbs., dissolved in water, 1 quart.
2. Essence of orange, 1/2 dr.; essence of lemon, 1 dr.; oil of cloves, and
cassia, of each 10 drops; oil of coriander, 20 drops; spirit (58 o. p.), 5
pints; agitate until dissolved, then add of distilled or clear soft water,
3 pints; well mix, and filter it through blotting paper, if necessary;
lastly add of sugar (dissolved), q. s.
=Clairet.= _Syn._ ROSSALIS DES SIN GRAINES. _Prep._ From aniseed, fennel
seed, coriander seed, caraway seed, dill seed, and seeds of the
candy-carrot (_Athamantia cretensis_——Linn.), of each (bruised) 1 oz.;
proof spirit 1/2 gall.; digest for a week, strain, and add of loaf sugar,
1 lb., dissolved in water, q. s.
=Cloves.= _Syn._ CLOVE CORDIAL. _Prep._ From bruised cloves, 1 oz., or
essential oil, 1 fl. dr., to every 3 galls. of proof spirit. If distilled,
some common salt should be added, and it should be drawn over with a
pretty quick fire. It requires fully 3 lbs. of sugar per gall., and is
generally coloured with poppy flowers or burnt sugar. The addition of 1
dr. of bruised pimento, or 5 drops of the oil for every oz. of cloves,
improves this cordial. See BALM OF MOLUCCA (_above_).
=Coriander Cordial.= _Prep._ From corianders, as the last. A few sliced
oranges improve it.
=Crême d’Anis.= As ANISEED CORDIAL, only richer.
=Crême des Barbades.= As CITRONELLE, adding some of the juice of the
oranges, and an additional lb. of sugar per gall.
=Crême de Cacao.= _Prep._ Infuse roasted caracca-cacao nuts (cut small), 1
lb., and vanilla, 1/2 oz., in brandy, 1 gall., for 8 days; strain, and add
of thick syrup, 3 quarts.
=Crême de Cedrat.= _Syn._ HUILE DE CEDRAT. _Prep._ From spirit of citron,
1 pint; spirit of cedrat, 1 quart; proof spirit, 3 quarts; white sugar, 16
lbs., dissolved in pure soft water, 2 galls.
=Crême de Macarons.= _Prep._ 1. From cloves, cinnamon, and mace, of each
(bruised) 1 dr.; bitter almonds (blanched and beaten to a paste), 7 oz.;
spirit (17 u. p.), 1 gall.; digest a week, filter, and add of white sugar,
6 lbs., dissolve in pure water, 2 quarts.
2. Clean spirit (at 24 u. p., sp. gr. ·945), 2 galls.; bitter almonds, 3/4
lb.; cloves, cinnamon, and mace, of each in coarse powder, 1-1/2 dr.;
infuse for 10 days, filter, and add of white sugar, 8 lbs.; dissolved in
pure water, 1 gall.; lastly, give the liqueur a violet tint with infusion
or tincture of litmus and cochineal. An agreeable, nutty-flavoured
cordial, but, from containing so much bitter almonds, should be only drank
in small quantities at a time. The English use only one half the above
quantity of almonds.
=Crême de Naphe.= _Prep._ From sweetened spirit (60 u. p.) containing
3-1/2 lbs. of sugar per gall., 7 quarts; orange-flower water (foreign), 1
quart. Delicious.
=Crême de Noyeau.= See NOYEAU.
=Crême d’Orange.= _Prep._ From oranges, (sliced), 3 dozen; rectified
spirit, 2 galls.; digest for 14 days; add, of lump sugar, 28 lbs.
(previously dissolved in water, 4-1/2 galls.); tincture of saffron, 1-1/2
fl. oz.; and orange-flower water, 2 quarts.
=Crême de Portugal.= Flavoured with lemon, to which a little oil of bitter
almonds is added.
=Curaçao.= _Prep._ From sweetened spirit (at 56 u. p.), containing 3-1/2
lbs. of sugar per gall., flavoured with a tincture made by digesting the
‘oleo-saccharum’ prepared from Seville oranges, 9 in number; cinnamon, 1
dr.; and mace, 3/4 dr., in rectified spirit, 1 pint. It is coloured by
digesting in it for a week or 10 days Brazil-wood (in powder), 1 oz., and
afterwards mellowing the colour with burnt sugar, q. s.
=Delight of the Mandarins.= From spirit (22 u. p.), 1 gall.; pure soft
water, 1/2 gall.; white sugar (crushed small), 4-1/2 lbs.; Chinese aniseed
and ambrette or musk seed, of each (bruised) 1/2 oz.; safflower, 1/4 oz.;
digested together in a carboy or stone bottle capable of holding double,
and agitated well every day for a fortnight.
=Eau de Cedrat.= _Syn._ CEDRAT WATER. As CRÊME DE CEDRAT, but using less
sugar.
=Eau de Chasseurs.= See PEPPERMINT (_below_).
=Eau de Vie d’Andaye.= _Syn._ EAU DE VIE D’ANIS; ANISEED LIQUEUR BRANDY.
_Prep._ From brandy or proof spirit, 1 gall.; sugar, 3/4 lb.; dissolved in
aniseed water, 1 pint.
=Gold Cordial.= _Prep._ From angelica root (sliced), 1 lb.; raisins, 1/2
lb.; coriander seeds, 2 oz.; caraway seeds and cassia, of each 1-1/2 oz.;
cloves, 1/2 oz.; figs and sliced liquorice root, of each 4 oz.; proof
spirit, 3 galls.; water, 1 gall.; digest 2 days, and distil 3 gallons by a
gentle heat; to this add, of sugar, 9 lbs., dissolved in rose water and
clean soft water, of each 1 quart; lastly, colour the liquid by steeping
in it of bay saffron, 1-1/4 oz. This cordial was once held in much esteem.
It derives its name from a small quantity of gold leaf being formerly
added to it.
=Huile d’Anis.= See CRÊME D’ANIS (_above_).
=Huile de Vanille.= Flavoured with essence or tincture of vanilla. It is
kept in a decanter, and used to flavour liqueurs, grog, &c.
=Huile de Venus.= _Prep._ From the flowers of the wild carrot, 2-1/2 oz.,
and sugar, 3 lbs. to the gall. It is generally coloured by infusing a
little powdered cochineal in it.
=Jargonelle.= _Syn._ JARGONELLE CORDIAL. Flavoured with essence of
jargonelle pear (acetate of amyl). Pine-apple cordial and liqueurs from
some other fruits are also prepared from the new fruit essences. See
ESSENCE.
=Lem′on Cordial.= _Prep._ Digest fresh and dried lemon peel, of each 2
oz., and fresh orange peel, 1 oz., in proof spirit, 1 gall., for a week;
strain with expression, add of clear soft water q. s. to reduce it to the
desired strength, and lump sugar, 3 lbs. to the gallon. The addition of a
little orange-flower or rose water improves it.
=Liquodilla.= Flavoured with oranges and lemons, of each, sliced, 3 in
number; with sugar 2-1/2 lbs. per gall.
=Lov′age Cordial.= _Prep._ From the fresh roots of lovage, 1 oz. to the
gallon. A fourth of this quantity of the fresh roots of celery and sweet
fennel are also commonly added. In some parts a little fresh valerian root
and oil of savine are added before distillation. It is much valued by the
lower classes in some of the provinces for its stomachic and emmenagogue
qualities.
=Oil of Ce′drat.= See CRÊME DE CEDRAT (_above_).
=Orange Cordial.= Like LEMON CORDIAL or CRÊME D’ORANGE, from fresh orange
peel, 1/2 lb., to the gallon.
=Parfait Amour.= _Syn._ PERFECT LOVE. _Prep._ Flavoured with the yellow
rind of 4 lemons, and a teaspoonful of essence of vanilla to the gallon,
with sugar, 3 lbs., and powdered cochineal q. s. to colour.
=Pep′permint.= _Syn._ PEPPERMINT CORDIAL, SPORTSMAN’S C., X. MINT; EAU DE
CHASSEURS, Fr. This well-known compound is in greater demand in every part
of the kingdom than all the other cordials put together.
_Prep._ 1. From peppermint water and gin or plain spirit (22 u. p.), of
each 1 pint; lump sugar, 3/4 lb.
2. (Wholesale.) English oil of peppermint, 5 oz., is added to rectified
spirits of wine, 3 pints, and the mixture is agitated well together for
some time in a corked bottle capable of holding 4 pints or more; it is
then emptied into a cask having a capacity of upwards of 100 galls., and
perfectly white and flavourless proof spirit, 36 galls., is poured in, and
the whole well agitated for ten minutes; a solution of the best double
refined lump sugar, 2-3/4 cwt., in about 35 galls. of pure filtered rain
water, is then added, and the contents of the cask well ‘rummaged up’ in
the usual manner for at least 15 minutes; sufficient clear rain water to
make up the whole quantity to exactly 100 gallons, and holding in solution
alum, 5 oz., is next added, and the whole is again well agitated for at
least a quarter of an hour, after which the cask is bunged down, and
allowed to repose for a fortnight before it is ‘broached’ for sale.
_Obs._ The last formula produces a beautiful article provided the
ingredients are of good quality. Care on this point is particularly
necessary in reference to the essential oil, which should only be
purchased of some known respectable dealer. The sugar should be
sufficiently pure to dissolve in a wine-glassful of clear soft water
without injuring its transparency, and the cask should be a fresh-emptied
gin pipe, or one properly prepared for gin, as, if it gives colour, it
will spoil the cordial. When these particulars are attended to, the
product is a bright transparent liquor as soon as made, and does not
require fining. Should there be the slightest opacity, the addition of 2
oz. of salt of tartar, dissolved in a quart of hot water, will have the
effect of ‘clearing it down’ in the course of a few days. The product is
100 galls. of cordial at 64 u. p.
=Pimen′to.= _Syn._ PIMENTO CORDIAL, PIMENTO DRAM. Rather strongly
flavoured with allspice or pimento. It has obtained a great repute in the
West Indies in diarrhœa, cholera, and bowel complaints generally.
=Rasp′berry Cordial.= _Prep._ From raspberry brandy, capillaire, and
water, equal parts. A similar article is prepared by flavouring sweetened
spirit with the new ‘raspberry essence.’
=Rat′ifia.= The numerous liqueurs bearing this name are noticed in another
part of this volume. See RATIFIA.
=Shrub.= See the article SHRUB in another part of this work.
=Sighs of Love.= _Prep._ 1. From proof spirit flavoured with otto of roses
and capillaire, equal parts.
2. From sugar, 6 lbs., pure soft water, q. s. to produce a gallon of
syrup, to which add, of eau de rose, 1 pint; proof spirit, 7 pints. It is
stained of a pale pink by powdered cochineal. A very pleasant cordial. A
drop or two (not more) of essence of ambergris or vanilla improves it.
=Tears of the Widow of Malabar.= _Prep._ As BALM OF MOLUCCA, but employing
cloves (bruised), 1/2 oz., mace (shredded), 1 dr., and a teaspoonful of
essence of vanilla for flavouring. Some add of orange-flower water, 1/4
pint. It is slightly coloured with burnt sugar.
=Tent.= From plain spirit (22 u. p.) and port wine, of each 1 quart;
sherry and soft water, of each 1 pint; orange-flower water and lemon
juice, of each 1/4 pint; essence of ambergris, 2 drops (not more); sugar,
2 lbs. See WINE.
=Us′quebaugh.= See the article USQUEBAUGH in another part of this work.
=LIQUEUR DE LA MOTTE.= [Fr.] See DROPS (Golden) and TINCTURE.
=LIQUEUR DORÉE.= [Fr.] _Prep._ Take of cinnamon, bitter orange peel, and
Peruvian bark, of each 1/2 oz.; hay saffron, 1/4 oz.; brandy and Malaga
wine, of each 3 quarts; digest for a week, strain, and add of lump sugar,
2 lbs. Tonic, stomachic, and stimulant; chiefly used as an agreeable
alcoholic dram.
=LIQUEUR DE PRESSAVIN.= [Fr.] _Prep._ From oxide of mercury (freshly
precipitated) and cream of tartar, of each 1 oz.; hot water, 1 quart;
dissolve and filter. For use 2 spoonfuls of this liquor are added to 1
quart of water.——_Dose._ A wine-glassful 3 or 4 times a day, avoiding the
use of common salt. This is simply a solution of potassio-tartrate of
mercury, and may be taken in the usual cases in which mercury is
administered.
=LIQUODIN′NA.= See LIQUEUR.
=LIQUID-AMBAR.= _Syn._ COPAIBÆ BALSAM. A fluid balsamic juice obtained
from the _Liquidamber styraciflua_, an American tree. It closely resembles
LIQUID STORAX in its properties, and may be applied to the same purposes.
See STYRAX.
=LIQ′UOR.= _Syn._ LIQUOR, L.; LIQUEUR, Fr. This term is given in the
London Pharmacopœia to those aqueous solutions commonly though improperly
called ‘WATERS,’ ammoniæ liquor potassæ, &c. It is now more correctly
applied to the ‘WATERS’ of the British Pharmacopœia. See SOLUTION.
The term ‘liquor’ has also, of late years, been applied to certain
concentrated preparations, most of which would be more correctly termed
‘FLUID EXTRACTS,’ as they merely differ from good extracts in their
consistence, and from ordinary extracts in containing less starchy matter,
albumen, and gum. There is also usually a little spirit added to them to
prevent decomposition. Liquors of this kind may be prepared of the finest
quality by the same processes that are required for the preparation of
good soluble extracts; observing to stop the evaporation as soon as the
consistence of treacle is acquired, and when cold, to add 1-4th or 1-5th
part of their weight (after evaporation) in rectified spirit. The addition
of 3 or 4 drops of the oils of cloves and mustard seed, dissolved in the
spirit, will secure them from any risk of ‘moulding’ or fermenting; in
fact, with this addition many of them will keep well without spirit,
provided they are evaporated sufficiently, and kept in a cool place. The
liquors, which are merely concentrated infusions or decoctions, and which,
in their consistence, do not even approximate to extracts, may be made in
the manner directed under those heads.
Much confusion would be prevented if the terms ‘concentrated decoction,’
‘concentrated infusion,’ &c., were adopted for those vegetable
preparations possessing eight times the usual strength; ‘liquors’ for
those of a higher strength, but still sufficiently liquid to be treated as
such in dispensing, &c.; and ‘fluid extracts’ for those possessing
considerable consistence, and approaching the common extracts in their
degree of concentration and mode of preparation. See DECOCTION, INFUSION,
ESSENCE, EXTRACT, SOLUTION, &c.
⁂ The following formulæ present some illustrations of the preparation of
this class of medicines.
=Liquor of Ammonia.= _Syn._ LIQUOR AMMONIÆ. _Prep._ Strong solution of
ammonia, 1 pint; distilled water, 2 pints; mix and preserve in a stoppered
bottle. Sp. gr. ·959.
=Liquor of Ammonia, Stronger.= _Syn._ LIQUOR AMMONIÆ FORTIOR. _Prep._ Mix
chloride of ammonium in coarse powder 3 lbs., and slaked lime 4 lbs., and
introduce the mixture into an iron bottle, placed in a metal pot
surrounded by sand. Connect the iron tube which screws air-tight into the
bottle in the usual manner, by corks, glass tubes, and caoutchouc collars,
with a Woulf’s bottle capable of holding a pint; connect this with a
second Woulf’s bottle of the same size, the second bottle with a matrass
of the capacity of three pints, in which 22 oz. of distilled water are
placed, and the matrass by means of a tube bent twice at right angles,
with an ordinary bottle containing distilled water 10 oz. Bottles 1 and 2
are empty, and the latter and the matrass which contains the 22 oz. of
distilled water are furnished each with a siphon safety-tube charged with
a very short column of mercury.
The heat of a fire, which should be very gradually raised, is to be now
applied to the metal pot, and continued until bubbles of condensible gas
cease to escape from the extremity of the glass tube which dips into the
water of the matrass.
The process being terminated, the matrass will contain about 43 fl. oz. of
strong solution of ammonia. Bottles 1 and 2 will now include the first,
about 16, the second, about 10 fl. oz. of a coloured ammoniacal liquid.
Place this in a flask closed by a cork, which should be perforated by a
siphon safety-tube containing a little mercury, and also by a second
safety-tube bent twice at right angles, and made to pass to the bottom of
the terminal bottle used in the preceding process. Apply heat to the flask
until the coloured liquid it contains is reduced to three fourths of its
original bulk. The product now contained in the terminal bottle will be
nearly of the strength of solution of ammonia, and may be made exactly so
by the addition of the proper quantity of distilled water, or of strong
solution of ammonia. Density ·191, contains 32·5 per cent. of ammonia.
_Antidotes._——Vinegar and water followed by acidulated demulcent drinks.
=Liquor, Anodyne.= See SPIRIT OF ETHER.
=Liquor, Antinephritic.= _Syn._ LIQUOR ANTINEPHRITICUS, L. _Prep._
(Adams.) Poppy heads, 6 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to one third, strain
with pressure, and add of nitrate of potassa, 1 oz.——DOSE, 1 to 2
teaspoonfuls night and morning; in gravel and painful affections of the
kidneys and bladder.
=Liquor, Antipodag′ric (Beguin’s).= _Syn._ HOFFMANN’S GOUT LIQUID; LIQUOR
ANTIPODAGRICUS HOFFMANNII, L. _Prep._ From Boyle’s fuming liquor, 1 part;
spirit of wine, 3 parts. Sudorific.——_Dose_, 20 to 30 drops; or
externally, in gout, and other painful affections, either alone or
combined with camphor. See AMMONIUM, PERSULPHIDE OF.
=Liquor Antipsor′ic.= _Syn._ LIQUOR ANTIPSORICUS, LOTIO A., L. _Prep._
(Van Mons.) Sulphuret of sodium, 1-1/2 dr.; hydrochlorate of ammonia, 75
gr.; dissolve each separately in water, 1/2 pint, mix the solutions, and
filter. In itch and other moist skin diseases.
=Liquor, Bleaching.= See SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF LIME.
=Liquor, Blistering.= B. _Syn._ LIQUOR EPISPASTICUS, LINIMENTUM
CANTHARIDES. _Prep._ Mix cantharides in powder, 8 oz.; and acetic acid, 4
fl. oz. Pack in a percolator, and after 24 hours pass ether slowly through
until 20 fl. oz. are obtained. Keep in a stoppered bottle.
=Liquor, Boyle’s Fu′′ming.= The perhydrosulphate of ammonia.
=Liquor of Calum′ba.= _Syn._ LIQUOR CALUMBÆ, L. Same as CONCENTRATED
INFUSION OF CALUMBA.
=Liquor of Cam′phor.= See ESSENCE.
=Liquor of Chiret′ta.= Same as CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF CHIRETTA.
=Liquor of Cincho′na.= _Syn._ LIQUOR OF BARK; CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF
BARK, INSPISSATED I. or B.; INSPISSATED I. OF B.; INFUSUM CINCHONÆ
SPISSATUM (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Yellow cinchona bark (bruised),
3 lbs., is macerated in distilled water, 6 pints, at two successive
operations, as directed under EXTRACT OF CINCHONA——Ph. L.; the mixed
infusions are evaporated by the heat of a water bath to one fourth, and
placed aside to settle; the clear portion is decanted, the remainder
strained, and the mixed liquid again evaporated until its sp. gr. reaches
1·200; to this, when cold, rectified spirit is dropped in, by degrees, “so
that 3 fl. dr. may be added to each fl. oz. of the liquor;” lastly, allow
it to repose for 20 days, that the dregs may subside.
_Obs._ It is not at all clear whether the College means 3 fl. dr. of
spirit to be added to each fl. oz. of the liquid before its addition, or
that it is to be added so that each fl. oz. of the product shall contain
that quantity. We presume the former. 1 fl. dr. of this preparation is
said to represent fully 4 fl. oz. of the INFUSION OF CINCHONA——Ph. L.; but
it is obvious that it must be liable to great variations in strength. “In
a general way 1 fl. dr. may be considered equal to 3 fl. oz. of the
infusion.” (Pereira.) As commonly met with, this preparation is nearly
destitute of the cinchona alkaloids.
2. Yellow cinchona bark, bruised, 56 lbs., and water holding in solution
sulphuric acid, 1-1/2 lb., are macerated together, with occasional
agitation, in a covered earthen vessel, for 48 hours, after which the
liquor is expressed, and the residuum or marc is treated with fresh water;
the mixed strained liquid is then evaporated as rapidly as possible in
earthenware, to exactly 6 lbs.; to this rectified spirit, 1-1/4 lb., is
added, and the whole is set aside for a week or 10 days; the clear portion
is, lastly, decanted and preserved in well-closed bottles. The product is
very rich in quinine. It is 96 times as strong as the DECOCTION OF
CINCHONA——Ph. L., and 12 times as strong as the above preparation of the
Ph. L. This preparation resembles the ‘LIQUOR CINCHONÆ’ sold by certain
houses in the trade at 24s. per lb., wholesale.
3. Exhaust the bark as above by maceration in 3 successive waters without
acid, filter, evaporate the mixed liquors to 7 lbs., and proceed as
before. Inferior to the last, and less rich in the cinchona alkaloids.
Very thick; scarcely liquid.
4. From PALE BARK:——(LIQUOR CINCHONÆ PALLIDÆ; INFUSUM CINCHONÆ
SPISSATUM——Ph. L.) From pale bark, as the last. See INFUSION OF CINCHONA.
=Liquor, Disinfect′ing.= See SOLUTION (Chlorides of Lime, Soda, and Zinc),
and DISINFECTING COMPOUNDS.
=Liquor of Er′got.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF ERGOT OF RYE, CONCENTRATED INFUSION
OF E.; ESSENTIA SECALIS CORNUTI, LIQUOR ERGOTÆ, INFUSUM ERGOTÆ
CONCENTRATUM, L. _Prep._ Recent ergot of rye (reduced to coarse powder by
pounding, or preferably by grinding it in a pepper-mill), 1-1/2 lb., and
boiling distilled water, 4 lbs., are digested together in a closed vessel,
with frequent agitation until cold, and then put into a wide-mouthed
bottle, along with rectified spirit, 2 lbs.; the whole is then allowed to
macerate for a week, after which the liquor is expressed and filtered.
_Obs._ 4 fl. dr. of this essence are equal to 1 dr. of ergot in substance.
It is 8 times the strength of the INFUSION (as usually prepared according
to the formula of Pereira and others), and 2-1/2 times the strength of the
TINCTURE OF ERGOT of the London Apothecaries’ Hall. This is the only
ESSENCE OF LIQUOR OF ERGOT known in the wholesale trade.
=Liquor of Flints.= See SOLUTION.
=Liquor of Gutta Percha.= B. _Syn._ LIQUOR GUTTA PERCHA. Gutta percha in
thin slices, 1 oz.; carbonate of lead in fine powder, 1 oz.; chloroform, 8
fl. oz. Add the gutta percha to 6 fl. oz. of chloroform in a stoppered
bottle, and shake them frequently till solution has been effected. Then
add the carbonate of lead previously mixed with the remainder of the
chloroform, and having several times shaken the whole together set the
mixture aside, and let it remain at rest until the soluble matter has
subsided. Lastly, decant the clear liquid and keep in a well-stoppered
bottle.
=Liquor, Libavius’s.= Bichloride of tin.
=Liquor of Mat′ico.= _Syn._ CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF MATICO; LIQUOR
MATICONIS, INFUSUM MATICONIS CONCENTRATUM, L. _Prep._ From matico leaves,
1 lb.; rectified spirit, 1/2 pint; distilled water, 32 fl. oz.; digest 10
days, express, and filter. 1 fl. dr. added to 7 fl. dr. of water is equal
to 1 fl. oz. of the common INFUSION.
=Liquor of Myrrh.= _Syn._ SOLUTION OF MYRRH; LIQUOR MYRRHÆ, LOCO
LIQUAMINIS MYRRHÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Bor.) Extract of myrrh (Ph. Bor.), 1
oz.; distilled water, 5 fl. oz.; mix thoroughly, decant, and strain. It
should be of a brownish-yellow colour, and turbid.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 fl.
dr.
=Liquor of O′pium.= _Syn._ LIQUOR OPII, L. O. CONCENTRATUS, L. OPIATUS, L.
See BLACK DROP.[20]
[Footnote 20: Under DROPS, p. 591.]
1. (Messrs Smith.) Opium, 4 oz., is made into an extract, and
‘denarcotised’ by ether; it is then dissolved in alcohol, filtered,
evaporated nearly to dryness, and redissolved in water q. s. to furnish 12
oz. of solution; to this is added, of rectified spirit, 2-3/4 oz., with
water q. s. to make the whole up to 16 oz.——_Dose_, 3 to 12 drops.
2. (Acetic; LIQUOR OPII ACETICUS, L.) See LAUDANUM (Houlton’s).
3. (Citric; LIQUOR OPII CITRICUS, L.)——_a._ Powdered opium, 1-1/2 oz.;
lemon juice, 1-1/2 pint; evaporate to one half, cool, add of rectified
spirit, 5 fl. oz., and the next day decant or filter; same strength as
‘LAUDANUM,’
_b._ (LIQUOR MORPHIÆ CITRATIS——Dr Porter.) Opium, 4 oz.; citric acid, 2
oz.; triturate, and add of boiling water, 15 fl. oz.; digest with
agitation for 24 hours, and filter. This last has above three times the
strength of ‘LAUDANUM,’ It is sadly misnamed.
4. (Hydrochloric; SOLUTION OF MURIATE OF OPIUM; LIQUOR OPII
HYDROCHLORICUS, L.——Dr Nichol.) Powdered opium, 1-1/2 oz.; distilled
water, 1 pint; hydrochloric acid, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; digest a fortnight, and
strain with expression. Same strength as ‘LAUDANUM,’ According to Dr
Nichol, this is preferable to every other preparation of opium.
5. (Sedative; BATTLEY’S SEDATIVE SOLUTION OF OPIUM; LIQUOR OPII SEDATIVUS,
L.)——_a._ Hard aqueous extract of opium (bruised), 3 oz., is boiled in
water, 1-1/2 pint, until dissolved; to the solution, when cold, rectified
spirit, 6 oz. is added, together with water, q. s. to make the whole
measure exactly 1 quart; the liquor is, lastly, filtered.
_b._ From hard extract of opium, 22 oz.; boiling water, 13 pints;
rectified spirit, 3 pints; as the last.
_c._ From extract of opium——Ph. L., 4-1/4 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil till
reduced to 34 fl. oz.; cool, filter, and add of rectified spirit, 5 fl.
oz., and water, q. s. to make up exactly 1 quart.
_Obs._ The first two formulæ, which vary only in their quantities, are
identical with that employed by Mr Battley. As hard extract of opium is
not always at hand, we have introduced a formula in which the ordinary
extract is ordered. It gives a precisely similar product to the others,
provided the cold aqueous decoction is filtered before adding the spirit.
Battley’s LIQUOR OPII SEDATIVUS is an excellent preparation, less exciting
than opium or laudanum.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops. Dr Christison states that
20 drops of Battley’s solution are equal to 30 drops of the common
tincture.
=Liquor, Pancreatic= (Van den Corput). _Syn._ LIQUOR PANCREATINI.
Pancreatin and carbonate of potash, of each 10 gr.; balm water, 2-1/2 fl.
oz.; syrup of orange peel, 5 dr.——_Dose_, 1/2 fl. oz. to 1 fl. oz.
=Liquor of Pepsin.= (Mr Squire.) _Syn._ LIQUOR PEPSINI. _Prep._ 1 drachm
of Boudault’s pepsin in 1 oz. of distilled water. Salt must be added if it
is to be preserved.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful.
=Liquor of Rhu′barb.= _Syn._ LIQUOR RHEI, INFUSUM RHEI CONCENTRATUM, L.
_Prep._ 1. Rhubarb (well bruised), 6-3/4 oz.; water, q. s.; rectified
spirit, 1/2 pint; proceed as for INFUSION OF CALUMBA (conc.); to produce a
quart. 8 times the usual strength.
2. See INFUSION OF RHUBARB (Concentrated).
3. See EXTRACT OF RHUBARB (Fluid).
=Liquor of Sarsaparil′la.= _Syn._ FLUID EXTRACT OF SARSAPARILLA; LIQUOR
SARZÆ, ESSENTIA SARSAPARILLÆ, L. _Prep._ Either the simple or the compound
liquor of sarsaparilla may be made from the corresponding decoction, or,
preferably, the infusion prepared with water at 125° Fahr., by carefully
evaporating it until sufficiently concentrated, and then straining it
through flannel, and adding a little spirit. Jamaica sarsaparilla should
be alone employed, as the other varieties, especially the Honduras, not
only possess less medicinal virtue, and yield less extract, but are very
liable to ferment and get mouldy, unless an undue proportion of spirit is
added to them. See EXTRACT OF SARSAPARILLA (Fluid).
=Liquor of Sen′na.= _Syn._ LIQUOR SENNÆ, L. Both the FLUID EXTRACT and the
CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF SENNA are called by this name, but more generally
the former. The following are additional formulæ:——
1. (Duncan.) Senna, 15 lbs.; boiling water, 5 galls.; proceed by the
method of displacement, evaporate the product to 10 lbs., add of molasses,
6 lbs. (previously concentrated over a water bath until it begins to
congeal on cooling), dissolve, and further add of rectified spirit, 1-1/4
pint, together with water q. s. to make the whole measure exactly 12
pints. Every fl. oz. represents 1 oz. of senna.
2. (Dr Tweedy.) As the last, but using tincture of ginger (prepared with
rectified spirit), 1-1/2 pint, instead of the spirit there ordered.
=Liquor of Soap.= _Syn._ LIQUOR SAPONIS, L. See TINCTURE.
=Liquor, Styp′tic.= _Syn._ LIQUOR STYPTICUS, L. _Prep._ (Ph.
Slevico-Holsat. 1831.) Alum and sulphate of copper, of each 1-1/2 oz.;
sulphuric acid, 1 oz.; water, 1 lb.; dissolve, and filter.
=Liquor of Tarax′acum.= _Syn._ FLUID EXTRACT OF DANDELION; EXTRACTUM
TARAXACI FLUIDUM, LIQUOR TARAXACI, L. _Prep._ 1. Dandelion roots (dried),
28 lbs., are rinsed in clean cold water to remove dirt, and then sliced
small, and macerated in enough cold water to cover them for 24 hours; the
liquid is next pressed out, and after the fecula has subsided the clear
portion is decanted, and heated to 180° or 190° Fahr., to coagulate the
albumen; the liquid is then filtered while hot and evaporated by steam, or
preferably by a current of warm air, until it is reduced to 22-1/2 lbs.;
to this rectified spirit, 6 lbs., is added, and after thorough agitation
the vessel is set aside for a week or a fortnight, after which the clear
portion is gently poured from the sediment and preserved in well-closed
bottles in a cool place. A very fine article. It represents an equal
weight of the root.
2. The expressed juice of dandelion is heated to near the boiling point,
strained, and evaporated, as the last, to a proper consistence; 1/4th or
1/5th of rectified spirit is then added, and the liquid is otherwise
treated as before. Very odorous and pale coloured.
3. Dried root (coarsely powered), 1 lb.; water, 1-1/4 pint; rectified
spirit, 1/2 pint; digest a week, express the liquor, pass it through a
hair sieve into a bottle, and in 10 days decant the clear portion.
4. (Ph. Bor.) Extract of dandelion, 3 parts; water, 1 part (or q. s.);
triturated together.
5. (W. Procter.) Fresh root, 2 lbs., is sliced and reduced to a pulp, and
macerated with 1/6th of its bulk of rectified spirit for 24 hours; it is
then subjected to strong pressure, the marc is treated with water
containing a little spirit, 1 pint, and the liquid is again expressed; the
mixed product is evaporated to 12 fl. oz., and when cold, rectified
spirit, 4 fl. oz. is added, and the whole filtered.
_Obs._ Liquor of taraxacum has a very large sale. The dose is 1 to 2 fl.
dr. See EXTRACT.
=Liquor of Valer′ian.= See EXTRACT OF VALERIAN (Fluid).
=Liquor of Vanil′la.= _Syn._ FLUID EXTRACT OF VANILLA; LIQUOR VANILLÆ,
EXTRACTUM V. FLUIDUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Vanilla (sliced), 1 lb.; rectified
spirit, 3 pints; prepare a tincture either by displacement or maceration,
and reduce it, by distillation at the lowest possible temperature, to
1-1/2 lb.; put this into a strong bottle whilst hot, add of white sugar
candy (in powder), 1/2 lb., cork down, and agitate the whole until it is
nearly cold. Very fine. Used chiefly for its odour and flavour. It
represents half its weight of vanilla.
2. (W. Procter.) Vanilla (cut into thin transverse slices), 1 oz.; sugar,
3 oz.; triturate until reduced to fine powder, put it into a strong pint
bottle, along with syrup, 1/2 pint; water, 2 oz.; tie down the cork, and
set the bottle for half an hour in boiling water; cool, strain, and treat
the residue in a like manner with a mixture of water, 6 fl. oz., and
rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz.; lastly, mix the two products. Greatly
inferior to the last.
=LIQ′UORICE.= _Syn._ STICK LIQUORICE; LIQUORITIA, GLYCYRRHIZÆ RADIX (B.
P.), GLYCYRRHIZÆ RADIX, GLYCYRRHIZA (Ph. L. & D.), G. GLABRA (Ph. E.), L.
“The root or underground stem of the _Glycyrrhiza glabra_, fresh and
dried, cultivated in Britain.” “The recent and the dried root of
_Glycyrrhiza glabra_,” or common liquorice. “The fresh root is to be kept
buried in dried sand for use.” (Ph. L.) It has a sweetish taste, and is
slightly aperient, expectorant, and diuretic. It is a popular demulcent
and pectoral. Its extract and solution are much used as a domestic remedy
for cough. As a masticatory it allays thirst and irritation.
Composition of the fresh root of liquorice:
Glycyrrhizin 8·60
Gum 26·60
Matter soluble in alcohol,
chiefly resin 0·75
Albumen 0·97
Starch 22·91
Woody fibre 13·36
Moisture 26·81
Ash, 3·07 per cent. ——
——————
100·00
(HASSALL.)
Roussin asserts that the sweetness of liquorice root is not due to
glycyrrhizin, as has been hitherto assumed, but to an ammoniacal compound
of that substance. Glycyrrhizin, when purified four successive times by
dissolving it in alcohol, and precipitating the foreign matter
accompanying it by ether, is a yellowish substance, insoluble in cold
water, and almost tasteless. Treated with dilute solution of potash or
soda, it rapidly develops a sweet taste. In liquorice root, however, it is
not contained in combination with either of these two alkalies, but
appears to exist as an ammoniacal compound, for solutions of potash and
soda liberate ammonia, both from the root and the extract. In its
compounds with the alkalies glycyrrhizin plays the part of an acid, as it
forms true salts capable of undergoing decomposition with most of the
metallic salts, and also with the salts of the organic alkaloids. With
ammonia it forms two compounds, a basic salt, which yields a deep yellow
solution, and another containing less ammonia, the solution of which has
an amber colour. The former is produced by dissolving glycyrrhizin in
water with an excess of ammonia. Upon evaporating the resulting deep
yellow solution to dryness it leaves a yellowish, scaly, shining, brittle,
non-hygroscopic residue, which constitutes the second ammoniacal compound.
This is readily soluble in cold water, to which it imparts a pale yellow
colour and a very sweet taste. The solution turns deep yellow on the
addition of a few drops of solution of ammonia, owing to the formation of
the basic compound. The pale yellow solution possesses, in a marked
degree, the taste of liquorice root, which, indeed, owes its sweetness to
this glycyrrhizate of ammonia, or ammoniacal glycyrrhizin, as the author
prefers to call it. One gram of this compound imparts the sweet taste of
the root to two litres of water.
The author gives the following process for the preparation of the
ammoniacal glycyrrhizin in the pure state: The carefully-selected roots,
freed from all portions presenting a dark fracture, are scraped, and then
well pounded, so as to reduce them to a kind of stringy tow. This
substance is macerated in cold distilled water for some hours, pressed,
and treated a second time in the same manner. The two liquors are mixed
and allowed to stand for some time to deposit the starch. The supernatant
liquor is then boiled and filtered, to separate the coagulated albumen.
After cooling, sulphuric acid diluted with its weight of water is added
gradually, with brisk stirring, until a precipitate is no longer formed.
The precipitate, at first gelatinous and flocculent, after standing some
time, forms a compact semi-solid mass at the bottom of the vessel. The
supernatant liquor is rejected, and after roughly washing the precipitate
several times with pure water it is finally kneaded repeatedly in
distilled water until all trace of acidity has disappeared. The mass is
then well drained and agitated in a flask with three times its weight of
90° alcohol until dissolved, when a similar quantity of 96° to 98° alcohol
is added to the syrupy liquid so produced. A little pectic acid is thus
precipitated, which is removed by filtration. Ether is then added to the
alcoholic liquor as long as a precipitate is formed. After standing
twenty-four or even forty-eight hours a blackish pitchy substance is
deposited, which adheres to the glass, and allows of the clear liquor
being decanted. To this clear liquor is added, in small quantities at a
time, alcohol of 90° charged with gaseous ammonia, which determines the
formation of a yellow, rather heavy, flocculent precipitate of
glycyrrhizate of ammonia. This precipitate is washed rapidly on a fine
cloth with a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and ether, pressed and
dried in a current of warm air, or over sulphuric acid.
The author suggests the addition of ammoniacal glycyrrhizin to pill
masses, powders, or mixtures, and states that its power of masking the
taste of nauseous medicines is equal to 100 times its weight of sugar.
Sulphate of quinine, sulphate of magnesia, iodide of potassium, and
ipecacuanha, lose much of their taste by such an addition.
A dose of cod-liver oil or syrup of iodide of iron is rendered more
palatable by being preceded by a small dose of the solid ammoniacal
glycerin.[21] Its extract is the common LIQUORICE, SPANISH LIQUORICE, or
SPANISH JUICE, of the shops. See EXTRACT, &c.
[Footnote 21: ‘Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie,’ xii 6-11.]
=LISBON DIET DRINK.= 1. (Foy.) _Prep._ Guaiacum wood, rasped, 1 oz.;
sarsaparilla, bruised, 3 oz.; mezereon, sliced, 1/2 oz.; crude antimony
(in a rag), 2 oz.; water, 12 pints. Boil down to 8 pints, and add——red
sanders, rasped, white sandal, rasped, of each 3 oz.; rosewood, rasped
sassafras bark, sliced, of each 1 oz.; liquorice root, sliced, 1/2 oz.
Infuse for four hours, strain, and add syrup according to taste.——_Dose_,
1 to 2 pints a day.
2. (Pearson.) Sarsaparilla, bruised, 4 oz.; dried walnut peel, 4 oz.;
guaiacum, rasped, 1-1/2 oz.; crude antimony (in a rag), 1/2 oz.; water, 4
pints. Boil down to 3 pints.
=LIST.= The border or selvage torn off a piece of cloth. It is used by the
French polishers and law stationers to form their rubbers, and for
numerous other purposes.
=LITH′ARGE.= _Syn._ SEMI-VITRIFIED OXIDE OF LEAD; PLUMBI OXYDUM (Ph. L.),
PLUMBI OXYDUM SEMI-VITREUM (Ph. D.), LITHARGYRUM (Ph. E.), L. The litharge
of commerce is semi-vitrified protoxide of lead, obtained chiefly by
scraping off the drops that form on the surface of melted lead exposed to
a current of air (dross of lead; plumbum ustum), and heating it to a full
red, to melt out any undecomposed metal. The fused oxide, in cooling,
forms a yellow or reddish semi-crystalline mass, which readily separates
into scales; these, when ground, constitute the ‘powdered litharge’ of the
shops. Litharge is also prepared by exposing red lead to a heat
sufficiently high to fuse it, and ‘English litharge’ is obtained as a
secondary product, by liquefaction, from argentiferous lead ore, when it
is often called ‘silver stone.’
_Pur._ “Entirely, or almost entirely, soluble in dilute nitric acid. This
solution is blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen. Potassa throws down a
white precipitate, which is redissolved by adding the same in excess. If
sulphate of soda be added to 100 gr. of this oxide dissolved in nitric
acid, 135 gr. of sulphate of lead is precipitated.” (Ph. L.) “50 gr.
dissolve entirely, and without effervescence, in 1-1/2 fl. oz. of
pyroligneous acid, and the solution precipitated by 53 gr. of phosphate of
soda remains precipitable by more of the test.” (Ph. E.) The solution in
both acetic and nitric acid should be colourless. It is of great
importance to the pharmaceutist to obtain pure litharge, as the slightest
impurity will often colour and spoil his lead plaster (EMP. PLUMBI), and
solution of diacetate of lead (LIQ. PLUMBI DIACETATIS).
_Uses._ Litharge is employed in pharmacy, to make plasters and several
other preparations of lead; by painters as a ‘drier’ for oils; and for
various other purposes in the arts.
_Obs._ The litharge of commerce is distinguished by its colour as LITHARGE
OF GOLD (LITHARGYRUM AURI, L. AURIUM, L. CHRYSITIS), which is dark
coloured and impure, and LITHARGE OF SILVER (SILVER STONE; LITHARGYRUM
ARGENTI, L. ARGENTUM, L. ARGYRITIS), which is purer, and paler coloured.
The dark colour of the former is generally said to be owing to the
presence of red lead. Foreign litharge generally contains copper and
iron; and, not infrequently, a little silver and silica. These are readily
detected by the usual tests. In grinding litharge, about 1 lb. of olive
oil is usually added to each 1 cwt. to prevent dust. The best solvents of
litharge are nitric acid and acetic acid. As it slowly absorbs the
carbonic acid of the air, it generally effervesces slightly when treated
with acids, and this effervescence is stronger in proportion to its age.
See LEAD.
=LITH′IUM.= Li. The metallic base of LITHIA, first obtained by Sir H. Davy
by exposing hydrate of lithium in contact with mercury to galvanic action,
and decomposing the resulting amalgam by distillation. It is now obtained
by fusing pure chloride of lithium in a small, thick, porcelain crucible,
and decomposing it while in a fused state by a current of electricity. It
is a white metal, like sodium, very oxidisable, fusing at 356°, and having
a sp. gr. of ·59. It is the lightest metal known. It belongs to the
‘alkaline group,’ of which potassium, sodium, cæsium, and rubidium, are
the other members.
Lithium forms salts analogous to those of sodium, but usually somewhat
less soluble. They can be distinguished from those of potassium and sodium
by the phosphate and carbonate, being only sparingly soluble in
water,——from those of barium, strontium, and calcium, by forming
crystallisable and soluble salts with sulphuric acid and oxalic acid,——and
from those of magnesium, by the solution of its carbonate exhibiting an
alkaline reaction. Heated on platinum, they tinge the flame of the
blowpipe carmine red. The salts of lithium may generally be formed by
dissolving the hydrate or carbonate in dilute acids.
=Lithium, Benzoate.= LiC_{7}H_{5}O_{2},H_{2}O. (Paris Pharm. Society.)
Benzoic acid, 122 grams; lithium carbonate, 37 grams. Suspend the benzoic
acid in 10 parts of water, add the lithium carbonate, and heat. Solution
takes place with effervescence, and upon evaporation, handsome, much
flattened, more or less elongated prismatic crystals are obtained.
Lithium benzoate is very soluble in water. One grain of the salt calcined,
and then treated with slight excess of sulphuric acid, and heated to
redness should give 0·376 gram of lithium sulphate.
=Lithium, Bromide of.= LiBr. To 37 grams of carbonate of lithium suspended
in 200 grams of distilled water, 80 grams of bromine are added. A current
of sulphuretted hydrogen is then passed through the mixture until the
whole of the bromide has disappeared. Hydro-bromic acid is thus formed,
which decomposes the carbonate of lithium, bromide of lithium being
produced and sulphur set free. The mixture is then gently heated to drive
off the excess of sulphuretted hydrogen and to agglutinate the sulphur.
After filtration the liquor is concentrated, and if it be desired to
obtain the bromide in crystals, the desiccation is finished under a bell
jar by means of sulphuric acid.
=Lithium, Car′bonate of.= Li_{2}CO_{3}. _Syn._ CARBONATE OF LITHIA; LITHIÆ
CARBONAS (B. P.). _Prep._ To an aqueous solution of sulphate of lithium
add a strong solution of carbonate of ammonium, collect the precipitate,
drain, and press, wash with a little rectified spirit, and dry. By
dissolving it in boiling water, and slowly evaporating the solution,
crystals may be obtained.
_Prop., &c._ It resembles carbonate of magnesium in appearance; is soluble
in about 100 parts of cold water, and in considerably less of boiling
water, and is insoluble in alcohol. The tests for its purity given in the
B. P. are——in giving no precipitate with oxalate of calcium or lime water,
and leaving, when 10 grains are neutralised with sulphuric acid and
ignited, 14·86 grains of dry sulphate. It has been proposed by M.
Lipowitz, Dr Garrod, and others, as a solvent for uric acid calculi.
According to Biswanger, 1 part of carbonate of lithia in 120 parts of
water takes up, at blood-heat, nearly 4 parts of uric acid. Mr Alexander
Ure recommends a dilute solution of this substance as an injection in
lithic calculus, as it is a better solvent of uric acid than either borax
or the alkaline carbonates. “Of all the various menstrua hitherto
recommended, none appear to promise more favorably than the carbonate of
lithia.” “If by means of injections” (of this solution) “we can reduce a
stone at the rate of a grain or more an hour, we shall not merely diminish
the bulk of the calculus, but further loosen its cohesion, disintegrate
it, so to speak, causing it to crumble down, and be washed away in the
stream of urine.” (Mr A. Ure.)——_Dose_, 2 to 5 gr., twice or thrice a day;
as an injection, 1 gr. to water, 1 fl. oz.
=Lithium, Citrate of.= Li_{3}C_{6}H_{5}O_{7}. _Syn._ LITHIÆ CITRAS (B.
P.). A white deliquescent amorphous powder, made by acting on 50 grains of
lithium carbonate with 100 of citric acid, and is readily soluble in 2-1/2
parts of water.
_Tests, &c._ 20 grains burnt at a low red heat until white leave 10·6
grains of carbonate of lithium. Its medical properties are similar to
those of the carbonate.——_Dose_, 5 to 16 grains, largely diluted.
=Lithium, Citrate of, Effervescing.= (Paris Pharm. Society.) Citric acid,
40 grams; sodium bicarbonate, 50 grams; lithium bicarbonate, 10 grams. Mix
the powders and place them in a flat-bottomed vessel having a large
surface; heat to about 100° C., stirring the powder continually until it
takes the granular form, then by means of appropriate sieves obtain
granules of suitable and uniform size, and preserve the preparation in
well-closed bottles.
=Lithium, Oxide of.= Li_{2}O. _Syn._ LITHIA. An alkaline earth found in
petalite, &c., and in small quantities in most mineral waters.
_Prep._ Petalite (a silicate of aluminum and lithium) in powder mixed
with twice its weight of fluor spar is heated with strong sulphuric acid
as long as acid vapours are given off. The residue is treated with
ammonia, boiled, and filtered, evaporated to dryness, and heated to
redness. The residue consists of sulphate of lithium, from which the oxide
is obtained by decomposing it with acetate of barium, filtering and
heating after having evaporated the solution to dryness.
This yields the so-called oxide, which is in reality the hydrate, LiHO,
and is a white, non-volatile, soluble, caustic solid. The true oxide is a
white powder decomposed by water forming the hydrate, and obtainable by
igniting the metal in oxygen.
=Lithia, Effervescing Solution of.= _Syn._ LIQUOR LITHIÆ EFFERVESCENS.
_Comp._ Water charged with carbonic acid and holding in solution carbonate
of lithium. 10 fl. oz. contain 5 grains of the carbonate.——_Props._
Colourless liquid, possessing powerful diuretic properties.——_Use._
Antilithic, for dissolving calculi of uric acid.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 fl. oz.
=LITHOFRACTEUR.= See BLASTING POWDERS.
=LITHOG′RAPHY.= The art of tracing letters, figures, and other designs, on
stone, and transferring them to paper by impression. Our notice of this
beautiful and useful art must necessarily be brief.
There are two methods of lithography in general use. In the one, a drawing
is made on the stone with a lithographic crayon, or with lithographic ink;
in the other method the design is made on lithographic paper, which, on
being moistened and passed through the press, leaves its design on the
surface of the stone, reversed. In either method, water acidulated with
nitrous acid, oil of vitriol, or hydrochloric acid, is poured over the
stone, and this, by removing the alkali from the chalk or ink, leaves the
design on it in a permanent form, at the same time that it ‘etches’ away a
portion of the lights, and renders the surface more absorbent of water.
The process of lithographic printing is as follows:——Water is thrown over
the stone, the roller charged with printing ink is passed over the
surface, the paper is applied, and a copy is obtained by the action of the
lithographic press. The same process must be had recourse to for each
copy. The nature of the stone is such that it retains with great tenacity
the resinous and oily substances contained in the ink or crayon employed
to form the design and also absorbs water freely; this, combined with the
peculiar affinity between resinous and oily substances, and their mutual
power of repelling water, occasions the ink on the printing roller to
adhere to the design, and to leave untouched the lights.
The stones are prepared for lithography by polishing in the ordinary way;
the style of work for which they are intended determining the degree of
labour bestowed upon them. For crayon drawings the surface should have a
fine grain, but the finish of the stone must depend upon the desired
softness of the intended drawing; for writing or drawing on in ink the
surface must receive a higher polish, and must be finished off with
pumice-stone and water.
The best lithographic stones are obtained from Solenhofen, near Munich,
and from Pappenheim, on the banks of the Danube. The white lias which lies
immediately under the blue, near Bath, also yields good lithographic
stones, and furnishes the principal portion of those employed in this
country. See CRAYONS, INK and PAPER.
=LITHONTRYP′TICS.= _Syn._ LITHOTRYPTICS, LITHONTRYPTICA, L. Under this
head are intended numerous substances (LITHICS; LITHICA, L.) used to
prevent the formation of urinary calculi, or to dissolve them when already
formed. Those employed with the former intention are more correctly termed
ANTILITHICS (ANTILITHICA, L.), and those with the latter, LITHONTRYPTICS,
or LYTHONLYTICS (LITHONTRYPTICA, LITHONLYTICA, L.).
The following are the principal substances included under this head by
pharmacological writers:——Alkalies and their carbonates, benzoic acid,
borax, carbonate of lithia, effervescing solution of lithia, carbonic
acid, cinnamic acid, diluents (generally), diuretics (generally), juniper,
malic acid, Malvern waters, mineral acids, nitrosaccharate of lead, opium,
phosphate of soda, phosphoric acid, poppies, turpentines, uva ursi,
vegetable acids, vegetable astringents, vegetable bitters, Vichy waters,
wall pellitory, water (pure).
=LIT′MUS.= _Syn._ TURNSOLE; LACMUS, LACCA CÆRULEA, L. MUSIVA, L. MUSCI, L.
A blue substance prepared by the united influence of water, air, ammonia,
and either potassa or soda, from _Rocella tinctoria_, _Lecanora tartarea_,
or any of the other tinctorial lichens capable of yielding archil, by a
process essentially similar to that adopted for the latter substance,
except that chalk is generally used to form the paste, which is moulded
into cakes and dried.
_Pur., &c._ “Soluble in both water and alcohol. Its blue colour is
reddened by acids, and is restored by the addition of alkalies.” (Ph. L.
1836.) It is extensively used by the dyer as a red and crimson colouring
matter, and by the chemist as a test for acids.
The colouring matter of litmus, when purified as much as possible, may be
kept for an indefinite period unaltered in glycerin. Litmus is treated
with hot water, and the solution, after concentration, is mixed with a
sufficient quantity of alcohol (of 80 per cent.) to precipitate the
colouring matter. After standing for twenty hours the alcohol is poured
off, and carries with it a dirty blue foreign substance, which frequently
occurs in litmus, and is not altered by acids. The sediment is treated
with hot water, which dissolves it on account of the potassium carbonate
which is present.
To remove this carbonate, sulphuric acid is added till the liquid assumes
a faint wine tint; it is then heated to boiling for a few minutes, and
again rendered blue by the addition of a few drops of lime water. After
the lapse of twenty-four hours the liquid is filtered, and evaporated to a
syrup, and left all night in a cool place, when the potassium sulphate
crystallises out in the form of a crust. It is then filtered through a
moist cotton mixed with glycerin, and carefully preserved from damp.[22]
See ARCHIL, CUDBEAR, &c.
[Footnote 22: J. C. Martenson, from ‘Chem. Centr.,’ translated into the
‘Journal of the Chemical Society.’]
=LIVE-LONG.= Digestive candy. See CANDYING.
=LIV′ER.= _Syn._ HEPAR, L. A large abdominal viscus, the exclusive duty of
which, until recently, was stated by physiologists to be to secrete bile;
but the secretion of sugar for combustion in the lungs or capillaries is
now said to be one of its chief duties. The liver is subject to several
diseases, both functional and organic, among which inflammation
(hepatitis) holds the most prominent place. The acute form of this disease
is ushered in with pain in the region of the liver, with sickness,
costiveness, and a strong, hard, and frequent pulse, with great pain about
the clavicle and shoulders. There is cough, oppressed breathing, and often
vomiting of bilious matter. The urine is scanty, and of a saffron-yellow
colour, and the skin and eyes are also tinged yellow. The treatment
consists chiefly in purging with salines accompanied with mercurials, the
use of antimonials, and a blister applied over the region of the liver.
Bitter tonics, as calumba, cascarilla, and gentian may afterwards be had
recourse to; and if the patient resides in a hot climate a change to a
temperate one should be made, if possible. Chronic hepatitis requires
similar treatment, but of a less active character. The more usual causes
of diseases of the liver, besides those common to the other viscera, are
residence in a hot climate, and the excessive use of highly seasoned food
and alcoholic liquors.
=Liv′er.= _Syn._ HEPAR, L. In _chemistry_ and _pharmacy_, a term formerly
applied to numerous substances, on account of their colour; as liver of
antimony (HEPAR ANTIMONII), liver of sulphur (HEPAR SULPHURIS), &c.
=Liver, Edible.= The livers of animals, such as the bullock, the calf, and
the sheep, contain a large amount of nitrogenous matter,[23] as may be
seen from the following analysis by Payen:
[Footnote 23: Hence the instinct that leads man to cook it with a food
rich in carbon——such as fat bacon.]
_Composition of Calf’s Liver._
Nitrogenous matter 20·10
Fat 3·58
Carbo-hydrates (amyloid matter) 0·45
Saline matter 1·54
Water 72·33
——————
98·03
They are generally regarded as indigestible articles of diet, and as such
should be avoided by dyspeptics.
It is of great importance to have the livers of animals thoroughly cooked,
so as to ensure the destruction of a dangerous parasite——the _Distoma
hepatica_, the liver fluke——that frequently infests them.
The foie gras, of which the celebrated Strasbourg pie is made, is the
abnormally enlarged or, rather, diseased liver of the goose, brought to
its enormous size and fatty condition by subjecting the bird to close
confinement in a hot place and overfeeding it.
=LIVER AND BACON.= The liver must be washed, not soaked, then wiped dry
and cut into slices. Flour each slice. Remove the rind from the bacon, and
cut it into rashers. Let the bacon be fried first, then stand it in a hot
dish before the fire during the time the liver is being fried in the
melted fat from the bacon. When the liver is cooked place it on the bacon.
Next mix a dessert-spoonful of flour into a smooth paste with a cupful of
water, stir in it a pinch of pepper and salt, and pour it into the
frying-pan; let it just boil, stirring it meanwhile, and, lastly, strain
it over the liver and bacon.
=LIXIVIA′TION.= The process of dissolving out or extracting the saline
matter of bodies, more especially of ashes, the residua of distillations,
&c., by means of ablution or digestion in water. The solution so obtained
is called a ‘LYE,’ ‘LEY,’ or ‘LIXIVIUM,’ and the salts resulting from the
evaporation of such solutions ‘LIXIVIAL SALTS,’
=LLA′MA.= _Syn._ GUANACO; LAMA, L. A genus of animals of the family
_Bovidæ_ and tribe _Camelina_. The llama is confined to South America, and
may be regarded as the representative of the camel in the New World. The
most important species are _Lama vicugna_ (the VICUNA) and _L. Guanacus_
(the GUANACO). The wool of llamas is woven into stuffs for _ponchos_, and
made into cords, sacks, &c. See ALPACA.
=LOAD′STONE.= _Syn._ LODESTONE, MAGNESIAN STONE, MAGNETIC IRONSTONE.
Native magnetic oxide of iron (Fe_{3}O_{4}). It is often found massive,
frequently crystallised, and occasionally in beds of considerable
thickness. Its colour varies from reddish black to deep grey. Native
magnets from Arabia, China, and Bengal are commonly of a reddish colour,
and are powerfully attractive. Those found in Germany and England have the
colour of unwrought iron; those from Macedonia are more black and dull.
=LOAM.= A native mixture of clay, sand, and oxide of iron, with more or
less chalk. Loamy soils are of this description. They are called heavy or
light, according to the proportion of clay; and sandy, calcareous, or
gravelly, just as sand, gravel, or chalk, form a characteristic portion of
them.
=LOBEL′IA.= _Syn._ INDIAN TOBACCO; LOBELIA (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L.
“The flowering herb of _Lobelia inflata_” (B. P., Ph. L.), or
bladder-podded lobelia. The herb has an unpleasant odour, and an acrid,
burning, nauseous taste, somewhat resembling that of tobacco. In small
doses (1 to 3 gr.) it is expectorant and diaphoretic; in larger doses (5
to 15 gr.) nauseant and emetic; and in excessive doses, poisonous.
According to Dr Pereira, its principal value is that of an anti-spasmodic.
It has been highly recommended by Dr Elliotson in spasmodic asthma. He
commences with small doses, and gradually increases them unless headache
or nausea occurs. Others give a full dose at or before the commencement of
the fit. It has been also tried in croup, hooping-cough, and other
diseases of the respiratory organs, with variable effect.
Lobelia is the panacea of Dr Coffin, the author of the pretended system of
medicine irreverently called ‘Coffinism.’
=LOBEL′IC ACID.= The acid existing in decoction of lobelia. It closely
resembles gallic acid. It reddens litmus, and is precipitated by several
metallic salts.
=LOBEL′INE.= _Syn._ LOBELINA, L. A light yellowish-brown oily substance,
found by Calhoun, of Philadelphia, in _Lobelia inflata_. It is volatile,
soluble in alcohol, ether, and water; and in oil of turpentine, oil of
almonds, and some other fixed oils; with the acids it forms crystallisable
salts, which are soluble. It may be obtained from the seeds by the action
of alcohol acidulated with acetic acid, evaporating, treating with
magnesia and then with ether, and again evaporating. 1 oz. of the seeds
furnishes 2 gr. When perfectly pure, 1 gr. will kill a large dog.
=LOB′STERS.= See SHELL FISH.
=LOCK′SOY.= Rice boiled to a paste and drawn into threads. Used to thicken
soups. It is imported from China.
=LODGING-HOUSES.= The following sections of the Public Health Act of 1875
embody the regulations in force with regard to _common_ lodging-houses:
(S. 76.) Every local authority shall keep a register, in which shall be
entered the names and residences of the keepers of all common
lodging-houses within the district of such authority, and the situation of
every such house, and the number of lodgers authorised according to this
Act to be received therein.
A copy of any entry in such register certified by the person having charge
of the register to be a true copy shall be received in all courts and on
all occasions as evidence, and shall be sufficient proof of the matter
registered without production of the register, or of any document or thing
on which the entry is founded; and a certified copy of any such entry
shall be supplied gratis by the person having charge of the register to
any person applying at a reasonable time for the same.
(S. 77.) A person shall not keep a common lodging-house or receive a
lodger therein until the house has been registered in accordance with the
provisions of this Act, nor until his name as the keeper thereof has been
entered in the register kept under this Act; provided that when the person
so registered dies his widow or any member of his family may keep the
house as a common lodging-house for not more than four weeks after his
death without being registered as the keeper thereof.
(S. 78.) A house shall not be registered as a common lodging-house until
it has been inspected and approved for the purpose by some officer of the
local authority; and the local authority may refuse to register as the
keeper of a common lodging-house a person who does not produce to the
local authority a certificate of character in such form as the local
authority direct, signed by three inhabitant house-holders of the parish
respectively rated to the relief of the poor of the parish within which
the lodging-house is situated, for property of the yearly rateable value
of £6 or upwards.
(S. 79.) The keeper of every common lodging-house shall, if required in
writing by the local authority so to do, affix and keep undefaced and
legible a notice with the words, “Registered common lodging-house,” in
some conspicuous place on the outside of such house.
The keeper of any such house who, after requisition in writing from the
local authority, refuses or neglects to affix or renew such notice, shall
be liable to a penalty not exceeding £5, and to a further penalty of 10s.
for every day that such refusal or neglect continues after conviction.
(S. 80.) Every local authority shall from time to time make bye-laws:
1. For fixing from time to time, varying the number of lodgers who
may be received into a common lodging-house, and for the
separation of the sexes therein; and——
2. For promoting cleanliness and ventilation in such houses; and——
3. For the giving of notices and taking precautions in the case of any
infectious disease; and——
4. Generally for the well-ordering of such houses.
(S. 81.) Where it appears to any local authority that a common
lodging-house is without a proper supply of water for the use of the
lodgers, and that such a supply can be furnished thereto at a reasonable
rate, the local authority may by notice in writing require the owner or
keeper of such house, within a time specified therein, to obtain such
supply, and to do all works necessary for that purpose; and if the notice
be not complied with accordingly, the local authority may remove such
house from the register until it is complied with.
(S. 82.) The keeper of a common lodging-house shall, to the satisfaction
of the local authority, limewash the walls and ceilings thereof in the
first week of each of the months of April and October in every year.
Penalty for neglect, £2 or less.
(S. 83.) The keeper of a common lodging-house in which beggars or vagrants
are received to lodge shall from time to time, if required in writing by
the local authority so to do, report to the local authority or to such
person as the local authority direct, every person who resorted to such
house during the preceding day or night, and for that purpose schedules
shall be furnished by the local authority to the person so ordered to
report, which schedules he shall fill up with the information required,
and transmit to the local authority.
(S. 84.) The keeper of a common lodging-house shall, when a person in such
house is ill of fever or any infectious disease, give immediate notice
thereof to the medical officer of health of the local authority, and also
to the poor-law relieving officer of the union or parish in which the
common lodging-house is situated.
(S. 85.) The keeper of a common lodging-house, and every other person
having or acting in the care or management thereof, shall, at all times
when required by any officer of the local authority, give him free access
to such house or any part thereof. Penalty for refusing such access, £5 or
less.
(S. 86.) Any keeper of a common lodging-house, or other person having or
acting in the care or management thereof, who——
1. Receives any lodger in such house without the same being
registered under this Act; or——
2. Fails to make a report after he has been furnished by the local
authority with schedules for the purpose, in pursuance of this
Act, of the persons resorting to such house; or——
3. Fails to give the notices required by this Act, where any person
has been confined to his bed in such house by fever or other
infectious disease,——
Shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding £5, and in the case of a
continuing offence to a further penalty not exceeding £2 for every day
during which the offence continues.
(S. 87.) In any proceedings under the provisions of this Act relating to
common lodging-houses, if the inmates of any house or part of a house
allege that they are members of the same family, the burden of proving
such allegation shall lie on the persons making it.
(S. 88.) Where the keeper of a common lodging-house is convicted of a
third offence against the provisions of this Act relating to common
lodging-houses, the Court before whom the conviction for such third
offence takes place may, if it thinks fit, adjudge that he shall not at
any time within five years after the conviction, or within such shorter
period after the conviction as the court thinks fit, keep, or have, or act
in the care or management of a common lodging-house without the previous
licence in writing of the local authority, may withhold or grant on such
terms or conditions as they think fit.
(S. 89.) For the purposes of this Act the expression ‘common
lodging-house’ includes, in any case in which only part of a house is used
as a common lodging-house, the part so used of such house.
_Bye-laws as to Houses let as Lodgings._
(S. 90.) The Local Government Board may, if they think fit, by
notice published in the ‘London Gazette,’ declare the following
enactment to be in force within the district or any part of the
district of any local authority, and from and after the
publication of such notice such authority shall be empowered to
make bye-laws for the following matter (that is to say):
1. For fixing the number, and from time to time varying the number,
of persons who may occupy a house or part of a house which is let
in lodgings, or occupied by members of more than one family, and
for the separation of the sexes in a house so let or occupied.
2. For the registration of houses so let or occupied.
3. For the inspection of such houses.
4. For enforcing drainage and the provision of privy accommodation for
such houses, and for promoting cleanliness and ventilation in such
houses.
5. For the cleansing and limewashing at stated times of the premises,
and for the paving of the courts and courtyards thereof.
6. For the giving of notices and taking of precautions in case of any
infectious disease.
This section shall not apply to common lodging-houses within the
provisions of this Act, relating to such houses.
=LOG′WOOD.= _Syn._ CAMPEACHY WOOD; HÆMATOXYLUM (Ph. L. E. & D.),
HÆMATOXYLI LIGNUM (B. P.), LIGNUM CAMPECHENSE, L. CAMPECHIANUM, L. The
heart-wood of _Hæmatoxylon Campechianum_, a native of the coast of
Campeachy, but now common in the West Indies and India. It is a valuable
astringent, and its decoction, extract, and infusion are useful remedies
in chronic diarrhœa and dysentery, and in hæmorrhages, &c. The extract is
an efficient substitute for catechu and kino.
Logwood is extensively employed in dyeing and calico printing, for the
production of reds, violets, purples, blacks, drabs, &c. It readily yields
its colour both to spirit and boiling water. The colouring matter requires
a large quantity of water to dissolve it, but when dissolved can be
concentrated to any degree by boiling down. The infusion is of a fine red,
turning on the purple or violet; acids turn it on the yellow, and alkalies
deepen it. To stuffs mordanted with alum it gives various shades of
violet and purple, according to the proportions of the materials. By using
solution of tin as the mordant, various shades of red, lilac, and violet,
may be obtained. The addition of a little Brazil wood is commonly made to
brighten the red. With a mordant of sulphate or acetate of iron it dyes
black; and with the addition of a little sulphate of copper greys of
various shades. It is, however, chiefly employed, in conjunction with
gall-nuts, for blacks, to which it imparts a lustre and velvety
appearance. Silk is usually turned through the cold decoction, but for
wool the decoction is used either hot or boiling. Logwood is one of the
cheapest and most easily managed of the dye stuffs. It is also used to
make ink. See HEMATOXYLIN, INK, &c.
=LO′HOCH.= See LINCTUS.
=LOR′ICA.= A species of lute applied as a coating to chemical vessels
before exposing them to the fire. Its application is called LORICATION.
See LUTE.
=LO′TION.= _Syn._ LOTIO, L. An external application, or wash, consisting
of water holding in solution medicinal substances. Lotions may be prepared
of any soluble medicaments that are capable of exerting their action by
contact with the skin. Writers on pharmacology have arranged them in
classes, as sedative, anodyne, stimulant, &c., according to their effects.
Sedative and refrigerant lotions are commonly employed to allay
inflammation;——anodyne and narcotic lotions, to relieve pain;——stimulant
lotions, to induce the maturation of tumours, &c.;——detergent lotions, to
clean foul ulcers;——repellent and resolvent lotions, to discuss tumours,
remove eruptions, &c.;——counter-irritant lotions, to excite a secondary
morbid action, with the intention of relieving one already existing.
Lotions are usually applied by wetting a piece of linen with them and
keeping it on the part affected; or, in slight cases, by moistening the
part with the fingers previously dipped into them. Lotions are more
agreeable if made with rose water, but are not thereby rendered more
efficacious. In all cases, distilled water, or filtered soft water, is
alone admissible as the solvent.
As lotions are, in general, mere extemporaneous or magistral preparations,
it will, of course, be only necessary here to give the formulæ for a few
of those which are the most useful or the most frequently employed. These
will serve as examples from which others may be prepared. As a general
rule, the medium dose of any substance dissolved in a fluid ounce of
distilled water, forms a lotion of the proper strength, under all ordinary
circumstances; or, what is the same thing, the medium dose in grains,
taken in scruples, is sufficient for a pint of such a lotion. Thus, the
dose of sulphate of zinc is 1 to 3 gr., therefore—— (1 + 3)/2 = 2 gr.,
which is the proportion of sulphate of zinc to be taken for 1 fl. oz. of
water, or 40 gr. for 1 pint. Again, the dose of bichloride of mercury is
1/8 to 3/4 gr.; therefore—— (1/8+3/4)/2 = 7/16 gr.; or nearly 1/2 gr. per
fl. oz., and 8-1/2 gr. per pint. In this method extreme or unusual doses,
as, for instance, those of sulphate of zinc, as an emetic, in poisoning,
&c., are not taken into the calculation. In all cases in which lotions are
intended for extremely susceptible parts, it is proper to dilute them with
an equal bulk of water. When intended for eye-waters (COLLYRIA), they
should be diluted with at least 3 to 4 times their bulk of water. See
EMBROCATION, LINIMENT, &c.
=Lotion of Ac′etate of Ammo′′nia.= _Syn._ LOTIO AMMONIÆ ACETATIS, L.
_Prep._ 1. Solution of acetate of ammonia, 1 part; water, 2 parts.
2. (Hosp. F.) Solution of acetate of ammonia, rectified spirit, and water,
equal parts. Discutient and refrigerant. In ordinary inflammations.
=Lotion of Ac′etate of Lead.= _Syn._ LOTIO PLUMBI ACETATIS, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Collier.) Acetate of lead, 1 dr.; distilled water, 8 fl. oz. Sometimes a
little vinegar is added. In excoriations, burns, sprains, contusions, &c.
See SOLUTION OF DIACETATE OF LEAD.
2. Acetate of lead, 2 gr.; distilled water, 1 oz. (Ophthalmic Hospital.)
=Lotion of Ac′etate of Mercury.= _Syn._ LOTIO HYDRARGYRI ACETATIS, L.
_Prep._ Acetate of mercury, 1 scruple; distilled water, 1 pint. Mix.
=Lotion of Ac′etate of Zinc.= _Syn._ LOTIO ZINCI ACETATIS, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Béral.) Acetate of zinc, 1-1/2 dr.; water, 1 pint. Astringent; similar to
lotion of sulphate of zinc.
2. Acetate of zinc, 1 to 2 gr.; water, 1 oz. An astringent collyrium in
ophthalmia, and as injection in gonorrhœa after the acute stage has
passed. Neither tincture nor wine of opium gives a precipitate with this
lotion.
=Lotion, Acetic.= _Syn._ LOTIO ACETI, L. _Prep._ 1. Vinegar, 1 part;
water, 2 or 3 parts. For bruises, contusions, &c., and as a general
refrigerant application to sound parts.
2. Vinegar, 1 fl. oz.; cold water, 1/2 pint; as a wash in chronic
ophthalmia, &c.
=Lotion, Acid.= See LOTIONS OF ACETIC, =Nitric=, and PHOSPHORIC ACID, &c.
=Lotion of Acon′itine.= _Syn._ LOTIO ACONITINÆ, L. _Prep._ (Turnbull.)
Aconitine, 8 gr.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz. In neuralgia; applied by
means of a small piece of sponge mounted at the end of a stick. It must
never be employed when the skin is broken or abraded; and it would be
wise, in most cases, to dilute it with double its volume of proof spirit.
=Lotion, Al′kaline.= _Syn._ LOTIO ALKALINA, L. POTASSÆ CARBONATIS, L.
_Prep._ (P. Cod.) From salt of tartar, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint. Stimulant and
detergent. Diluted with an equal bulk of water, it forms an excellent
cosmetic wash to remove scurf from the hair. Sometimes it is made with
almond milk instead of water.
=Lotion, Almond, Alkaline.= (Dr A. T. Thomson). _Syn._ Solution of potash,
4 fl. oz.; emulsion of bitter almonds, 5-1/2 fl. oz. To remove the scurf
in porrigo furfurans, applied twice a day diluted with warm water.
=Lotion of Al′um.= _Syn._ LOTIO ALUMINIS, L. _Prep._ From alum, 1-1/2 dr.;
distilled or rose water, 1 pint. Astringent. For sore gums, nipples,
excoriations, &c.
=Lotion, Ammonio-Camphorated.= _Syn._ AQUA SEDATIVA, L. EAU SEDATIVE DE
RASPAIL; EAU, OU LOTION AMMONIACALE CAMPHRÉE. No. 1. Liquor ammoniæ
(·923), 6 parts; camphorated spirit, 1 part; salt, 6 parts; water, 10
parts. No. 2 contains 8 parts, and No. 3 10 parts of ammonia.
=Lotion, Ammoni′acal.= _Syn._ LOTIO AMMONIÆ, L. AMMONIACALIS, L. _Prep._
1. Liquor of ammonia, 3 fl. dr.; cold water, 5 fl. oz. As a stimulant to
indolent ulcers, and in certain skin diseases.
2. (Swediaur.) Liquor of ammonia, spirit of thyme, and spirit of camphor,
equal parts. In headaches; applied to the forehead and temples, and in
other cases, as a counter-irritant. In most cases it should be used
diluted.
3. (Opiated——Dr Kirkland.) Sal volatile, 3-1/2 fl. oz.; tincture of opium,
1/2 fl. oz.; water, 4 fl. oz. Anodyne, stimulant, and resolvent.
=Lotion, Antiphlogis′tic.= _Syn._ LOTIO ANTIPHLOGISTICA, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Copland.) Solution of diacetate of lead, 3 fl. dr.; solution of acetate
of ammonia, 2 fl. oz.; distilled water, 1 pint. Refrigerant, sedative, and
repellant. Used to allay inflammation, &c.
2. (A. T. Thomson.) Opium, 2 dr., distilled vinegar, 1/2 pint. Anodyne and
refrigerant; in swelled joints, &c.
=Lotion of Ar′nica.= _Syn._ LOTIO ARNICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Tincture of
arnica, 1 fl. dr.; rose water, 2-1/2 fl. oz. In contusions, bruises,
extravasations, &c.
2. (Niemann.) Arnica flowers, 1/2 oz.; hot vinegar, 3 fl. oz.; boiling
water, 5 fl. oz., infuse until cold, and strain. In acute hydrocephalus;
or with water, q. s. to measure a pint, as a common lotion.
=Lotion, Arsenical.= _Syn._ LOTIO ARSENICALIS, L. ACIDI ARSENIOSI, L.
_Prep._ 1. Arsenious acid, 5 gr.; water, 1 pint. In psoriasis, &c.
2. (Compound——M. le Febre.) Arsenious acid, 8 gr.; boiling water, 16 fl.
oz.; dissolve, and add of extract of hemlock, 1 oz.; solution of diacetate
of lead, 3 fl. oz.; tincture of opium, 1 fl. dr. Every morning, in cancer.
=Lotion, Astrin′gent.= _Syn._ LOTIO ASTRINGENS, L. See LOTIONS OF ALUM,
SULPHATE OF ZINC, &c.
=Lotion, Barlow’s.= _Prep._ From sulphuret of potassium (in powder), 3
dr.; soap (sliced), 1-1/2 dr.; lime water, 7-1/2 fl. oz.; proof spirit, 2
fl. oz. In itch, ringworm, &c.
=Lotion, Bateman’s.= _Prep_. From bichloride of mercury, 2 gr.; compound
spirit of lavender, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve, and add of distilled water, 4 fl.
oz. In obstinate cutaneous eruptions, more especially those of a papular
character.
=Lotion of Belladon′na.= _Syn._ LOTIO BELLADONNÆ, L. _Prep._ (Graefe.)
Extract of belladonna, 1/2 dr.; dilute solution of diacetate of lead, 1/2
pint. Applied to tumours and glandular enlargements.
=Lotion of Benzoin.= LOTIO BENZOINI. Tincture of benzoin, 1; rose water,
40. A nice lotion to protect the face from the heat of the sun.
=Lotion of Bichlo′′ride of Mercury.= _Syn._ LOTIO HYDRARGYRI BICHLORIDI,
L. H. CHLORIDI CORROSIVI, L. _Prep._ 1. Corrosive sublimate, 5 to 10 gr.;
distilled water, 1 pint. The addition of 5 or 6 gr. of hydrochlorate of
ammonia, or as many drops of hydrochloric acid, increases the solvent
action of the water, and renders the preparation less liable to change.
Some persons dissolve the sublimate in 1 or 2 fl. dr. of rectified spirit
before adding it to the water; but this is unnecessary. In obstinate
eruptions, glandular swelling, obstinate sores, &c.; also as an injection.
2. (Good.) Corrosive sublimate, 1 dr.; sal ammoniac, 2 dr.; nitre, 4 dr.;
water, 6 fl. oz.; dissolve. In itch, &c. For use, it should be diluted
with about 3 times its bulk of water.
3. (LOTIO HYDRARGYRI AMYGDALINA——St B. Hosp.) Blanched bitter almonds, 1
oz.; water, 1 pint; make an emulsion, and add of bichloride of mercury
(dissolved in a little rectified spirit), 10 gr. This resembles GOWLAND’S
LOTION, and may be used for it.
=Lotion of Bismuth.= LOTIO BISMUTHI. Nitrate of bismuth, 6 gr.; corrosive
sublimate, 1/2 gr.; spirits of camphor, 1-1/2 minim; water, 1 oz. A
soothing lotion in chronic skin affections.
=Lotion, Black.= See LOTION, MERCURIAL.
=Lotion of Borax.= _Syn._ LOTIO BORACIS, L. BORACICA, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr
Abercrombie.) Borax, 2-1/2 dr.; distilled vinegar, 1/4 pint. In ringworm.
2. (Copland.) Borax (in powder), 1 dr.; rose water and orange-flower
water, of each 3 fl. oz.; dissolve. A fragrant and effective application
to sore gums, sore nipples, excoriations, &c.
3. (Dr Johnson.) Borax, 2 dr.; precipitated chalk, 1 oz.; rose water and
rectified spirit, of each 3 oz. For sore nipples.
4. (Dr Meigs.) Borax, 1/2 oz.; sulphate of morphia, 6 gr.; rose water, 8
fl. oz. To allay itching and irritation, especially pruritus vulvæ.
5. Borax, 1; rose water, 24. Cosmetic.
=Lotion, Bro′mine.= _Syn._ LOTIO BROMINII, L. _Prep._ (Dr Glover.)
Bromine, 1 dr.; water, 1 pint. As an application to scrofulous ulcers.
=Lotion for Burns.= See LINIMENT.
=Lotion, Camphora′ted.= See LOTION, EVAPORATING.
=Lotion of Cap′sicum.= _Syn._ LOTIO CAPSICI, L. _Prep._ (Griffith.)
Tinctures of capsicum and camphor, of each 4 fl. oz.; liquor of ammonia, 2
fl. oz. A powerful rubefacient and counter-irritant.
=Lotion of Carbolic Acid.= (Mr Lister.) _Syn._ LOTIO ACIDI CARBOLICI.
_Prep._ 1 part of acid in 20 of water is used to promote the healing of
wounds, abscesses, ulcers and burns. A weaker solution of 1 in 40 is in
common use in the London hospitals. 5 drops to 1 fl. oz. of glycerin forms
a good application to eruptions of the skin.
=Lotion of Car′bonate of So′da.= _Syn._ LOTIO SODÆ CARBONATIS, L. _Prep._
From carbonate of soda, 1/2 oz.; water, 1 pint. To allay itching and
irritation. See LOTION, ALKALINE.
=Lotion of Cher′ry Laurel.= _Syn._ LOTIO LAURO-CERASI, L. _Prep._ 1.
Cherry-laurel water (distilled), 1-1/2 fl. oz.; distilled water, 1/2 pint.
Anodyne; useful to allay irritation, &c. Some persons with delicate skin
employ it as a wash after shaving.
2. Cherry-laurel water (distilled), 4 oz.; rectified spirit and ether, of
each 1 fl. oz.; extract of belladonna, 2 dr.; agitate well together in the
cold. An excellent application in neuralgia, painful tumours, &c.
=Lotion for Chilblains.= See CHILBLAIN, LINIMENT, &c.
=Lotion of Chlo′′rate of Soda.= _Syn._ LOTIO SODÆ CHLORATIS, L. _Prep._
(Darling.) Chlorate of soda, 5 dr.; water, 1/2 pint. In pruritus, &c.
=Lotion of Chlo′′ride of Ammonium.= LOTIO AMMONII CHLORIDI. Chloride of
ammonium, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 oz.; water, 10 oz. To this vinegar is
sometimes added. Used as a dressing for bruises. See also LOTION OF
HYDROCHLORATE OF AMMONIA.
=Lotion of Chlo′′ride of Lead.= _Syn._ LOTIO PLUMBI CHLORIDI, L. _Prep._
(Tuson.) Chloride of lead, 1 dr.; hot distilled water, 1 pint; dissolve.
In cancerous ulcerations, painful neuralgic tumours, &c.
=Lotion of Chloride of Tin.= _Syn._ LOTIO STANNI CHLORIDI, L. _Prep._
(Nauche.) Chloride of tin, 1 gr.; distilled water, 2 to 3 fl. oz. In
cancerous ulcerations.
=Lotion of Chloride of Zinc.= _Syn._ LOTIO ZINCI CHLORIDI, L. _Prep._ 1.
Chloride of zinc, 10 gr. (or solution, 1/2 fl. dr.); water, 1 pint. As a
disinfectant and preventive lotion.
2. (Voght.) Chloride of zinc, 8 gr.; extract of aloes, 40 gr.; distilled
water, 4 fl. oz. In atonic and foul ulcers.
=Lotion, Chlorina′ted.= _Syn._ LOTIO CHLORINATA, L. _Prep._ 1. (LOTIO
CALCIS CHLORINATÆ.)——_a._ From chloride of lime, 3 dr.; water, 1 pint;
agitate together for some time, and strain through muslin.
_b._ (Derheims.) Chloride of lime, 1 oz.; water, 1 quart; triturate and
filter.
2. (LOTIO SODÆ CHLORINATÆ.) From chloride of soda, as the last. They are
both excellent washes for foul ulcers, the itch, &c.; and, when diluted
for the teeth, to sweeten the breath, remove the smell of tobacco smoke,
to prevent infection, and for various purposes. When intended for
application to very tender or abraded surfaces, they must be largely
diluted with water.
=Lotion of Chlo′′roform.= _Syn._ LOTIO CHLOROFORMI, L. _Prep._ Chloroform
(pure), 1-1/2 fl. oz.; rectified spirit and cold distilled water, of each
1/2 pint. Anodyne. A piece of oiled silk should be laid over the rag to
prevent evaporation. The lotion made with water, as commonly prescribed,
is inert.
=Lotion for Corns.= See CORN.
=Lotion of Crea′sote.= _Syn._ LOTIO CREASOTI, L. _Prep._ 1. Creasote, 2
fl. dr.; liquor of potassa, 3 fl. dr.; water, 1/2 pint.
2. Creasote, 3 fl. dr.; vinegar and water, of each 1/2 pint. In burns,
itch, phagedenic ulcerations, ringworm, chancre, &c.
=Lotion of Cy′anide of Potas′sium.= _Syn._ LOTIO POTASSI CYANIDI, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Cazenave.) Cyanide of potassium, 10 gr.; emulsion of bitter
almonds, 6 fl. oz. In chronic eruptions and other cases attended with much
itching or irritation.
2. (Foy.) Cyanide of potassium, 8 gr.; distilled water, 1 fl. oz. In
neuralgia, acute rheumatism, &c.; applied by means of compresses of linen.
Both the above are poisonous if swallowed.
=Lotion of Delphin′ine.= _Syn._ LOTIO DELPHINIÆ, EMBROCATIO D., L. _Prep._
(Dr Turnbull.) Delphinine, 20 to 60 gr.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz. Used
as LOTION OF VERATRIA.
=Lotion of Diac′etate of Lead.= _Syn._ GOULARD’S LOTION; LOTIO PLUMBI
DIACETATIS, L. The dilute liquor of diacetate of lead (LIQ. PLUMBI
DIACETATIS DILUTUS——Ph. L.). See SOLUTION. Also Solution of subacetate of
lead (B. P.), 3 minims, with 7 minims to 1 oz. water.
=Lotion, Evap′orating.= _Syn._ LOTIO EVAPORANS, L. VAPORANS, L. SPIRITUS
DILUTI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Copland.) Sulphuric ether, rectified spirit, and
solution of acetate of ammonia, of each 1-1/2 fl. oz.; rose water, 3-1/2
fl. oz.
2. (Guy’s Hosp.) Rectified spirit, 1 part; water, 5 parts.
3. (Erasmus Wilson.) Rectified spirit, 1 part; water, 4 to 6 parts.
4. (CAMPHORATED——Ware.) Camphor, 1/2 dr.; elder flowers, 1/2 oz.;
rectified spirit, 4 oz.; digest 24 hours, and strain.
_Obs._ The above are soothing and refrigerant, if allowed to evaporate by
free exposure; stimulant, if the evaporation is prevented by covering the
part with the hand, or a piece of oiled silk. They are useful applications
in nervous headaches, restlessness, itching and irritability of the skin,
&c. “A little rose water added to the simple water makes an agreeable
addition, and sometimes camphor water (julep), or a little Goulard’s
extract, may be deemed advantageous, when a greater degree of calming
effect is required.” (Eras. Wilson.) Eau de Cologne, diluted with an equal
quantity of water, is often used as an evaporating lotion.
=Lotion of Gall-nuts.= _Syn._ LOTIO GALLÆ, L. _Prep._ From gall-nuts
(bruised), 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse until cold, and strain.
Astringent. An excellent application to sore nipples, or to strengthen
them before suckling; spirit of wine, 3 fl. oz., may be advantageously
added to the cold infusion, and a like portion of water omitted, See
DECOCTION.
=Lotion of Glyc′erin.= _Syn._ LOTIO GLYCERINI, L. GLYCERINIÆ, L. _Prep._
1. Glycerin, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint. To allay itching, and remove dryness,
&c., in various skin diseases; also in chaps of the nipples, lips, and
hands. For the latter purpose the addition of 2 to 3 dr. of borax is
recommended by some writers.
2. Glycerin, 1 oz.; thick mucilage, 2 oz.; lime water, 7 oz. In burns,
scalds, chaps, excoriations, &c.
3. (Startin.) Glycerin, 1 oz.; extract of belladonna, 1 dr.; soap
liniment, 3 oz.; triturate together. In bruises, sprains, and swelled
joints; gouty, neuralgic, and rheumatic pains, &c.
4. (Startin.) Trisnitrate of bismuth, 1/2 dr.; tincture of foxglove and
dilute nitric acid, of each 1 fl. dr.; glycerin, 4 dr.; rose water, 8-1/2
fl. oz. To allay the itching in prurigo, and some other skin diseases.
_Obs._ Various lotions may be prepared by dissolving active medicinal
substances in glycerin.
=Lotion, Goulard’s.= SEE LOTION OF DIACETATE OF LEAD.
=Lotion, Gout.= _Syn._ LOTIO ANTARTHRITICA, L. _Prep._ 1. Glycerin, 1 oz.;
extract of belladonna, 3 dr.; veratrine, 10 gr., dissolved in rectified
spirit, 2 fl. oz.; mix, and further add, of water, 17 fl. oz. It is
poisonous if swallowed.
2. (‘SCUDAMORE’S G. L.’) From camphor mixture, 9 fl. oz.; rectified
spirit, 3 fl. oz. The above are applied on rags or compresses, or are
poured on the surface of poultices.
=Lotion, Gowland’s.= This celebrated nostrum is prepared as follows:——Take
of Jordan almonds, 1 oz.; bitter almonds, 1/2 oz.; blanch them, and make
an emulsion in soft water, 1 pint; to this add of bichloride of mercury,
15 gr.; previously dissolved in rectified spirit, 2 fl. dr., together with
enough water to make the whole measure 1 pint, and put it into bottles.
_Obs._ This preparation is chiefly used as a cosmetic to improve the
complexion; and also as a wash for obstinate eruptions and minor
glandular swellings and indurations. As a beautifier of the complexion, it
is employed by simply wetting the skin with it, either by means of the
corner of a napkin or the fingers dipped into it, after which it is gently
wiped off with a dry cloth. Dr Paris represents this nostrum to contain
1/2 dr. of corrosive sublimate in every pint, which is not the case.
=Lotion, Granville’s Counter-irritant.= See LINIMENT OF AMMONIA
(Compound).
=Lotion, Hem′lock.= _Syn._ LOTII CONII, L. _Prep._ (Mid. Hosp.) Extract of
hemlock, 3 dr.; opium, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; digest until cold,
and strain. Anodyne and resolvent; in glandular enlargements, painful
ulcers, cancer, indurations, rheumatism, neuralgia, &c.
=Lotion, Hooping-cough.= (Struve’s.) LOTIO ANTIPERTUSSICA, L. _Prep._
(Paris.) Potassio-tartrate of antimony, 1 dr.; tincture of cantharides, 1
oz.; water, 2 oz. This is a powerful counter-irritant, and should be used
with caution; as it is apt to induce a troublesome eruption on the parts
to which it is frequently applied.
=Lotion of Hydrochlo′′rate of Ammonia.= _Syn._ LOTIO AMMONIÆ
HYDROCHLORATIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (WEAKER.) From sal ammoniac, 1 to 4 dr.;
water, 1 pint. As a wash in itch, ulcers, tender feet, swelled joints, &c.
2. (STRONGER.) From sal ammoniac, 1 to 2 oz.; water, 1 pint. In
contusions, chronic tumours, extravasations, chilblains, &c., when the
skin is not broken. Both are stimulant and resolvent or discutient.
Vinegar is often substituted for the whole or part of the water, and
sometimes a fifth or sixth part of rectified spirit is added. See also
LOTION OF CHLORIDE OF AMMONIUM.
=Lotion, Hydrochlo′′ric.= _Syn._ LOTIO ACIDI HYDROCHLORICI, L. _Prep._ 1.
Hydrochloric acid, 1 fl. oz.; water, 1 pint. In lepra, and several other
skin diseases.
2. (Foy.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 part; water, 16 parts. In chilblains, when
the skin is unbroken.
=Lotion, Hydrocyan′ic.= _Syn._ LOTIO HYDROCYANICI, L. ACIDI HYDROCYANICI,
L. _Prep._ 1. (Magendie.) Medicinal hydrocyanic acid, 1 to 2 fl. dr.;
lettuce water, 1 pint. In hepatic affections.
2. (Sneider.) Medicinal acid, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit and water,
of each 6 fl. oz.
3. (A. T. Thomson.) Medicinal acid and rectified spirit, of each 2 fl.
dr.; acetate of lead, 16 gr.; distilled water, 7-1/2 fl. oz. In impetigo,
&c.
_Obs._ Lotions of prussic acid are employed to allay pain and irritation
in various chronic skin diseases, especially the scaly and itchy
eruptions; and in cancer, &c., with variable success. See HYDROCYANIC
ACID.
=Lotion of Hyposul′phite of Soda.= _Syn._ LOTIO SODÆ HYPOSULPHITIS, L.
_Prep._ (Startin.) Hyposulphite of soda and alum, of each 1-1/2 dr.; eau
de Cologne, 1/2 fl. oz.; rose water, 7-1/2 fl. oz.; in the advanced stages
of acne.
=Lotion of I′odide of Ar′senic and Mer′cury.= _Syn._ LOTIO ARSENICI ET
HYDRARGYRI HYDRIODATIS, L. _Prep._ From Donovan’s solution, 1 part; water,
9 parts. In lepra, psoriasis, and other scaly skin diseases. See SOLUTION.
=Lotion of Iodide of Potas′sium.= _Syn._ LOTIO POTASSII IODIDI, L. _Prep._
1. From iodide of potassium, 1 to 2 dr.; water, 1 pint. In the usual cases
in which ioduretted preparations are employed.
2. (Dr O. Ward.) Iodide of potassium, 1 dr.; water, 3/4 pint. In itch.
(See _below_.)
=Lotion of Iodide of Zinc.= _Syn._ LOTIO ZINCI IODIDI, L. _Prep._ (Ross.)
iodine, 1-1/2 dr.; zinc filings, 1 dr.; water, 8 fl. oz.; digest with heat
until the liquid becomes coloured, then filter. In enlarged tonsils.
=Lotion of I′odine.= _Syn._ LOTIO IODINII, L. _Prep._ From iodine, 2 gr.;
rectified spirit, 1 fl. dr.; dissolve, well agitate the solution with
distilled water, 1 pint, and filter. An excellent wash for scrofulous
ulcers, and in chronic ophthalmia, cutaneous scrofula, and several chronic
skin diseases, particularly in highly sensitive habits.
=Lotion of Iodine Compound.= _Syn._ LOTIO IODI COMP., L. _Prep._ 1. Iodide
of potassium, 80 gr.; iodine, 60 gr.; water, 1 oz.
2. (Cazenave.) Iodide of potassium and iodide of sulphur, of each 1 dr.;
water, 1 pint. In itch; either alone or diluted with an equal bulk of
water.
3. (Dauvergne.) Iodine, 3 dr.; iodide of potassium, 6 dr.; water, 3 fl.
oz.; dissolve, and label the bottle No. 1. Sulphuret of potassium, 4 oz.;
water, 8 fl. oz.; dissolve. For use, a teaspoonful of No. 1, and a
table-spoonful of No. 2, are to be added to about a pint of water. In
itch, and several other skin diseases.
4. (Lugol.) Iodine, 1 to 2 gr.; iodide of potassium, 3 to 6 gr.; water, 1
pint. In scrofulous ophthalmia, fistulas, &c.; and as a wash in numerous
skin diseases.
5. (Righini.) Chloride of lime, 4 dr.; water, 2-1/2 fl. oz.; triturate
together, filter into a stoppered bottle, and add of tincture of iodine, 1
dr. With a pint of water it forms an effective application in itch.
6. (Soubeiran.) Iodide of potassium, 1 oz.; iodine, 1/2 oz.; water, 6 oz.;
dissolve. Used as iodine paint; also as a caustic to touch the surfaces of
scrofulous ulcers, and the eyelids in scrofulous ophthalmia.
7. Iodide of potassium, 1/2 dr.; iodine, 16 gr.; water, 1 pint. This is
the common and best form of iodine lotion, but for certain purposes it is
used much stronger. (See _above_.)
=Lotion of Iron with Conium.= LOTIO FERRI CUM CONIO. Sulphate of iron, 8
gr.; extract of conium, 8 gr.; water, 1 oz.
=Lotion, Itch.= _Syn._ LOTIO ANTIPSORICA, L. _Prep._ (Cazenave.) Sulphuret
of potassium, 1 dr.; soft soap, 2 dr.; water, 8 fl. oz.; dissolve. An
excellent remedy for the itch. It leaves little smell behind, and does not
soil the linen. (See _above_.)
=Lotion, Kirkland’s.= See LOTION OF MYRRH.
=Lotion of Lemon Juice.= _Syn._ LOTIO SUCCI LIMONIS, L. _Prep._ From the
freshly expressed juice of lemon, diluted with 4 or 5 times its bulk of
water. To render it more agreeable, rose water may be employed, or a few
drops of eau de Cologne added. It is cooling and detergent, and forms an
excellent application to foul ulcers, and to allay the itching in numerous
cutaneous affections.
=Lotion of Lime Wa′ter.= _Syn._ LOTIO CALCIS SPIRITUOSA, L. _Prep._ (Ph.
Chirur.) Rectified spirit, 4 oz.; lime water, 8 fl. oz. See EVAPORATING
LOTION (_above_.)
=Lotion, Mammil′lary.= _Syn._ LOTIO BALSAMI PERUVIANI COMPOSITA, L.
_Prep._ (Iverg.) Balsam of Peru, 1 dr.; yolk of 1 egg; make an emulsion,
and add of spirit of wild thyme, 3 fl. oz. For sore nipples; to be
followed, whilst still wet, by a ‘dusting’ with a powder composed of
Peruvian bark, 1 dr.; gum Arabic, 2 dr.
=Lotion, Mercu′′rial.= _Prep._ 1. (BLACK WASH, BLACK LOTION, MILD
PHAGEDENIC L.; LOTIO NIGRA (B. P.), L. HYDRARGYRI CINEREA, L. H. NIGRA, L.
H. CHLORIDI CUM CALCE, L. MERCURIALIS N., AQUA PHAGEDÆNICA, MITIS, L.)
_a._ (B. P.) From calomel, 3 gr.; lime water, 1 oz.; well shaken together.
_b._ (Mid. Hosp.) To the last add of thick mucilage, 1 fl. oz.
_c._ (Guy’s Hospital.) From calomel, 1 dr., lime water, 8 fl. oz.
_Obs._ Black wash is a favourite application to all kinds of syphilitic
and scrofulous sores. The bottle should be well shaken before the lotion
is applied.
2. YELLOW WASH, Y. LOTION, PHAGEDENIC L.; (LOTIO FLAVA, L. PHAGEDÆNICA,
AQUA P., LOTIO HYDRARGYRI FLAVA, L. H. BICHLORIDI CUM CALCE, L.)——_a._ (B.
P.) Corrosive sublimate, 18 gr.; lime water, 10 oz.; well shaken together.
_b._ (St B. Hosp.) Corrosive sublimate, 20 gr.; lime water, 6 fl. oz. Used
as the last, but it is stronger and more active, from containing a little
undecomposed bichloride.
=Lotion of Myrrh.= _Syn._ KIRKLAND’S LOTION; LOTIO MYRRHÆ, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Dr Kirkland.) Tincture of myrrh and lime water, equal parts. In scorbutic
ulcers and gums.
2. (Compound; LOTIO MYRRHÆ COMPOSITA, L.——Ph. Chirur.) Honey of roses and
tincture of myrrh, of each 2 fl. dr.; lime water, 2-1/2 fl. oz. As No. 1;
also used as a dentifrice.
=Lotion of Ni′trate of Bis′muth.= _Syn._ LOTIO BISMUTHI NITRATIS, L.
_Prep._ (Cutan. Hosp.) Subnitrate or trisnitrate of bismuth, 1/2 dr.;
corrosive sublimate, 12 gr.; spirit of camphor, 1/2 fl. dr.; water, 1
pint. In itch, and some other eruptions.
=Lotion of Nitrate of Sil′ver.= _Syn._ LOTIO ARGENTI NITRATIS, L. _Prep._
1. Nitrate of silver, 15 gr.; nitric acid, 10 drops; distilled water, 1/2
pint. As a wash for indolent ulcers, sore legs, &c.
2. (Jackson.) Nitrate of silver, 10 gr.; water, 1 fl. oz. For bed-sores;
applied, at first, twice or thrice a day.
3. (Schreider.) Nitrate of silver, 1/2 dr.; nitric acid, 10 drops; water,
1-1/2 fl. oz. In chilblains, soft corns, &c.
=Lotion of Nitrate of Silver (Strong).= LOTIO ARGENTI NITRATIS FORTIS.
Nitrate of silver, 60 gr.; distilled water, 1 oz.
=Lotion of Nitrate of Sil′ver, Etherial.= LOTIO ARGENTI NITRATIS ÆTHEREA.
Nitrate of silver, 20 gr.; distilled water, 1 dr.; spirit of nitrous
ether, 1 oz.
=Lotion of Ni′tre.= _Syn._ LOTIO POTASSÆ NITRATIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Nitre, 3
dr.; vinegar, 1/4 pint; water, 3/4 pint.
2. Nitre, 2 dr.; sal ammoniac, 1 dr.; vinegar and water, of each 1/2 pint.
In sprains, contusions, extravasations, tender feet, chilblains, &c.
Diluted with an equal bulk of water, it is a popular application to ‘black
eyes.’
=Lotion of Ni′tric Acid.= _Syn._ LOTIO ACIDI, L. ACIDI NITRICI, L. _Prep._
1. (Collier.) Nitric acid, 1/2 fl. oz.; water, 1 pint. In lepra, and other
scaly skin diseases.
2. (Phœbus.) Nitric acid, 1 fl. dr.; laudanum, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; rose water,
1/2 pint. For venereal ulcers.
=Lo′tion of Nitromuriat′ic Acid.= _Syn._ LOTION OF AQUA REGIA. _Prep._
(Copland.) Nitromuriatic acid, 1-1/4 dr.; water, 1 pint. In gangrene and
mortification.
=Lotion of Nux Vom′ica.= _Syn._ LOTIO NUCIS VOMICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1.
Alcoholic extract of nux vomica, 10 gr.; rectified spirit and water, of
each 2-1/2 fl. oz. In amaurosis.
2. (Radius.) Alcoholic extract of nux vomica, 8 gr.; liquor of ammonia
(stronger), 1/2 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz. In paralysed limbs.
=Lotion of O′pium.= _Syn._ LOTIO OPII, L. OPIATA, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Christison.) Opium, 40 gr.; water, 1/4 pint; infuse, add to the filtered
liquid a solution of sugar of lead, 40, in water, 1/4 pint, and filter.
2. (St B. Hosp.) Opium, 1-1/2 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; triturate and
strain. Anodyne; the first is also refrigerant and discutient.
=Lotion of Ox′ide of Zinc.= _Syn._ LOTIO ZINCI OXYDI, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Augustin.) Oxide of zinc, 1 dr.; elder-flower water, 1-1/2 fl. oz. In
pustular erysipelas.
2. (Hosp. F.) Oxide of zinc, 1/2 dr.; mucilage, 2 fl. dr.; water, 6 fl.
dr. As an astringent and desiccant, in scrofulous eruptions, excoriations,
moist chaps, &c.
=Lotion, Phageden′ic.= See MERCURIAL LOTION (_above_).
=Lotion of Phos′phoric Acid.= _Syn._ LOTIO ACIDI PHOSPHORICI, L. _Prep._
(Pereira.) Dilute phosphoric acid (Ph. L.), 1 fl. oz.; water, 1/2 pint. In
caries and fistula.
=Lotion of Potas′sa.= See LOTIO POTASSÆ, L. _Prep._ From liquor of
potassa, 1 fl. oz.; water, 1 pint. Detergent; in scorbutic eruptions, and
foul ulcers, and to prevent infection.
=Lotion of Potas′sio-tar′trate of An′timony.= _Syn._ LOTIO ANTIMONIALIS,
L. ANTIMONII POTASSIO-TARTRATIS, L. RUBEFACIENS, L. _Prep._ 1. Tartar
emetic, 1 dr.; tincture of camphor, 2 fl. dr.; water, 1 pint. As a local
stimulant. Diluted with twice or thrice its weight of water, it is
employed as a collyrium in chronic ophthalmia, and in specks on the
cornea.
2. (Sir Wm. Blizard.) Tartar emetic, 20 gr.; boiling water, 1 fl. oz. Used
to cleanse foul ulcers, to repress fungous growths and warts, and in
ringworm, &c.
3. (Pereira.) Tartar emetic, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.;
dissolve. Employed as a local irritant instead of the ointment. All the
above are rubefacient and counter-irritant. See ANTIMONY.
=Lotion of Quin′ine.= _Syn._ LOTIO QUINÆ, EMBROCATIO Q., L. _Prep._ From
disulphate of quinine, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz. Applied over the
spine in intermittents.
=Lotion, Sapona′ceous.= _Syn._ LOTIO SAPONIS, L. SAPONACEA (Ph. L. 1746),
L. _Prep._ From liquor of carbonate of potassa, 1/2 oz.; olive oil, 4 oz.;
rose water, 12 oz.; agitate together. Emollient; chiefly as a cosmetic.
=Lotion, Saviard’s.= _Prep._ (Foy.) Caustic potassa, 1 dr.; camphor, 20
gr.; sugar, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint. As a wash for indolent ulcers.
=Lotion, Struve’s.= See HOOPING-COUGH LOTION.
=Lotion of Sul′phate of Cop′per.= _Syn._ LOTIO CUPRI SULPHATIS, L. _Prep._
1. Blue vitriol, 1 dr.; camphor julep, 1 pint. For phagedenic ulcers, and
in itch, &c.
2. (Dr Graves.) Sulphate of copper, 10 gr.; water, 1 fl. oz. In
chilblains, ringworm, &c.
3. (Lloyd.) Sulphate of copper, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint. In itch; either
alone or diluted.
=Lotion of Sul′phate of Iron.= _Syn._ LOTIO FERRI SULPHATIS. Sulphate of
iron, 2 gr.; water, 1 oz.
=Lotion of Sul′phate of Zinc.= _Syn._ LOTIO ZINCI SULPHATIS, L. _Prep._ 1.
Sulphate of zinc, 3/4 dr.; water, 1 pint. Astringent; in some chronic skin
diseases, as a wash for loose, flabby granulations, and for ulcers that
discharge profusely, &c.
2. (Collier.) Sulphate of zinc, 2 dr.; water, 1 pint. As a
counter-irritant in pains of the joints, periosteum, old sprains, &c.
=Lotion of Sulphuret of Sodium.= (Dr Barlow.) _Syn._ LOTIO SODII
SULPHURETI. _Prep._ Sulphide of sodium, 2 dr.; white soap, 2-1/2 dr.;
rectified spirit, 2 dr.; lime water, 7 oz. For ringworm.
=Lotion of Tannin.= (Mr Druitt.) _Syn._ LOTIO TANNINI. _Prep._ Tannic
acid, 5 gr.; distilled water, 1 oz.; mix. On lint, covered with oil silk,
to sore nipples.
=Lotion of Tar.= _Syn._ LOTIO PICIS LIQUIDÆ, L. _Prep._ (Saunders.)
Quicklime, 6 oz.; water, 2-1/2 pints; slake, add of tar, 4 oz., and boil
to one half. This liquid may be advantageously employed in various chronic
skin diseases, especially those affecting the heads of children. See
INFUSION OF TAR.
=Lotion of Valer′ian.= _Syn._ LOTIO VALERIANÆ, EMBROCATIO ANTIHYSTERICA,
E. EMMENAGOGA, L. _Prep._ From tincture of valerian and proof spirit,
equal parts. In hysteria, suppressions, &c.
=Lotion of Vera′trine.= _Syn._ LOTIO VERATRIÆ, L. _Prep._ (Dr Turnbull.)
Veratrine, 20 to 60 gr.; rectified spirit, 2 oz. In gout, rheumatism, &c.
It is extremely poisonous, and must only be used where the skin is sound,
and then with great caution.
=Lotion of Ver′digris.= _Syn._ LOTIO ÆRUGINIS, L. CUPRI CITRATIS, L.
_Prep._ From verdigris, 3 dr.; vinegar, 1/4 pint; water, 3/4 pint. As a
wash for indolent, scrofulous, and venereal ulcers.
=Lotion of Vin′egar.= See ACETIC LOTION (_above_).
=Lotion, Yellow.= See MERCURIAL LOTION (_above_).
=LOUSE.= _Syn._ PEDICULUS. There are several species of this offensive
parasite infesting the bodies of man and domesticated animals. The three
varieties of lice found on the human skin are:——(1) The _Pediculus
corporis_, (2) the _P. capitis_, (3) the _P. pubis_.
(1.) The _P. corporis_, the body louse, is of a dirty white colour, and
varies from half to two lines in length. Its body is broad and elongated,
with the margins divided into lobes, and covered with minute hairs; but it
has a narrow thorax, furnished on each side with three legs, which
terminate in claws. This creature produces great irritation of the skin,
giving rise to a number of little pimples on it, which frequently
discharge a watery fluid. It multiplies with extraordinary rapidity.
(2.) The _P. capitis_, the head louse, is much smaller than the above. It
is devoid of hairs, with legs large in proportion to its body. It gives
rise to a very troublesome eruption, attended with a watery discharge. It
is propagated by means of the ova or nits, which are glued to the hairs of
the head.
(3.) The _P. pubis_, the crab louse, is a small, round variety, which
attaches itself with considerable tenacity to the hairs of the stomach and
lower part of the body more particularly, and, like the preceding
parasite, glues its eggs to the hairs.
Various applications have been recommended for the destruction of these
loathsome parasites; amongst which we may mention sulphur, stavesacre,
white precipitate, and cocculus indicus, in the form of ointments;
carbolic acid and perchloride of mercury lotions, and tobacco. Benzoic
acid has been found of service in allaying the irritation. Diligent
washing with soap and water should be had recourse to previous to applying
any of the above remedies, and should the head be infested, the hair
should be cut short, and frequently combed with a small toothcomb.
Pediculi are sometimes conveyed from filthy to cleanly persons by means of
dirty water-closets, chairs, sheets, brushes and combs, and in various
other ways.
School children frequently obtain them in consequence of their heads being
brought into too close contact with the heads of other children infested
by them.
=LOZ′ENGE.= _Syn._ TROCHE; TROCHISCUS, TABELLA, L.; TABLETTE, Fr. A small
cake, often medicated, consisting principally of powdered sugar, made into
a mass with some glutinous liquid, without the aid of heat, and dried. The
form given to lozenges (TROCHE, TABELLÆ, TROCHISCI, TABLETTES) is
generally that of a small round tablet or flattened cylinder; but
originally they were exclusively made in the shape of a lozenge or rhomb,
from which circumstance their familiar name is derived. LOZENGES are
distinguished from DROPS OR PASTILLES by the non-employment of heat in
their preparation; and from PASTES, by the latter being formed of
vegetable juice or pulp, and having a softer consistence.
In the preparation of lozenges the dry ingredients, separately reduced to
a very fine powder, are first perfectly mixed together, and then beaten
into a stiff paste with the glutinous liquid employed to give them form;
the mass is next rolled out to a desired thickness, and cut into pieces of
the proper shape by means of a small cylinder or punch of steel or
tin-plate, called a ‘lozenge-cutter.’ The newly formed lozenges are lastly
dried by placing them on an inverted sieve or frame covered with paper in
a dry, warm, and airy situation, and are frequently turned until they
become hard and brittle, due care being taken to preserve them from dust
and dirt. To prevent the mass adhering to the fingers and utensils during
the process of manufacture, a little finely powdered starch, or a very
little olive oil, scented with the same aromatic as that contained in the
lozenges, may be used. Mucilage of gum Arabic or of gum tragacanth, thin
isinglass size, or the strained white of egg, are the substances usually
employed to make the pulverulent materials adhere together. A strained
decoction of Irish moss is now frequently used for the same purpose, for
inferior qualities. The larger the proportion of gum which enters into the
composition of lozenges, the slower they dissolve in the mouth; hence
powdered gum is frequently added to the other materials to increase their
quality in this respect, as well as to give an additional solidity to
those which, like chalk, for instance, are of a peculiarly dry or crumbly
nature. Starch and potato flour are often added to lozenge-masses in lieu
of a portion of the sugar, and even plaster of Paris is not unfrequently
employed to give them weight; frauds which are readily detected in the
manner noticed under GUM and SUGAR.
As a general rule, MEDICATED LOZENGES should weigh from 8 to 10 gr. each,
and a medium dose of their active ingredient should be distributed through
the bulk of 6 to 8 of them, in which case 3 to 5 of them may be safely
taken as a dose, or sucked during the lapse of 3 or 4 hours. This will be
useful in the preparation of those for which no established proportions
are given. In ‘sending out’ compounds of this class containing active
medicaments, as morphia or opium, the retailer as well as the manufacturer
should be careful that the quantity contained in each lozenge is plainly
marked on the label.
In lozenges intended for MOUTH COSMETICS or to perfume the breath,
ambergris is generally regarded as the most appropriate perfume; but hard
smokers frequently prefer cloves and cinnamon, and some ladies give the
preference to roses, orange flowers, and orris or violets.
Lozenges are coloured with the same stains as are used for liqueurs and
sweetmeats.
Lozenges, as well as all other similar articles of confectionery, should
be preserved in well-closed glass bottles, or jars, or in tin canisters,
so as to be perfectly excluded from the air and damp.
=Lozenges, Absor′bent.= TROCHISCI ANTACIDI, L. _Prep._ 1. Take of
precipitated chalk, 1/4 lb.; gum Arabic, 2 oz.; double refined white
sugar, 14 oz.; all in impalpable powder; oil of nutmeg, 1/2 fl. dr.; pass
the mixture through a fine sieve, beat it up with mucilage q. s., roll the
mass into a thin sheet, and cut it into lozenges; lastly, dry them by
exposing them on a sheet of white paper to the air, out of contact with
dust.
2. As the last, but substituting heavy carbonate of magnesia, 1-1/2 oz.,
for an equal weight of chalk. In diarrhœa, heartburn, acidity, &c. See
LOZENGES, CHALK, MAGNESIA, L., SODA, &c.
=Lozenges, Aca′cia.= See LOZENGES, GUM.
=Lozenges, Acid′ulated.= _Syn._ ACIDULATED LEMON LOZENGES, TARTARIC ACID
L.; TROCHISCI ACIDI TARTARICI (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ From tartaric acid, 2
dr.; oil of lemon, 10 drops; white sugar, 8 oz.; mucilage, q. s. to make a
lozenge mass. The same ingredients mixed with heat form ACIDULATED or ACID
DROPS. Both are useful in coughs, hoarseness, sore throats, &c. See
LOZENGES, CAYENNE, CITRIC ACID, ROSE, &c.
=Lozenges, Al′kaline.= See LOZENGES, SODA, VICHY, &c.
=Lozenges, A′lum.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI ALUMINIS, L. Each lozenge contains
1-1/2 gr. of alum. As an astringent. See LOZENGES, ASTRINGENT.
=Lozenges, An′iseed.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI ANISI, L. _Prep._ From oil of
aniseed, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; finest white sugar, 1 lb.; mucilage, q. s.
Carminative and stomachic. In colic, griping, &c.; and as a pectoral.
=Lozenges, Anthelmin′tic.= See LOZENGES, WORM.
=Lozenges, Antimonial.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI ANTIMONIALES, MORSULI STIBII
KUNKELII, L.; TABLETTES DE KUNKEL, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Levigated
sulphuret of antimony and cardamom seeds, of each 1 oz.; almonds
(blanched), 2 oz.; cinnamon, 1/2 oz.; sugar, 13 oz.; mucilage of
tragacanth, q. s.; to be divided into 15-gr. lozenges. As an alterative.
=Lozenges, Ape′′rient.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI APERIENTES, L. Each lozenge
contains 1 gr. each of calomel and scammony, and 2 gr. of jalap; or,
instead of the last, 1/4 gr. of jalapine. 2 to 3 for a dose.
=Lozenges, Astrin′gent.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI ASTRINGENTES, L. Each lozenge
contains 1-1/2 gr. of alum and 2 gr. of catechu. In spitting of blood,
relaxed uvula, sore throat, &c. See LOZENGES, ALUM.
=Lozenges, Bark.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI CINCHONÆ, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.)
Cinchona, 2 oz.; cinnamon, 2 dr.; white sugar, 14 oz.; mucilage of gum
tragacanth, q. s.; mix, and divide into 16-gr. lozenges. Tonic.
=Lozenges, Bath.= _Syn._ DAWSON’S LOZENGES. From extract of liquorice and
gum Arabic, of each 1-1/2 oz.; sugar, 17 oz. It is both rolled into
lozenges and formed into pipes. Demulcent; in tickling coughs, &c.
=Lozenges, Benzoic Acid.= (Th. Hosp.) _Syn._ TROCHISCI ACIDI BENZOICI.
_Prep._ Benzoic acid in powder, 175 gr.; tragacanth in powder, 70 gr.;
refined sugar in powder, 280 gr.; red currant paste, a sufficient quantity
to make 1 lb. Divide into 350 lozenges, and dry at a moderate heat in a
hot-air chamber. A valuable stimulant and voice lozenge in nervomuscular
weakness of the throat.
=Lozenges, Bicarbonate of Soda.= TROCHISCI SODÆ BICARBONATIS. Bicarbonate
of soda, in powder, 3600 gr. (8-1/4 oz.); refined sugar, 25 oz.; gum
acacia, in powder, 1 oz.; mucilage, 2 oz.; distilled water, 1 oz.; mix,
and form in 720 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 5 gr. of bicarbonate of
soda.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 lozenges.
=Lozenges, Bis′muth.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI BISMUTHI, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.)
Subnitrate of bismuth, 346 gr.; carbonate of magnesia, 4 oz.; precipitated
chalk, 6 oz.; sugar, 29 oz.; gum acacia, 1 oz.; mucilage, 2 oz.; rose
water, a sufficiency; make 720 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 2 gr. of
subnitrate of bismuth.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 lozenges.
2. (Trousseau.) Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of subnitrate of bismuth.
Tonic and antispasmodic; in chronic dyspepsia, gastrodynia, nausea, cramp
of the stomach, &c.
=Lozenges, Black Cur′rant.= TROCHISCI RIBIS NIGRI, L. _Prep._ From
inspissated juice of black currants and sugar, of each, in powder, 1 lb.;
tartaric acid, 1/4 oz.; mucilage, q. s. In hoarseness, &c.
=Lozenges, Bo′′rax.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI BORACIS, L. Each lozenge contains 3
gr. of borax. One occasionally in aphthous sore mouth, sore throat, &c.
=Lozenges, Bromide of Ammonium.= Each lozenge contains 2 gr. of bromide of
ammonium.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 lozenges. In hooping-cough.
=Lozenges, Burnt Sponge.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI SPONGIÆ, T. S. USTÆ, L. _Prep._
(P. Cod.) Burnt sponge, 4 oz.; sugar, 12 oz.; mucilage of tragacanth,
q. s.; divide into 12-gr. lozenges. In scrofula, glandular enlargements,
&c.
=Lozenges, Caca′o.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI BUTYRI CACAO, L. Each lozenge
contains 1-3rd of its weight of pure cacao butter. In habitual
constipation; and in phthisis, scrofula, &c., instead of cod-liver oil;
taken _ad libitum_. They are usually scented with roses.
=Lozenges, Caffe′ine.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI CAFFEINÆ, L. Each lozenge contains
1/4 gr. of caffeine and 1/2 gr. of citric acid. In hemicrania,
hypochondriasis, &c.
=Lozenges, Cal′omel.= _Syn._ WORM LOZENGES; TROCHISCI CALOMELANOS, T.
HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDI, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of
calomel. Alterative, &c. They afford a simple way of introducing mercury
into the system. During their use salt food and acid liquors should be
avoided. When given for worms they should be followed, in a few hours, by
a purge.
=Lozenges, Cam′phor.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI CAMPHORÆ, L. Each lozenge contains
3/4 gr. of (finely powdered) camphor. They must be kept in a well-corked
bottle.
=Lozenges of Carbolic Acid.= (Th. Hosp.) _Syn._ TROCHISCI ACIDI CARBOLICI.
_Prep._ Carbolic acid, 350 gr.; gum Arabic, 220 gr.; refined sugar, 12-1/2
oz.; mucilage, 1 oz.; distilled water q. s. to make 1 lb. Divide into 350
lozenges, and finish as with benzoic acid lozenges.
=Lozenges, Car′bonate of Lime.= See LOZENGES, CHALK.
=Lozenges, Cat′echu.= _Syn._ CACHOU LOZENGES; TROCHISCI CATECHU (B. P.),
T. DE TERRA JAPONICA, L.; TABLETTES DE CACHOU, Fr. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.
1744.) Catechu, 2 oz.; tragacanth, 1/2 oz.; white sugar, 12 oz.; rose
water, q. s.
2. (P. Cod.) Extract of catechu, 4 oz.; sugar, 16 oz.; mucilage of gum
tragacanth q. s.; for 10-gr. lozenges.
3. (TRO. CATECHU ET MAGNESIÆ——P. Cod.) Magnesia, 2 oz.; powdered catechu,
1 oz.; sugar, 13 oz.; mucilage of gum tragacanth (made with cinnamon
water), q. s. to mix.
4. (PERFUMED.) See CACHOU AROMATISÉ and PASTILS.
5. (B. P.) Pale catechu, in powder, 720 gr.; refined sugar, in powder, 25
oz.; gum Arabic, in powder, 1 oz.; mucilage, 2 oz.; distilled water, a
sufficiency; divide into 720 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of
catechu.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 lozenges.
_Obs._ All the above are taken in diarrhœa, in relaxation of the uvula, in
irritation of the larynx, and as cosmetics to fasten the teeth, and
disguise a fetid breath. The one containing magnesia (No. 3) is also
sucked in dyspepsia, acidity, and heartburn.
=Lozenges, Cayenne′.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI CAPSICI, L. Flavoured with essence
or tincture of capsicum or cayenne, with a very concentrated Chili
vinegar, or a little pure soluble cayenne pepper.
2. (ACIDULATED.) To each lb. add of tartaric acid, 1/2 oz. Both are used
in dyspepsia, and to promote digestion and create an appetite. They have
also been recommended in temporary deafness arising from exposure to cold.
They are generally tinged of a light pink or red colour.
=Lozenges, Chalk.= _Syn._ HEARTBURN LOZENGES; TROCHISCI CRETÆ; (Ph. E.),
T. CARDIALGICI, TABELLÆ CARDIALGICÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Prepared chalk, 4
oz.; gum Arabic, 1 oz.; nutmeg, 1 dr.; white sugar, 6 oz.; rose or
orange-flower water, q. s. Antacid and absorbent. 3 or 4 sucked _ad
libitum_; in heartburn, dyspepsia, diarrhœa, acidity of the stomach and
bowels, &c.
=Lozenges, Char′coal.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI CARBONIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.)
Prepared charcoal, 4 oz.; white sugar, 12 oz., mucilage, q. s. to mix. In
diarrhœa, cholera, dyspepsia, &c.
2. (TRO. CARBONAS CUM CHOCOLAT——M. Chevallier.) Charcoal and white sugar,
of each 1 oz.; chocolate, 3 oz.; mucilage of gum tragacanth, q. s. to mix.
Nutritious; used as the last.
=Lozenges, Ching’s Worm.= _Prep._ 1. (YELLOW.) From saffron, 1/2 oz.;
boiling water, 1 pint; infuse, strain, add, of calomel, 1 lb.; powdered
white sugar, 28 lbs.; mix well, make a mass with mucilage of tragacanth,
and divide it into 7000 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of calomel.
2. (BROWN.) From calomel, 7 oz.; resinous extract of jalap, 3-1/2 lbs.;
white sugar, 10 lbs.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.; mix, and divide into
6125 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 1/2 gr. of calomel and 3-1/2 gr. of
resinous extract of jalap. 1 to 6 of the yellow lozenges over night, as a
vermifuge, followed by an equal number of the brown ones the next morning
fasting.
=Lozenges, Chlo′′rate of Potassa.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI POTASSÆ CHLORATIS, L.
_Prep._ 1. Each lozenge contains 1-1/2 gr. of chlorate of potassa. In
phthisis, sore throat, &c. 6 to 12 a day.
2. (B. P.) Chlorate of potash, in powder, 3600 gr. (8-1/4 oz.); refined
sugar, in powder, 25 oz.; gum acacia, in powder, 1 oz.; mucilage, 2 oz.,
distilled water, 1 oz., or a sufficiency; mix the powders, and add the
mucilage and water to form a proper mass; divide in 720 lozenges. Each
lozenge contains 5 gr. of chlorate of potash.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 lozenges.
=Lozenges, Chloride of Ammonium.= Each lozenge contains 2 to 3 gr. of
chloride of ammonium. Used in bronchitis.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 lozenges.
=Lozenges, Chlo′′ride of Gold.= 1. (TROCHISCI AURI CHLORIDI, L.) Each
lozenge contains 1/40 gr. of neutral chloride of gold. 2 to 4 daily; in
scrofula, cancer, &c.
2. (With SODA; TROCHISCI AURI ET SODII CHLORIDI, T. SODII AURO-CHLORIDI,
L.——Chrestien.) Each lozenge contains 1/16th gr. of soda-chloride of gold.
Two daily; as the last.
=Lozenges, Chloride of Lime.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI CALCIS CHLORIDI, T. C.
CHLORINATÆ, L. Each lozenge contains 1/4 gr. of dry chloride of lime. They
are frequently tinged with a little carmine. Used to sweeten the breath
and whiten the teeth. They do not keep well.
=Lozenges of Chlorinated Soda.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI SODÆ CHLORINATÆ. _Prep._
Solution of chloride of soda, 1 fl. dr.; sugar, 10 dr.; gum Arabic, 2 dr.;
mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. (1/2 dr. of camphor may be added). To be
held in the mouth during infection.
=Lozenges, Choc′olate.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI CHOCOLATÆ, L. From vanilla
chocolate pressed into sheets, and cut into pieces whilst hot.
=Lozenges, Cincho′na.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI CINCHONÆ EXTRACTI, L. Each lozenge
contains 1-1/2 gr. of dry extract of bark. A little cinnamon or nutmeg is
often added. See BARK LOZENGES.
=Lozenges, Cin′namon.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI CINNAMONI, L. From cinnamon (in
fine powder), 1 oz., or the essential oil, 1 fl. dr., to each lb. of
sugar. Carminative and stomachic. CASSIA LOZENGES are made in the same
way, and are frequently substituted for them.
=Lozenges, Ci′trate of Iron.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI FERRI CITRATIS, L. Each
lozenge contains 1-1/2 gr. of ammonio-citrate of iron. As a mild
chalybeate tonic. They are sometimes made with equal parts of sugar and
vanilla chocolate.
=Lozenges, Citrate of Magne′sia.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI MAGNESIÆ CITRATIS, L.
Each 15-gr. lozenge contains 5 gr. of pure citrate of magnesia. Laxative.
=Lozenges, Cit′ric Acid.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI ACIDI CITRICI, L. _Prep._ (P.
Cod.) Citric acid, 3 dr.; sugar, 16 oz.; essence of lemon, 16 drops;
mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.; mix, and divide into 12-gr. lozenges. In
coughs, hoarseness, &c.
=Lozenges, Clove.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI CARYOPHILLI, L. From cloves (powdered
along with sugar), 2 oz., or essential oil, 1 fl. dr., to each lb. of
sugar. They are frequently coloured. Carminative and stomachic; also used
as a restorative after fatigue, added to chocolate to improve its
flavour, and sucked to sweeten the breath.
=Lozenges, Cough.= _Syn._ PECTORAL LOZENGES, PULMONIC L.; TROCHISCI
ANTICATARRHALES, L. _Prep._ 1. Black-currant lozenge-mass, 1 lb.;
ipecacuanha (in very fine powder), 2 dr. For 12-gr. lozenges.
2. To the last add of powdered opium and camphor, 1-1/2 dr.
3. To either No. 1 or 2 add of oil of aniseed, 1-1/2 fl. dr.
4. (TABLETTES DE TRONCHIN.) From powdered gum Arabic, 8 oz.; oil of
aniseed, 16 drops; extract of opium, 12 gr.; kermes mineral, 1 dr.; pure
extract of liquorice, 2 oz.; white sugar, 32 oz.; water, q. s.; mix, and
divide into 10-gr. lozenges.
5. (TABLETTES DE VANDAMME.) From benzoic acid, 1 dr.; orris powder, 2 dr.;
gum Arabic (powdered), 1 oz.; starch, 2 oz.; sugar, 16 oz.; water, q. s.;
mix and divide into 15-gr. lozenges.
6. Each lozenge contains 1/2 gr. of lactucarium, 1/8 gr. of powdered
ipecacuanha, and 1/12 gr. of powdered squills, together with 1/3rd of
their weight of pure extract of liquorice.
_Obs._ To render the above serviceable in coughs, hoarseness, &c., the
bowels should be kept gently open with some mild aperient, and a light
diet adopted, with abstinence from stimulating liquors. See LOZENGES,
EMETINE, IPECACUANHA, &c.
=Lozenges, Cro′ton Oil.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI CROTONIS, L. _Prep._
(Soubeiran.) Croton oil, 5 drops; powdered starch, 40 gr.; white sugar, 1
dr.; chocolate, 2 dr.; divide into 30 lozenges; 5 or 6 generally prove
cathartic.
=Lozenges, Cu′bebine.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI CUBEBINI, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Hamb.)
Copaiba and extract of cubebs, of each 6 oz.; yolks of 3 eggs; mix, add of
powdered marshmallow root, 6 oz.; make it into pipes of 12 gr. each, and
roll them in sugar. In gleet, &c., and in affections of the mucous
membranes of the throat and fauces. Lablonye orders them to be made of
sugar, and flavoured with oil of peppermint.
=Lozenges, Cu′bebs.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI CUBEBÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Spitta.)
Cubebs, 2 dr.; balsam of tolu, 6 gr.; mix, and add of extract of
liquorice, 1 oz.; syrup of tolu, 1 dr.; powdered gum, q. s.; divide into
10-gr. lozenges. One of these, allowed to melt gradually in the mouth, is
said to alleviate the obstruction in the nose, in coryza.
2. (U. S.) _Prep._ Oleoresin of cubebs, 1/2 fl. oz. o. m.; oil of
sassafras, 1 fl. dr.; extract of liquorice in powder, 4 oz.; gum Arabic in
powder, 3 oz.; sugar in fine powder, 3 oz.; syrup of tolu, q. s. Divide
into 480 lozenges.
=Lozenges of Cyanide of Gold.= (Chrestien.) _Syn._ TROCHISCI AURI CYANIDI.
_Prep._ Cyanide of gold, 2 gr.; chocolate paste, 1 oz. Made into 24
lozenges. From 1 to 4 in the day.
=Lozenges, D′Arcet’s.= See LOZENGES, VICHY.
=Lozenges, Diges′tive.= See LOZENGES, RHUBARB, GINGER, CANDY, DIGESTIVE,
&c.
=Lozenges, Edinburgh.= _Prep._ From extract of poppies, 2 oz.; powdered
tragacanth, 4 oz.; sugar, 10 oz.; rose water, q. s. to form a
lozenge-mass.
=Lozenges, Emet′ine.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI EMETINÆ, L. _Prep._ (Magendie.)——1.
From impure or coloured emetine, 32 gr. (or pure emetine, 8 gr.); white
sugar, 2 oz.; mucilage, q. s. to mix; divide into 64 lozenges.
Emetic.——_Dose_, 1 for a child, and 4 for an adult. They are generally
tinged of a pink colour with carmine.
2. From impure or coloured emetine, 32 gr. (or pure emetine, 8 gr.);
sugar, 4 oz.; mucilage, q. s.; divide into 256 lozenges. Pectoral. One
every hour, or oftener, for an adult. The last are intended to take the
place of ipecacuanha lozenges, but are rather stronger.
=Lozenges, Escharot′ic.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI ESCHAROTICI, L. _Prep._ (P.
Cod.) Corrosive sublimate, 2 dr.; starch, 4 dr.; mucilage of tragacanth,
q. s.; mix, and divide into 3-gr. oat-shaped granules. For external use
only. See CAUSTIC (Zinc).
=Lozenges, Ferrocy′anide of Iron.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI FERRI FERROCYANIDI, T.
CÆRULEI, L. Each lozenge contains 1-1/2 gr. of pure Prussian blue.
Alterative, febrifuge, and tonic; in epilepsy, intermittents, diseases of
the ganglionic system, &c.
=Lozenges, Fruit.= _Prep._ From juice of black currants (boiled to the
consistence of an extract), 1 lb.; juice of red currants (similarly
treated), 1/2 lb.; powdered gum tragacanth, 1/4 lb.; sugar, 3 lbs.;
raspberry syrup, q. s.; pear essence, a few drops. Resemble black currant
lozenges, but are more agreeable.
=Lozenges, Garana′.= See LOZENGES, PAULLINIA.
=Lozenges, Gin′ger.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI ZINGIBERIS, L. _Prep._ From the best
unbleached Jamaica ginger and gum Arabic, of each, in very fine powder,
1-1/2 oz.; double refined lump sugar, 1 lb.; rose water (tinged with
saffron), q. s. A still finer quality may be made by using an equivalent
proportion of essence of ginger, instead of the powder. Inferior qualities
are prepared with coarser sugar to which some starch is often added.
Ginger lozenges are carminative and stomachic, and are useful in
flatulency, loss of appetite, &c.
=Lozenges, Gold.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI AURI, L. Each lozenge contains 1/16 gr.
of pulverulent gold.
=Lozenges, Gum.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI ACACIÆ (Ph. E.), T. GUMMI ARABICI, T.
GUMMOSI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Gum Arabic, 4 oz.; starch, 1 oz.; white
sugar, 12 oz. (all in very fine powder); rose water, q. s.
2. (P. Cod.) Gum Arabic, 1 lb.; sugar, 3 lbs.; orange-flower water, 2 fl.
oz.
3. (Transparent.) From the same materials, but employing a gentle heat.
Demulcent; used to allay tickling coughs.
=Lozenges, Guaiacum.= (Th. Hosp.) _Syn._ TROCHISCI GUAIACI. _Prep._
Guaiacum resin in powder, 700 gr.; tragacanth, 70 gr.; sugar, 280 gr.;
black currant paste, q. s. Divide into 350 lozenges, and finish as benzoic
acid lozenges.
=Lozenges, Gum Tra′gacanth.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI TRAGACANTHÆ, T. GUMMI T., L.
_Prep._ (Ph. E. 1744.) Compound powder of tragacanth, 3 oz.; sugar, 12
oz.; rose water, 4 fl. oz. Resemble the last, but are more durable in the
mouth.
=Lozenges, Heart′burn.= See LOZENGES, CHALK, &c.
=Lozenges, Iceland Moss.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI LICHENIS, L. (P. Cod.) Contain
half their weight of dried and powdered lichen jelly. Resemble gum
lozenges.
=Lozenges, Indian Hemp.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI CANNABIS, D. C. INDICI, L.
(Ebriard.) Each lozenge contains 1/12 gr. of extract of Indian hemp.
=Lozenges, I′odide of Iron.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI FERRI IODIDI, L. Each
lozenge contains 1/2 gr. of dry iodide of iron. 12 to 20 daily; in
amenorrhœa, chlorosis, scrofulous debility, &c. They are generally
flavoured with a little nutmeg or cinnamon.
=Lozenges, Iodide of Potassium.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI POTASSI IODIDI, L. Each
lozenge contains 1 gr. of iodide of potassium, flavoured with nutmeg or
cinnamon. 10 to 15 daily; in scrofula, indurations, &c. One of the best
ways of taking iodide of potassium.
=Lozenges, Ipecacuan′ha.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI IPECACUANHÆ;, L. _Prep._ 1. (B.
P.) Mix ipecacuanha in powder, 180 gr.; refined sugar in powder, 25 oz.;
gum acacia in powder, 1 oz.; add mucilage of acacia, 2 fl. oz., and
distilled water, 1 oz., or sufficient to form a proper mass. Divide into
720 lozenges, and dry in a hot-air chamber with a moderate heat. Each
lozenge contains 1/4 gr. of ipecacuanha.
2. (P. Cod., Hamb. do., and Ph. U. S.) Each lozenge contains 1/4 gr. of
ipecacuanha.
3. (TRO. IPECAC. CUM CAMPHORÂ.) Each lozenge contains 1/2 gr. of camphor,
and 1/4 gr. of ipecacuanha.
4. (TRO. IPECAC. CUM CHOCOLAT——P. Cod.) Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of
ipecacuanha, and 12 gr. of chocolate _à la vanilla_. The above are
pectoral and expectorant, and are very useful in tickling and chronic
coughs, hoarseness, &c.
=Lozenges, Ipecacuanha and Morphia.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI IPECACUANHÆ ET
MORPHIÆ (B. P.). Each lozenge contains 1/12 gr. ipecacuanha and 1/36 gr.
hydrochlorate morphia.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 lozenges. See LOZENGES, MORPHIA AND
IPECACUANHA.
=Lozenges, I′ron.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI FERRI, T. CHALYBEATI, L. 1. Each
lozenge contains 1 gr. of Quevenne’s iron. See LOZENGES, REDUCED IRON.
2. (TRO. FERRI CARBONATIS.) Each lozenge contains 1-1/2 gr. of saccharine
carbonate of iron. They are both mild and excellent chalybeates. See
LOZENGES, STEEL.
=Lozenges, Ju′jube.= See PASTE, JUJUBE.
=Lozenges, Ker′mes Mineral.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI KERMETIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (P.
Cod.) Each lozenge contains 1/6 gr. of kermes mineral, and about 3/4 gr.
of gum, made up with sugar and orange-flower water. Diaphoretic and
expectorant.
2. (Compound.) As the last, but with the addition of 1/6 gr. of opium, 1/4
gr. of squills, and 1/2 gr. of ipecacuanha. Anodyne and expectorant; both
are very useful in catarrhs.
=Lozenges, Lactate of Iron.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI FERRI LACTATIS, L. _Prep._
(Cap.) Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of lactate of iron. Tonic. Useful in
debility, accompanied with a diseased state of the organs of digestion.
=Lozenges, Lac′tic Ac′id.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI ACIDI LACTICI, L. Each lozenge
contains 1 gr. of lactic acid to about 12 gr. of sugar. They are best
flavoured with vanilla or nutmeg. In dyspepsia, &c., especially in gouty
subjects. Those prepared by Magendie’s formulæ contain a larger proportion
of acid, but are much too sour for frequent use.
=Lozenges, Lactuca′′rium.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI LACTUCARII, L. _Prep._ (Ph.
E.) Prepared with lactucarium in the same manner as the opium lozenges,
Ph. E. Each of these lozenges contains from 1/6 to 1/7 gr. of lactucarium.
Anodyne and demulcent. Used to allay tickling coughs, &c.
=Lozenges, Lavender.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI LAVANDULÆ, L. From 3/4 fl. dr. of
Mitcham oil of lavender to each lb. of sugar, and tinged red with liquid
lake or carmine; or violet, with litmus or indigo. Used chiefly to scent
the breath. Those of the shops are generally deficient in odour.
=Lozenges, Lem′on.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI LIMONIS, T. LIMONUM, L. _Prep._ 1.
From 1-1/2 fl. dr. of oil of lemon to each lb. of double refined white
sugar.
2. (Acidulated.) See LOZENGES, CITRIC and TARTARIC.
_Obs._ Lemon lozenges and drops are agreeable sweetmeats, and those that
are acidulated are often very useful to promote expectoration in coughs,
&c. The last are also made into drops as well as lozenges, when they form
the ‘ACIDULATED LEMON DROPS’ of the shops. Those that are made of citric
acid are by far the most wholesome. Both lemon lozenges and drops are
generally coloured with infusion of saffron or turmeric.
=Lozenges, Lettuce.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI LACTUCÆ, L. _Prep._ From extract of
lettuce, extract of liquorice, gum, and sugar, equal parts. Anodyne and
demulcent; in obstinate cough without expectoration. See LOZENGES,
LACTUCARIUM.
=Lozenges, Lichen.= See LOZENGES, ICELAND MOSS.
=Lozenges, Liquorice.= _Syn._ BLACK LOZENGES; TROCHISCI GLYCYRRHIZÆ, T. G.
GLABRÆ, T. BECHICI NIGRI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Extract of liquorice and
gum acacia, of each 6 oz; white sugar, 12 oz.; dissolve in water, q. s.;
evaporate into a paste, and form into lozenges. Pectoral and demulcent.
Useful to allay tickling coughs and remove hoarseness.
2. (With OPIUM.) See LOZENGES, OPIUM.
=Lozenges, Magne′sia.= _Syn._ HEARTBURN LOZENGES; TROCHISCI MAGNESIÆ (Ph.
E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Carbonate of magnesia, 6 oz.; powdered white
sugar, 3 oz.; oil of nutmeg, 20 drops; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. to
mix.
2. (Ph. U. S.) Calcined magnesia, 4 oz.; sugar, 12 oz.; nutmeg, 1 dr.;
mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.; for 10-gr. lozenges.
3. (Wholesale.) Calcined magnesia, 3 oz.; powdered gum tragacanth, 1 oz.;
double refined lump sugar, 3/4 lb.; rose or orange-flower water, q. s. to
make a lozenge mass.
_Obs._ Magnesia lozenges are very useful in heartburn, acidity, and
indigestion. The confectioners generally omit the nutmeg, and make their
mucilage with either rose or orange-flower water, or else add the dry gum
to the mass, and then mix up the powders with one or other of these
liquids. It is also an improvement to use calcined magnesia, which is
about twice as strong as the carbonate, and consequently less need be
employed.
=Lozenges, Manna.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI MANNÆ, L. _Prep._ (Van Mons.) Powdered
tragacanth, 1 dr.; white sugar, 12 oz.; manna, 3 oz.; orange-flower water,
q. s. to mix. Demulcent, and in large numbers slightly laxative.
=Lozenges, Marshmallow.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI ALTHÆÆ, L.; TABLETTES DE
GUIMAUVE, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Marshmallow root (decorticated and finely
powdered), 2 oz.; sugar, 14 oz.; mucilage of tragacanth (made with
orange-flower water), q. s. Demulcent and expectorant. Useful to allay the
irritation in cough, &c. The preparations of marshmallow have always been
highly esteemed as pectorals by the vulgar.
=Lozenges, Min′ium.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI MINII (Ph. E. 1744), L. _Prep._ From
red lead, 1 dr.; corrosive sublimate, 2 dr.; crumb of bread, 1 oz.; rose
water, q. s.; to be made up into oat-like grains. For external use only.
=Lozenges, Morphia.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI MORPHIÆ (B. P., Ph. E.), T. M.
HYDROCHLORATIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Hydrochlorate of morphia, 20 gr.;
tincture of tolu, 1/2 fl. oz.; powdered white sugar, 25 oz.; dissolve the
hydrochlorate in a little warm water, mix it with the tincture and the
sugar, make a mass with mucilage of gum tragacanth, q. s., and divide it
into 15-gr. lozenges. Each lozenge contains about 1/40 gr. of
hydrochlorate of morphia. Used as opium lozenges, but are pleasanter. The
morphia lozenges of the shop generally contain 1/24 gr. of hydrochlorate
of morphia. (Pereira.)
2. (With IPECACUANHA, TROCHISCI MORPHIÆ ET IPECACUANHÆ——Ph. E.) As the
last, adding of ipecacuanha, 1 dr. Each lozenge contains about 1/40 gr. of
hydrochlorate of morphia, and 1/13 gr. of ipecacuanha. Anodyne and
expectorant; in tickling coughs, &c., and to allay pain.
3. Hydrochlorate of morphia, 20 gr.; tincture of tolu, 1/2 oz.; refined
sugar, in powder, 24 oz.; gum Arabic, in powder, 1 oz.; mucilage, 2 oz.,
or a sufficiency; boiling distilled water, 1/2 oz. Divide the mass into
720 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 1/36 gr. of hydrochlorate of
morphia.——_Dose_, 1 or 2 occasionally, for cough.
=Lozenges, Morphia and Ipecacuanha.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI MORPHIÆ ET
IPECACUANHÆ (B. P.) Hydrochlorate of morphia, 20 gr.; ipecacuanha, in fine
powder, 24 oz.; tincture of tolu, 1/2 oz.; refined sugar, in powder, 24
oz.; gum Arabic, in powder, 1 oz.; mucilage, 2 oz., or a sufficiency;
distilled water, 1/2 oz.; divide the mass into 720 lozenges. Each lozenge
contains 1/36 gr. of hydrochlorate of morphia and 1/12 gr. of
ipecacuanha.——_Dose_, 1 or 2 occasionally, for cough.
=Lozenges of Naphthalin.= (Dupasquier.) _Syn._ TROCHISCI NAPHTHALINI.
_Prep._ Naphthalin, 5 scruples; sugar, 20 oz.; oil of aniseed to flavour;
form a mass with mucilage of tragacanth, and divide into lozenges of 15
gr. each. Expectorant, and may be taken to the extent of 20 a day.
=Lozenges, Ni′tre.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI NITRICI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E. 1783.)
Nitre, 3 oz.; white sugar, 9 oz.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. to mix.
Diuretic; but chiefly sucked, without swallowing, to remove incipient sore
throat.
2. Camphorated; TROCHISCI NITRI CAMPHORATI, L.——Chaussier. Each lozenge
contains 1/8 gr. of opium, 1/2 gr. of camphor, and 1 gr. of nitre. In
hoarseness, sore throat, &c.
=Lozenges, Nut′meg.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI MYRISTICÆ, L. From oil of nutmeg, 1
fl. dr., to each lb. of sugar, and coloured with infusion of saffron.
Carminative and stomachic; in colic, &c.
=Lozenges, O′pium.= _Syn._ ANODYNE LOZENGES; TROCHISCI OPII (Ph. E.), T.
GLYCYRRHIZÆ CUM OPIO, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P., Ph. E.) Opium (strained), 2
dr.; tincture of tolu, 1/2 oz.; triturate together, add of powdered sugar,
6 oz.; extract of liquorice (soft) and powdered gum acacia, of each 5 oz.;
mix, and divide into 10-gr. lozenges. Each lozenge contains 1/6 to 1/7 gr.
of opium. Used to allay tickling cough and irritation of the fauces, and
as an anodyne and hypnotic.
2. (Ph. U. S.) Opium (in fine powder), 2 dr.; extract of liquorice, gum
Arabic, and sugar, of each 5 oz.; oil of aniseed, 1/2 fl. dr.; water,
q. s.; divide into 6-gr. lozenges. Each lozenge contains 1/10 gr. of
opium. As the last.
3. Extract of opium, 72 gr.; tincture of tolu, 1/2 oz.; refined sugar (in
powder), 2 oz.; extract of liquorice, 6 oz.; distilled water, a
sufficiency. Divide the mass into 720 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 1/10
gr. of extract of opium.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 lozenges.
=Lozenges, Or′ange.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI AURANTII, L. From oil of orange,
1-1/2 fl. dr. to each lb. of sugar, and infusion of saffron for colouring.
By adding nitric or tartaric acid, 3 dr. ‘ACIDULATED ORANGE LOZENGES’ will
be formed.
=Lozenges, Orange-flow′er.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI AURANTII FLORUM, L. _Prep._
(P. Cod.) Powdered sugar, 1 lb.; neroli, 1 dr.; orange-flower water,
q. s.; make it into drops (pastilli); or, omit the water, and make it into
lozenges with mucilage of tragacanth made with orange-flower water.
Delightfully fragrant.
=Lozenges, Or′ris-root.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI IRIDIS, L. _Prep._ From
orris-root (in very fine powder), 1 oz.; sugar, 1 lb.; mucilage of
tragacanth, q. s. to mix. Used to perfume the breath.
=Lozenges Ox′alate of Potassa.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI POTASSÆ OXALATIS, T. P.
SUPER-OXALATIS, L. As ACIDULATED LOZENGES, but using quadraoxalate of
potassa (salt of sorrel) instead of tartaric acid. (See _below_.)
=Lozenges, Oxal′ic Acid.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI ACIDI OXALICI, L. As ACIDULATED
LOZENGES, but using oxalic acid instead of tartaric acid. The last two are
refrigerant, but their use is objectionable, especially for patients who
labour under the oxalic diathesis. In large quantities they are poisonous.
=Lozenges, Paregor′ic.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI PAREGORICI, L. Medicated with 2
fl. oz. of paregoric and 2 dr. of tartaric acid, to each lb. of sugar, and
tinged of a pink colour with lake or cochineal. As a pectoral in catarrhs,
&c.
=Lozenges, Paullin′ia.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI PAULLINIÆ, T. GUARANÆ, L. _Prep._
(Dr Gavrelle.) Each lozenge contains nearly 1/2 gr. of extract of garana
or paullinia, and is flavoured with vanilla. 12 to 20 daily, as an
alterative and tonic; in chlorosis, diarrhœa.
=Lozenges, Pec′toral.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI PECTORALES, T. BECHICI, L. _Prep._
1. (Dr Grunn.) Powdered squills, 4 parts; extract of lettuce, 8 parts;
ipecacuanha, 18 parts; manna, 125 parts; sugar, 250 parts; mucilage of
tragacanth, q. s. to mix.
2. (Magendie.) See LOZENGES, EMETINE.
3. (BLACK; T. BECHICI NIGRI.) See LOZENGES, LIQUORICE.
4. (WHITE; T. BECHICI ALBI.) Orris root, 4 dr.; liquorice powder, 6 dr.;
starch, 1-1/2 oz.; sugar, 18 oz.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. to make a
lozenge-mass.
5. (YELLOW; T. BECHICI FLAVI.) Powdered orris root, 6 dr.; starch, 4 dr.;
liquorice powder, 3 dr.; saffron, 2 dr.; sugar, 8 oz.; mucilage of
tragacanth, q. s. to mix.
_Obs._ All the above are used as demulcents in coughs, colds, &c. Nos. 1
and 2 are anodyne as well as demulcent. For other formulæ see LOZENGES,
COUGH, LIQUORICE, OPIUM, &c.
=Lozenges, Pel′litory.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI PYRETHRI, L. _Prep._ From
pellitory, mastic, and tragacanth, of each in fine powder, equal parts;
orange-flower water, q. s. to mix. In toothache.
=Lozenges, Pep′permint.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI MENTHÆ PIPERITÆ, L. _Prep._ 1.
(P. Cod.) Oil of peppermint, 1 dr.; powdered sugar, 16 oz.; mucilage of
tragacanth, q. s.
2. (Ph. U. S.) Oil of peppermint, 1 fl. dr.; sugar, 12 oz.; mucilage of
tragacanth, q. s.
3. (Wholesale.) 1 fl. dr. of the finest Mitcham oil of peppermint to each
lb. of the finest double refined white sugar, with mucilage of either gum
Arabic or tragacanth to mix.
_Obs._ The best peppermint lozenges are made of the very finest double
refined sugar and of English oil of peppermint only; carefully mixed up
with very clean mucilage. The commoner qualities are made by employing
inferior lump sugar and foreign oil of peppermint, or, what is better,
English oil of peppermint, but in a less proportion than for the better
sorts. The addition of starch, in quantity varying from 1/6 to 2/9 of the
whole mass, is also commonly made to them; and in the cheapest varieties
even plaster of Paris or chalk is occasionally introduced by unprincipled
makers. The addition of a very small quantity of blue smalts, reduced to
an impalpable powder, is commonly made to the sugar, to increase its
whiteness. ‘TRANSPARENT’ or ‘SEMI-TRANSPARENT PEPPERMINT LOZENGES’ are
made from the same materials as the opaque ones; but the sugar is not
reduced to quite so fine a powder, and the cake is rolled thinner before
cutting it. A little oil of almonds or of olives is also occasionally
mixed with the ingredients, to promote the transparency; but it tends to
render the lozenges less white.
Peppermint lozenges and drops are useful in flatulency, nausea, and
griping; and judging from the enormous and constantly increasing demand
for them, they are more highly esteemed by the public than all other
lozenges and confections.
=Lozenges, Pontefract.= These are made of the purest refined juice or
extract of liquorice, and have long been esteemed as a demulcent.
=Lozenges, Pop′py.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI PAPAVERIS, L. _Prep._ From extract of
poppies, 3 oz.; sugar, 15 oz.; powdered gum tragacanth, 2 oz.; rose water,
q. s. to mix. Used in coughs as an anodyne and demulcent, in lieu of opium
lozenges.
=Lozenges, Pulmon′ic.= See LOZENGES, COUGH, PECTORAL, WAFERS, &c.
=Lozenges, Quin′ine.= _Syn._ =Trochisci quininæ sulphatis=, L. _Prep._
(Soubeiran.) Each lozenge contains about 1/10 gr. of sulphate (disulphate)
of quinine. Tonic and stomachic in dyspepsia, &c.; but to render them
useful, the quantity of the alkaloid should be doubled.
=Lozenges, Reduced Iron.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI FERRI REDACTI. (B. P.) Reduced
iron, 720 gr.; refined sugar, in powder, 25 oz.; gum Arabic, in powder, 1
oz.; mucilage, 2 oz.; distilled water, 1 oz., or a sufficiency. Mix the
iron, sugar, and gum, and add the mucilage and water to form a proper
mass. Divide into 720 lozenges, and dry them in a hot-air chamber with a
moderate heat. Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of reduced iron.——_Dose_, 1 to
6 lozenges.
=Lozenges, Reduced Iron, with Chocolate.= (Bouchardat.) _Syn._ TROCHISCI
CHOCOLATÆ ET FERRI. _Prep._ Fine chocolate, 14 oz.; iron reduced by
hydrogen, 1 oz. Soften the chocolate by heat, mix with the iron, and
divide into lozenges of 15-1/2 gr. each. Levigated iron filings are
sometimes substituted for the reduced iron; others direct the peroxide.
=Lozenges of Rhatany.= (Th. Hosp.) _Syn._ TROCHISCI KRAMERIÆ. _Prep._
Extract of rhatany in powder, 1050 gr.; tragacanth, 70 gr.; sugar, 280
gr.; red currant paste, q. s. Mix, and divide into 350 lozenges, and
finish as in benzoic acid lozenges.
=Lozenges, Rhu′barb.= _Syn._ DIGESTIVE LOZENGES; TROCHISCI RHEI, L.
_Prep._ (P. Cod.) Powdered rhubarb, 1 oz.; sugar, 11 oz.; mucilage of
tragacanth, q. s.; divide into 12-gr. lozenges. Stomachic and laxative.
Sucked before dinner, they excite the appetite, and, after it, promote
digestion. They are frequently aromatised with a little cinnamon or
vanilla. See CANDY (Digestive).
=Lozenges, Rose.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI ROSÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (ACIDULATED; T. R.
ACIDÆ.) From otto, 5 to 10 drops; citric or tartaric acid, 3 dr.; sugar, 1
lb.; mucilage, q. s.
2. (Ph. E. 1746.) Red-rose leaves (powdered), 1 oz.; sugar, 12 oz.;
mucilage, q. s.
3. (PÂTE DE ROSE LOZENGES.) As No. 1, omitting one half of the acid.
4. (RED; T. R. RUBRI.) As No. 1; but coloured with liquid lake, or
infusion of cochineal.
_Obs._ Some makers add of starch, 4 oz., substitute oil of rhodium for
otto of roses, and use mucilage made with rose water; but the quality of
course suffers. They are chiefly used to perfume the breath.
=Lozenges, Saf′fron.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI CROCI, L. _Prep._ From hay saffron
(in fine powder), 1 oz.; white sugar, 1 lb.; mucilage of gum tragacanth,
q. s. to mix. Anodyne, pectoral, and emmenagogue; but chiefly used to
raise the spirits in hypochondriasis.
=Lozenges, San′tonine.= _Syn._ TASTELESS WORM LOZENGES; TROCHISCI
SANTONINI, L. Each lozenge contains 1/2 gr. (nearly) of santonine. 5 to 10
daily, as a vermifuge.
=Lozenges, Scammony.= (Bourières.) _Syn._ TROCHISCI SCAMMONII. _Prep._
Resin of scammony, 4 dr.; calomel, 4 dr.; sugar, 6 oz.; tragacanth, 1/2
dr.; tincture of vanilla, 40 minims. Make into 300 lozenges. 1 or 2 for a
child; 2 to 4 for an adult.
=Lozenges, So′da.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI SODÆ BICARBONATIS (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._
1. (Ph. E.) Bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz.; powdered gum Arabic, 1/2 oz.;
sugar, 3 oz.; mucilage, q. s.
2. (Wholesale.) From bicarbonate of soda and powdered gum tragacanth, of
each 2 oz.; double refined lump sugar, 3/4 lb.; rose water, q. s. to mix.
In acidity, heartburn, &c. See LOZENGES, VICHY.
3. (With GINGER); TROCHISCI SODÆ ET ZINGIBERIS, L. To the last, add of
ginger (in very fine powder), 1-1/2 oz.; powdered gum, 1/2 oz.
=Lozenges of Soluble Tartar.= (Guibort.) _Syn._ TROCHISCI TARTARI
SOLUBILIS. _Prep._ Borotartrate of potash, 1 oz.; sugar, 7 oz.; mucilage
of tragacanth, q. s.; flavoured with lemon.
=Lozenges, Squills.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI SCILLÆ, L. 1. Each lozenge contains
1/8 gr. of powdered squills and 2 gr. of extract of liquorice.
2. (With IPECACUANHA); TROCHISCI SCILLÆ ET IPECACUANHÆ, L. As the last,
adding for each lozenge 1/4 gr. of powdered ipecacuanha. Both the above
are useful cough lozenges.
=Lozenges, Starch.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI ALIMY, T. BECHICI ALBI. L. See
PECTORAL LOZENGES.
=Lozenges, Steel.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI FERRI, T. CHALYBEATI, L. _Prep._ (P.
Cod.) Levigated iron filings, 1 oz.; sugar, 10 oz.; cinnamon, 2 dr.;
mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.; mix, and divide into 480 lozenges. Tonic.
See LOZENGES, IRON.
=Lozenges, Sul′phur.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI SULPHURIS, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.)
From sulphur (pure precipitate), 2 oz.; sugar, 16 oz.; mucilage of
tragacanth (made with rose water), q. s. to mix. Useful in piles and some
skin diseases.
=Lozenges, Tannic Acid.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI ACIDI TANNICI (B. P.) Tannic
acid, 360 gr.; tincture of tolu, 1/2 oz,; refined sugar, 25 oz.; gum
acacia, 1 oz.; mucilage, 2 oz.; distilled water, 1 oz. Dissolve the tannic
acid in the water; add first the tincture of tolu previously mixed with
the mucilage, then the gum and the sugar, also previously well mixed. Form
the whole into a proper mass, divide into 720 lozenges, and dry them in a
hot-air chamber with a moderate heat. Each lozenge contains 1/2 gr. of
tannic acid.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 lozenges.
=Lozenges, Tarta′ric Acid.= See LOZENGES, ACIDULATED.
=Lozenges, Tolu′.= _Syn._ BALSAMIC LOZENGES; TROCHISCI TOLUTANI, T.
BALSAMICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.) Balsam of tolu and rectified spirit, of
each 1 oz.; dissolve, add of water, 2 fl. oz., heat the mixture in a water
bath, and filter; make a mucilage with the filtered liquid, and gum
tragacanth (in powder), 80 gr.; add of sugar, 16 oz.; make a mass, and cut
it into lozenges.
2. (Wholesale.) As the last, but using only one half the weight of balsam
of tolu. Pectoral and balsamic.
=Lozenges, Tronchin’s.= _Syn._ TABLETTES DE TRONCHIN, Fr. See LOZENGES,
COUGH.
=Lozenges, Vanil′la.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI VANILLÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Essence of
vanilla, 3 fl. dr., to each lb. of sugar.
2. (Guibourt.) From vanilla triturated to a fine powder with 7 times its
weight of sugar. Antispasmodic, nervine, and stomachic. Used to sweeten
the breath, to flavour chocolate, &c.
=Lozenges, Vichy.= _Syn._ D’ARCET’S LOZENGES; TROCHISCI SODÆ, L.;
PASTILLES DE VICHY, Fr. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.) Bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz.;
powdered sugar, 19 oz.; mucilage of gum tragacanth, q. s.; mix, and divide
into 20-gr. lozenges.
2. (D’Arcet.) As the last, adding a little oil of peppermint to give a
slight flavour. Antacid or absorbent; in heartburn, &c.
=Lozenges, Vi′olet.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI VIOLÆ, T. VIOLARUM, L. _Prep._ Orris
lozenges coloured with the juice of violets.
=Lozenges, Wistar’s Cough.= _Prep._ Gum Arabic, extract of liquorice, and
sugar, of each 2-1/2 oz.; powdered opium, 1 dr.; oil of aniseed, 40 drops;
for 60 lozenges. One, three or four times a day.
=Lozenges Worm.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI ANTHELMINTICI, MORSULI CONTRA VERMES, L.
Most of the advertised nostrums under this name have a basis of calomel
(about 1 gr. per lozenge), and require to be followed by a purge a few
hours afterwards.
1. (Ph. Austr. 1836.) Ethereal extract of wormseed, 1 dr.; jalap, starch,
and sugar, of each 2 dr.; mucilage of gum tragacanth, q. s.; divide into
60 lozenges.
2. (Ph. Dan. 1840.) Wormseed, 1 oz.; ethiops mineral and jalap, of each 3
dr.; cinnamon, 2 dr.; sugar, 7 oz.; rose water, q. s. See LOZENGES,
CALOMEL, CHING’S, SANTONIN, &c. (_above_).
=Lozenges, Zinc.= _Syn._ TROCHISCI ZINCI, T. Z. SULPHATIS, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Copland.) Each lozenge contains 1/2 gr. of sulphate of zinc.
Antispasmodic, expectorant, and tonic, and in quantity emetic.
=LUBRICATING COMPOUNDS.= See ANTI-ATTRITION.
=LU′CIFERS.= See MATCHES.
=LUMBA′GO.= Rheumatism of the loins. It is distinguished from nephritis,
or inflammation of the kidneys, by the pain being aggravated on stooping.
The treatment consists of strong stimulant embrocations or liniments, or
of blisters over the parts affected, with active aperients, warmth, and
diaphoretics (as Dover’s powder) at bedtime. The hot or vapour bath often
gives almost immediate relief. See LINIMENT OF BELLADONNA and CHLOROFORM.
See RHEUMATISM.
=LU′MINOUS PHIAL.= See PHOSPHORUS.
=LU′NA, CORNEA.= [L.] _Syn._ HORN SILVER. Fused chloride of silver.
=LU′NAR, CAUSTIC.= Fused nitrate of silver. See CAUSTIC and SILVER.
=LUNCHEONS, HOT, by the River Side.= We extract the following from ‘Land
and Water’:——“In cold weather, by river side or on mountain or moor, when
not too far from home, a hot lunch is often a _desideratum_, but one not
easily accomplished without a more or less complicated apparatus and the
trouble of lighting a fire——often an impossibility from the want of dry
wood. A hot, substantial meal at the end of a hard day’s work is often
difficult to get when the time of return home may depend entirely on the
humour of the fish; and for either purpose nothing will beat the homely
Hot Pot, or ‘Paté de Lancashire,’ as I have seen it pretentiously termed,
though the latter name does not convey any of the comforting, cheering
sensation to the inner man contained in the simpler denomination. I have
never seen a good recipe for it, so append my own. Take a strong glazed
earthenware jar of a cylindrical form, ten inches deep and twelve broad.
At the bottom of this place a layer, about an inch thick, of potatoes cut
into pieces, sprinkle with a little salt; on these place a layer of four
or five mutton chops, season with salt and pepper, and a teaspoonful of
Worcester sauce. Pour in enough broth, stock, or water to nearly cover the
chops; then add another layer of potatoes (rather thicker than the first),
on which place two or three chops, and two kidneys, cut into smallish
pieces for the sake of the gravy. If mushrooms are procurable, add a few
with each layer of meat, or, in place of these, a few oysters. Season, and
continue the meat and potatoes in alternate layers until within an inch of
the top, when cover with small potatoes whole, or large ones cut into
halves or quarters; bake slowly in the oven till the potatoes are quite
soft inside, and brown and well cooked at the top, when the dish is ready.
If it is not wanted at once, it may easily be kept hot, and the addition
of a little stock will prevent its getting dry. To serve out-of-doors,
wrap up in cloths, and carry in a small hamper lined with straw, when it
will keep steaming hot for an hour or more. One of the great excellences
of this dish lies in the fact that all the aroma of the meat is retained,
while the potatoes absorb any superfluous gravy. Sliced onions will
improve the flavour for those who like them, especially when mushrooms
cannot be got. I have tested the appreciation of this dish among a
grouse-driving party on the Yorkshire moors on a raw December day, and
there was no dissentient voice as to its merits when thankfully discussed
over the subsequent pipe. I have found it not ungrateful, after a long
day’s fishing, nearly up to my waist in water, when the dinner ordered for
six, with a view of taking an evening basket, would have been ruined
before my arrival at eleven, had it consisted of aught else; nay, I have
assisted at more than one bachelor supper in chambers, where it formed the
dish of the evening, and mid-day, evening, or night I have always found it
good.”
=LUNGS.= In _anatomy_, the organ of respiration occupying the thorax or
chest. See RESPIRATION.
=LU′PULIN.= _Syn._ LUPULINA, LUPULINE. Under this name two products are
known, namely, 1. (LUPULINIC GRAINS, L. GLANDS.) The yellow powder
obtained from the dried strobiles or catkins of the hops, by gently
rubbing and sifting them.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.; as an anodyne, tonic, &c.
2. The aromatic bitter principle of hops.
_Prep._ The aqueous extract of the yellow powder or lupulinic grains of
the strobiles, along with a little lime, are treated with rectified
spirit; the filtered tincture is evaporated to dryness, redissolved in
water, and the solution is again filtered, and evaporated to dryness; the
residuum is, lastly, washed with ether, and allowed to dry.
_Prop., &c._ The latter product is a yellowish-white, bitter,
uncrystallisable substance, soluble in 20 parts of water, very soluble in
alcohol, and slightly so in ether. The yellow powder above alluded to (No.
1) is improperly called lupulin; a name which appears more appropriate to
the pure bitter principle than to the lupulinic grains.
_Adult._ The lupulin sold to brewers is largely adulterated with quassia.
In some samples, lately examined, the quassia amounted to 70 per cent.
=LU′PUS.= In _pathology_, a disease affecting the skin, remarkable for
eating away the parts which it attacks with extreme rapidity. It is
generally confined to the face, and commences with small, spreading
ulcerations, which become more or less concealed beneath bran-like scabs,
and end in ragged ulcers, which gradually destroy the skin and muscular
tissue to a considerable depth.
=LUS′TRE.= See PLUMBAGO.
=LUTE.= _Syn._ LUTING; LUTUM, CÆMENTUM, L. A composition employed to
secure the joints of chemical vessels, or as a covering to protect them
from the violence of the fire.
_Prep._ 1. Linseed meal, either alone or mixed with an equal weight of
whiting, and made into a stiff paste with water. It soon becomes very hard
and tough.
2. Ground almond cake, from which the oil has been pressed, mixed up as
the last. Both the above are much used for stills, retorts, and other
vessels that are not exposed to a heat higher than about 320° Fahr. They
are capable of resisting the action of the fumes of volatile oils,
spirits, weak acids, &c., for some time.
3. Fresh-slaked lime made into a paste with strained bullock’s blood or
size. As the last.
4. Plaster of Paris made into a paste with water, and at once applied. It
bears a nearly red heat, but becomes rather porous and friable.
5. Powdered clay or whiting made into putty with water and boiled linseed
oil. This is commonly known as ‘fat lute.’
6. A mixture of powdered clay and ground bricks, made up with water or a
solution of borax. For joining crucibles, &c., which are to be exposed to
a strong heat.
7. Pipe-clay and horse-dung, made into a paste with water. As a coating
for glass vessels, to preserve them from injury from exposure to the fire.
This composition is used by the pipe-makers, and will stand unharmed the
extremest heat of their kiln for 24 hours. It is applied by spreading it
on paper.
8. As the last, but employing shredded tow or plumbago for horse-dung.
_Obs._ For the joints of small vessels, as tubes, &c., especially those of
glass or earthenware, pieces of vulcanized Indian tubing, slipped over and
tied above and below the joint, are very convenient substitutes for lutes,
and have the advantage of lasting for a long time, and bearing uninjured
the heat at which oil of vitriol boils. Flat rings or “washers” of
vulcanised rubber are also excellent for still heads, &c., whenever the
parts can be pinched together by screws or clamps.
=LYCOPO′DIUM.= The fine powder known in commerce under this name consists
of the minute spores of the common club moss, or _Lycopodium clavatum_. It
is exceedingly combustible; thrown suddenly from a powder-puff or bellows
across the flame of a candle, it produces the imitation flashes of
lightning of our theatres. The powder is also employed as a ‘dusting
powder’ in excoriations, and to roll up boluses and pills.
According to M. Paul Cazeneuve, pine pollen is occasionally substituted
for lycopodium.
=MACARO′NI.= This only differs from VERMICELLI in the size of the pipes,
which are about as large as a goose-quill. When properly dressed it is
very wholesome and nutritious. A pleasant dish may be made by boiling
macaroni in water until soft, either with or without a little salt,
draining off the water, and then stewing it with a little butter, cream,
or milk, and grated cheese, adding spice to palate. It may be made into a
‘form’ and browned before the fire.
=MAC′AROONS (English).= _Prep._ Take of sweet almonds, 1 lb.; blanch and
beat them to a paste, add of lump sugar 1-1/4 lb.; whites of 6 eggs; the
grated yellow peel of 2 lemons; mix well, make it into ‘forms,’ cover with
wafer paper, and bake in a moderate oven.
=MACE.= _Syn._ MACIS, L. The tough membranous, lacerated covering
(ariliode) of the NUTMEG. It has a flavour and odour more agreeable than
that of nutmeg, which in its general properties it resembles. It is used
as a flavouring by cooks, confectioners, and liqueuristes; and in
medicine as a carminative. See OIL, &c.
=MACERA′TION.= _Syn._ MACERATIO, L. The steeping of a substance in cold
water, for the purpose of extracting the portion soluble in that
menstruum. The word is also frequently applied to the infusion of organic
substances in alcohol or ether, or in water, either alkalised or
acidulated.
=MACKEREL.= The _Scomber Scombrus_ (Linn.), a well-known spiny-finned
sea-fish, much esteemed at certain seasons for the table. Though
nutritious, it is very apt to disagree with delicate stomachs, and
occasionally induces symptoms resembling those of poisoning.
=MAD′DER.= _Syn._ RUBIA, RUBIÆ RADIX, L. The root of _Rubia tinctorum_
(Linn.), or dyer’s madder. The best madder has the size of a common
goose-quill, a reddish appearance, and a strong odour. As soon as the
roots are taken from the ground they are picked and dried; and before use
they are ground in a mill. Levant, Turkey, and Smyrna madder is imported
whole; French, Dutch, and Zealand madder, ground. The finest quality of
ground madder is called ‘crop’ or ‘grappe,’ ‘ombro’ and ‘gamene’ are
inferior sorts, and ‘mull’ the worst.
Madder contains several distinct principles as——madder red, or
alizarin;——madder purple, or purpurin;——madder orange, or rubiacin; madder
yellow, or xanthin, &c. The first of these (noticed _below_) is by far the
most important.
_Pur._ Madder is frequently adulterated with logwood, Brazil wood, and
other dye-stuffs of inferior value; and also, not unfrequently, with
brickdust, red ochre clay, sand, mahogany sawdust, bran, &c. These
admixtures may be detected as follows:——
1. When dried at 212° Fahr., and then incinerated, not more than 10% to
12% of ash should be left.
2. It should not lose more than 50% to 56% by exhaustion with cold water.
3. When assayed for alizarin (see _below_), the quantity of this substance
obtained should be equal to that from a sample of the same kind of madder
which is known to be pure, and which has been treated in precisely the
same manner. The operation may be conducted as follows:——500 gr. of the
sample are weighed, and, after being dried by the heat of boiling water or
steam, are gradually added to an equal weight of concentrated sulphuric
acid, contained in a glass vessel, and stirred with a glass rod; after a
few hours the charred mass is washed with cold water, collected on a
filter, and dried by the heat of boiling water; the carbonised mass
(‘garacine’) is next powdered, and treated with successive portions of
rectified spirit, to which a little ether has been added, at first in the
cold, and afterwards with heat, until the liquid is no longer coloured by
it, when the mixed tincture is filtered, and evaporated (distilled) to
dryness; the weight of the residuum, divided by 5, gives the percentage
of red colouring matter present. Or,——The dried carbonized matter is
exhausted by boiling it in a solution of 1 part of alum in 5 or 6 parts of
water, and the decoction, after being filtered whilst in the boiling
state, is treated with sulphuric acid as long as a precipitate falls,
which is washed, dried, and weighed as before.
_Uses, &c._ Madder has been given in jaundice and rickets, and as an
emmenagogue.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 2 dr., twice or thrice a day. It is
principally employed as a dye-stuff. See RED DYES, IVORY, PURPURIN, &c.,
also _below_.
=MADDER RED.= _Syn._ ALIZARIN. C_{14}H_{8}O_{4}. 2Aq. The red colouring
principle of madder, first obtained in a separate form by Robiquet.
_Prep._ 1. The aqueous decoction of madder is treated with dilute
sulphuric acid as long as a precipitate falls, which, after being washed,
is boiled in a solution of chloride of aluminum as long as it gives out
colour; the liquid is then filtered, precipitated with hydrochloric acid,
and the precipitate washed and dried. It may be purified from a little
adhering purpurin, by dissolving it in alcohol, again throwing it down
with hydrate of aluminum, boiling the precipitate with a strong solution
of soda, and separating the alizarin from its combination with alumina by
means of hydrochloric acid; it is lastly crystallised from alcohol.
2. (Meillet.) Alum, 3 parts, is dissolved in water at 140° Fahr., 30
parts, and madder, 13 parts, added to the solution; the whole is then
gently boiled for 30 or 40 minutes, after which it is thrown upon a
filter, and submitted to strong pressure; this treatment is repeated with
fresh solutions a second and a third time; the mixed filtrates are then
decanted, and when nearly cold, oil of vitriol, 1 part, diluted with twice
its bulk of water, is added, care being taken to stir the liquid all the
time; the supernatant fluid is next decanted, and the residuum well
washed, and, lastly, dried in the air. If required quite pure, it is
dissolved, whilst still moist, in a solution of 1-1/2 times its weight of
carbonate of potassa in 15 parts of water, and, after reprecipitation with
sulphuric acid, is washed and dried as before.
3. (Robiquet & Colin.) Powdered madder is exhausted with water of a
temperature not exceeding 68° Fahr., and, after being dried, 1 part of it
is boiled for 15 or 20 minutes in a solution of alum, 8 parts, in water,
40 parts; the liquid is filtered whilst boiling, the marc well washed with
a fresh solution of alum, the mixed liquids precipitated with sulphuric
acid, and the precipitate washed and dried, as before.
_Obs._ Alizarin has recently been produced artificially by Graebe and
Liebermann from anthracene (C_{14}H_{10}), a liquid hydrocarbon existing
in coal-tar. For a description of the process see ALIZARIN, ARTIFICIAL.
4. Madder exhausted by 2 or 3 macerations in 5 or 6 times its weight of
cold water, is submitted to strong pressure, to remove adhering water, and
the marc, whilst still moist, is mixed with half its weight of oil of
vitriol diluted with an equal quantity of water; the whole is kept at the
temperature of 212° for an hour, and after being mixed with cold water is
thrown on a linen strainer, well washed with cold water, and dried.
5. From powdered madder and oil of vitriol, equal parts, without heat, as
described under MADDER.
6. (F. Steiner.) The ‘used madder’ of the dye-works is run into filters,
and precipitated with sulphuric acid; the matter thus obtained is put into
bags and rendered as dry as possible by hydraulic pressure; the pressed
cake is next crumbled to pieces, placed in a leaden vessel, and treated
with 1-5th of its weight of oil of vitriol, afterwards assisting the
action of the acid by introducing steam to the mixture; the resulting dark
brown carbonized mass is, lastly, well washed, dried, powdered, and mixed
with about 5% of carbonate of soda, when it is ready for sale.
_Obs._ The last three formulæ produce the ‘GARANCE’ or ‘GARANCINE’ of
commerce, now so extensively used in dyeing.
_Prop., &c._ Pure anhydrous alizarin crystallises in magnificent
orange-red crystals, which may be fused and sublimed; it is freely soluble
in alkaline solutions, which it colours purple or violet; and, in oil of
vitriol, giving a rich red colour; water throws it down from the last
unchanged; it is also soluble in hot alcohol, a hot solution of alum, and,
less freely, in hot water. Hydrated alizarin occurs in small scales
resembling mosaic gold. When impure, it generally forms shining
reddish-brown scales. Commercial ‘garancine’ is a deep-brown or
puce-coloured powder, and will probably, ere long, entirely supersede
crude madder for dyeing. The properties of garancine as a dye-stuff are
precisely similar to those of madder. A solution of alum added to a
solution of alizarin, and precipitated by carbonate of potassa, furnishes
a rose lake; which, after being washed with water and dried, possesses a
most charming tint.
=MAGILP′.= _Syn._ MEGELLUP. A mixture of pale linseed oil and mastic
varnish, employed by artists as a ‘vehicle’ for their colours. The
proportions vary according to the work. It is thinned with turpentine.
=MAG′ISTERY.= _Syn._ MAGISTERIUM, L. The old name of precipitates. The
following are the principal substances to which this term has been
applied:——MAGISTERY OF ALUM, hydrate of alumina; M. OF BISMUTH,
sub-nitrate of bismuth; M. OF DIAPHORETIC ANTIMONY, washed diaphoretic
antimony; M. OF OPIUM (Ludolph’s), crude morphia; M. OF LAPIS CALAMINARIS
or M. OF ZINC, hydrated oxide of zinc.
=MAGNESIA.= See MAGNESIUM, OXIDE OF.
=Magnesia, Hydrate of.= (P. Cod.) _Syn._ MAGNESIÆ HYDRAS. Obtained by
boiling magnesia in 20 or 30 times its weight of water for 20 minutes,
draining on a linen cloth and drying. It contains 31 per cent. of water.
=Magnesia, Lactate of= (Ph. Ger.) _Syn._ MAGNESIÆ LACTAS. _Prep._ Mix 1
oz. (by weight) of lactic acid in 10 oz. of distilled water, just made
slightly warm, and add light carbonate of magnesia enough to neutralise
it. Filter and evaporate till crystals form.
=MAGNE′SIAN APE′′RIENT (Effervescing).= _Prep._ 1. Heavy carbonate of
magnesia, 2 lbs.; tartaric acid and double refined lump sugar, of each
1-1/2 lb.; bicarbonate of soda (dried without heat), 1 lb.; each
separately dried and in very fine powder; essential oils of orange and
lemon, of each 1/2 fl. dr.; mix well in a warm, dry situation, pass the
whole through a sieve, put it into warm, dry bottles, and keep them well
corked.
2. As the last, but substituting calcined magnesia, 1 lb., for the heavy
carbonate, and adding sugar, 3/4 lb. The preceding furnish a very pleasant
effervescing saline draught.
3. (MOXON’S.)——_a._ Take of sulphate of magnesia, 2 lbs.; dry it by a
gradually increased heat, powder, add of tartaric acid (also dried and
powdered), 1-1/4 lb.; calcined magnesia, 1/2 lb.; finely powdered white
sugar, 3 lbs.; bicarbonate of soda (dried without heat), 1 lb.; essence of
lemon, 1 dr.; mix, and proceed as before.
_b._ (Durande.) Carbonate of magnesia, 1 part; bicarbonate of soda,
tartrate of soda and potassa (sel de Seignette), and tartaric acid, of
each 2 parts; mix as before.
_c._ (Pharm. Journ.) Sulphate of magnesia and bicarbonate of soda, of each
1 lb.; tartaric acid, 1/2 lb.; mix as before. The last two are much less
agreeable than the others.
4. Carbonate of magnesia, 2 parts; calcined magnesia, 4 parts; citric
acid, 13 parts; lump sugar, 25 parts; essence of lemon, q. s. to flavour.
Very agreeable. This is known as ‘ROGÉS PURGATIF,’
_Obs._ The above are very useful and popular medicines in indigestion,
heartburn, nausea, habitual costiveness, dyspepsia, &c.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2
dessert-spoonfuls, thrown into tumbler 3 parts filled with cold water,
rapidly stirred and drank whilst effervescing, early in the morning
fasting, or between breakfast and dinner.
=MAGNESIAN LEMONADE′.= See CITRATE OF MAGNESIA and LEMONADE (Aperient).
=MAGNESIUM.= Mg. _Syn._ MAGNIUM, TALCIUM. The metallic radical of
magnesia. The existence of this metal was demonstrated by Sir H. Davy in
1808; but it was first obtained in sufficient quantity to examine its
properties by Bussy in 1830.
_Prep._ 5 or 6 pieces of sodium, about the size of peas, are introduced
into a test-tube, and covered with small fragments of chloride of
magnesium; the latter is then heated to near its point of fusion, when the
flame of the lamp is applied to the sodium, so that its vapour may pass
through the stratum of heated chloride; when the vivid incandescence that
follows is over, and the whole has become cold, the mass is thrown into
water, and the insoluble metallic portion collected and dried.
Commercial magnesium is prepared by evaporating solution of the chlorides
of sodium and magnesium, in the proportion of 1 to 3, to dryness, mixing
with one quarter of its weight of fluor spar and a like amount of sodium,
and heating to bright redness in an iron crucible of proper construction.
On a larger scale it is prepared by heating to redness a mixture of
chloride of magnesium, 9 parts; fused chloride of sodium, 1-1/2 parts;
fluoride of calcium, 1-1/2 parts; and sodium in slices, 1-1/2 parts.
_Prop., &c._ In colour and lustre it resembles silver, but in chemical
properties is more like zinc; its sp. gr. is only 1·743; it is malleable;
fusible at a red heat, and can be distilled like zinc; unaffected by dry
air and by cold water; burns with brilliancy when heated to dull redness
in air or oxygen gas, yielding oxide of magnesium; inflames spontaneously
in chlorine, yielding chloride of magnesium; it dissolves in the acids
with the evolution of hydrogen gas, and pure salts of magnesium result.
It has been used somewhat extensively as an illuminating agent for
photographing at night, and also for the purpose of affording a brilliant
light for microscopic and magic lantern effects.
=Magnesium, Bromide.= _Syn._ MAGNESII BROMIDUM. To bromide of iron in
solution add calcined magnesia in excess, heat the mixture, filter, and
evaporate the clear solution to dryness.
=Magnesium, Carbonate of (Light).= _Syn._ LIGHT CARBONATE OF MAGNESIA;
CARBONATE OF MAGNESIA; MAGNESIA; MAGNESIÆ CARBONAS LEVIS (B. P.).
3MgCO_{3}.MgO.5H_{2}O. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Sulphate of magnesium, 4 lbs.,
and carbonate of sodium, 4 lbs. 9 oz.; boiling distilled water, 4 galls.;
dissolve the salts separately in one half the water, filter, mix the
solutions, and boil for 2 hours, constantly stirring with a spatula,
distilled water being frequently added to compensate for that lost by
evaporation; lastly, the solution being poured off, wash the precipitated
powder with boiling distilled water, and dry it. The formulæ of the Ph. E.
& D. are essentially the same, except that the ebullition is limited to
from 10 to 20 minutes.
2. (B. P.) Similar to the foregoing except that precipitation takes place
in the cold. The formula of this compound is (Mg.CO_{3})_{3}.
Mg(HO)_{2}.4(H_{2}O).
3. (HENRY’S.) Ordinary carbonate of magnesia, the washing of which has
been finished with a little rose water.
4. Add a solution of carbonate of potassium or sodium to the bittern or
residuary liquor of the sea-salt works, and well wash and dry the
precipitate as before. This is known in commerce as ‘Scotch magnesia.’
_Obs._ The carbonate of magnesia of commerce is usually made up into cakes
or dice while drying; or it is permitted to drain and dry in masses, which
are then cut into squares with a thin knife. It is powdered by simply
rubbing it through a wire sieve. The presence of iron in the solution of
the sulphate of magnesium, when the crude salt is employed, and which is
destructive to the beauty of the preparation may be got rid of by the
addition of lime water until the liquor acquires a slight alkaline
reaction, and subsequent decantation after repose.
=Magnesium, Carbonate of (Heavy).= _Syn._ HEAVY CARBONATE OF MAGNESIA;
MAGNESIÆ CARBONAS (B. P.). 3MgCO_{3}.MgO.5H_{2}O. _Prep._ 1. Apothecaries’
Hall. A saturated solution of sulphate of magnesium, 1 part, is diluted
with water, 3 parts, and the mixture heated to the boiling point; a cold
saturated solution of carbonate of sodium, 1 part (all by measure), is
then added, and the whole is boiled with constant agitation until
effervescence ceases; boiling water is next freely poured in, and after
assiduous stirring for a few minutes, and repose, the clear liquid is
decanted, and the precipitate thrown on a linen cloth and thoroughly
washed with hot water; it is, lastly, drained, and dried in an iron pot.
2. (Ph. D.) Dissolve sulphate of magnesium, 10 oz., in boiling distilled
water, 1/2 pint; and carbonate of sodium (cryst.), 12 oz., in boiling
distilled water, 1 pint; mix the two solutions, and evaporate the whole to
dryness by the heat of a sand bath; then add of boiling water 1 quart,
digest with agitation for half an hour, and wash the insoluble residuum as
before; lastly, drain it, and dry it at the temperature of boiling water.
3. (B. P.) White granular powder precipitated from a boiling solution of
sulphate of magnesium by a solution of carbonate of sodium, the whole
evaporated to dryness, and the dry residue digested in water, collected on
a filter, and washed.
_Prop._ The ordinary or light carbonate of magnesia is a white, inodorous,
tasteless powder, possessing similar properties to calcined magnesia,
except effervescing with acids, and having less saturating power. An ounce
measure is filled by 45 to 48 gr. of the powder lightly placed in it. The
heavy carbonate is sometimes fully thrice as dense (see _below_), but in
other respects is similar.
_Dose._ As an antacid, 1/2 to a whole teaspoonful, 3 or 4 times daily; as
a laxative 1/2 dr. to 2 dr. It is commonly taken in milk. It is apt to
produce flatulence, but in other respects is preferable to calcined
magnesia.
_General Remarks._ Although commonly called ‘carbonate of magnesia,’ the
above substance, whether in the light or heavy form, appears to be a
compound of carbonate with hydrate, in proportions which are not perfectly
constant. (For B. P. formula see preceding article.) On account of the
excess of base in its composition it was formerly regarded as a subsalt
(subcarbonate of magnesia). A great deal has been written uselessly
respecting the preparation of these carbonates, about which, however,
there is neither mystery nor difficulty, as some writers would lead their
readers to suppose. If the solutions are very dilute, the precipitate is
exceedingly light and bulky; if otherwise, it is denser. By employing
nearly saturated solutions, and then heating them and mixing them together
whilst very hot, a very heavy precipitate is obtained, but it is apt to be
gritty or crystalline. The same occurs when cold solutions are mixed, and
no heat is employed. The lightest precipitate is obtained from cold,
highly dilute solutions, and subsequent ebullition of the mixture.
Mr Pattinson, a chemist of Gateshead, prepares a very beautiful and pure
heavy carbonate from magnesian limestone. The latter is calcined at a dull
red heat (not hotter) for some time, by which the carbonic anhydride is
expelled from the carbonate of magnesium, but not from the carbonate of
calcium, which hence continues insoluble. The calcined mass is next
reduced to a milk with water in a suitable cistern, and the carbonic
anhydride resulting from its own calcination forced into it under powerful
pressure. The result is a saturated solution of carbonate of magnesia, the
lime remaining unacted on so long as the magnesium is in excess. The
solution by evaporation yields the heavy carbonate, whilst carbonic
anhydride is expelled, and may be again used in the same manufacture. 154
to 160 gr. of the heavy carbonate are required to fill an ounce measure
when lightly placed in it, by which it appears to be fully thrice as dense
as the light carbonate. The bicarbonate of magnesium (magnesiæ bicarbonas,
L.) exists only in solution. The so-called ‘fluid magnesias’ of Murray,
Dinneford, Husband, &c., are solutions of this salt. The small prismatic
crystals which are deposited when ‘fluid magnesia’ is exposed to the air
for some time consist of hydrated neutral carbonate, and not bicarbonate,
as is sometimes stated.
=Magnesium, Chloride of.= MgCl_{2}. _Syn._ MAGNESII CHLORIDUM, L. _Prep._
(Liebig.) By dissolving magnesia in hydrochloric acid, evaporating to
dryness, adding an equal weight of chloride of ammonium, projecting the
mixture into a red-hot platinum crucible, and continuing the heat till a
state of tranquil fusion is attained. On cooling, it forms a transparent,
colourless, and very deliquescent mass, which is anhydrous, and soluble in
alcohol.
_Obs._ Without the addition of the chloride of ammonium it is impossible
to expel the last portion of the water without at the same time driving
off the chlorine, in which case nothing but magnesia is left. The fused
mass should be poured out on a clean stone, and when solid broken into
pieces, and at once transferred to a warm, dry bottle. The P. Cod. orders
the solution to be evaporated to the sp. gr. 1·384, and to be put, whilst
still hot, into a wide-mouthed flask to crystallise.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 dr.;
as a laxative.
=Magnesium, Cit′rate of.= Mg_{3}(C_{6}H_{5}O_{7})_{2}. _Syn._ MAGNESIÆ
CITRAS. L. _Prep._ There is some difficulty in obtaining this salt in an
eligible form for medicinal purposes. When precipitated from a solution it
is insoluble. The following formulæ can be highly recommended.
1. (Parrish.) Dissolve crystallised citric acid, 100 gr., in water, 15
drops, and its own ‘water of crystallisation’ by the aid of heat; then
stir in calcined magnesia, 35 gr.; a pasty mass will result, which soon
hardens, and may be powdered for use.
_Obs._ The chief practical difficulty in this process results from the
great comparative bulk of the magnesia, and the very small quantity of the
fused mass with which it is to be incorporated. A part of the magnesia is
almost unavoidably left uncombined, and the salt is consequently not
neutral. The uncombined earth should be dusted off the mass before
powdering the latter. A high temperature must be avoided.
2. (Robiquet.) Citric acid, 35-1/4 parts, is powdered and dissolved in
boiling water, 10-5/8 parts; when the solution is cold, and before it
crystallises, it is poured in a wide earthen vessel, kept cold by
surrounding it with water; then, by means of a sieve, carbonate of
magnesium, 21-1/6 parts, is distributed evenly and rapidly over the
surface without stirring; when the reaction ceases the mixture is beaten
rapidly as long as it retains its pasty consistence. The salt should be
dried at a temperature not exceeding 70° Fahr.
3. (Effervescing; MAGNESIÆ CITRAS EFFERVESCENS, L.)——_a._ Citric acid
(dried and powdered), 7 parts; heavy carbonate of magnesium, 5 parts; mix,
and preserve in well-corked bottles.
_b._ (Ellis.) Mix powdered citric acid, 2-1/2 oz., with powdered sugar, 8
oz.; triturate to a fine powder, and drive off the water of
crystallisation by the heat of a water bath; add citrate of magnesium
(prepared by fusion), 4 oz., and oil of lemons, 10 drops, and mix
intimately; then add bicarbonate of sodium, 3 oz., and again triturate
until the whole forms a fine powder, which must be preserved in stoppered
bottles. From 1 to 3 tablespoonfuls, mixed in a tumbler of water,
furnishes an effervescing draught in which the undissolved portion is so
nicely suspended, that it can be taken without inconvenience.
_c._ (Ph. Germ.) Light carbonate of magnesia, 25 oz.; citric acid, 75 oz.;
distilled water, q. s.; mix into a thick paste and dry at 86° Fahr. With
14 oz. of the dried mass mix bicarbonate of soda, 13 oz.; citric acid, 6
oz.; sugar, 3 oz. Sprinkle over the mixture enough rectified spirit so as
to make it sufficiently moist to be granulated by rubbing through a tinned
iron sieve.
_d._ (Extemporaneous.) Citric acid (cryst.), 20 gr.; carbonate of
magnesium, 14 gr.; mix in a tumbler of cold water, and drink the mixture
whilst effervescing. A pleasant saline.
_Obs._ A dry white powder, sometimes sold as citrate of magnesia in the
shops, is quite a different preparation to the above, and does not contain
a particle of citric acid. The following formula is that of a wholesale
London drug-house that does largely in this article:——
Calcined magnesia, magnesium oxide, 1-1/4 lb. (or carbonate, 2 lbs.);
powdered tartaric acid, 1-1/2 lb.; bicarbonate of sodium, 1 lb.; dry each
article by a gentle heat, then mix them, pass the mixture through a fine
sieve in a warm dry room, and keep it in well-corked bottles. A few drops
of essence of lemon and 3 lbs. of finely powdered sugar are commonly added
to the above quantity. This addition renders it more agreeable.
_Prop., &c._ Citrate of magnesium is a mild and agreeable laxative; its
secondary effects resemble those of the carbonate.——_Dose._ As a
purgative, 1/2 to 1 oz. The dose of the effervescing citrate must depend
on the quantity of magnesia present. A solution of this salt in water,
sweetened and flavoured with lemon, forms magnesian lemonade.
=Magnesium, Boro-cit′rate of.= _Syn._ MAGNESIÆ BORO-CITRAS, L. _Prep._
(Cadet.) Boracic acid (in powder), 113 gr.; oxide of magnesium, 80 gr.;
mix in a porcelain capsule, and add enough of a solution of citric acid,
260 gr., in water, 3-1/2 pints, to form a thin paste; then add the
remainder of the citric solution, and gently evaporate, with constant
stirring, to dryness. A cooling saline, and, in small doses, emmenagogue
and lithontriptic.——_Dose._ As an aperient, 3 to 6 dr.
=Magnesium, Oxide of.= MgO. _Syn._ OXIDE OF MAGNESIUM, CALCINED MAGNESIA,
MAGNESIA (B. P., Ph. L.).
_Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Magnesium carbonate, heated in a crucible until all the
carbonic anhydride is driven off.
_Prop., &c._ White heavy powder, scarcely soluble in water, but readily
soluble in acids without effervescence. Its solution in hydrochloric acid,
neutralised by a mixed solution of ammonia and ammonium chloride, gives a
copious crystalline precipitate when sodium phosphate is added to it. See
next preparation.
=Magnesia levis= (B. P.) _Syn._ LIGHT MAGNESIA. _Prep._ (B. P.) 1. Light
carbonate of magnesium heated in a Cornish crucible until all the carbonic
anhydride is driven off.
A bulky white powder, differing from the magnesia (B. P.) only in its
density, the volume occupied by the same weight being 3-1/2 to 1.
The properties of the two varieties of magnesium oxide are identical, and
are used in medicine as antacids, laxatives, and antilithics, and much
used in dyspepsia, heartburn, &c.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr. as an antacid and
20 to 60 gr. as a purgative.
=Magnesium, Phos′phate of.= MgHPO_{4}.6Aq. _Syn._ MAGNESIÆ PHOSPHAS, L.
_Prep._ From the mixed solutions of phosphate of sodium and sulphate of
magnesium, allowed to stand for some time. Small, colourless, prismatic
crystals, which, according to Graham, are soluble in about 1000 parts of
cold water. Phosphate of magnesium exists in the grains of the cereals,
and in considerable quantity in beer. It is also found in guano.
=Magnesium and Ammo′′nium, Phosphate of.= MgNH_{4}.PO_{4}, 6 Aq. _Syn._
AMMONIO-PHOSPHATE OF MAGNESIA; MAGNESIÆ ET AMMONIÆ PHOSPHAS, L. This
compound falls as a white crystalline precipitate whenever ammonia or
carbonate of ammonium is added, in excess, to a solution of a salt of
magnesium which has been previously mixed with a soluble phosphate, as
that of soda. It subsides immediately from concentrated solutions, but
only after some time from very dilute ones.
_Prop., &c._ Ammonio-phosphate of magnesium is very slightly soluble in
pure water; when heated, it is resolved into pyrophosphate of magnesium,
and is vitrified at a strong red heat. It is found in wheaten bran, guano,
potatoes, &c., and occasionally forms one of the varieties of urinary
calculi.
=Magnesium, Sil′icates of.= There are several native silicates of
magnesia, more or less pure, of which, however, none is directly employed
in medicine. Meerschaum and steatite or soapstone are well-known
varieties. Serpentine is a compound of silicate and hydrate of magnesium.
The minerals augite and hornblende are double salts of silicic acid,
magnesium, and calcium with some ferrous oxide. The beautiful crystallised
mineral called chrysolite is a silicate of magnesium, coloured with
ferrous oxide. Jade is a double silicate of magnesium and aluminum,
coloured with chromic oxide.
=Magnesium, Sulphate of.= MgSO_{4}, 7 Aq. _Syn._ EPSOM SALT, MAGNESIÆ
SULPHAS (B. P. Ph. L. E. & D.), SAL EPSOMENSIS, L. This compound was
originally extracted from the saline springs of Epsom, Surrey, by Dr Grew,
in 1695. It is now exclusively prepared on the large scale, and from
either magnesian limestone or the residual liquor of the sea-salt works.
_Prep._ 1. From dolomite or magnesian limestone.——_a._ The mineral, broken
into fragments, is heated with a sufficient quantity of dilute sulphuric
acid to convert its carbonates into sulphates; the sulphate of magnesium
is washed out of the mass with hot water, and the solution, after
defecation, is evaporated and crystallised.
_b._ The ‘limestone,’ either simply broken into fragments or else calcined
(burnt), and its constituents quicklime and oxide magnesium converted into
hydrates by sprinkling (slaking) it with water, is treated with a
sufficient quantity of dilute hydrochloric acid to dissolve out all the
calcium hydrate without touching the magnesium hydrate; the residuum of
the latter, after being washed and drained, is dissolved in dilute
sulphuric acid, and crystallised as before.
2. From bittern.——_a._ The residual liquor or mother-water of sea-salt is
boiled for some hours in the pans which are used during the summer for the
concentration of brine; the saline solution is then skimmed and decanted
from some common salt which has been deposited, after which it is
concentrated by evaporation, and, finally, run into wooden coolers; in
about 36 hours, 1-8th part of Epsom salts usually crystallises out. This
is called ‘singles.’ By re-dissolving this in water, and
re-crystallisation, ‘doubles,’ or Epsom salts fit for the market, are
obtained. A second crop of crystals may be procured by adding sulphuric
acid to the mother-liquor, and re-concentrating the solution, but this is
seldom had recourse to in England. Bittern yields fully 5 parts of
sulphate of magnesia for every 100 parts of common salt that has been
previously obtained from it.
_b._ A concentrated solution of sulphate of sodium is added to bittern, in
equivalent proportion to that of the chloride of magnesium in it, and the
mixed solution is evaporated at the temperature of 122° Fahr. (Ure);
cubical crystals of common salt are deposited as the evaporation proceeds,
after which, by further concentration and repose, regular crystals of
sulphate of magnesia are obtained.
_c._ A sufficient quantity of calcined and slaked magnesian limestone is
boiled in bittern to decompose the magnesium salts, and the liquid is
evaporated, &c., as before. This is a very economical process.
_Prop._ Small acicular crystals, or (by careful crystallisation) large
four-sided rhombic prisms; colourless; odourless, transparent; slightly
efflorescent; extremely bitter and nauseous; when heated, it fuses in its
water of crystallisation, the larger portion of which readily passes off,
but one equivalent of water is energetically retained; at a high
temperature it runs into a species of white enamel; it dissolves in its
own weight of cold water, and in 3-4ths of that quantity of boiling water;
it is insoluble in both alcohol and ether. Sp. gr. 1·66.
_Pur._ Sulphate of magnesium is soluble in an equal weight of water at 60°
Fahr., by which it may be distinguished from sulphate of sodium, which is
much more soluble.
An aqueous solution in the cold is not precipitated by oxalate of
ammonium. The precipitate given by carbonate of sodium from a solution of
100 gr. should, after well washing and heating to redness, weigh 16·26 gr.
(B. P.)
Digested in alcohol, the filtered liquid does not yield a precipitate with
nitrate of silver nor burn with a yellow flame, and evaporates without
residue. “Not deliquescent in the air.” (Ph. L.) 100 gr. of the pure
crystallised sulphate yields 16-1/4 gr. of calcined magnesium oxide.
(Pereira.) 10 gr., dissolved in 1 fl. oz. of water, and treated with a
solution of carbonate of ammonium, are not entirely precipitated by 280
minims of solution of phosphate of sodium. (Ph. E.)
_Uses, &c._ Sulphate of magnesium is an excellent cooling purgative, and
sometimes proves diuretic and diaphoretic.——_Dose_, 1 dr. to 1 oz., as a
purgative, or an antidote in poisoning by lead. Large doses should be
avoided. Instances are on record of their having proved fatal. Dr
Christison mentions the case of a boy 10 years old who swallowed 2 oz. of
salts, and died within 10 minutes. The best antidote is an emetic. A small
quantity of Epsom salts, largely diluted with water (as a drachm to 1/2
pint or 3/4 pint), will usually purge as much as the common dose. This
increase of power has been shown by Liebig to result rather from the
quantity of water than the salt. Pure water is greedily taken up by the
absorbents; but water holding in solution saline matter is rejected by
those vessels, and consequently passes off by the intestines.
_Obs._ Oxalic acid has occasionally been mistaken for Epsom salt, with
fatal results. They may be readily distinguished from each other by the
following characteristics:——
EPSOM SALT. | OXALIC ACID.
Tastes extremely bitter | Tastes extremely sour.
and nauseous. |
| Volatilises when heated
Does not volatilise | on platinum foil.
when heated on platinum |
foil. Does not | Produces milkiness
produce milkiness | when dissolved in
when dissolved in | _hard_ water.
_hard_ water. |
=Magnesium, Tar′trate of.= _Syn._ MAGNESIÆ TARTRAS, MAGNESIA TARTARICA, L.
_Prep._ By saturating a solution of tartaric acid with carbonate of
magnesium, and gently evaporating to dryness. It is only very slightly
soluble in water.——_Dose_, 20 to 60 gr., or more; in painful chronic
maladies of the spleen. (Pereira, ex Radmacher.) The effervescing tartrate
of magnesium, commonly sold under the name citrate, has already been
noticed.
=Magnesium and Potas′sium, Tartrate of.= _Syn._ POTASSIO-TARTRATE OF
MAGNESIA; MAGNESIÆ POTASSIO-TARTRAS, M. ET POTASSÆ TARTRAS, L. _Prep._
From acid tartrate of potassium (in powder), 7 parts; carbonate of
magnesium, 2 parts; water, 165 parts; boiled until the solution is
complete, and then evaporated and crystallised. A mild aperient.——_Dose_,
1 to 5 dr.; in scurvy, &c.
=MAG′NET.= _Syn._ MAGNES, L. Besides its application to the loadstone,
this name was formerly given to several compounds used in
medicine.——ARSENICAL MAGNET (MAGNES ARSENICALIS), a substance once used as
a caustic, consisted of common antimony, sulphur, and arsenious acid,
fused together until they formed a sort of glass. MAGNES EPILEPSIÆ was
native cinnabar.
=MAHOG′ANY.= This is the wood of _Swietenia Mahogoni_ (Linn.), a native of
the hotter parts of the new world. It is chiefly imported from Honduras
and Cuba. The extract is astringent, and has been used in tanning, and as
a substitute for cinchona bark. The wood is chiefly employed for furniture
and ornamental purposes, and, occasionally, in ship-building.
Imitations of mahogany are made by staining the surface of the inferior
woods by one or other of the following methods:
1. Warm the wood by the fire, then wash it over with aquafortis, let it
stand 24 hours to dry, and polish it with linseed oil reddened by
digesting alkanet root in it; or, instead of the latter, give the wood a
coat of varnish, or French polish which has been tinged of a mahogany
colour with a little aloes and annotta.
2. Socotrine aloes, 1 oz.; dragon’s blood, 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1
pint; dissolve, and apply 2 or 3 coats to the surface of the wood,
previously well smoothed and polished; lastly, finish it off with wax or
oil tinged with alkanet root.
3. Logwood, 2 oz.; madder, 8 oz.; fustic, 1 oz.; water, 1 gall.; boil 2
hours, and apply it several times to the wood boiling hot; when dry,
slightly brush it over with a solution of pearlash, 1 oz.; in water, 1
quart; dry, and polish as before.
4. As the last, but using a decoction of logwood, 1 lb., in water, 5
pints. The tint may be brightened by adding a little vinegar or oxalic
acid, and darkened by a few grains of copperas.
Stains and spots may be taken out of mahogany furniture with a little
aquafortis or oxalic acid and water, by rubbing the part with the liquid
by means of a cork till the colour is restored; observing afterwards to
well wash the wood with water, and to dry it and polish it as before.
=MAIZE.= _Syn._ INDIAN CORN. The seeds of _Zea Mays_ (Linn.). Like the
other corn plants, it belongs to the Grass family (_Graminaceæ_), and has
albuminous grains sufficiently large and farinaceous to be ground into
flour.
Maize is extremely nutritious, and although it is poorer in albumenoid
matters than wheat, it is, of all the cereal grains, the richest in fatty
oil, of which it contains about 9%. (Dumas and Payen.) It is remarkable
for its fattening quality on animals, but is apt to excite slight
diarrhœa in those unaccustomed to its use. Its meal is the ‘POLENTA’ of
the shops. The peculiar starch prepared from it is known as ‘CORN FLOUR,’
In America the young ears are roasted and boiled for food.
The centesimal composition of maize is as follows:——Flesh formers
(albumenoid bodies), 9·9; heat and fat formers (starch, dextrin, and fat),
71·2, fibre, 4·0; ash, 1·4; water, 13·5.
Letheby says of maize: “The grain is said to cause disease when eaten for
a long time, and without other meal——the symptoms being a scaly eruption
upon the hands, great prostration of the vital powers, and death after a
year or so, with extreme emaciation.
These effects have been frequently observed amongst the peasants of Italy,
who use the meal as their chief food, but I am not aware of any such
effects having been seen in Ireland, where it is often the only article of
diet for months together.”
Millions of bushels are grown every year in the United States of America,
and large quantities are continually imported into England, where it is
held in high esteem by cattle breeders, it being much cheaper than many of
our home-grown productions. It is occasionally given to horses as a
substitute for oats.
=MALAG′MA.= In _pharmacy_, a poultice or emollient application.
=MA′LIC ACID.= H_{3}C_{4}H_{3}O_{5}. _Syn._ ACIDUM MALICUM, L. This acid
exists in the juice of many fruits and plants, either alone or associated
with other acids, or with potassa or lime. In the juice of the garden
rhubarb it exists in great abundance, being associated with acid oxalate
of potassa.
_Prep._ (Everitt.) The stalks of common garden rhubarb are peeled, and
ground or grated to a pulp, which is subjected to pressure; the juice is
heated to the boiling point, neutralised with carbonate of potassa, mixed
with acetate of lime, and the insoluble oxalate of lime which falls is
removed by filtration; to the clear and nearly colourless liquid, solution
of acetate of lead is next added as long as a precipitate (‘malate of
lead’) continues to form; this is collected on a filter, washed, diffused
through water, and decomposed by sulphuric acid, avoiding excess, the last
portion of lead being thrown down by a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen;
the filtered liquid is, lastly, carefully evaporated to the consistence of
a syrup, and left in a dry atmosphere until it becomes converted into a
solid and somewhat crystalline mass of malic acid. If perfectly pure malic
acid is required, the malate of lead must be crystallised before
decomposing it with sulphuretted hydrogen. _Prod._ 20,000 gr. of the
peeled stalks yield 12,500 gr. of juice, of which one imperial gallon
contains 11,139-1/4 gr. of dry malic acid.
_Obs._ By a similar process malic acid may be prepared from the juice of
thee berries of the mountain ash (_Sorbus aucuparia_), just when they
commence to ripen, or from the juice of apples, pears, &c.
_Prop., &c._ Malic acid is slightly deliquescent, very soluble in water,
soluble in alcohol, and has a pleasant acidulous taste. The aqueous
infusion soon gets mouldy by keeping. When kept fused for some time at a
low heat, it is converted into fumaric acid; and when quickly distilled,
it yields maleic acid, while fumaric acid is left in the retort. With the
bases malic acid forms salts called malates. Of these the acid malate of
ammonia is in large, beautiful crystals; malate of lead is insoluble in
cold water, but dissolves in warm dilute acid, from which it separates on
cooling in brilliant silvery crystals; acid malate of lime also forms very
beautiful crystals, freely soluble in water; neutral malate of lime is
only sparingly soluble in water; the first is obtained by dissolving the
latter in hot dilute nitric acid, and allowing the solution to cool very
slowly.
=MALLEABIL′ITY.= The peculiar property of metals which renders them
capable of extension under the hammer.
=MALT.= _Syn._ BINA, BYNE, BRASIUM, MALTUM, L. The name given to different
kinds of grain, such as barley, bere or bigg, oats, rye, maize, &c., which
have become sweet, from the conversion of a portion of their starch into
sugar, in consequence of incipient germination artificially produced.
Barley is the grain usually employed for this purpose.
_Var._ Independently of variations of quality, or of the grain from which
it is formed, malt is distinguished into varieties depending on the heat
of the kiln employed for its desiccation. When dried at a temperature
ranging between 90° and 120° Fahr., it constitutes ‘PALE MALT,’ when all
the moisture has exhaled, and the heat is raised to from 125° to 135°,
‘YELLOW,’ or ‘PALE AMBER MALT,’ is formed; when the heat ranges between
140° and 160°, the product receives the name of ‘AMBER MALT,’ at 160° to
180°, ‘AMBER-BROWN,’ or ‘PALE BROWN MALT,’ is obtained. ROASTED, PATENT,
or BLACK MALT, and CRYSTALLISED MALT, are prepared by a process similar to
that of roasting coffee. The malt is placed in sheet-iron cylinders over a
strong fire, and the cylinders made to revolve at the rate of about 20
revolutions per minute if roasted malt is required, or 120 for
crystallised malt. In the former case the finished malt has a dark brown
colour; in the latter, the interior of the grain becomes dark brown,
whilst the husk assumes a pale amber hue. The temperature must never
exceed 420°, or the malt will become entirely carbonised.
_Qual._ Good malt has an agreeable smell and a sweet taste. It is friable,
and when broken discloses a floury kernel. Its husk is thin, clean, and
unshrivelled in appearance, and the acrospire is seen extending up the
back of the grain, beneath the skin. The admixture of unmalted with malted
grain may be discovered, and roughly estimated, by throwing a little into
water, malt floats on water, but barley sinks in it. The only certain
method, however, of determining the value of malt is to ascertain the
amount of soluble matter which it contains, by direct experiment. This
varies from 62 to 70%, and for good malt is never less than 66 to 67%. If
we assume the quarter of malt at 324 lbs., and the average quantity of
soluble matter at 66%, then the total weight of soluble matter will be
fully 213-3/4 lbs. per quarter; but as this, “in taking on the form of gum
and sugar” during the process of mashing, “chemically combines with the
elements of water, so the extract, if evaporated to dryness, would reach
very nearly 231 lbs.; and this reduced to the basis of a barrel of 36
gallons, becomes in the language of the brewer, 87 lbs. per barrel, which,
however, merely means that the wort from a quarter of malt, if evaporated
down to the bulk of a barrel of 36 gallons, would weigh 87 lbs. more than
a barrel of water.” (Ure.)
_Assay._ 1. A small quantity of the sample being ground in a coffee or
pepper mill, 100 gr. are accurately weighed, and dried by exposure for
about 1 hour at the temperature of boiling water. The loss in weight, in
grains, indicates the quantity of moisture per cent. This, in good malt,
should not exceed 6-1/2 gr.
2. A second 100 gr. is taken and stirred up with about 1/2 pint of cold
water; the mixture is then exposed to the heat of boiling water for about
40 minutes; after which it is thrown on a weighed filter, and the
undissolved portion washed with a little hot water; the undissolved
portion, with the filter, is then dried at 212° Fahr., and weighed. The
loss in weight, less the percentage of moisture last found, taken in
grains, gives the percentage of soluble matter. This should not be less
than 66 gr. The same result will be arrived at by evaporating the filtered
liquid and ‘washings’ to dryness, and weighing the residuum.
3. A third 100 gr. is taken and mashed with about 1/2 pint of water at
160° Fahr., for 2 or 3 hours; the liquid is then drained off, the residue
gently squeezed, and the strained liquid evaporated to dryness, as before,
and weighed. This gives the percentage of saccharine matter, and should
not be less than about 71 gr., taking the above average of malt as the
standard of calculation.
_Uses, &c._ Malt is chiefly employed in the arts of brewing and
distillation. Both roasted and crystallised malt are merely used to colour
the worts produced from pale malt. 1 lb. of roasted malt, mashed with 79
lbs. of pale malt, imparts to the liquor the colour and flavour of
‘porter.’ The paler varieties of malt contain the largest quantity of
saccharine matter. After the malt has been kiln-dried, the rootlets may be
removed by means of a sieve. Before malt is mashed for beer it must be
broken up, and the law requires that it be bruised or crushed by smooth
metal rollers, and not ground by millstones. It has also been proposed to
employ malt, instead of raw grain, for fattening domestic animals, and as
food for their young and those in a sickly state. Infusion of malt (sweet
wort, malt tea) is laxative, and has been recommended as an antiscorbutic
and tonic. It has been given with great advantage in scurvy; but for this
purpose good, well-hopped, mild beer is equally serviceable and more
agreeable. See BREWING, DISTILLATION, FERMENTATION, &c.
=MALT LIQ′UORS.= The qualities of ale, beer, and porter, as beverages, the
detection of their adulteration, and the methods of preparing them, are
described under their respective names and in the article upon ‘BREWING’;
the present article will, therefore, be confined to a short notice of the
cellar management, and the diseases of malt liquors generally.
AGE. The appearance and flavour to which this term is applied can, of
course, be only given to the liquor by properly storing it for a
sufficient time. Fraudulent brewers and publicans, however, frequently add
a little oil of vitriol (diluted with water) to new beer, by which it
assumes the character of an inferior liquor of the class 1 or 2 years old.
Copperas, alum, sliced onions, Seville oranges, and cucumbers, are also
frequently employed by brewers for the same purpose.
BOTTLING. Clean, sweet, and dry bottles, and sound and good corks, should
be had in readiness. The liquor to be bottled should be perfectly clear;
and if it be not so, it must be submitted to the operation of ‘fining.’
When quite fine, and in good condition, the bung of the cask should be
left out all night, and the next day the liquor should be put into
bottles, which, after remaining 12 or 24 hours, covered with sheets of
paper to keep out the flies and dust, must be securely corked down. Porter
is generally wired over. The wire for this purpose should be ‘annealed,’
and not resilient. If the liquor is intended for exportation to a hot
climate, the bottles should remain filled for 2 or 3 days, or more, before
corking them. The stock of bottled liquor should be stored in a cool
situation; and a small quantity, to meet present demands only, should be
set on their sides in a warmer place to ripen. October beer should not be
bottled before Midsummer, nor March beer till Christmas.
CLOUDINESS. Add a handful of hops boiled in a gallon of the beer, and in a
fortnight fine it down.
FINING. See CLARIFICATION and BREWING.
FLATNESS. When the liquor is new, or has still much undecomposed sugar
left in it, a sufficient remedy is to remove it into a warmer situation
for a few days. When this is not the case, 2 or 3 pounds of moist sugar
(foots) may be ‘rummaged’ into each hogshead. In this way a second
fermentation is set up, and in a few days the liquor becomes brisk, and
carries a head. This is the plan commonly adopted by publicans. On the
small scale the addition of a few grains of carbonate of soda, or of
prepared chalk, to each glass, is commonly made for the same purpose; but
in this case the liquor must be drunk within a few minutes, else it
becomes again flat and insipid. This may be adopted for home-brewed beer
which has become sour and vapid.
FOXING OR BUCKING. The spontaneous souring of worts or beer during their
fermentation or ripening, to which this name is applied, may generally be
remedied by adding to the liquor some fresh hops (scalded), along with
some black mustard seed (bruised). Some persons use a little made mustard,
or a solution of alum or of catechu, and in a week or 10 days afterwards
further add some treacle, or moist sugar.
Frosted beer is recovered by change of situation; by the addition of some
hops boiled in a little sweet wort; or by adding a little moist sugar or
treacle to induce a fresh fermentation.
HEADING. This is added to thin and vapid beer to make it bear a frothy
head. The most innocent, pleasant, and effective addition of this sort is
a mixture of pure ammonio-citrate of iron and salt of tartar, about equal
parts in the proportion of only a few grains to a quart.
IMPROVING. This is the trade synonym of ‘ADULTERATION’ and ‘DOCTORING,’
Nevertheless there are cases in which ‘improvement’ may be made without
affecting the wholesome character of the liquor. Of this kind is the
addition of hops, spices, &c., during the maturation of beer that exhibits
a tendency to deteriorate. For this purpose some persons cut a half
quartern loaf into slices, and after toasting them very high, place them
in a coarse linen bag along with 1/2 lb. of hops, and 2 oz. each of
bruised ginger, cloves, and mustard seed, and suspend the bag by means of
a string a few inches below the surface of the beer (a hogshead), which is
then bunged close. The addition of a little ground capsicum in the same
way is also a real improvement to beer, when judiciously made.
MUSTINESS. To each hogshead, racked into clean casks, add 1 lb. of new
hops boiled in a gallon of the liquor, along with 7 lbs. of newly-burnt
charcoal (coarsely bruised, and the fine dust sifted off), and a 4-lb.
loaf of bread cut into thin slices and toasted rather black; ‘rouse up’
well every day for a week, then stir in of moist sugar 3 or 4 lbs., and
bung down for a fortnight.
RECOVERING. This is said of unsaleable beer when rendered saleable, by
giving it ‘head’ or removing its ‘tartness.’
RIPENING. This term is applied to the regular maturation of beer. It is
also used to express the means by which liquors already mature are
rendered brisk, sparkling, or fit and agreeable for immediate use. In the
language of the cellar, malt liquors are said to be ‘up’ when they are
well charged with gaseous matter, and bear a frothy head. These qualities
depend on the undecomposed sugar undergoing fermentation, which, when
active, can only be of comparatively short duration, and should,
therefore, be repressed rather than excited in beers not required for
immediate consumption. When we desire to give ‘briskness’ to these
liquors, whether in cask or bottle, it is only necessary to expose them
for a few days to a slight elevation of temperature, by removing them, for
instance, to a warmer apartment. This is the plan successfully adopted by
bottlers. The addition of a small lump of white sugar to each bottle of
ale or beer, or a teaspoonful of moist sugar to each bottle of porter,
just before corking it, will render it fit for drinking in a few days in
ordinary weather, and in 2 or 3 days in the heat of summer. A raisin or a
lump of sugar candy is often added to each bottle with a like intention.
The Parisians bottle their beer one day and sell it the next. For this
purpose, in addition to the sugar as above, they add 2 or 3 drops of
yeast. Such bottled liquor must, however, be drunk within a week, or else
stored in a very cold place, as it will otherwise burst the bottles or
blow out the corks.
ROPINESS. A little infusion of catechu or of oak bark, and some fresh
hops, may be added to the beer, which in a fortnight should be rummaged
well, and the next day ‘fined’ down.
SOURNESS. Powdered chalk, carbonate of soda, salt of tartar, or pearlash,
is commonly added by the publicans to the beer, until the acidity is
nearly removed, when 4 or 5 lbs. of moist sugar or foots per hogshead are
‘rummaged’ in, together with sufficient water to disburse double the
amount of the outlay and trouble. Such beer must be soon put on draught,
as it is very apt to get flat by keeping. Oyster shells and egg shells are
also frequently used by brewers for the same purpose. To remove the
acidity of beer, on the small scale, a few grains of carbonate of soda per
glass may be added just before drinking it.
STORING. The situation of the beer-cellar should be such as to maintain
its contents at a permanently uniform temperature, ranging between 44° and
50° Fahr., a condition which can only be ensured by choosing for its
locality an underground apartment, or one in the centre of the basement
portion of a large building.
VAMPING. Half fill casks with the old liquor, fill them up with some newly
brewed, and bung close for 3 weeks or a month.
=MALTIN.= A nitrogenous ferment obtained from malt, which it is believed
by Dubrunfaut to be the active principle, and is more energetic than
diastase. The above chemist states it may be precipitated from extract of
malt, by the addition of two molecules of alcohol at 90 per cent.
According to Dubrunfaut maltin exists in all cereal grains, and in the
water of rivers and brooks; but not in the well water of Paris.
=MALTING.= The method of converting barley, wheat, oats, or any other
description of grain into malt. There are four successive stages in the
process of malting, viz., steeping, couching, flooring, and kiln-drying.
1. _Steeping or moistening._——The grain is placed in a large wooden or
stone cistern, and sufficient water run in to cover it. Here it remains
for a period of from 40 to 60 hours, depending on the temperature of the
weather, or until it becomes soft enough to be easily pierced with a
needle, or crushed between the thumb and finger without yielding a milky
juice. While in steep the grain swells, increasing nearly one fifth in
bulk, and about 50 per cent. in weight. The water is then drained off, and
the grain is ready for the next operation.
2. _Couching or germinating._——From the cistern the swollen barley is
thrown out into the couch frame to the depth of from 14 or 20 inches,
where heat is generated and germination induced. Here it is allowed to
remain for from 20 to 30 hours, according to the state of the weather,
until the acrospire or pumule shoots forth. Were the grain to remain long
in the couch, particularly in warm weather, it would be either unduly
forced or turn sour. Whilst in couch it rises in temperature about 15
degrees, and gives off some of its extra moisture. This is called
sweating, and as the rootlets now begin to shoot out, means must be taken
to check the germination.
3. _Flooring or regulating._——This consists in spreading the heated barley
on the floor at different depths, according as it is required to increase
or retard germination. During this stage of the operation the art of the
maltster may be more properly said to commence, as now all his judgment is
brought into requisition. The grain must be turned three or four times a
day, and at each turning the layer is spread out more and more, until it
is reduced to the depth of about three or four inches. The chief object to
be attained by this operation is a regular germination of the grain.
4. _Kiln-drying._——The sprouted barley is next spread in a thin layer on
the malt kiln, and heat applied. The temperature to which the kiln is
raised varies according to the purpose for which the malt is required, the
difference between pale, amber, and brown malt depending solely on the
degree of heat to which each has been subjected, and the manner in which
the heat has been applied (see MALT). If the malt were not kiln-dried it
would not keep, but would become mouldy. By the process of drying, the
vitality of the seed is destroyed, and it may then be preserved without
suffering further change.
_Product._——Good barley yields about 80% by weight and 109% by measure, of
dried and sifted malt. Of the loss by weight 12% must be referred to water
existing in the raw grain.
=MAN′′GANESE.= Mn. _Syn._ MANGANESIUM, L. A hard, brittle metal,
discovered by Gahn in the black oxide of manganese of commerce.
_Prep._ Reduce manganous carbonate to fine powder, make it into a paste
with oil, adding about 1-10th of its weight of calcined borax, place the
mixture in a Hessian crucible lined with charcoal, lute on the cover, and
expose it to the strongest heat of a smith’s forge for 2 hours; when cold,
break the crucible and preserve the metallic button in naphtha.
_Obs._ The product is probably a carbide of manganese, just as steel is a
carbide of iron. Deville has lately prepared pure manganese by reducing
the pure oxide by means of an insufficient quantity of sugar charcoal in a
crucible made of caustic lime.
_Prop._ As prepared by Deville, metallic manganese has a reddish lustre,
like bismuth; it is very hard and brittle; when powdered, it decomposes
water, even at the lowest temperature. Dilute sulphuric acid dissolves it
with great energy, evolving hydrogen. Sp. gr. 7·13. In an oxidised state
manganese is abundant in the mineral kingdom, and traces of it have been
found in the ashes of plants and in mineral waters.
The salts of manganese may be easily prepared in a state of purity by
dissolving the precipitated carbonate in the acids. Most of them are
soluble, and several are crystallisable.
_Tests._ Manganous salts are distinguished as follows:——The hydrates of
potassium and sodium give white precipitates insoluble in excess, and
rapidly turning brown. The presence of ammonium salts interferes with
these tests. Ammonia gives similar results.
Ferrocyanide of potassium gives a white precipitate. Sulphuretted hydrogen
gives no precipitate in acid solutions, and precipitates neutral solutions
only imperfectly; but in alkaline solutions it gives a bright,
flesh-coloured, insoluble precipitate, which becomes dark brown on
exposure to the air. Sulphide of ammonium, in neutral solutions, also
yields a similar precipitate, which is very characteristic. A compound of
manganese fused with borax in the outer flame of the blowpipe gives a
bead, which appears of a violet-red colour whilst hot, and upon cooling
acquires an amethystine tint; this colour is lost by fusion in the inner
flame. Heated upon platinum foil with a little carbonate of sodium, in the
outer flame, it yields a green mass whilst hot, which becomes bluish green
when cold.
=Manganous Ace′tate.= Mn(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}. _Syn._ ACETATE OF PROTOXIDE
OF MANGANESE; MANGANII ACETAS, L. _Prep._ 1. By neutralising concentrated
acetic acid with manganous carbonate, and evaporating the solution so
that crystals may form.
_Prop., &c._ The crystals, when pure, are of a pale red colour; permanent
in the air; soluble in alcohol, and 3-1/2 parts of water, and possess an
astringent and metallic taste.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr., as an alterative,
hæmatinic, &c.
=Manganous Car′bonate.= MnCO_{3}. _Syn._ CARBONATE OF PROTOXIDE OF
MANGANESE; MANGANESII CARBONAS, L. _Prep._ Reduce the black oxide of
manganese of commerce to fine powder, and after washing it in water
acidulated with hydrochloric acid, dissolve it in strong hydrochloric
acid, and evaporate the resulting solution to dryness; dissolve the
residue in water, and add to the solution sufficient sodium carbonate to
precipitate all the iron present; digest the mixed precipitate in the
remainder of the liquid, filter, add ammonium sulphide until it begins to
produce a flesh-coloured precipitate, then filter, and add sodium
carbonate as long as a precipitate falls; lastly, well wash the
newly-formed carbonate in water, and dry it by a gentle heat.
2. By directly precipitating a solution of the chloride with sodium
carbonate, and washing and drying the powder as before.
_Prop., &c._ A pale buff or cream-coloured powder; insoluble in water;
freely soluble in acids; exposed to a strong heat, it loses its carbonic
acid, absorbs oxygen, and is converted into the red oxide. It is chiefly
employed in the preparation of the other salts of manganese.
=Manganous Chlo′′ride.= MnCl_{2}. _Syn._ PROTOCHLORIDE OF MANGANESE,
MURIATE OF M.; MANGANESII CHLORIDUM, L. _Prep._ 1. By saturating
hydrochloric acid with manganous carbonate; the solution is greatly
concentrated by evaporation, when crystals may be obtained, or it is at
once evaporated to dryness; in either case the product must be placed in
warm, dry, stoppered bottles, and preserved from the air.
2. From the dark brown residual liquid of the process of obtaining
chlorine from binoxide of manganese and hydrochloric acid; this liquid is
evaporated to dryness, and then slowly heated to dull redness in an
earthen vessel, with constant stirring, and kept at that temperature for a
short time; the greyish-looking powder thus obtained is treated with
water, and the solution separated from the ferric oxide and other
insoluble matter by filtration; if any iron still remains, a little
manganous carbonate is added, and the whole boiled for a few minutes; the
filtered solution is then treated as before. This is the least expensive
and most convenient source of this salt.
_Prop., &c._ Rose-coloured tabular crystals; inodorous; very soluble both
in water and alcohol; very deliquescent; when gradually heated to fusion
the whole of the water is expelled, and at a red heat it slowly suffers
decomposition. Astringent, tonic, hæmatinic, and alterative.——_Dose_, 3 to
10 gr.; in scorbutic, syphilitic, and certain chronic cutaneous
affections; anæmia, chlorosis, &c.
=Manganous Hydrate.= Mn(HO)_{2}. _Syn._ HYDRATED PROTOXIDE OF MANGANESE.
_Prep._ Formed by adding potassium hydrate to manganous sulphate, and
filtering and drying the precipitate in vacuo. White powder rapidly
absorbing oxygen and burning first green and then brown from formation of
higher oxides.
=Manganous I′odide.= MnI_{2}. _Syn._ MANGANESII IODIDUM, L. _Prep._ By
dissolving the carbonate in hydriodic acid and evaporating the filtered
liquid in vacuo or out of contact with air.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 gr.; in
anæmia, chlorosis, &c., occurring in scrofulous subjects.
=Manganous Oxide.= MnO. _Syn._ PROTOXIDE OF MANGANESE. _Prep._ By passing
a current of hydrogen over manganous carbonate heated to whiteness in a
porcelain tube. Olive-green powder rapidly oxidising on exposure to air,
and soluble in acids forming manganous salts.
There are four other oxides and two oxyhydrates that may be treated of
here, but of which only the peroxide and the manganates and permanganates
are of practical importance.
=Manganous-manganic Oxide.= Mn_{3}O_{4}, or MnO.Mn_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ RED
OXIDE OF MANGANESE, PROTOSESQUIOXIDE OF MANGANESE. Found native as
“Hansmanite”. It is produced by igniting manganous carbonate, or manganic
oxide, or manganic peroxide. Reddish-brown, coloured crystals or powder,
and communicates an amethyst colour to glass when fused with it.
=Manganous-manganic Peroxide.= Mn_{4}O_{7} or MnO_{3}.Mn_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._
INTERMEDIATE, OXIDE OF MANGANESE. Found native as “Varvicile,” as a black
hard crystalline mass. Decomposed when heated into a lower oxide and
oxygen.
=Manganous Phosphate.= MnH.PO_{4} + 6Aq. _Syn._ PHOSPHATE OF PROTOXIDE OF
MANGANESE; MANGANESII PHOSPHAS, L. _Prep._ By precipitating a solution of
manganous sulphate with a solution of sodium phosphate. It must be
preserved from the air.——_Dose_, 3 to 12 gr.; in anæmia, rickets, &c.
=Manganous Sul′phate.= MnSO_{4}. _Syn._ SULPHATE OF PROTOXIDE OF
MANGANESE; MANGANESII SULPHAS, L. _Prep._ 1. By dissolving manganous
carbonate in dilute sulphuric acid, and evaporating the filtered solution
so that crystals may form, or at once gently evaporating it to dryness.
Pure.
2. (Commercial.) By igniting manganic peroxide (pyrolusite) mixed with
about 1-10th of its weight of powdered coal in an iron crucible or
gas-retort, and digesting the residuum of the calcination in sulphuric
acid, with the addition after a time of a little hydrochloric acid; the
solution of manganous sulphate thus obtained, after defecation, is
evaporated to dryness, and heated to redness as before; the mass, after
ignition, is crushed small, and treated with water; the solution is nearly
pure, the whole of the iron having been reduced into the state of
insoluble peroxide. Used by the calico printers. Cloth steeped in the
solution, and afterwards passed through a solution of chloride of lime, is
dyed of a permanent brown.
_Prop., &c._ Pale rose-coloured crystals of the formulæ MnSO_{4}, 7Aq.;
MnSO_{4}, 5Aq.; or MnSO_{4}, 4Aq.; according to the method of
crystallising, furnishing a solution of a rich amethystine colour. With
sulphate of potassa it forms a double salt (‘manganese alum’).——_Dose._ As
an alterative and tonic, 5 to 10 gr.; as a cholagogue cathartic, 1 to 2
dr., dissolved in water, either alone or combined with infusion of senna.
According to Ure, its action is prompt and soon over; 1 dr. of it
occasions, after the lapse of an hour or so, one or more liquid bilious
stools. In large doses it occasions vomiting, and in excessive doses it
destroys life by its caustic action on the stomach. (Dr G. C.
Mitscherlich.) It has been administered with manifest advantage in torpor
of the liver, gout, jaundice, syphilis, and certain skin diseases; and,
combined with iron, in anæmia, chlorosis, rickets, &c.
=Manganous Tar′trate.= MnC_{4}H_{4}O_{6}. _Syn._ MANGANESII TARTRAS, L.
_Prep._ By saturating a solution of tartaric acid with most manganous
carbonate. Alterative and tonic.——_Dose_, 4 to 12 gr.
=Manganate of Barium.= BaMnO_{4}. Green insoluble powder, obtained by
fusing barium hydrate, potassium chlorate, and manganic peroxide together,
and washing the product.
=Manganate of Potassium.= K_{2}MnO_{4}. Finely powdered manganic peroxide,
potassium chlorate, and potassium hydrate, made into a thick paste with
water, and heated to dull redness. The fused product is treated with a
small quantity of water, and crystallised by evaporation in vacuo.
Dark green, almost black crystals, readily soluble in water, but
decomposed by excess, or by acids into manganic peroxide, and potassium
permanganate.
=Manganate of Sodium.= Na_{2}MnO_{4}. Prepared on the large scale by
heating a mixture of manganic peroxide and sodium hydrate to redness in a
current of air. Used in strong solution as a disinfectant under the name
of “Condy’s green fluid.”
=Manganic Acid.= H_{2}MnO_{4}. This acid has not yet been obtained free,
but some of its salts are extensively employed as disinfectants, as “green
Condy’s fluid.” The chief compounds are the following:——
=Manganic Hydrate.= Mn_{2}(HO)_{6}. _Syn._ HYDRATED SESQUIOXIDE OF
MANGANESE. Found native as “manganite,” in reddish-brown crystals. _Prep._
By passing a current of air through recently precipitated and moist
manganous hydrate. Soft dark brown powder converted into the oxide by
heat.
=Manganic Oxide.= Mn_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ SESQUIOXIDE OF MANGANESE. Found
native as “Braumite,” and readily formed by exposing manganous hydrate to
the action of air, and drying, or by gently igniting the peroxide brown or
black powder decomposed by heat.
=Manganic Peroxide.= MnO_{2}. _Syn._ PERMANGANIC OXIDE, BINOXIDE OF
MANGANESE, PEROXIDE OF MANGANESE, BLACK OXIDE OF MANGANESE, OXIDE OF
MANGANESE, MANGANESII OXIDUM NIGRUM (B. P.), MANGANESII BINOXYDUM (Ph.
L.), MANGANESE OXYDUM (Ph. E.).
It is the only oxide of manganese that is directly employed in the arts.
It is a very plentiful mineral production, and is found in great abundance
in some parts of the West of England. The manganese of the shop is
prepared by washing, to remove the earthy matter, and grinding in mills.
The blackest samples are esteemed the best. It is chiefly used to supply
oxygen gas, and in the manufacture of glass and chlorine; in dyeing and to
form the salts of manganese. It has been occasionally employed in
medicine, chiefly externally in itch and porrigo, made into an ointment
with lard. It has been highly recommended by Dr Erigeler in scrofula.
Others have employed it as an alterative and tonic with variable success.
When slowly introduced into the system during a lengthened period, it is
said to produce paralysis of the motor nerves. (Dr Coupar.)——_Dose_, 3 to
12 gr., or more, thrice daily, made into pills.
_Pur._ Native binoxide of manganese (pyrolusite) is usually contaminated
with variable proportions of argillaceous matter, calcium carbonate,
ferric oxide, silica, and barium sulphate, all of which lower its value as
a source of oxygen, and for the preparation of chlorine. The richness of
this ore can, therefore, be only determined by an assay for its principal
ingredient.
_Assay._ There are several methods adopted for this purpose, among which
the following recommend themselves as being the most accurate and
convenient.
1. A portion of the mineral being reduced to very fine powder, 50 gr. of
it are put into the little apparatus employed for the analysis of
carbonates described at page 406, together with about 1/2 fl. oz. of cold
water, and 100 gr. of strong hydrochloric acid, the latter contained in
the little tube (_b_); 50 gr. of crystallised oxalic acid are then added,
the cork carrying the chloride of calcium tube fitted in, and the whole
quickly and accurately weighed or counterpoised; the apparatus is next
inclined so that the acid contained in the small tube may be mixed with
the other contents of the flask, and the reaction of the ingredients is
promoted by the application of a gentle heat; the disengaged chlorine
resulting from the mutual decomposition of the hydrochloric acid and the
manganic peroxide converts the oxalic acid into carbonic acid gas, which
is dried in its passage through the chloride of calcium tube before it
escapes into the air. As soon as the reaction is complete, and the
residual gas has been driven off by a momentary ebullition, the apparatus
is allowed to cool, when it is again carefully and accurately weighed. The
loss of weight in grains, if doubled, at once indicates the percentage
richness of the mineral examined in manganic peroxide; or, more correctly,
every grain of carbonic anhydride evolved represents 1·982 gr. of the
peroxide.
2. (Fresenius and Will.) The apparatus employed is the ‘alkalimeter’
figured at page 30. The operation is similar to that adopted for the assay
of alkalies, and is a modification of the oxalic acid and sulphuric acid
test for manganese, originally devised by M. Berthier. The standard weight
of manganic peroxide recommended to be taken by Fresenius and Will is 2·91
grammes, along with 6·5 to 7 grammes of neutral potassium oxalate. The
process, with quantities altered to adapt it for employment in the
laboratories of these countries, is as follows:——Manganic peroxide (in
very fine powder), 50 gr.; neutral potassium oxalate (in powder), 120 gr.;
these are put into the flask _A_ (see _engr._, p. 31), along with
sufficient water to about 1-4th fill it; the flask _A_ and _B_ (the latter
containing the sulphuric acid) are then corked air-tight, and thus
connected in one apparatus, the whole is accurately weighed. The opening
of the tube _b_ being closed by a small lump of wax, a little sulphuric
acid is sucked over from the flask _B_ into the flask _A_; the
disengagement of oxygen from the manganese immediately commences and this
reacting upon the oxalic acid present, converts it into carbonic anhydride
gas, which passing through the concentrated sulphuric acid in the flask
_B_, which robs it of moisture, finally escapes from the apparatus through
the tube _d_. As soon as the disengagement of carbonic acid ceases, the
operator sucks over a fresh portion of sulphuric acid, and this is
repeated at short intervals, until bubbles of gas are no longer
disengaged. The little wax stopper is now removed, and suction is applied
at _h_ until all the carbonic acid in the apparatus is replaced by common
air. When the whole has become cold it is again weighed. The loss of
weight, doubled, indicates the amount of pure manganic peroxide, in the
sample, as before.
3. (Otto.) 50 gr. of the sample reduced to very fine powder are mixed in a
glass flask, with hydrochloric acid 1-1/2 fl. oz., diluted with 1/2 oz. of
cold water, and portions of ferrous sulphate, from a weighed sample,
immediately added, at first in excess, but afterwards in smaller doses,
until the liquid ceases to give a blue precipitate with red prussiate of
potash, or to evolve the odour of chlorine; heat being employed towards
the end of the process. The quantity of ferrous sulphate consumed is now
ascertained by again weighing the sample. If the peroxide examined was
pure, the loss of weight will be 317 gr.; but if otherwise, the percentage
of the pure peroxide may be obtained by the rule of three. Thus: suppose
only 298 gr. of the sulphate were consumed, then
317 : 100 :: 298 : 94,
and the richness of the sample would be 94%. The percentage value of the
oxide for evolving chlorine may be obtained by multiplying the weight of
the consumed ferrous sulphate by ·2588, which, in the above case, would
give 76% of chlorine. For this purpose, as well as for chlorometry, the
ferrous sulphate is best prepared by precipitating it from its aqueous
solution with alcohol, and drying it out of contact with air until it
loses its alcoholic odour.
_Obs._ Before applying the above processes it is absolutely necessary that
we ascertain whether the peroxide examined contains any carbonates, as the
presence of these would vitiate the results. This is readily determined by
treating it with a little dilute nitric acid:——if effervescence ensues,
one or more carbonates are present, and the sample, after being weighed,
must be digested for some time in dilute nitric acid in excess, and then
carefully collected on a filter, washed, and dried. It may then be assayed
as before. The loss of weight indicates the quantity of carbonates
present, with sufficient accuracy for technical purposes. The
determination of this point is the more important, as these contaminations
not merely lessen the richness of the mineral in pure manganic peroxide,
but also cause a considerable waste of acid when it is employed in the
manufacture of chlorine.
=Permanganic Acid.= HMnO_{4}. Obtained by distilling cautiously potassium
permanganate and sulphuric acid. Dark violet-black liquid, green by
reflected light, and rapidly absorbing water forming a violet solution.
Oxidises organic matter with explosive violence.
=Permanganate of Barium.= Ba(MnO)_{45}. Black soluble prisms, formed by
decomposing silver permanganate by means of barium chloride, and
cautiously evaporating.
=Permanganate of Potassium.= KMnO_{4}. _Prep._ Potassium chlorate, or
nitrate, and potassium hydrate are made into a paste with water, and
manganic peroxide added; the mass is dried and heated to redness. The
residue is boiled with water, filtered through asbestos, and evaporated
down and recrystallised.
Dark purple, red, almost black anhydrous long prisms, readily soluble in
16 pints of water. Decomposed in presence of acids by most organic matter.
=Permanganate of Silver.= AgMnO_{4}. _Prep._ Precipitate a strong solution
of silver nitrate by means of a concentrated solution of potassium
permanganate. Small black prisms, soluble in 100 parts of water, with a
purple colour.
=Permanganate of Sodium.= NaMnO_{4}. Obtained as a dark purple liquid by
passing a current of carbonic anhydride through sodium manganate. Condy’s
red fluid is chiefly a sodium permanganate dissolved in water.
=MANGE.= An eruptive disease, corresponding to the itch in man, resulting
from the burrowing into the skin of minute animalcules (mites or _acari_),
and common to several domestic animals, more especially the dog and horse.
Like the itch, it is contagious. The causes are confinement, dirt, and bad
living. The treatment should consist in the immediate removal of the
cause, the frequent use of soft soap and water, followed by frictions with
sulphur ointment, solution of chloride of lime or sporokton, the
administration of purgatives, and a change to a restorative diet. Dun
states that in India a very efficient remedy for mange is employed by the
native farriers, which consists of castor oil seeds well bruised, steeped
for twelve hours in sour milk, and rubbed into the skin, previously
thoroughly cleansed with soap and water. “The itchiness disappears almost
immediately and the acari are speedily destroyed.” A dressing consisting
of 1 oz. of chloride of zinc (Burnett’s disinfectant fluid) and 1 quart of
water may also be applied with advantage.
=MAN′′GEL WUR′ZEL.= _Syn._ MANGOLD-WURZEL, HYBRID BEET, ROOT OF SCARCITY.
The _Beta vulgaris_, var. _campestris_, a variety of the common beet. The
root abounds in sugar, and has been used in Germany as a substitute for
bread in times of scarcity. In these countries it is chiefly cultivated as
food for cattle. The young leaves are eaten as spinach. The percentage
composition of mangold wurzel is as follows:——Flesh-formers (albumenoid
bodies), 1·54; heat and fat-formers (sugar, &c.) 8·60; indigestible fibre,
1·12; ash, 0·96; 87·78.
=MAN′HEIM GOLD.= A gold-coloured brass. See GOLD (Dutch).
=MAN′NA= _Syn._ MANNA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. A concrete exudation
from the stem of _Fraxinus ornus_ and _F. rotundifolia_, obtained by
incision. (B. P.) “The juice flowing from the incised bark” of “_Fraxinus
rotundifolia_ and _F. ornus_, hardened by the air.” (Ph. L.) The finest
variety of this drug is known as flake manna, and occurs in pieces varying
from 1 to 6 inches long, 1 or 2 inches wide, and 1/2 to 1 inch thick. It
has a yellowish-white or cream colour; an odour somewhat resembling honey,
but less pleasant, a sweet, mawkish taste; and is light, porous, and
friable. It is laxative in doses of 1 to 2 oz.
=Manna Factitious=, made of a mixture of sugar, starch, and honey, with a
very small quantity of scammony to give it odour and flavour, and to
render it purgative, has been lately very extensively offered in trade,
and met with a ready sale.
=MAN′NACROUP.= A granular preparation of wheat deprived of bran, used as
an article of food for children and invalids. (Brande.)
=MAN′NITE.= C_{6}H_{14}O_{6}. _Syn._ MANNA SUGAR, MUSHROOM S.; MANNITA, L.
A sweet, crystallisable substance, found in manna and in several other
vegetable productions. It has been formed artificially by the action of
sodium-amalgam upon an alkaline solution of cane sugar.
_Prep._ 1. Digest manna in boiling rectified spirit, and filter or decant
the solution whilst hot; the mannite crystallises as the liquid cools in
tufts of slender, colourless needles.
2. (Ruspini.) Manna, 6 lbs.; cold water (in which the white of an egg has
been beaten), 3 lbs.; mix, boil for a few minutes, and strain the syrup
through linen whilst hot; the strained liquid will form a semi-crystalline
mass on cooling; submit this to strong pressure in a cloth, mix the cake
with its own weight of cold water, and again press it; dissolve the cake
thus obtained in boiling water, add a little animal charcoal, and filter
the mixture into a porcelain dish set over the fire; lastly, evaporate the
filtrate to a pellicle, and set the syrup aside to crystallise. Large
quadrangular prisms; perfectly white and transparent.
_Prop., &c._ Mannite has a powerfully sweet and agreeable taste; dissolves
in 5 parts of cold water and about half that quantity of boiling water;
freely soluble in hot, and slightly so in cold alcohol; fuses by heat
without loss of weight; with sulphuric acid it combines to form a new acid
compound. It is distinguished from the true sugars by its aqueous solution
not being susceptible of the vinous fermentation, and not possessing the
property of rotary polarisation. When pure, it is perfectly destitute of
purgative properties. It is now extensively imported from Italy, and is
chiefly used to cover the taste of nauseous medicines, and as a sweetmeat.
=MANURES′.= Substances added to soils to increase their fertility. The
food of vegetables, as far as their organic structure is concerned,
consists entirely of inorganic compounds; and no organised body can serve
for the nutrition of vegetables until it has been, by the process of
decay, resolved into certain inorganic substances. These are carbonic
acid, water, and ammonia, which are well known to be the final products of
putrefaction. But even when these are applied to vegetables, their growth
will not proceed unless certain mineral substances are likewise furnished
in small quantities, either by the soil or the water used to moisten it.
Almost every plant, when burned, leaves ashes, which commonly contain
silica, potassa, and phosphate of lime; often, also, magnesia, soda,
sulphates, and oxide of iron. These mineral bodies appear to be essential
to the existence of the vegetable tissues; so that plants will not grow in
soils destitute of them, however abundantly supplied with carbonic acid,
ammonia, and water. The carbon of plants is wholly derived from carbonic
acid, which is either absorbed from the atmosphere, and from rain water,
by the leaves, or from the moisture and air in the soil, by the roots. Its
carbon is retained and assimilated with the body of the plant, while its
oxygen is given out in the gaseous form; this decomposition being always
effected under the influence of light at ordinary temperatures. The
hydrogen and oxygen of vegetables, which, when combined with carbon,
constitute the ligneous, starchy, gummy, saccharine, oily, and resinous
matters of plants, are derived from water chiefly absorbed by the roots
from the soil. The nitrogen of vegetables is derived chiefly, if not
exclusively, from ammonia, which is supplied to them in rain, and in
manures, and which remain in the soil till absorbed by the roots.
According to the celebrated ‘mineral theory’ of agriculture advanced by
Liebig a soil is fertile or barren for any given plant according as it
contains those mineral substances that enter into its composition. Thus,
“the ashes of wheat-straw contain much silica and potassa, whilst the
ashes of the seeds contain phosphate of magnesia. Hence, if a soil is
deficient in any one of these, it will not yield wheat. On the other hand,
a good crop of wheat will exhaust the soil of these substances, and it
will not yield a second crop till they have been restored, either by
manure or by the gradual action of the weather in disintegrating the
subsoil. Hence the benefit derived from fallows and from the rotation of
crops.
“When, by an extraordinary supply of any one mineral ingredient, or of
ammonia, a large crop has been obtained, it is not to be expected that a
repetition of the same individual manure next year will produce the same
effect. It must be remembered that the unusual crop has exhausted the soil
probably of all the other mineral ingredients, and that they also must be
restored before a second crop can be obtained.
“The salt most essential to the growth of the potato is the double
phosphate of ammonia and magnesia; that chiefly required for hay is
phosphate of lime; while for almost all plants potassa and ammonia are
highly beneficial.”
From these principles we “may deduce a few valuable conclusions in regard
to the chemistry of agriculture. First, by examining the ashes of a
thriving plant, we discover the mineral ingredients which must exist in a
soil to render it fertile for that plant. Secondly, by examining a soil,
we can say at once whether it is fertile in regard to any plants the ashes
of which have been examined. Thirdly, when we know the defects of a soil,
the deficient matters may be easily obtained and added to it, unmixed with
such as are not required. Fourthly, the straw, leaves, &c., of any plant,
are the best manure for that plant, since every vegetable extracts from
the soil such matters alone as are essential to it. This important
principle has been amply verified by the success attending the use of
wheat-straw, or its ashes, as manure for wheat, and of the chippings of
the vines as a manure for the vineyard. When these are used (in the proper
quantity) no other manure is required. Fifthly, in the rotation of crops,
those should be made to follow which require different materials; or a
crop which extracts little or no mineral matter, such as peas, should come
after one which exhausts the soil of its phosphates and potassa.”
(Liebig.)
The experiments of Messrs Lawes and Gilbert have forced upon them opinions
differing from those of Baron Liebig on some important points in relation
to his ‘mineral theory,’ which endeavours to prove that “the crops on a
field diminish or increase in exact proportion to the diminution or
increase of the mineral substances conveyed to it in manure.” The results
obtained by the English investigators appear to prove that it is
impossible to get good crops by using mineral manures alone, and that
nitrogenous manures (farm-yard manure, guano, ammoniacal salts, &c.) are
fertilising agents of the highest order.
Of the chemical manures now so much used bone-dust is, perhaps, the most
important, as it supplies the phosphates which have been extracted by
successive crops of grass and corn, the whole of the bones of the cattle
fed on these crops having been derived from the soil; its gelatin also
yields ammonia by putrefaction. Guano acts as a source of ammonia,
containing much oxalate and urate of ammonia, with some phosphates.
Nightsoil and urine, especially the latter, are most valuable for the
ammonia they yield, as well as for the phosphates and potassa; but are
very much neglected in this country, although their importance is fully
appreciated in Belgium, France, and China. Nitrate of soda is valued as a
source of nitrogen.
All organic substances may be employed as manures; preference being,
however, given to those abounding in nitrogen, and which readily decay
when mixed with the soil.
The analysis of manures, soils, and the ashes of plants, for the purpose
of ascertaining their composition and comparative value, is not easily
performed by the inexperienced; but a rough approximation to their
contents, sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes, may be
generally made by any intelligent person with proper care and attention.
See AGRICULTURE, BONE-DUST, GUANO, &c.
=Manures, Artificial.= Various formulæ belonging to this head will be
found dispersed, under their respective names, throughout this work. The
following are additional ones:——
1. (Anderson.) Sulphate of ammonia, common salt, and oil of vitriol, of
each 10 parts; chloride of potassium, 15 parts; gypsum and sulphate of
potassa, of each 17 parts; saltpetre, 20 parts; crude Epsom salts, 25
parts; sulphate of soda, 33 parts. For clover.
2. (Huxtable.) Crude potash, 28 lbs.; common salt, 1 cwt.; bone-dust and
gypsum, of each 2 cwt.; wood-ashes, 15 bushels. For either corn, turnips,
or grass.
3. (Johnstone.) Sulphate of soda (dry), 11 lbs.; wood-ashes, 28 lbs.;
common salt, 3/4 cwt.; crude sulphate of ammonia, 1 cwt.; bone-dust, 7
bushels. As a substitute for guano.
4. (Lawes’ ‘Superphosphate.’) See COPROLITE.
5. (Fertilising powder.) A mixture of very fine bone-dust, 18 parts;
calcined gypsum, and sulphate of ammonia, of each 1 part. The seed is
ordered to be steeped in the ‘drainings’ from a dunghill, and after being
drained, but whilst still wet, to be sprinkled with the powder, and then
dried. See FLOWERS, LIME (Superphosphate), &c.
=MANUSCRIPTS, Faded, to Restore.= One of the methods in use for the
restoration of old or faded writing is to expose it to the vapours of
hydrosulphate of ammonia (hydrosulphide of ammonium) until the ink becomes
darkened by the formation of sulphide of iron. Another consists in
carefully washing, or sponging, the faded manuscript over with a weak
solution of the ammonic sulphide, and as soon as the characters become
legible, soaking it in water so as to remove the remaining sulphide, and
then drying it between folds of blotting paper. A third plan, and one
attended with less risk to the paper, is to brush over the manuscript with
a moderately strong aqueous solution of gallo-tannic acid, to wash with
water, and afterwards to dry it at a temperature of about 150° Fahr.
The solution of gallo-tannic acid may be obtained by making a strong
infusion of bruised nutgalls in boiling water, and when cold, straining
it. Some old and mediæval manuscripts are written in inks made of carbon.
To such the above treatment is inapplicable; being suited only to those
traced in ordinary writing ink. For parchments the latter method is
preferable.
=MAPS.= These, as well as architect’s and engineer’s designs, plans,
sections, drawings, &c., may be tinted with any of the simple liquid
colours mentioned under ‘VELVET COLOURS,’ preference being given to the
most transparent ones, which will not obscure the lines beneath them. To
prevent the colours from sinking and spreading, which they usually do on
common paper, the latter should be wetted 2 or 3 times with a sponge
dipped in alum water (3 or 4 oz. to the pint), or with a solution of white
size, observing to dry it carefully after each coat. This tends to give
lustre and beauty to the colours. The colours for this purpose should also
be thickened with a little gum water. Before varnishing maps after
colouring them, 2 or 3 coats of clean size should be applied with a soft
brush——the first one to the back.
=MARASCHI′NO= (-kēno). _Syn._ MARASQUIN, Fr. A delicate liqueur spirit
distilled from a peculiar cherry growing in Dalmatia, and afterwards
sweetened with sugar. The best is from Zara, and is obtained from the
marasca cherry only. An inferior quality is distilled from a mixture of
cherries and the juice of liquorice root.
=MAR′BLE.= _Syn._ LIMESTONE, HARD CARBONATE OF LIME; MARMOR, CALCIS
CARBONAS DURUS, M. ALBUM (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Marbles are merely purer
and more compact varieties of limestone, which admit of being sawn into
slabs, and are susceptible of a fine polish. White marble is employed for
the preparation of carbonic acid and some of the salts of lime. It
contains about 65% of lime. Sp. gr. 2·70 to 2·85. The tests of its purity
are the same as those already noticed under CHALK.
Marble is best cleaned with a little soap-and-water, to which some ox-gall
may be added. Acids should be avoided. Oil and grease may be generally
removed by spreading a paste made of soft soap, caustic potash lye, and
fullers earth over the part, and allowing it to remain there for a few
days; after which it must be washed off with clean water. Or, equal parts
of American potash (crude carbonate of potash) and whiting are made into a
moderately stiff paste with a sufficiency of boiling water, and applied to
the marble with a brush. At the end of two or three days the paste is
removed and the marble washed with soap-and-water. Any defect of polish
may be brought up with tripoli, followed by putty powder, both being used
along with water.
Marble is mended with one or other of the compounds noticed under CEMENTS.
Marble may be stained or dyed of various colours by applying coloured
solutions or tincture to the stone, made sufficiently hot to make the
liquid just simmer on the surface. The following are the substances
usually employed for this purpose:——
BLUE. Tincture or solution of litmus, or an alkaline solution of indigo.
BROWN. Tincture of logwood.
CRIMSON. A solution of alkanet root in oil of turpentine.
FLESH COLOUR. Wax tinged with alkanet root, and applied to the marble hot
enough to melt it freely.
GOLD COLOUR. A mixture of equal parts of white vitriol, sal ammoniac, and
verdigris, each in fine powder, and carefully applied.
GREEN. An alkaline solution or tincture of sap green, or wax strongly
coloured with verdigris; or the stone is first stained blue, and then the
materials for yellow stain are applied.
RED. Tincture of dragon’s blood, alkanet root, or cochineal.
YELLOW. Tincture of gamboge, turmeric, or saffron; or wax coloured with
annotta. Success in the application of these colours requires considerable
experience. By their skilful use, however, a very pleasing effect, both
of colour and grain, may be produced.
=MARBLING (of Books, &c.).= The edges and covers of books are ‘marbled’ by
laying the colour on them with a brush, or by means of a wooden trough
containing mucilage, as follows:——Provide a wooden trough, 2 inches deep,
6 inches wide, and the length of a super-royal sheet; boil in a brass or
copper pan any quantity of linseed and water until a thick mucilage is
formed; strain this into the trough, and let it cool; then grind on a
marble slab any of the following colours in table beer. For——blue,
Prussian blue or indigo;——red, rose-pink, vermilion, or drop
lake;——yellow, king’s yellow, yellow ochre, &c.;——white, flake
white;——black, ivory black, or burnt lampblack;——brown umber, burnt u.,
terra di sienna, burnt s.; black mixed with yellow or red also makes
brown;——green, blue and yellow mixed;——purple, red and blue mixed. For
each colour provide two cups——one for the ground colours, the other to mix
them with the ox-gall, which must be used to thin them at discretion. If
too much gall is used the colours spread; when they keep their place on
the surface of the trough, on being moved with a quill, they are fit for
use. All things being in readiness, the prepared colours are successively
sprinkled on the surface of the mucilage in the trough with a brush, and
are waved or drawn about with a quill or a stick according to taste. When
the design is thus formed, the book, tied tightly between cutting boards
of the same size, is lightly pressed with its edge on the surface of the
liquid pattern, and then withdrawn and dried. The covers may be marbled in
the same way, only the liquid colours must be allowed to run over them.
The film of colour in the trough may be as thin as possible; and if any
remains after the marbling, it may be taken off by applying paper to it
before you prepare for marbling again. This process has been called FRENCH
MARBLING.
To diversify the effect, a little sweet oil is often mixed with the
colours before sprinkling them on, by which means a light halo or circle
appears round each spot. In like manner spirit of turpentine, sprinkled on
the surface of the trough, produces white spots. By staining the covers
with any of the liquid dyes, and then dropping on them, or running over
them, drops of the ordinary liquid mordants, a very pleasing effect may be
produced. Vinegar black, or a solution of green copperas, thus applied to
common leather, produces black spots or streaks, and gives a similar
effect with most of the light dyes. A solution of alum or of tin in like
manner produces bright spots or streaks, and soda or potash water dark
ones. This style has been called EGYPTIAN MARBLE.——SOAP MARBLING is done
by throwing on the colours, ground with a little white soap to a proper
consistence, by means of a brush. It is much used for book-edges,
stationery, sheets of paper, ladies’ fancy work, &c.——THREAD MARBLE is
given by first covering the edge uniformly of one colour, then laying
pieces of thick thread irregularly on different parts of it, and giving it
a fine dark sprinkle. When well managed the effect is very pleasing.——RICE
MARBLE is given in a similar way to the last by using rice.——TREE MARBLE
is done on leather book-covers, &c., by bending the board a little in the
centre, and running the marbling liquid over it in the form of vegetation.
The knots are given by rubbing the end of a candle on those parts of the
cover.——WAX MARBLE is given in a similar way to thread marble, but using
melted wax, which is removed after the book is sprinkled and dried; or a
sponge charged with blue, green, or red may be passed over. This, also, is
much used for stationery work, especially for folios and quartos. The
‘vinegar black’ of the bookbinders is merely a solution of acetate of
iron, made by steeping a few rusty nails or some iron filings in vinegar.
All the ordinary liquid colours that do not contain strong acids or
alkalies may be used, either alone or thickened with a little gum, for
marbling or sprinkling books.
SPRINKLING is performed by simply dipping a stiff-haired painter’s brush
into the colour, and suddenly striking it against a small stick held in
the left hand over the work. By this means the colour is evenly scattered
without producing ‘blurs’ or ‘blots.’
PAPER, PASTEBOARD, &c., in sheets, are marbled and sprinkled in a similar
manner to that above described, but in this case the gum trough must, of
course, be longer.
=MARGAR′IC ACID.= This term was formerly applied to a mixture of palmitic
and stearic acids, produced by decomposing the alkaline soaps of solid
fats with an acid, but it is now given to a fatty acid which can only be
obtained artificially.
=MAR′GARIN.= _Syn._ MARGARATE OF GLYCERYL. A constituent formerly supposed
to exist in solid fats, but now regarded as a mixture of stearin and
palmitin.
=MARINE′ ACID.= See HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
=MARL.= A natural mixture of clay and chalk, with sand. It is
characterised by effervescing with acids. According to the predominance of
one or other of its component parts, it is called argillaceous,
calcareous, or sandy marl. It is very generally employed as a manure for
sandy soils, more particularly in Norfolk. See SOILS.
=MAR′MALADE.= Originally a conserve made of quinces and sugar; now
commonly applied to the conserves of other fruit, more especially to those
of oranges and lemons.
_Prep._ Marmalades are made either by pounding the pulped fruit in a
mortar with an equal or a rather larger quantity of powdered white sugar,
or by mixing them together by heat, passing them through a hair sieve
whilst hot, and then putting them into pots or glasses. The fruit-pulps
are obtained by rubbing the fruit through a fine hair sieve, either at
once or after it has been softened by simmering it for a short time along
with a little water. When heat is employed in mixing the ingredients, the
evaporation should be continued until the marmalade ‘jellies’ on cooling.
See CONSERVES, CONFECTIONS, ELECTUARIES, JAMS, JELLIES, and _below_.
=Marmalade, Apricot.= From equal parts of pulp and sugar.
=Marmalade, Mixed.= From plums, pears, and apples, variously flavoured to
palate.
=Marmalade, Orange.= _Prep._ 1. From oranges (either Seville or St
Michael’s, or a mixture of the two), by boiling the peels in syrup until
soft, then pulping them through a sieve, adding as much white sugar, and
boiling them with the former syrup and the juice of the fruit to a proper
consistence.
2. By melting the confection of orange peel (Ph. L.), either with or
without the addition of some orange or lemon juice, and then passing it
through a sieve.
3. (CANDIED ORANGE MARMALADE.) From candied orange peel, boiled in an
equal weight each of sugar and water, and then passed through a sieve.
4. (SCOTCH MARMALADE.)——_a._ Seville orange juice, 1 quart; yellow peel of
the fruit, grated; honey, 2 lbs.; boil to a proper consistence.
_b._ Seville oranges, 8 lbs.; peel them as thinly as possible, then
squeeze out the juice, boil it on the yellow peels for 1/4 of an hour,
strain, add white sugar, 7 lbs., and boil to a proper consistence.
=Marmalade, Quince.= _Syn._ DIACYDONIUM. From quince flesh or pulp and
sugar, equal parts; or from the juice (miva cydoniorum, gelatina c.), by
boiling it to half, adding an equal quantity of white wine and 2/3rds of
its weight of sugar, and gently evaporating the mixture.
=Marmalade, Tomato.= Like APRICOT MARMALADE, adding a few slices of onion
and a little parsley.
=MARMORA′TUM.= Finely powdered marble and quicklime, well beaten together;
used as a cement or mortar.
=MAR′ROW (Beef).= This is extensively employed by the perfumers in the
preparation of various pomades and other cosmetics, on account of its
furnishing an exceedingly bland fat, which is not so much disposed to
rancidity as the other fats. It is prepared for use by soaking and working
it for some time in lukewarm water, and afterwards melting it in a water
bath, and straining it through a piece of muslin whilst hot. When scented
it is esteemed equal to bear’s grease for promoting the growth of the
hair.
=MARSH GAS.= Light carbonetted hydrogen.
=MARSH’S TEST.= See ARSENIOUS ACID.
=MARSHMALLOW.= _Syn._ ALTHÆA (Ph. L. & E.), L. The root (leaves and
root——Ph. E.) of _Althæa officinalis_, Linn., or common marshmallow. (Ph.
L.) It is emollient and demulcent; the decoction is useful in irritation
of the respiratory and urinary organs, and of the alimentary canal. The
flowers as well as the root are reputed pectoral.
=MARTIN’S POWDER.= A mixture of white arsenic and the powdered stems of
_Orobanche virginiana_ (Linn.), a plant common in Virginia. An American
quack remedy for cancer.
=MASS.= _Syn._ MASSA, L. This term is commonly applied in pharmacy and
veterinary medicine to certain preparations which are not made up into
their ultimate form. Thus, we have ‘ball-masses,’ ‘pill-masses,’ &c.; of
which, for convenience, large quantities are prepared at a time, and are
kept in pots or jars, ready to be divided into balls or pills, as the
demands of business may require. (See _below_.)
=MASSES (Veterinary).=[24]
[Footnote 24: Reprinted from Tuson’s ‘Veterinary Pharmacopœia.’]
=Massa Aloes.= MASS OF ALOES. _Syn._ CATHARTIC MASS. _Prep._ Take of
Barbadoes aloes, in small pieces, 8 parts; glycerin, 2 parts; ginger, in
powder, 1 part; melt together in a water bath, and thoroughly incorporate
by frequent stirring.——_Use._ Cathartic for the horse.——_Dose._ From 6 to
8 dr.
=Massa Aloes Composita.= COMPOUND MASS OF ALOES. _Syn._ ALTERATIVE MASS.
_Prep._ Take of Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 1 oz.; soft soap, 1 oz.;
common mass, 6 oz.; thoroughly incorporate by beating in a mortar, so as
to form a mass.——_Use._ Alterative for the horse.——_Dose_, 1 oz.
=Massa Antimonii Tartarata Composita.= COMPOUND MASS OF TARTARATED
ANTIMONY. _Syn._ FEVER BALL. _Prep._ Take of tartrated antimony, in
powder, 1/2 dr.; camphor, in powder, 1/2 dr.; nitrate of potash, in
powder, 2 dr.; common mass, a sufficiency; mix so as to form a
bolus.——_Use._ Febrifuge for the horse.——_Dose._ The above mixture
constitutes 1 dose.
=Massa Belladonnæ Composita.= COMPOUND MASS OF BELLADONNA. _Syn._ COUGH
BALL. _Prep._ Take of extract of belladonna, 1/2 to 1 dr.; Barbadoes
aloes, in powder, 1 dr.; nitrate of potash, in powder, 2 dr.; common mass,
a sufficiency; mix so as to form a bolus.——_Use._ For the horse in chronic
cough.——_Dose._ The above mixture constitutes 1 dose.
=Massa Cathechu Composita.= COMPOUND MASS OF CATECHU. _Syn._ ASTRINGENT
MASS. _Prep._ Take of extract of catechu, in fine powder, 1 oz.; cinnamon
bark, in fine powder, 1 oz.; common mass, 6 oz.; mix.——_Use._ Astringent
for the horse.——_Dose_, 1 oz., in the form of a bolus.
=Massa Communis.= COMMON MASS. _Prep._ Take of linseed, finely ground, and
treacle, of each equal parts; mix together so as to form a mass.——_Use._
An excipient for medicinal agents when they are to be administered in the
form of bolus.
=Massa Cupri Sulphatis.= MASS OF SULPHATE OF COPPER. _Syn._ TONIC MASS.
_Prep._ Take of sulphate of copper, finely powdered, 1 oz.; ginger, in
powder, 1 oz.; common mass, 6 oz.; mix.——_Use._ Tonic for the
horse.——_Dose_, 6 to 8 dr.
=Massa Digitalis Composita.= COMPOUND MASS OF DIGITALIS. _Syn._ COUGH
BALL. _Prep._ Take of Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 2 oz.; digitalis, 1 oz.;
common mass, 13 oz.; mix.——_Use._ For the horse in chronic cough.——_Dose_,
1 oz. once or twice a day.
=Massa Ferri Sulphatis.= MASS OF SULPHATE OF IRON. _Syn._ TONIC MASS.
_Prep._ Take of sulphate of iron, in powder, 2 oz.; ginger, in powder, 1
oz.; common mass, 5 oz.; mix.——_Use._ Tonic for the horse.——_Dose_, 6 to 8
dr.
=Massa Resinæ Composita.= COMPOUND MASS OF RESIN. _Syn._ DIURETIC MASS.
_Prep._ Take of resin, in powder, nitrate of potash, in powder, hard soap,
of each equal parts; mix.——_Use._ Diuretic for the horse.——_Dose_, 1 oz.
=Massa Zingiberis Composita.= COMPOUND MASS OF GINGER. _Syn._ CORDIAL
MASS. _Prep._ Take of ginger, in powder, gentian root, in powder, treacle,
of each equal parts, a sufficiency; mix so as to form a mass.——_Use._
Stomachic for the horse.——_Dose_, 1 oz.
=MAS′SICOT.= _Syn._ MASTICOT, YELLOW PROTOXIDE OF LEAD; PLUMBI OXYDUM
FLAVUM, CERUSSA CITRINA, L. The dross that forms on melted lead exposed to
a current of air, roasted until it acquires a uniform yellow colour.
Artists often apply the same name to white lead roasted until it turns
yellow. Used as a pigment.
=MAS′TIC.= _Syn._ MASTICH, GUM MASTIC; MASTICHE, L. The “resin flowing
from the incised bark of _Pistacia Lentiscus_, var. _Chia_.” (Ph. L.) It
occurs in pale yellowish, transparent, rounded tears, which soften between
the teeth when chewed, and giving out a bitter, aromatic taste. Sp. gr.
1·07. It is soluble in both rectified spirit and oil of turpentine,
forming varnishes. It is chiefly used as a ‘masticatory,’ to strengthen
and preserve the teeth, and perfume the breath.
=Mastic.= Fine mortar or cement used for plastering walls, in which the
ingredients, in a pulverulent state, are mixed up, either entirely or with
a considerable portion of linseed oil. It sets very hard, and is ready to
receive paint in a few days. See CEMENTS.
=MASTICA′TION.= The act of chewing food, by which it not only becomes
comminuted, but mixed with the saliva, and reduced to a form fit for
swallowing. It has been justly regarded by the highest authorities as the
first process of digestion, and one without which the powers of the
stomach are overtasked, and often performed with difficulty. Hence the
prevalence of dyspepsia and bowel complaints among persons with bad teeth,
or who ‘bolt’ their food without chewing it.
=MAS′TICATORIES.= _Syn._ MASTICATORIA, L. Substances taken by chewing
them. They are employed as intoxicants, cosmetics, and medicinals;
generally with the first intention. The principal masticatory used in this
country is tobacco. In Turkey, and several other Eastern nations, opium is
taken in a similar manner. In India, a mixture of areca nut, betel leaf,
and lime, performs the same duties; whilst in some other parts of the
world preparations of the cacao are employed. As cosmetics, orris root,
cassia, cinnamon, and sandal wood are frequently chewed to scent the
breath. Among medicinals, mastic and myrrh are frequently chewed to
strengthen the teeth and gums; pellitory, to relieve the toothache; and
rhubarb, ginger, and gentian, to relieve dyspepsia and promote the
appetite.
_Prep._ 1. (Augustin.) Mastic, pellitory (both in powder), and white wax,
of each 1 dr.; mixed by heat and divided into 6 balls. In toothache, loose
teeth, &c.
2. (W. Cooley.) Mastic, myrrh, and white wax, of each 1 part; rhubarb,
ginger, and extract of gentian, of each 2 parts; beaten up with tincture
of tolu, q. s., and divided into boluses or lozenges of 10 gr. each. One
or two to be chewed an hour before dinner; in dyspepsia, defective
appetite, &c.
3. (Quincy.) Mastic, 3 oz.; pellitory and stavesacre seed, of each 2 dr.;
cubebs and nutmegs, of each 1 dr.; angelica root, 1/2 dr.; melted wax,
q. s. to make it into small balls. As a stimulant to the gums, and in
toothache.
4. Opium, ginger, rhubarb, mastic, pellitory of Spain, and orris root, of
each 1 dr.; melted spermaceti, q. s. to mix; for 6-gr. pills. As the last,
and in toothache and painful gums.
=MAS′TICOT.= See MASSICOT.
=MATCHES (Cooper’s).= _Syn._ SWEETENING MATCHES. These are made by dipping
strips of coarse linen or canvas into melted brimstone. For use, the
brimstone on one of them is set on fire, and the match is then at once
suspended in the cask, and the bung loosely set in its place. After the
lapse of 2 or 3 hours the match is removed and the cask filled with
liquor. Some persons pour a gallon or two of the liquor into the cask
before ‘matching’ it. The object is to allay excessive fermentation. The
operation is commonly adopted in the Western Counties for cider intended
for shipment, or other long exposure during transport. It is also
occasionally employed for inferior and ‘doctored’ wines.
=MATCHES (Instantaneous Light).= Of these there are several varieties, of
which the one best known, and most extensively used, is the common
phosphorus match, known as the ‘congreve’ or ‘lucifer.’[25] We need not
describe the ‘chemical matches,’ ‘phosphorus bottles,’ and ‘prometheans,’
in use during the early part of the present century, as these are quite
obsolete. We will simply sketch the general process of manufacture now in
use for phosphorus matches:
[Footnote 25: The original ‘LUCIFERS,’ or ‘LIGHT-BEARING MATCHES,’
invented in 1826, consisted of strips of pasteboard, or flat splints of
wood, tipped first with sulphur, and then with a mixture of sulphide of
antimony and chlorate of potassa, and were ignited by drawing them briskly
through folded glass-paper. They required a considerable effort to ignite
them, and the composition was apt to be torn off by the violence of the
friction. The term ‘lucifer’ having become familiar, was applied to the
simpler and more effective match afterwards introduced under the names of
‘CONGREVE’ and ‘CONGREVE LIGHT,’]
_Manuf._ The wooden splints are cut by steam machinery from the very best
quality of pine planks, perfectly dried at a temperature of 400° Fahr.
English splints are of two sizes——‘large’ and ‘minnikins,’ the former
2-1/4 inches longer, and the latter somewhat shorter. In the manufacture
double-lengths are used, so that each splint may be coated with the
igniting composition at both ends, and then cut asunder in the middle to
form two matches. In England the splints are usually cut square in form,
but in Germany they are cylindrical, being prepared by forcing the wood
through circular holes in a steel plate. The ends of the double splints
having been slightly charred by contact with a red-hot plate, are coated
with sulphur by dipping them to the requisite depth in the melted
material. In some cases the ends are saturated with melted wax or paraffin
instead of sulphur. The splints are then arranged in a frame between
grooved boards in such a manner that the prepared ends project on each
side of the frame. These projecting ends are then tipped with the
phosphorus composition, which is spread to a uniform depth of about 1/8
inch on a smooth slab of stone, kept warm by means of steam beneath. When
partially dry, the tipped splints are taken from the frames, cut through
the middle, and placed in heaps of 100, ready for ‘boxing.’
The different compositions for tipping the matches in use in different
countries and factories all consist essentially of emulsions of phosphorus
in a solution of glue or gum, with or without other matters for increasing
the combustibility, for colouring, &c. In England the composition contains
a considerable quantity of chlorate of potassa, which imparts a snapping
and flaming quality to the matches tipped with it, and but little
phosphorus, on account of the moisture of the climate. In Germany the
proportion of phosphorus used is much larger, and nitre, or some metallic
peroxide, replaces chlorate of potassa. The German matches light quietly
with a mild lambent flame, and are injured quickly by damp. The following
formulæ have been selected:
1. (ENGLISH.) Fine glue, 2 parts, broken into small pieces, and soaked in
water till quite soft, is added to water, 4 parts, and heated by means of
a water bath until it is quite fluid, and at a temperature of 200° to 212°
Fahr. The vessel is then removed from the fire, and phosphorus, 1-1/2 to 2
parts, is gradually added, the mixture being agitated briskly and
continually with a ‘stirrer’ having wooden pegs or bristles projecting at
its lower end. When a uniform emulsion is obtained, chlorate of potassa, 4
to 5 parts, powdered glass, 3 to 4 parts, and red lead, smalt, or other
colouring matter, a sufficient quantity (all in a state of very fine
powder) are added, one at a time, to prevent accidents, and the stirring
continued until the mixture is comparatively cool.
According to Mr G. Gore, the above proportions are those of the best
quality of English composition. The matches tipped with it deflagrate with
a snapping noise. (See _above_.)
2. (GERMAN.)——_a._ (Böttger.) Dissolve gum Arabic, 16 parts, in the least
possible quantity of water, add of phosphorus (in powder), 9 parts, and
mix by trituration; then add of nitre, 14 parts; vermillion or binoxide of
manganese, 16 parts, and form the whole into a paste, as directed above;
into this the matches are to be dipped, and then exposed to dry. As soon
as the matches are quite dry they are to be dipped into very dilute copal
varnish or lac varnish, and again exposed to dry, by which means they are
rendered waterproof, or at least less likely to suffer from exposure in
damp weather.
_b._ (Böttger.) Glue, 6 parts, is soaked in a little cold water for 24
hours, after which it is liquefied by trituration in a heated mortar;
phosphorus, 4 parts, is now added, and rubbed down at a heat not exceeding
150° Fahr.; nitre (in fine powder), 10 parts, is next mixed in, and
afterwards red ochre, 5 parts, and smalt, 2 parts, are further added, and
the whole formed into a uniform paste, into which the matches are dipped,
as before. Cheaper than the last.
_c._ (Diesel.) Phosphorus, 17 parts; glue, 21 parts; red lead, 24 parts;
nitre, 38 parts. Proceed as above.
_Obs._ Matches tipped with the above (_a_, _b_, and _c_) inflame without
fulmination when rubbed against a rough surface, and are hence termed
‘noiseless matches’ by the makers.
3. (SAFETY MATCHES.) The latest improvement of note in the manufacture of
matches is that of Landstrom, of Jonkoping, in Sweden, adopted by Messrs
Bryant and May (Patent). It consists in dividing the ingredient of the
match-mixture into two separate compositions, one being placed on the ends
of the splints, as usual, and the other, which contains the phosphorus,
being spread in a thin layer upon the end or lid of the box. The following
are the compositions used by the patentee:——_a._ (For the splints.)
Chlorate of potassa, 6 parts; sulphuret of antimony, 2 to 3 parts; glue, 1
part.——_b._ (For the friction surface.) Amorphous phosphorus, 10 parts;
sulphuret of antimony or peroxide of manganese, 8 parts; glue, 3 to 6
parts; spread thinly upon the surface, which has been previously made
rough by a coating of glue and sand.
By thus dividing the composition the danger of fire arising from ignition
of the matches by accidental friction is avoided, as neither the portion
on the splint nor that on the box can be ignited by rubbing against an
unprepared surface. Again, by using the innocuous red or amorphous
phosphorus, the danger of poisoning is entirely prevented.
=MATÉ.= _Syn._ PARAGUAY TEA. This is the dried leaf of a small shrub, the
_Ilex Paraguayenses_, or Brazilian holly, growing in Paraguay and Brazil;
by the inhabitants of which places, as well as South America generally, it
is largely employed in the form of a beverage as tea. Its active
ingredient, _Paraguaine_, formerly supposed to be a distinct principle,
has from further researches into its composition been discovered to be
identical with theine and caffeine——the alkaloids of tea and coffee.
Mr Wanklyn ascribes the following composition to maté:——
Moisture 6·72
Ash 5·86
Soluble organic matter 25·10
Insoluble organic matter 62·32
——————
100·00
=MATE′′RIA MED′ICA.= A collective name of the various substances, natural
and artificial, employed as medicines or in the cure of disease. In its
more extended sense it includes the science which treats of their sources,
properties, classification, and applications. The _materia medica of the
Pharmacopœia_ is a mere list, with occasional notes, “embracing the
animal, vegetable, and chemical substances, whether existing naturally,
prepared in officinal chemical preparations, or sold in wholesale trade,
which we (the College) direct to be used either in curing diseases or in
preparing medicines.” (Ph. L.)
=MAT′ICO.= _Syn._ SOLDIER’S HERB; MATECO (B. P., Ph. D.); MATICA, HERBA
MATICÆ, L. The dried leaves of a Peruvian plant, generally believed to be
the _Artanthe elongata_, one of the _Piperaceæ_. The leaves have been
employed with considerable success as a mechanical external styptic;
applied to leech-bites, slight cuts, and other wounds, &c., and pressed on
with the fingers, they seldom fail to arrest the bleeding. Matico has also
been much lauded as an internal astringent and styptic, in hæmorrhages
from the lungs, stomach, bowels, uterus, &c.; but as it is nearly
destitute of astringent properties, its virtues in these cases must have
been inferred from its external action. As an aromatic, bitter stimulant,
closely resembling the peppers, it has been proposed as a substitute for
cubebs and black pepper, in the treatment of diseases of the mucous
membranes, piles, &c.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 dr.; in powder; or under the form
of infusion, tincture, or boluses.
=MATURA′TION.= Growing ripe. Amongst surgeons this term is applied to the
process of suppuration, or that which succeeds inflammation, and by which
pus or matter is collected in an abscess. Warmth, irritation, and a
liberal diet promote this change; cold, sedatives, and depletion, retard
it. The maturation of fermented liquor is noticed under BREWING, MALT
LIQUORS, WINES, &c.
=MEAD.= _Syn._ MELLINA, L. An old English liquor, made from the combs from
which the honey has been drained, by boiling them in water, and fermenting
the saccharine solution thus obtained. It is commonly confounded with
metheglin. Some persons add 1 oz. of hops to each gallon; and, after
fermentation, a little brandy. It is then called sack mead, See METHEGLIN.
=MEAL.= The substance of edible grain ground to powder, without being
bolted or sifted. Barley meal and oat meal are the common substances of
this class in England. In North America the term is commonly applied to
ground Indian corn, whether bolted or not. (Goodrich.) The four resolvent
meals of old pharmacy (_quatuor farinæ resolventes_) are those of barley,
beans, linseed, and rye.
=MEALS.= The “periods of taking food, usually adopted, in conformity with
convenience and the recurrences of hunger, are those which are best
adapted to the purposes of health; namely, the morning meal, the midday
meal, and the evening meal.” “That these are the proper periods for meals
is evident from the fact of their maintaining their place amid the changes
which fashion is constantly introducing.” “If we look at these periods in
another point of view, we shall find an interval of four hours left
between them for the act of digestion and subsequent rest of the stomach.
Digestion will claim between two and three hours of the interval; the
remaining hour is all that the stomach gets of rest, enough, perhaps, but
not too much, not to be justly infringed.” (Eras. Wilson.)
=MEA′SLES.= _Syn._ RUBEOLA, MORBILLI, L. This very common disease is
characterised by feverishness, chilliness, shivering, head-pains,
swelling and inflammation of the eyes, shedding of sharp tears, with
painful sensibility to light, oppressive cough, difficulty of breathing,
and sometimes vomiting or diarrhœa. These are followed about the fourth
day by a crimson rash upon the skin, in irregular crescents or circles,
and by small red points or spots, which are perceptible to the touch, and
which, after four or five days, go off with desquamation of the cuticle.
The fever, cough, &c., often continue for some time; and unless there have
been some considerable evacuations, either by perspiration or vomiting,
they frequently return with increased violence, and occasion great
distress and danger.
_Treat._ When there are no urgent local symptoms, mild aperients,
antimonial diaphoretics, and diluents, should be had recourse to; but when
the inflammatory symptoms are emergent, and the lungs are weak, especially
in plethoric habits, blood may be taken. The cough may be relieved by
expectorants, demulcents, and small doses of opium; and the diarrhœa by
the administration of the compound powder of chalk and opium; the
looseness of the bowels, however, had better not be interfered with,
unless it be extreme.
Measles are most prevalent in the middle of winter, and though common to
individuals of all ages, are most frequent amongst children. The
plethoric, and those of a scrofulous habit, or one which has a syphilitic
taint, suffer most from them.
Like the smallpox, the measles are contagious, and seldom attack the same
person more than once during life. See RASH.
=MEASURE.= _Syn._ MENSURA, L. The unit or standard by which we estimate
extension, whether of length, superficies, or volume. The following tables
represent the values and proportions of the principal measures employed in
commerce and the arts:——
TABLE I. _English Lineal Measures._
+---------+----------+----------+-----------+------------+--------------+
| Inches. | Feet. | Yards. | Poles. | Furlongs. | Miles. |
+---------+----------+----------+-----------+------------+--------------+
| 1· | ·083 | ·028 | ·00505 | ·00012626 | ·0000157828 |
| 12· | 1· | ·333 | ·06060 | ·00151515 | ·00018939 |
| 36· | 3· | 1· | ·1818 | ·004545 | ·00056818 |
| 198· | 16·5 | 5·5 | 1· | ·025 | ·003125 |
| 7920· | 660· | 220· | 40· | 1· | ·125 |
| 63360· | 5280· | 1760· | 320· | 8· | 1· |
+---------+----------+----------+-----------+------------+--------------+
⁂ The unit of the above table is the yard, of which no legal standard has
existed since that established by the statute of 1824 was destroyed by the
fire which consumed the two Houses of Parliament in 1834.
TABLE II. _English Measures of Superficies._
+----------+-----------+--------------+-------------+-------------+
| Square | Square | Poles. | Roods. | Acres. |
| Feet. | Yards. | | | |
+----------+-----------+--------------+-------------+-------------+
| | | | | |
| 1· | ·1111 | ·00367309 | ·000091827 | ·000022957 |
| 9· | 1· | ·0330579 | ·000826448 | ·000206612 |
| 272·25 | 30·25 | 1· | ·025 | ·00625 |
| 10890· | 1210· | 40· | 1· | ·25 |
| 43560· | 4840· | 160· | 4· | 1· |
+----------+-----------+--------------+-------------+-------------+
TABLE III. _English Measure of Volume.——The_ IMPERIAL
STANDARD, _and the relative value of its divisions,
including those used in Medicine, with their_
EQUIVALENTS _in avoirdupois and troy weight._
+------+-------------+------------+-------------+------------+-----------+-------+--------+-----------+-----------------------+
|[minims] fʒ | f℥ | O. | Oij. | C. | | | | |
|Minims| | | | | | | | | Equivalents in |
| or | Fluid | Fluid | | | | | | | _distilled water_, at |
|drops.| Drachms. | Ounces. | Pints. | Quarts. | Gallons. | Pecks.|Bushels.| Quarters. | 62° Fahr., in |
+------+-------------+------------+-------------+------------+-----------+-------+--------+-----------+/---------/\----------\|
| | | | | | | | | | Troy | Avoird. |
| | | | | | | | | | grains. | weight. |
| | | | | | | | | +-----------+-----------+
| 1·| ·01666666| ·00208333| ·00010416| ·00005208| ·00001302| —— | —— | —— | ·91146| |
| 60·| 1· | ·125 | ·00625 | ·003125 | ·00078125| —— | —— | —— | 54·6875 |_lb._ _oz._|
| 480·| 8· | 1· | ·05 | ·025 | ·00625 | —— | —— | —— | 437·5 | 1 |
| 9600·| 160· | 20· | 1· | ·5 | ·125 | ·0625| ·015625| ·001953125| 8750· | 1 4 |
|19200·| 320· | 40· | 2· | 1· | ·25 | ·125 | ·03125 | ·00390625 |17500· | 2 8 |
|76800·|1280· | 160· | 8· | 4· | 1· | ·5 | ·125 | ·015625 |70000· | 10 |
| |2560· | 320· | 16· | 8· | 2· | 1· | ·25 | ·03125 | —— | 20 |
| | |1280· | 64· | 32· | 8· | 4· |1· | ·125 | —— | 80 |
| | | | 512· |256· |64· |32· |8· |1· | —— | 640 |
+------+-------------+------------+-------------+------------+-----------+-------+--------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
⁂ The standard unit of the above table is the gallon, which is declared,
by statute, to be capable of “containing ten pounds avoirdupois weight of
distilled water, weighed in the air at the temperature of 62° Fahr., the
barometer being at 30 inches.” The pound avoirdupois contains 7000 grains,
and it is declared that a cubic inch of distilled water, under the above
conditions, weighs 252·458 grains; hence the capacity of the imperial
gallon and its divisions are as follows:——
Imperial gallon = 277·274 cubic inches.
” quart = 69·3185 ”
” pint = 34·65925 ”
Fluid ounce = 1·73296 ”
” drachm = ·21662 ”
‡‡‡ The imperial gallon is 1-5th larger than the old wine
gallon,——1-60th smaller than the old beer gallon, and——1-32nd larger than
the old dry-measure gallon.
TABLE IV. _French Metrical or Decimal Measures of
Length._
+----------+---------+------------------------------------------------+
| | | Equivalents in |
| | |/---------------------/\-----------------------\|
| Names. | Eq. in |English Inches,| English Long Measure, |
| | Mètres. |at 32° Fahr. | at 62° Fahr. |
+----------+---------+---------------+--------------------------------+
| | | |Miles. Fur. Yds. Feet. Inch.|
|Millimètre| ·001| ·03937 | |
|Centimètre| ·01 | ·39371 | |
|Décimètre | ·1 | 3·93708 | |
|Mètre | 1· | 39·37079 | 1 0 3·37 |
|Decamètre | 10· | 393·70790 | 10 2 9·7 |
|Hectomètre| 100· | 3937·07900 | 109 1 1·078|
|Kilomètre | 1000· | 39370·79000 | 4 213 1 10·3 |
|Myriamètre|10000· | 393707·90000 | 6 1 156 0 9·17 |
+----------+---------+---------------+--------------------------------+
⁂ The standard unit of the above table is the mètre, which has been
determined to be 39·37079 inches, at 32° Fahr. (Capt. Kater); the English
foot is taken at 62° Fahr. The true length of the mètre, reduced to the
latter temperature, is 39·370091 English inches; a number which varies
from that in the table only at the fourth decimal figure. It will be
perceived that the principle of nomenclature adopted in applying the
names, was to prefix the Greek numerals to the decimal multiples, and the
Latin numerals to the decimal subdivisions.
TABLE V. _French Metrical or Decimal Measures of
Volume._
+----------+---------+---------+--------------------------------------+
| Names. | Eq. in | Eq. in | |
| | Litres. |English | Equivalent in English Measures. |
| | | Cubic | |
| | | Inches | |
+----------+---------+---------+--------------------------------------+
| | | |_Gall._ _Pints._ _Oz._ _Dr._ _Minims._|
|Millilitre| ·001| ·0610| 16·9 |
|Centilitre| ·01 | ·6103| 2 49· |
|Decilitre | ·1 | 6·1028| 3 4 10·36 |
|Litre | 1· | 61·028 | 1 15 1 43·69 |
|Decalitre | 10· | 610·28 | 2 1 12 1 16·9 |
|Hectolitre| 100· |6102·8 | 22 0 1 4 49· |
|Kilolitre | 1000· |61028· | 220 0 16 6 40· |
|Myrialitre|10000· |610280· |2201 (=275-1/8 _bushels_). |
+----------+---------+---------+--------------------------------------+
⁂ The standard unit in the above table is the litre, or the cube of the
1/10 of a mètre. The French centiare contains 1 square mètre,——the are,
100 do.,——the hectare, 10,000 do. The old Paris pint is equal to 1·678
English imperial pint.
‡‡‡ The capacity of solids and aëriform fluids is taken in cubic
inches, or feet, in England. In France, the stere, or mètre cube, equal to
35·31658 English cubic feet, is the standard unit.
TABLE VI. _Miscellaneous Measures and their
Equivalents:_
Tea or coffee spoonful (average) = 1 fl. dr.
Dessert spoonful ” = 2 ”
Table spoonful ” = 4 ”
Wine-glassful ” = 2 fl. oz.
Tea-cupful ” = 5 ”
Breakfast-cupful ” = 8 ”
Tumblerful ” = 8 ”
Basinful ” = 12 ”
Thimbleful ” = 3/4 fl. dr.
Pinch (of leaves and flowers) ” = 1 dr.
Handful (of leaves and flowers) ” = 10 ”
Cubic inch of water, at 62° Fahr. = 252·458 gr.
Cubic foot of water, at 62° Fahr. = 62·32106 lb.
————
Line = 1/12 inch.
Barleycorn = 1/3 ”
Hand = 4 ”
Chain = 4 poles or 22 yards.
=MEAT.= The muscular tissue or flesh of the principal animals constituting
the food of man may be said to be composed of the same proximate
principles, and, given an equal digestibility and power of being
assimilated, may be also said to have an equally nutritive value.
Since meat, however, is generally eaten with a certain amount of fat,
which accompanies it in varying quantity, the capacity of the meat for
forming muscle will, of course, be in inverse proportion to the amount of
fat it contains; on the contrary, its power of raising the bodily
temperature will be in direct proportion. Moleschott (quoted by Parkes)
gives the following as the mean composition of fresh beef, as determined
by all the Continental chemists:——
Water 73·4
Soluble albumen and hæmatin 2·25
Insoluble albuminous substances 15·20
Gelatinous substances 3·30
Fat 2·87
Extractive matter 1·38
Creatin 0·068
Ash 1·6
Dr Parkes remarks of the amount of fat given in the above analysis “that
it is evidently too low.”
In the above table we recognise in the albuminous and gelatinous
substances the source of the muscular tissue of the human organism. The
ash contains the chlorides, carbonates, and phosphates of potassium,
sodium, and calcium. From these salts are derived the hydrochloric acid
of the gastric juice, the sodium of the bile, and the calcium phosphate
and carbonate of the skeleton. Iron is also present, and this finds its
way into the blood.
The flavour of meat is much influenced by the food of the animal. The
flesh of the Pampas pig is found to be rank and disagreeable when the
animal is killed in its wild state; if, however, the food be changed for
the better, the flesh becomes altogether different and quite eatable. The
pork of pigs fed on flesh is said to give off a strong odour, the fat at
the same time being unusually soft. Soft fat is also said to form in
animals that have been fed on oily foods.
When meat is roasted, the fire gradually coagulates the albumen of the
joint, the coagulation commencing at the surface, and spreading by degrees
to the interior. Unless the roasting be continued long enough, sufficient
heat will not reach the parts nearest the centre to effect their
coagulation; and if under these circumstances the meat be removed from the
fire, the uncoagulated or inner parts will present the well-known red and
juicy appearance known as ‘underdone.’ Although a certain quantity of the
gravy (which consists of the soluble and saline ingredients) escapes in
the process, the greater part is retained. The brown agreeably sapid
substance formed on the outside of the meat is known as _osmazome_, and
which is concentrated gravy. The melting fat which collects below forms
the dripping. The loss in the meat is principally water.
The chemical effects of boiling are explained under the article devoted to
that subject.
Meat generally loses from 30 to 40 per cent., and sometimes as much as 60
per cent. in weight, by cooking.
The amount of bone varies, being seldom less than 8 per cent. It amounts
in the neck and brisket to about 10 per cent. and from one third to
sometimes half the total weight in shins and legs of beef.
The most economical parts are the round and thick flank, next to these the
brisket and sticking-piece, and lastly, the leg.
In choosing mutton and pork, selection should be made of the leg, after
this of the shoulder.[26]
[Footnote 26: Letheby.]
“Oxen,” says M. Bizet, “yield of _best quality_ beef 57 per cent. of meat,
and 43 per cent. waste. The waste includes the internal viscera, &c.
_Second quality_ of beef, 54 per cent. meat and 46 per cent. waste; _third
quality_ beef, 51 per cent. meat and 49 per cent. waste. In milking-cows,
46 per cent. meat and 54 per cent. waste. Calves yield 60 per cent. meat,
and 40 per cent. loss; and sheep yield 50 per cent. meat, and 50 per cent.
loss.” Dr Parkes differs from Bizet as to the latter’s value of the meat
of the calf. He says the flesh of young animals loses from 40 to 50 per
cent. in cooking.
It seems to be agreed, however, that animals when slaughtered should be
neither too young nor too old. The flesh of young animals, although more
tender, is less digestible than that of older ones; it is also poorer in
salts, fat, and an albuminous substance called _syntonin_.
=Consumption of Meat.= Dr Letheby, writing in 1868, says that in London
“the indoor operatives eat it to the extent of 14·8 oz. per adult weekly;
70 per cent. of English farm labourers consume it, and to the extent of 16
oz. per man weekly; 60 per cent. of the Scotch, 30 of the Welsh, and 20 of
the Irish also eat it. The Scotch probably have a larger allowance than
the English, considering that braxy mutton[27] is the perquisite of the
Scotch labourer; but the Welsh have only an average amount of 2-1/2 oz.
per adult weekly; and the Irish allowance is still less. It is difficult
to obtain accurate returns of the quantity of meat consumed in London; but
if the computation of Dr Wynter is correct, it is not less than 30-3/4 oz.
per head weekly, or about 4-1/2 oz. per day for every man, woman, and
child. In Paris, according to M. Armand Husson, who has carefully
collected the _octroi_ returns, “it is rather more than 49 oz. per head
weekly, or just 7 oz. a day.” Bondin states that throughout France the
consumption is about 50 grammes daily, or under 1-3/4 oz.
[Footnote 27: See further on.]
Dr Letheby, in his work ‘On Food,’ gives the following as the
characteristics of good meat:——
“1st. It is neither of a pale pink colour nor of a deep purple tint, for
the former is a sign of disease, and the latter indicates that the animal
has not been slaughtered, but has died with the blood in it, or has
suffered from acute fever.
“2nd. It has a marked appearance from the ramifications of little veins of
fat among the muscles.
“3rd. It should be firm and elastic to the touch, and should scarcely
moisten the fingers——bad meat being wet, and sodden and flabby, with the
fat looking like jelly or wet parchment.
“4th. It should have little or no odour, and the odour should not be
disagreeable, for diseased meat has a sickly cadaverous smell, and
sometimes a smell of physic. This is very discoverable when the meat is
chopped up and drenched with warm water.
“5th. It should not shrink or waste much in cooking.
“6th. It should not run to water, or become very wet on standing for a day
or so, but should, on the contrary, dry upon the surface.
“7th. When dried at a temperature of 212° or thereabout, it should not
lose more than from 70 to 74 per cent. of its weight, whereas bad meat
will often lose as much as 80 per cent.
“Other properties of a more refined character will also serve for the
recognition of bad meat, as that the juice of the flesh is alkaline or
neutral to test-paper, instead of being distinctly acid, and the muscular
fibre, when examined under the microscope is found to be sodden and
ill-defined.”
_Unsound meat——diseased meat._ Dr Letheby, in his ‘Lectures on Food,’
published in 1868, states that the seizure and condemnation, in London, of
meat unfit for human food, during a period extending over seven years,
amounted to 700 tons per annum, or to about 1-750th of the whole quantity
consumed. These 700 tons he dissects into lbs. as follows:——“805,653 lbs.
were diseased, 568,375 lbs. were putrid, and 193,782 lbs. were from
animals that had not been slaughtered, but had died from accident or
disease. It consisted of 6640 sheep and lambs, 1025 calves, 2896 pigs,
9104 quarters of beef, and 21,976 joints of meat.”
He admits, however, that this amount, owing to the difficulties and
inefficiency of the mode of supervision, bears a very insignificant
proportion to the actual quantity which escaped detection, and which was,
therefore, partaken of as food. Professor Gamgee says that one fifth of
the meat eaten in the metropolis is diseased. In 1863 the bodies of an
enormous number of animals suffering from _rinderpest_, as well as from
_pleuro-pneumonia_, were consumed in London; and we know that thousands of
sheep die every year, in the country, of _rot_; the inference from which
latter fact is that, since the carcases are neither eaten there nor buried
on the spot, they are sent up to, and thrown upon, the London markets. The
worst specimens find their way to the poorer neighbourhoods, where, as
might be expected, their low price ensures a ready sale for them. These
sales, it is said, mostly take place at night.
The above statements, which, if we exclude Professor Gamgee’s figures, do
not solve the problem as to the quantity of unsound meat consumed in
London, not unreasonably justify the assumption that it is very
considerable; and this being admitted, we should be prepared to learn that
it was a fertile source of disease of a more or less dangerous character.
There is, however, such extensive divergence in the various data bearing
upon this point, that no satisfactory solution of it can be said to be
afforded. Thus, Livingstone states that, when in South Africa, he found
that neither Englishmen nor natives could partake of the flesh of animals
affected with _pleuro-pneumonia_ without its giving rise to malignant
carbuncle, and sometimes, in the case of the natives, to death, and Dr
Letheby attributes the increased number of carbuncles and phlegmons
amongst our population to the importation from Holland of cattle suffering
from the same disease. On the contrary, Dr Parkes says he was informed, on
excellent authority, that the Caffres invariably consume the flesh of
their cattle that die of the same epidemic, without the production of any
ill effects. Again, there are numerous well-attested cases in which the
flesh of sheep which have died from _braxy_ (a disease that makes great
ravages amongst the flocks in Scotland) is constantly eaten without
injurious results by the Scotch shepherd. The malady causes death in the
sheep from the blood coagulating in the vital organs, and the sheep that
so dies becomes the property of the shepherd, who, after removing the
offal, is careful to cut out the dark congealed blood before cooking
it.[28] Sometimes he salts down the carcase. In cases, however, where
thorough cooking or an observance of the above precautions have been
neglected, very dangerous and disastrous consequences have ensued. During
the late siege of Paris large quantities of the flesh of horses with
glanders appear to have been eaten with no evil consequences: and Mr
Blyth, in his ‘Dictionary of Hygiène,’ quotes a similar case from Tardieu,
who states that 300 army horses affected with glanders (_morve_) were led
to St Germain, near Paris, and killed. For several days they served to
feed the poor of the town without causing any injury to health.
[Footnote 28: Letheby.]
A similar exemption from any evil effect following the consumption of
diseased flesh is recorded by Professor Brucke, of Vienna.
Not many years since the cattle of a locality in Bohemia, being attacked
by _rinderpest_, were ordered by the Government to be slaughtered, after
which they were buried. The poor people dug up the diseased carcases,
cooked the meat, and ate it, with no injurious result.
Parent Duchâtelet cites a case where the flesh of seven cows attacked with
rabies was eaten without injury; and Letheby states that pigs with scarlet
fever and spotted typhus have been used for food with equally harmless
results. The flesh of sheep with smallpox had been found to produce
vomiting and diarrhœa, sometimes accompanied with fever.
One obvious suggestion of the immunity from disease recorded in part of
the cases above given is that the injurious properties of the flesh had
been destroyed by the heat to which it had been subjected in the process
of cooking, combined with the antiseptic and protective power of the
gastric juice. The subject, however, has not been sufficiently examined to
warrant the conclusion that every kind of unsound meat may be rendered
innocuous by culinary means.
But even were this so the idea of partaking of meat which had once been
unsound, from whatever cause, and, as in the instances above quoted, with
the pustules of smallpox, the spots generated by typhus, and the rash of
scarlet fever upon it, becomes unspeakably repulsive and revolting. But we
must not be misled because of the difficulty of reconciling the
contradictory statements above given, nor by the evidence some of them
appear to afford as to the innocuous character of diseased meat, since it
is just possible that closer and more prolonged observation of the facts
may have led to different conclusions. Thus, for example, pork, infested
with that formidable entozoon, the _Trichina spiralis_, had been partaken
of for years, under the impression that it was a perfectly healthy food,
until Dr Zencker, of Dresden, discovered that the parasite was the cause
of a frightful disease, which he called _Trichinosis_, and which had
hitherto baffled all attempts to find out its origin. Dr Letheby, writing
on this subject, says: “I have often had occasion to investigate cases of
mysterious disease, which had undoubtedly been caused by unsound meat. One
of these, of more than ordinary interest, occurred in the month of
November, 1860. The history of it is this:——A forequarter of cow-beef was
purchased in Newgate Market by a sausage-maker who lived in Kingsland, and
who immediately converted it into sausage-meat. Sixty-six persons were
known to have eaten of that meat, and sixty-four of them were attacked
with sickness, diarrhœa, and great prostration of vital powers. One of
them died; and at the request of the coroner I made a searching inquiry
into the matter, and I ascertained that the meat was diseased, and that
it, and it alone, had been the cause of all the mischief.”[29]
[Footnote 29: Letheby, ‘Lectures on Food,’ Longman and Co.]
Here are two instances in which but for subsequent investigation the evil
effects narrated would not have been debited to diseased meat, but to some
other cause.
“One of the principal and by far the most prolific sources of
food-poisoning is the sausage, the eating of which, in Germany more
particularly, has caused the death of a number of persons.
The sausages in which these poisonous qualities occasionally develop
themselves are the large kinds made in Wurtemburg, in which district alone
they have caused the deaths of more than 150 out of 400 persons during the
last fifty years. The poisonous character of the sausage is said to
develop itself generally in the spring, when it becomes musty, and also
soft in the interior. It is then found to be acid to test paper, and to
have a very disagreeable and tainted flavour.
Should it be eaten when in this state, after from about twelve to
twenty-four hours the patient is attacked with severe intestinal
irritation in the form of pains in the stomach and bowels by vomitings,
and diarrhœa.
To these symptoms succeed great depression, coldness in the limbs, weak
and irregular pulse, and frequent fainting fits. Should the sufferer be
attacked with convulsions, and difficult respiration, the seizure
generally ends in death. The nature of the poisonous substance that gives
rise to these effects in the sausage has not yet been determined. Liebig
believed them to be due to the presence in the meat of a particular animal
ferment, which he conceived acted on the blood by catalysis, and thus
rendered it diseased. Others have surmised that a poisonous organic
alkaloid may have been produced in the decaying meat; and others again
that the effects may have been caused by some deleterious substance of a
fatty nature. M. Van den Corput was of opinion that the mischief was due
to the presence in the meat of a poisonous fungus, which he calls a
_sarcina botulina_. This last theory receives support from the fact that a
peculiar mouldiness is always to be observed in these dangerous sausages,
and that this is coincident with the development of their poisonous
qualities.
Several effects have been produced by other kinds of animal food——as veal,
bacon, ham, salt-beef, salt-fish, cheese, &c., and the food has usually
been in a decayed and mouldy condition. It would be tedious if I were to
detail, or even to enumerate the cases recorded by medico-legal writers;
but I may perhaps refer to a few of them. In 1839 there was a popular fête
at Zurich, and about 600 persons partook of a repast of cold roast veal
and ham. In a few hours most of them were suffering from pain in the
stomach, with vomiting and diarrhœa; and before a week had elapsed nearly
all of them were seriously ill in bed. They complained of shiverings,
giddiness, headache and burning fever. In a few cases there was delirium,
and when they terminated fatally there was extreme prostration of the
vital powers. Careful inquiry was instituted into the matter, and the only
discoverable cause of the mischief was incipient putrefaction and slight
mouldiness of the meat.” A case is recorded by Dr Geisler of eight persons
who became ill from eating bacon which was mouldy; and another by M.
Ollivier of the death of four persons out of eight, all of whom had
partaken of partially decomposed mutton.
If some of the foregoing statements fail to demonstrate that the act of
partaking of diseased meat is a necessary source of danger to health,
there can be no such doubt as to the pernicious and perilous consequences
which ensue when meat is consumed containing in its tissues the ova and
larvæ of certain parasitic creatures. If the fleshy part of a piece of
measly pork be carefully examined, it will be found to be more or less
dotted about with a number of little bladder-like spots, in size about as
large as a hemp-seed.[30]
[Footnote 30: See article “Cysticerci.”]
If now we carefully rupture one of these little bodies or cysts, there
will be found in it a minute worm, which under the microscope will be seen
to have a head from which proceed a number of little hooks that perform a
very disagreeable office should the parasite be taken into the human
stomach by any one making a meal off measly and undercooked pork. For,
then, being liberated from its sac, or nidus, by the action of the gastric
juice of the stomach on this latter, the creature passes into the
intestines. To these it attaches itself by means of the hooklets on its
head, and instantly becomes a tapeworm, which grows by a succession of
jointed segments it is able to develop, and each one of which is capable
of becoming a separate and prolific tapeworm filled with countless eggs.
These eggs reach the land through the agency of manure (for they are found
in the intestines of the horse), and from this source they get into the
stomachs of pigs and oxen, where they hatch not into tapeworm, or _tenia_,
but, travelling through the animal’s stomach, burrow into its muscular
tissue. Here they establish and envelop themselves in the little cyst or
small bladder-like substance, whose presence, as explained, constitutes
the condition called “measly” pork, and here they remain dormant until
such time as, taken into the stomach, they may again become tapeworms, to
be again expelled and to perpetuate by their ova the round of
metamorphosis. From the circumstance of their being met with enclosed in
little sacs or cysts, these parasites have been termed _Cysticerci_. The
variety of them we have just been considering as occurring in pork is
called the _Cysticercus cellulosæ_, whilst the tapeworm to which it gives
rise is known as the _Tinea solium_.
Another variety of _Cysticercus_ is met with in the flesh of the ox, the
cow, and the calf. In the human body this also develops into a tapeworm
called the _Tinea mediocanellata_. Tapeworm is a very common disease in
Russia and Abyssinia, and its prevalence is no doubt due to the habit of
giving the children in those countries raw meat to suck, under the
impression that the child is strengthened in consequence. From experiments
made by Dr Lewis it was found that a temperature of 150° F., maintained
for five minutes, was sufficient to destroy these cysticerci.
Another and more formidable entozoon, communicable by unsound meat, is the
_Echinococcus hominis_,[31] which represents one of the metamorphoses of
the _Tinea echinococcus_, the tapeworm of the dog. In Iceland, where a
sixth of the population are said to suffer from the ravages of the
_Echinococcus hominis_, it is the custom to feed the dogs on the flesh of
slaughtered animals affected with this parasite, which in the body of the
dog develops into a tapeworm. The innumerable eggs which the worm produces
are, however, incapable of being hatched in the dog’s intestines. They
have to find another and more suitable habitat, and this is secured for
them as follows:——Segments of the tapeworm, with their countless ova,
being voided with dog’s excrement, fall into the running water, and on to
the fields and pastures, whence they gain their entrance into the stomachs
of human beings, oxen, and sheep. Here the eggs become hatched, not into
tapeworms, but into _Echinococci hominis_, or prospective tapeworms.
Burrowing through the membranes of the stomach, the echinococcus
establishes itself most commonly in the liver, but not unfrequently in the
spleen, heart, lungs, and even the bones of man. In the animal economy
they enclose themselves in little sacs or cysts, and give rise to the most
alarming and painful diseases, which hitherto have proved incurable. They
attack the brain in sheep, and are the cause of the disease known as
“staggers.” Sheep are also infested by another parasite known as the
_Distoma hepatica_, the ravages of which give rise in the sheep to that
devastating disease——“the rot.” The creature is also known by the name of
the “liver-fluke,” since it principally attacks this important organ in
the animal. The liver-fluke is of constant occurrence in the livers of
diseased sheep, and unless destroyed by thorough cooking will of course
pass into the human economy. The embryo fluke gains admission to the
sheep’s body through the instrumentality of small snails, to the shells of
which it attaches itself. In wet weather the snails crawl over the grass
of the meadow which forms the pastures of the sheep, and are swallowed by
it. Once in the sheep’s stomach the embryo becomes a fluke, and commences
its depredations on the animal’s liver. After this, the reason why the rot
attacks sheep after a continuance of wet weather will be evident.
[Footnote 31: See article “Echinococcus hominis.”]
The most terrible of all the meat parasites is a minute worm about 1/30th
of an inch long, found in the flesh of pork. This creature, which is named
the _Trichina spiralis_ (from the form it assumes when coiled up in the
little cyst or capsule which encloses it), when it gets conveyed into the
human stomach with improperly cooked or underdone pork, soon becomes
liberated from its confinement owing to the destruction of its envelope by
the gastric juice. Once in the stomach the parasite grows rapidly, giving
birth to innumerable young _trichinæ_, which, by first boring through the
membranes of the alimentary canal, pierce their way through the different
parts of the body into the muscular tissue, where they become encysted,
and where they remain until conditions favorable to their liberation again
occur.
Until such time, however, as they have become enclosed in the cyst, their
movements give rise to indescribable torture, and to a disease known as
_trichinosis_, of which it has been estimated more than 50 per cent. of
those attacked by it die. The symptoms of trichinosis commence with loss
of appetite, vomiting, and diarrhœa, succeeded after a few days by great
fever——resembling, according to Dr Aitken, that of typhoid or typhus. As
might be expected the pains in the limbs are extreme. Boils and dropsical
swellings are not unusual concomitants of the malady.
Hitherto this frightful disease has been mostly confined to Germany, where
there have been several outbreaks of it since its discovery in 1860 by Dr
Zencker. Feidler says that only free _trichinæ_ are killed by a
temperature of 155° F.; and that when they are in their cysts a greater
heat may be necessary. From what has been said the importance of efficient
cooking must become manifest. There must always be risk in underdone pork,
whether boiled or roasted. In the pig, the trichina, if present, may
always be found in the muscles of the eye. In Germany the makers of pork
sausages are now said to have these muscles subjected to a microscopic
examination previous to using the meat, which, of course, is rejected if
the examination has been unfavorable.
The trichinæ, if present in the flesh of pork, may be seen as small round
specks by the naked eye, the surrounding flesh itself being rather darker
than usual owing to the inflammation set up in it. All doubt, however, on
this point may be removed by having recourse to the microscope. Dr Parkes
says a power of 50 to 100 diameters is sufficient, and that “the best plan
is to take a thin slice of flesh, put it into liquor potassæ (1 part to 8
of water), and let it stand for a few minutes till the muscle becomes
clear; it must not be left too long, otherwise the trichinæ will be
destroyed. The white specks come out clearly and the worm will be seen
coiled up. If the capsule is too dense to allow the worm to be seen, a
drop or two of weak hydrochloric acid should be added. If the meat be very
fat a little ether or benzine may be put on it in the first place.”
_Legislation relative to meat inspection and seizure._——The law
recognising the importance of the supply of pure and wholesome meat gives
considerable powers to the different sanitary officers who are appointed
to inspect it. See FOOD, INSPECTION OF.
=MEAT, AUSTRALIAN.= See MEAT PRESERVING.
=MEAT BISCUITS.= _Prep._ 1. The flour is mixed up with a rich fluid
extract of meat, and the dough is cut into pieces and baked in the usual
manner.
2. Wheaten flour (or preferably the whole meal), 3 parts; fresh lean beef
or other flesh (minced and pulped), 2 parts; thoroughly incorporate the
two by hand-kneading or machinery, and bake the pieces in a moderately
heated oven. Both the above are very nutritious; the last more especially
so. 1 oz. makes a pint of good soup.
=MEAT, COLD, to Stew.= Let the cold meat be cut into slices about half an
inch thick. Take two large-sized onions, and fry them in a wineglass of
vinegar; when done, pour them on to the meat; then place the whole in a
stewpan, and pour over sufficient water to cover it. After stewing about
half an hour add sufficient flour and butter to thicken the gravy, and
also pepper, salt, and ketchup, to flavour; then let it simmer gently for
another half an hour. Serve up with a little boiled rice around it.
=MEAT EXTRACTS.= Some preparations of this nature have been already
noticed under the heads ESSENCE and EXTRACT; the following are additional
and highly valuable formulæ:——
_Prep._ 1. (Dr Breslau.) Young ox-flesh (free from fat) is minced small,
and well beaten in a marble mortar, at first alone, and afterwards with a
little cold or lukewarm water; the whole is then submitted to the action
of a press, and the solid residuum is treated in the same manner, with a
little more cold water; the juice (reddish in colour) is now heated to
coagulate the albumen, strained, and finally evaporated in a water bath to
the consistence of an extract. As ordinary flesh contains only 1% of
kreatine, while that of the heart, according to Dr Gregory, contains from
1·37% to 1·41%, this is the part employed by Dr Breslau. The product
possesses an agreeable odour and taste; and is easily soluble in water.
2. (Falkland.) Fresh lean beef (or other flesh), recently killed, is
minced very fine, and digested, with agitation, in cold water, 1 pint, to
which hydrochloric acid, 6 drops, and common salt, 1 dr., have been added;
after about an hour the whole is thrown upon a fine hair sieve, and the
liquid portion allowed to drain off without pressure, the first portions
that pass through being returned until the fluid, at first turbid, becomes
quite clear and transparent; when all the liquid has passed through, cold
water, 1/4 pint, is gently poured on, in small portions at a time, and
allowed to drain through into that previously collected. The product is
about 3/4 pint of cold extract of flesh, having a red colour, and a
pleasant, soup-like taste. It is administered cold to the invalid——a
teacupful at a time, and must on no account be warmed, as the application
of even a very slight heat causes its decomposition and the separation of
a solid mass of coagulated albumen. This cold extract of flesh is not only
much more nutritious than ordinary beef tea, but also contains a certain
quantity of the red colouring matter of blood, in which there is a much
larger proportion of the iron requisite for the formation of
blood-particles. The hydrochloric acid also greatly facilitates the
process of digestion. This formula is a modification of the one recently
recommended by Liebig for the preparation of a highly nutritive and
restorative food for invalids.
3. (EXTRACTUM SANGUINIS BOVIS——Dr Mauthner.) Pass fresh blood (caught from
the slaughtered animal) through a sieve, evaporate it to dryness in a
water bath, and when cold rub it to powder.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr., or
more, per diem, in a little water.
_Obs._ The above preparations are intended to supersede the inefficient
compounds——beef tea, meat soups, &c.——during sickness and convalescence.
MM. Breslau and Mauthner describe their extracts of flesh and blood as
being peculiarly advantageous in scrofulous exhaustion, exhaustion from
anæmia, diarrhœa, &c. The extract of Falkland or Liebig is represented as
having been employed both in the hospitals and in private practice at
Munich with the most extraordinary success. It is said to be capable of
assimilation with the least possible expenditure of the vital force.
=Meat, Fluid.= This preparation consists of lean meat, in which the
albumen has been changed so as to be non-coagulable by heat, and the
fibrin and gelatin from their normal insoluble condition to one admitting
of their being dissolved in water.
In this soluble condition, the first stage effected in stomach digestion,
the several bodies are known as peptones or albuminose, and the proportion
of their simple constituents remains the same as in ordinary fibrin,
albumen, and gelatin.
The alteration is effected by finely mincing meat and digesting it with
peptone, hydrochloric acid, and water, at a temperature of about 100°
Fahr., until dissolved.
The solution is then filtered, the bitter principle, formed during the
digestion, removed by the addition of a little pancreatic emulsion, and
the liquor, which has been neutralised by the addition of carbonate of
soda, evaporated to a thick syrup or extractive consistence.
Fluid meat is the only preparation which entirely represents, and yields
the amount of nourishment afforded by, lean meat; it differs altogether
from beef tea and extracts of meat, as all these contain only a small
portion of the different constituents of meat. A patent has been granted
to its inventor, Mr Darby.
=Meat, Liebig’s Extract of.= _Syn._ EXTRACT OF FLESH, EXTRACTUM CARNO.
This preparation is an aqueous infusion evaporated to the consistence of a
thick paste, of those principles of meat which are soluble in water.[32]
[Footnote 32: “Altered as they be by the Application of Heat.” Deane and
Brady, ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ Oct. 1866.]
It is chiefly composed of alkaline phosphates and chlorides, a nitrogenous
crystalline base known as kreatine, various extractive matters, which it
has been surmised may have originated in the decomposition of certain
nitrogenous bodies, and possibly of a small quantity of lactic acid, as it
contains neither albumen nor fibrin, two of the most important and
nutritious ingredients of flesh; it must not, therefore, be regarded as a
concentrated form of meat. Liebig says that it requires 34 lbs. of meat to
yield 1 lb. of this extract——a statement which, as Dr Pavy justly remarks,
shows how completely the substance of the meat which constitutes its real
nutritive portion must be excluded. This absence of direct nutrient power,
now admitted by physiologists, whilst disqualifying the extract as a
substitute for meat, does not, however, preclude its use in certain cases
of indisposition requiring the administration of a stimulant or
restorative, in which circumstances it has been found a useful and
valuable remedy, and has been suggested as a partial substitute for
brandy where there is considerable exhaustion or weakness, accompanied
with cerebral depression and lowness of spirits. In this latter respect
its action seems analogous to strong tea.
In the vast pastures of Australia and the pampas of South America are
countless herds of oxen and sheep, whose numbers far exceed the food
requirements of the comparatively sparse population of those districts.
The fat, horns, hoofs, bones, skins, and wool of these cattle, which form
the chief part of the wealth of those countries, are exported principally
to Europe. Until within a few years, however, no means had been adopted
for the utilisation of the superfluous flesh of the animals, beyond
employing it as a manure. By manufacturing it, however, into “extract of
meat,” this waste has been remedied, and immense works for its preparation
are now erected both in South America and in Australia. The process
followed by the different makers, although varying in some particulars, is
essentially the same, and consists in extracting by water, either hot,
cold, or in the form of the steam, those portions of the meat which are
soluble in that fluid, and subsequently evaporating the solution so
obtained until it becomes of a proper consistence to be put into jars. The
extract so obtained keeps well (if all the fat and gelatin are removed),
and is most conveniently adapted for exportation. It is said that the
extract as being obtained from cattle that have had English progenitors
possesses a flavour superior to that which comes from South America, where
the animals are of a different and inferior breed.
The following interesting description of the manufacture of “Liebig’s
Extract of Meat” is taken from the Buenos Ayres ‘Standard’ of September,
1867. The establishment, of which it is a description, is at Fray Bentos,
on the Uruguay, South America. “The new factory is a building which covers
about 20,000 square feet, and is roofed in iron and glass. We first enter
a large flagged hall, kept dark, cool, and extremely clean, where the meat
is weighed, and passed through apertures to the meat-cutting machines. We
next come to the beef-cutting hall, where are four powerful meat-cutters,
especially designed by the company’s general manager, M. Geibert; each
machine can cut the meat of 200 bullocks per hour. The meat being cut is
passed to ‘digerators’ made of wrought iron; each one holds about 12,000
lbs. of beef; there are nine of these digerators, and three more have to
be put up. Here the meat is digerated by high-pressure steam of 75 lbs.
per square inch; from this the liquid which contains the extract and the
fat of the meat proceeds in tubes to a range of ‘fat separators’ of
peculiar construction. Here the fat is separated in the hot state from the
extract, as no time can be lost for cool operation, otherwise
decomposition would set in in a very short time.
“We proceed downstairs to an immense hall, sixty feet high, where the fat
separators are working; below them is a range of five cast-iron
clarifiers, 1000 gallons each, worked by high-pressure steam through
Hallet’s tube system.
“Each clarifier is provided with a very ingenious steam-tap. In the
monstrous clarifiers the albumen, fibrin, and phosphates are separated.
From hence the liquid extract is raised by means of air-pumps, driven by
two thirty horse-power engines, up to two vessels about twenty feet above
the clarifiers; thence the liquid runs to the other large evaporators. Now
we ascend the staircase reaching the hall, where two immense sets of four
vacuum apparatus are at work, evaporating the extract by a very low
temperature; here the liquid passes several filtering processes before
being evaporated in vacuo. We now ascend some steps and enter the
ready-making hall, separated by a wire gauze wall, and all the windows,
doors, &c., guarded by the same to exclude flies and dust. The ventilation
is maintained by patent fans, and the place is extremely clean. Here are
placed five ready-making pans constructed of steel plates, with a system
of steel discs revolving in the liquid extract.
“These five pans, by medium of discs, 100 in each pan, effect in one
minute more than two million square feet evaporating surface.
“Here concludes the manufacturing process. The extract is now withdrawn in
large cans and deposited for the following day.
“Ascending a few steps we enter the decrystallising and packing hall,
where two large cast-iron tanks are placed, provided with hot water baths
under their bottoms; in these tanks the extract is thrown in quantities of
10,000 lbs. at once, and here decrystallising is made a homogeneous mass
and of uniform quality. Now samples are taken and analysed by the chemist
of the establishment, Dr Seekamp, under whose charge the chemical and
technical operations are performed.
“It may be mentioned that the company’s butcher killed at the rate of 80
oxen per hour; separating by a small double-edged knife the vertebræ, the
animal drops down instantaneously on a waggon, and is conducted to a place
where 150 men are occupied dressing the meat for the factory, cutting each
ox into six pieces; 400 are being worked per day.”
Mr Tooth at a meeting before the “Food Committee” held at the Society of
Arts in January, 1868, said that he did not claim any difference in the
composition of his article (which was made in Australia) as compared with
that made by the South American Company.
In the annexed table the composition of some of the extracts of meat of
commerce is given:——
+--------------+-------------+-------+---------------+----------+----------+
| | Liebig’s | Tooth,|French Company,|Whitehead.|Twentyman.|
| | Company. |Sydney.|South America. | | |
+--------------+------+------+-------+---------------+----------+----------+
|Water | 18·56| 16·00| 17·06 | 16·50 | 24·49 | 20·81 |
|Extractive, | | | | | | |
| soluble in | | | | | | |
| alcohol | 45·43| 53·00| 51·28 | 28·00 | 22·08 | 13·37 |
|Extractive, | | | | | | |
| insoluble | 13·93| 13·00| 10·57 | 46·00 | 44·47 | 59·10 |
|Mineral matter| 22·08| 18·00| 21·09 | 9·50 | 8·96 | 6·72 |
| +------+------+-------+---------------+----------+----------+
| |100·00|100·00|100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 | 100·00 |
+--------------+------+------+-------+---------------+----------+----------+
The following are the characteristics of extract of meat of good quality.
It should always have an acid reaction, its colour should be a pale
yellowish brown, and it should have an agreeable meat-like odour and
taste. It should be entirely soluble in cold water, and should be free
from albumen, fat, and gelatin.
=Meat Pie.= Stew 2 lbs. of beef steak with one small onion, the gravy from
which is to be thickened with flour, and flavoured with pepper and salt.
Put it into a baking dish, and cover with a lard crust. It should be baked
for one hour. The addition of two kidneys will greatly improve the pie.
=Meat (Australian) Pie.= Take 2 lbs. of Australian meat, or 1-1/2 lb. of
meat and 1/2 lb. of kidney. Season to taste, pour in a little water, cover
with a lard crust, and bake _not more_ than half an hour.
=MEAT PRESERVING.= “The Belgian _Musée de l’Industrie_ notes the following
methods of preserving meats as the most deserving of attention amongst
those communicated to the French Academy of Sciences, and published in the
_Comptes Rendus_. 1. M. Bundet’s method, by which the meat is kept in
water acidulated with carbolic acid in the proportion of 1 to 5 parts of
acid per 1000 of water. A series of experiments proved that all kinds of
meat could thus be kept fresh for lengthened periods, without acquiring an
ill taste or odour.
“The meat may be placed in barrels or air-tight tin cases, filled with
acidulated water of the strength above specified, and headed up; or the
pieces may be packed in barrels or cases in alternate layers with
charcoal, pounded small, and saturated with water containing 5/1000 of
carbolic acid. The charcoal serves as a vehicle for the antiseptic fluid,
and as an absorbent of any gaseous matters given off by the meat. The
latter should be wrapped in thin linen covers to prevent the charcoal
working its way into the tissues.
“This method, it is suggested, might be employed in curing pork in place
of ‘salting,’ or of the more lengthy and costly process of ‘smoking,’ and
also for the preservation of poultry, game, butter, eggs, &c.
“2. In the case of South American meat M. Baudet proposes the use of large
sacks of caoutchouc. The meat should be packed in them, with alternate
layers of charcoal as above described, and each sack, when filled, should
be hermetically closed by drawing another empty caoutchouc sack, cap-wise,
over it. The caoutchouc, it is supposed, would fetch enough in the
market——its low price notwithstanding——to cover expenses of packing and
freight, and so permit the meat to be sold in Europe at a very small
advance on cost price. If intended for use a second time, the empty bags
should be steeped in boiling water for a few minutes, to remove any
organic impurities adhering to them.
“3. M. Gorge’s method, which is in use in La Plata, consists in washing
and drying the meat, and afterwards steeping in successive waters
containing hydrochloric acid and sulphite of soda, and then packing it in
air-tight cases holding 1, 5, or 10 kilog. each. Meat thus treated
requires to be soaked in warm water for about half an hour before use.
“4. M. Leon Soubeiran has recommended braying and drying, in the fashion
adopted by the Chinese and Mongols, as described by M. Simon, French
consul in China, in a communication made by him to the Société
d’Acclimatation. The _pemmican_ of our Arctic voyagers and the _charqui_
of South America are familiar examples of meat preserved by analogous
processes. The late M. Payen, a distinguished member of the Academy,
insisted upon the great perfection to which this system might be carried
by the aid of hot-air stoves and suitable apparatus.”
Besides the foregoing, numerous patents have from time to time been taken
out, and processes proposed for the preservation of meat; so as to enable
it to be sent from those distant countries, such as South America,
Australia, Canada, &c., where it is greatly in excess of the wants of the
population, to other lands, in which the supply is as much below the
demand, and the meat at such a price as to preclude its being regularly
used as an article of food by the body of the people.
As the putrefactive changes set up in dead flesh are dependent upon the
combined influences of moisture, air, and a certain temperature, it
follows that most of the various methods of meat preservation resolve
themselves into so many different efforts to remove the meat from the
operation of one of the conditions above specified as necessary for its
decomposition.
The _charqui_ or jerked beef of South America affords an example of meat
preserved by means of being deprived of moisture. It occurs in thongs or
strips which have been prepared by placing freshly killed meat between
layers of salt and drying them in the sun. _Charqui_, although it retains
its soundness for a great length of time, and is rendered eatable by
soaking in water and prolonged cooking, is difficult of digestion and
wanting in flavour, and if any fat be associated with it, this is liable
to become rancid.
_Pemmican_ is meat which, after being dried and powdered, is mixed with
sugar and certain spices, both of which assist to preserve the meat as
well as to improve its flavour, and to remove the tendency to rancidity
caused by any fat that may be accidentally present.
Another process for the preservation of meat by means of desiccation is
that of MM. Blumenthal and Chollet, who, in 1854, obtained a patent for
preparing tablets composed of dried meat and vegetables, which, after
being several times dipped into rich soup, were dried in warm air after
each immersion.
At a meeting of the Food Committee, held at the Society of Arts, in May,
1868, specimens of dried beef and mutton in powder, from Brisbane, were
shown by Mr Orr, who said they had been dried on tinned plates by means of
steam. Dr A. S. Taylor, F.R.S., who examined the sample, found it
perfectly fresh and good. It had been prepared at least six months
previously.
At a subsequent meeting, the Committee reported that the soup prepared
from this desiccated meat, with the addition of a small quantity of
vegetables, was considered very successful, and the Committee were of
opinion that meat so preserved was likely to prove a valuable and cheap
addition to the food resources of the people.
The specimen from which the soup was made had been in the Society’s
possession, and formed part of the contents of a tin opened upwards of two
years ago. The preservation was perfect.
We have only space briefly to describe some of the more prominent of the
processes which have been devised for the preservation of meat by
excluding atmospheric air.
Mr Tallerman, a large importer of Australian meat, stated in evidence
before the Food Committee of the Society of Arts, in May, 1870, that in
the preservation of the meat he sent over to this country he had recourse
to a very old practice, which was that of packing the joints in fat, the
meat being previously salted or cured. Instead of the meat being packed in
brine, the casks with the meat are filled up with melted fat.
In Mr Warrington’s patent, which dates from 1846, it is proposed that
animal substances shall be preserved by enveloping them in a layer of
glue, gelatin, or concentrated meat gravy, or otherwise by dipping them in
warm solutions of such substances, or by wrapping them in waterproof
cloth, or by covering them with caoutchouc, gutta percha, or varnish, or
thin cream of plaster of Paris, which when set was saturated with melted
suet, wax, or stearin.
The patent of Prof. Redwood, which resembles Mr Warrington’s in seeking to
exclude atmospheric air by surrounding the meat with an impervious
substance, claimed the use of paraffin for this purpose, the paraffin
being afterwards coated with a mixture of gelatin and treacle, or gelatin
and glycerin. The paraffin is easily removed from the meat by plunging
this latter into boiling water, which dissolves the outer coating of
gelatin mixture, and at the same time melts the paraffin and liberates the
enclosed joint.
Messrs Jones and Trevethick’s patent consisted in exhausting of air the
vessel containing the meat, then forcing into it a mixture of nitrogen and
sulphurous acids, and subsequently soldering the apertures. Dr Letheby
says meat, fish, and poultry preserved in this manner have been found good
after seven or eight years; and specimens of them were exhibited in the
London Exhibition of 1862.
The removal, however, of atmospheric air from the vessels containing the
meat it is designed to preserve is now principally accomplished by means
of steam. The germ of this idea originated with M. Pierre Antonie
Angilbert more than half a century ago, but the modification of
Angilbert’s process, which in principle is that generally adopted by the
importers of Australian and South American _cooked_ meat, as well as by
the English preparers of the article, originated with Messrs Goldner and
Wertheimer, nearly forty years since, and, briefly, is as follows:——The
freshly killed meat is placed in tins, with a certain quantity of cold
water. The tins and their contents are then securely soldered down, with
the exception of a small opening not larger than a pin-hole, which is left
in the lid. The tins are next placed in a bath of chloride of calcium, the
effect of which is to heat the water in them up to the boiling point, and
after a certain time to more or less cook the meat contained in them. When
the meat is thought to be sufficiently cooked, and whilst the steam
arising from the boiling water is escaping from the aperture, this last is
carefully soldered down, the steam not only having driven out all the
atmospheric air from the vessel, but in the act of escaping having
prevented the ingress of any from without. To still further guard against
the entrance of air, the tins are covered over with a thick coating of
paint.
Previously to their being allowed to leave the preserving works they are
tested by being placed for some time in an apartment in which the
temperature is sufficiently high to set up putrefactive action in the meat
if any air has been left in the tins, the evidence of which would be the
bulging out of the tins, owing to the liberation of certain gaseous
products of decomposition. When no distension from inside takes place,
the result is considered satisfactory, and the vessels are regarded as
properly and hermetically sealed. In some cases the vessels, instead of
being heated in a bath of chloride of calcium, are exposed to the action
of steam. If the operation be successfully performed, the meat so prepared
will keep perfectly good avid sound for years.
Mr Richard Jones effects the removal of the air from the vessels
containing the meat as follows:——The meat is put into the tins and
entirely soldered up, with the exception of a small tube about the size of
a quill, which is soldered on the top of the tin. This tube is placed in
connection with a vacuum chamber, and the air exhausted from the tin by
means of it. In cooking the meat he also employs a chloride of calcium
bath.
Dr Letheby, in one of his Canton Lectures on Food, delivered in 1865,
speaking on this part of the subject, and on the above method of meat
preservation, says:——“To-night, through the kindness of Messrs Crosse and
Blackwell, I am able to show you a specimen of preserved mutton which has
been in the case forty-four years, and you will perceive that it is in
excellent condition. It formed part of the stores supplied by Messrs
Donkin and Gamble, in 1824, to His Majesty’s Exploring ship _Fury_, which
was wrecked in Prince Regent’s Inlet in 1825, when the cases were landed
with the other stores, and left upon the beach.
“Eight years afterwards, in August, 1833, they were found by Sir John Ross
in the same condition as they were left; and he wrote to Mr Gamble at the
end of that year, saying, ‘that the provisions were still in a perfect
state of preservation, although annually exposed to a temperature of 92°
below and 80° above zero.’ Some of the cases were left untouched by Sir
John Ross; and after a further interval of sixteen years the place was
visited by a party from Her Majesty’s ship _Investigator_, when, according
to a letter from the captain, Sir James Ross, ‘the provisions were in
excellent condition, after having lain upon the beach, exposed to the
action of the sun, and all kinds of weather, for a period of nearly a
quarter of a century.’ Messrs Crosse and Blackwell have placed the
original letters in my hands for perusal, and they show beyond all doubt
that meat preserved in this manner will keep good for nearly half a
century——in fact, the case of boiled mutton now before you has been
preserved for forty——four years.”
The generality of the samples of preserved meat from Australia are
excellent in quality and flavour,[33] except that in most cases the meat
has been overcooked, which has arisen from the too prolonged contact of
the meat with the steam, which it is judged necessary shall be generated
in such quantities as to ensure the certainty of the exclusion of the air.
Another inconvenience attending the process, viz. the liability of the
sides of the tin to collapse, owing to the vacuum formed in its interior,
has been remedied by the introduction into the vessel of some inert gas,
such as carbonic acid, or nitrogen.
[Footnote 33: The Food Committee of the Society of Arts, who have
carefully and impartially examined numerous samples of Australian and
South American preserved meat, say: “It is perfectly sweet and fresh, but
somewhat insipid from overcooking, and it seems likely the flavour could
be improved if the duration of exposure to heat could be shortened without
endangering the preservation.”]
Preserved meat at the present time forms a very considerable article of
export both from Australia and South America. In the former country there
are several establishments of a colossal character, where the work of
tinning the meat is carried on, in many of which establishments hundreds
of cattle are slaughtered daily. The largest establishments of the kind
are at Sydney and Melbourne, whence extensive shipments are being
constantly made. The following figures are taken from the Board of Trade
returns:——
_Value of Meat preserved otherwise than by Salting._
Imports from Total
Australia. Imports.
1871 £481,093 £610,228
1872 657,945 816,463
1873 557,552 733,331
1874 509,698 757,001
1875 249,611 592,196
Since 1876 tinned meat has been imported from North America.
Several methods have been proposed for the preservation of meat by
subjecting it to such conditions that the surrounding temperature should
be sufficiently low to arrest putrefaction. In Mr Harrison’s process the
reduction of temperature was effected by the application of melting ice
and salt, made to run down the outside of the iron chambers containing the
meat. It is affirmed that although the joints submitted to this treatment
were solidly frozen, no loss of either flavour or immediate decomposition
of the meat took place. Mr Harrison’s experiment was perfectly successful
in Australia, but broke down during the voyage of a large cargo of meat
shipped from Australia in 1873, owing to a defect in the construction of
the ice chamber of the vessel and the failure of the supply of ice.
Of other forms of refrigeration applied for this purpose we may mention
the process of M. Tellier, by which he proposes to place (on ship-board or
elsewhere) joints of meat in a chamber through which a current of air
charged with ether or other volatile substance may be passed, with a view
to reduce the temperature to 30° F. Also that of M. Poggiale, from whose
report to the Paris Academy of Medicine it appears that in chambers
contrived on principles similar to M. Tellier’s, all kinds of butcher’s
meat and poultry have been hung for ten weeks, at the end of which time
they were found perfectly fresh and wholesome. The agent used in the
latter case for the production of cold was methylic ether.
The process, however, of refrigeration which has proved not only the most,
but in every respect successful, was first satisfactorily carried out
since 1876, in which time large cargoes of dead meat have been constantly
sent to our metropolitan markets, as well as to Glasgow, from New York.
The following extract from the ‘Dundee Advertiser’ gives some interesting
details of this process:——
“As to dead meat, the first sale was held on the 5th of June, when 100
carcases of beef and 72 of mutton were disposed of. Since then there has
never been a smaller supply, and on the average about 150 carcases have
been sold weekly. Last week 210 carcases were sold, and on Wednesday
evening there were no fewer than 33 lorries, each laden with three tons of
butcher’s meat. The freight paid for carriage to Glasgow, Liverpool, and
London, last week amounted to £1900. Altogether, since the importation
began, a million and a quarter pounds of dead meat have been sold in
Glasgow. The result of this importation has been a reduction in retail
price of 1d. per lb., instead of an increase in price, which must have
taken place without the increased supply.
“The oxen are collected chiefly in the states of Illinois and Kentucky.
They are there reared in enormous numbers on the prairies. Before they
reach New York they are driven over railway for fully a thousand miles.
Those animals the carcases of which are to be sent to this country are
killed the day before the departure of the steamer. As soon as the
carcases are dressed they are put into a cooling room capable of
containing 500, and subject to a constant current of cold air, supplied by
means of a 25 horse-power engine. This sets the beef and extracts the
animal heat. Each carcase is next cut into quarters, and these are sewn up
in canvas, and during the night transferred on board the vessel. Six of
the Anchor Line mail steamers have been fitted up with refrigeration
compartments, constructed on a patented principle specially for the
conveyance of meat.
“After the quarters have been hung up in the room the door is hermetically
closed. Adjoining the compartment is a chamber filled with ice. Air tubes
are connected with the beef room, and through them the animal heat
ascends, and by means of a powerful engine it is blown across the ice, and
returned to the beef room in a cold state. A temperature of about 38° is
thus maintained in the beef-room. If it were to get so low as
32°——freezing-point——the meat would be seriously injured.[34] The heat is,
therefore, regulated by a thermometer, and when the temperature gets too
low, the speed of the engine is slackened, the normal degree of cold being
thus maintained almost without variation during the voyage. Cattle killed
on Thursday in New York are sold that day fortnight in Glasgow.”
[Footnote 34: Mr Harrison’s experiments make this statement doubtful.]
The first patent for the preservation of food by means of ice was granted
to Mr John Ling in 1845.
Lastly, mention must not be omitted of another method for the preservation
of meat, which consists in the application to it of certain antiseptic
substances, the action of which in preventing putrefaction is due to their
power of destroying minute parasitic organisms of low animal or vegetable
life, that would otherwise attack and set up decomposition in the meat.
Our ordinary salted meats owe their immunity from decay, as is well known,
to the presence in their tissues of common salt. Meat preserved, however,
by this means is tough, indigestible, and wanting in many of its most
important soluble constituents, which, dissolving part of the salt, run
off from the meat and are lost.
Amongst other agents which have been found serviceable as antiseptics, and
for which from time to time numerous patents have been taken out, are
nitrate of potash, acetate and hydrochlorate of ammonia, the sulphates of
soda and potash, and bisulphate of lime. The writer remembers partaking,
some years since, of some Canadian turkey, which had been preserved by
means of this latter substance, and the turkey having been killed some two
months before being eaten. It was perfectly sound and of excellent
flavour. In this instance the bird had been sent from Canada, with several
others, packed in waterproof casks, filled up with a weak solution of
bisulphite of lime.
In some cases the saline solution is merely brushed over the outside of
the meat; whilst in others it is injected into the substance of the flesh.
Thiebierge’s process consists in dipping the joints for five minutes into
dilute sulphuric acid, of the strength of about ten of water to one of
acid. The meat after being taken out is carefully wiped and dried, and is
then hung up for keeping.
Sulphurous acid also forms the subject of several patents for the
preservation of meat. In the process of Laury, for which a patent was
taken out in 1854, the gas was introduced into the vessels containing the
food. In that of Belford, for which a provisional specification was
granted the same year, the meat was soaked for 24 hours in a solution of
sulphurous and hydrochloric acids (the latter being in the proportion of a
hundredth of the volume of the former). The addition of the hydrochloric
acid was made with the intention of decomposing any alkaline sulphites
that might be formed by the combination of the alkaline salts of the meat
with the sulphurous acid.
Dr Dewar’s process, which is very similar to the foregoing, proposes,
instead of exposing the meat to sulphurous acid fumigation, to immerse it
in a solution of the acid of the same strength as that of the British
Pharmacopœia. On being taken out of the liquid the meat, or other article,
is, as speedily as possible, dried at a temperature not exceeding 140° F.,
so that the albumen may be preserved simply in a desiccated, and not in a
coagulated condition.
In the patent of Demait, which dates from 1855, the meat was directed to
be hung up in a properly constructed chamber, and exposed for some time to
the action of the gas. More recently, Professor Gamgee has taken out a
patent, which is a modification of Demait’s, and which consists in hanging
up the carcase of the animal, previously killed when under the influence
of carbonic oxide, in a chamber filled with this latter gas, to which a
little sulphurous acid has been added, the chamber having been first
exhausted of air. The carcase is allowed to remain in the chamber from 24
to 48 hours, after which it is hung in dry air. It is stated that meat
subjected to the above treatment has been found perfectly sound and
eatable after an interval of five months.
M. Lanjorrois proposes to preserve animal substances from decay by the
addition to them of 1 per cent. of magenta. He states the process had been
applied to slices of beef, which, after being kept for several months,
yielded, after being washed and boiled, very good soup. Commenting on this
suggestion for the preservation of meat, the ‘Chemical News’ very sensibly
and properly remarks: “It is to be hoped the magenta employed will be free
from arsenic.”
The patent of M. de la Peyrouse (which dates from 1873) also consists in
excluding the air by enveloping meat in fat. In this process, however, the
fat is mixed, when in a melting condition, with a certain quantity of the
carbonates of sodium, potassium, and ammonium, as well as with some
chlorides of magnesium and aluminium, with the object of preventing the
fat becoming rancid and decomposing, and thus imparting a disagreeable
flavour to the meat.
In M. George’s process the meat is partially dried, and then steeped in
successive waters containing hydrochloric acid and sulphate of soda.
=MECON′IC ACID.= H_{3}C_{7}HO_{7}. _Syn._ ACIDUM MECONICUM, L. A peculiar
acid, first obtained by Sertuerner from opium, in 1804.
_Prep._ Meconate of lime is suspended in warm water, and treated with
hydrochloric acid. Impure meconic acid crystallises on cooling, and may be
purified by repeated treatment in the same way with hydrochloric acid. Its
purity is ascertained by its leaving no residue when heated in a platinum
or glass capsule.
_Prop._ Meconic acid forms beautiful pearly scales; possesses a sour
astringent taste; is soluble in boiling water, and to a less extent in
cold; it is also soluble in alcohol. With the acids it forms salts called
‘meconates,’ most of which are crystallisable. Meconate of lime is
obtained by heating a solution of chloride of calcium with an infusion of
opium made with cold water, and neutralised by powdered marble, and
collecting the precipitate. Meconate of potassa is prepared by direct
solution of the base in the impure acid obtained from meconate of lime
till the liquor turns green, heat being applied, when the salt
crystallises out as the liquid cools; it may be purified by pressure and
recrystallisation.
_Tests._ Meconic acid is characterised by——1. Turning ferric salts red,
and the red colour not being destroyed by the action of corrosive
sublimate.——2. Precipitating a weak solution of ammonio-sulphate of copper
green.——3. With acetate of lead, nitrate of silver, and chloride of
barium, it gives white precipitates, which are soluble in nitric acid.——4.
It is not reddened by chloride of gold.
=MEC′ONIN.= C_{10}H_{10}O_{4}. A white, crystalline, odourless, neutral
substance, discovered by Couerbe in opium.
=MECO′NIUM.= See OPIUM.
=MED′ICINES.= However skilful the medical practitioner may be, and however
judicious his treatment, both are interfered with, and their value more or
less neutralised, if the remedies he orders are not administered precisely
according to his instructions. It is the duty of the attendant on the sick
to follow implicitly the directions of the physician, as well in exactly
complying with his orders as in doing nothing that she has not been
ordered to do. At the same time there are exceptions to this rule, in
which a suspension of the remedy, or a deviation from the order of the
physician, is not only allowable, but is absolutely required. Thus, from
idiosyncrasy or some other cause, the remedy in the doses ordered may have
no effect, or may produce one widely different from that intended or
expected. In such cases it is evident that a strict adherence to the
direction of the physician would be productive of evil; but he should be
immediately apprised of the circumstance. The common practice of
neglecting to administer the doses of medicine at the prescribed time, or
after prescribed intervals, and then, to compensate for the omission,
giving the medicine more frequently or in larger doses, cannot be too
severely censured, as destructive to the welfare of the patient and
injurious to the credit of the physician.
For the purpose of disguising the taste of medicine, or lessening their
nauseating properties, Dr Pollio has recommended a means founded on the
physiological fact that a strong impression on the nerves (whether of
vision, hearing, or taste) renders that which follows less perceptible
than under the usual circumstances. Instead, therefore, of applying to
the mouth agreeable substances after swallowing nauseous medicines, we
should prepare it beforehand, in order that the taste of the medicine may
not be perceived. Aromatic substances, as orange or lemon peel, &c.,
chewed just before taking medicine, effectually prevent castor oil, &c.,
being tasted. In preparing the mouth for bitters, liquorice is the only
sweet that should be used, the others creating a peculiarly disagreeable
compound taste. We have noticed already the effect of oil of orange peel
in correcting the nauseating qualities of copaiba. See DOSE and
PRESCRIBING.
=MEDICINES FOR PASSENGER SHIPS.= The annexed scale of medicines, medical
stores, and instruments for ships clearing under the Passengers Acts,
other than steamships engaged in the North Atlantic trade, has been issued
and caused to be published by the Board of Trade, and is intended to
supersede the scales hitherto in force.
The quantities mentioned in the scale are for every 100 passengers, when
the length of the passage, computed according to the Passengers Act, is
100 days and upwards. Half the quantity of medicines indicated, but the
same kind and quantity of medical stores should be taken when the passage
is less than 100 days.
_N.B.——There is a separate scale for North Atlantic steam passenger
ships._
The medicines are to be prepared according to the British Pharmacopœia, to
be plainly labelled in English, and the average doses for an adult stated,
according to the British Pharmacopœia.
All bottles are to be stoppered, and all medicines indicated thus (*) are
to be marked with a red poison label. All fluid quantities are to be
measured by _fluid_ lbs., oz., or dr.
Lbs. oz. dr.
Acid, Acetic 0 6 0
*Acid, Carbolic 0 1 0
*Acid, Carbolic (a powder containing
not less than 20 per
cent. of pure carbolic or
cresylic acid) 112 0 0
Acid, Citric 0 3 0
Acid, Gallic 0 1 0
Acid, Hydrocyanic Dil. 0 0 4
Acid, Nitric 0 1 0
Acid, Sulph. Dil. 0 6 0
Æther 0 1 0
Alumen 0 1 0
Ammon. Carb. 0 6 0
Amylum 1 0 0
Argent. Nit. (Stick) 0 0 2
Calx Chlorate 7 0 0
Camphor 0 6 0
Charta Epispatica, 4 sq. ft., in case
*Chlor. of Zinc (Burnett’s sol. of) 16 0 0
*Chloroform 0 8 0
Copaiba 0 8 0
Creosote 0 0 2
Cupri Sulph. 0 1 0
Emp. Cantharidis 0 1 0
Ferri et Quiniæ Cit. 0 1 0
Ferri Sulph. 0 0 4
Glycerin 0 6 0
Glycerin Acid. Tannic 0 4 0
*Hydrat. Chloral 0 1 6
Hydrarg. cum Cretâ 0 0 4
Hydrarg. Subchloridi 0 0 4
Lini Farina 6 0 0
Lin. Camph. 0 8 0
Lin. Opii 0 2 0
Lin. Saponis 1 0 0
*Liq. Atropiæ 0 0 1
Liq. Calcis 1 0 0
*Liq. Morphiæ Acetatis 0 1 0
*Liq. Plumbi Subacetatis 0 2 0
Liq. Potassæ 0 2 0
*Liq. Potassæ Permanganatis
(B. P. or Condy’s Crimson
Fluid) 3 0 0
Magnes. Sulph. 4 0 0
Mist. Sennæ Co. (omit Extract of
Liquorice and substitute Aromatic
Spirit of Ammonia, 1
oz. to 1 pint of the mixture) 3 0 0
Ol. Croton 0 0 1
Ol. Lini 0 8 0
Ol. Menthæ Pip. 0 0 2
Ol. Morrhuæ 3 0 0
Ol. Olivæ 1 0 0
Ol. Ricini 2 0 0
Ol. Terebinthinæ 1 0 0
*Opium 1 0 0
Plumbi Acetatis 0 1 0
Potassæ Bicarb. Pulv. 0 4 0
Potassii Iodid. 0 2 0
Pulv. Antimonialis 0 0 3
*Pulv. Astringens (double the
quantity indicated to be
taken to all tropical ports.
Pulv. Catechu Co., Pulv.
Cretæ Arom. cum Opiô——equal
parts) 1 0 0
Pulv. Cretæ Arom. cum Opiô. 0 2 0
Pulv. Ipecac. 0 2 0
Pulv. Ipecac. Co. 0 2 0
Pulv. Jalapæ Co. 0 3 0
Pulv. Potassæ Nitratis 0 4 0
Pulv. Rhei Co. 0 4 0
Pulv. Scammon. Co. 0 0 6
Quiniæ Sulph. (double the
quantity indicated to be taken
to all tropical ports) 0 1 0
Sodæ Bicarb. 1 0 0
Sp. Æther. Nitrosi 0 8 0
Sp. Ammon. Arom. 0 8 0
Sp. Rectif. 0 4 0
Sp. Sulphur Sublimatum 3 0 0
Syr. Ferri Iodidi 0 4 0
*Sol. Morphiæ Acetat. (a neutral
solution containing 4 grains
in a drachm, and so marked.
To be labelled——for hypodermic
injection) 0 0 4
Tr. Arnicæ 0 6 0
Tr. Camphoræ Co. 0 8 0
Tr. Digitalis 0 0 6
Tr. Ergotæ 0 6 0
Tr. Ferri Perchloridi 0 4 0
*Tr. Opii 0 6 0
Tr. Scillæ 0 2 0
Tr. Valerian. Ammon. 0 3 0
Ung. Cetacei 1 0 0
Ung. Hydrargyri 0 2 0
Ung. Hydrargyri Ox. Rub. 0 1 0
Ung. Sulph. 1 0 0
Ung. Zinci 0 2 0
Vin. Colchici 0 1 0
Vin. Ipecac. 0 1 0
Zinci Sulphatis 0 1 0
Desiccated Soup 4 0 0
_All pills to be made and marked +5+ grains._
Pil. Aloes cum Myrrhâ 2 doz.
Pil. Col. c. Hyoscy 4 doz.
Pil. Hydrarg. 3 doz.
Pil. Ipecac. cum Scillâ 5 doz.
Pil. Quiniæ 6 doz.
Pil. Sapon. Co. 6 doz.
_Medical Stores._
Lint 10 oz.
Tow 1 lb.
Adhesive Plaster 3 yds.
Male Syringe 1
Male Syringe Glass 1
Female Syringe 1
Phials (assorted) 2 doz.
Phial corks 6 doz.
Sponges 3
Bed-pan 1
Paper of Pins 1
Hernia Truss, 36 in., reversible 1
Paper of Pill Boxes 1
Gallipots 6
Leg and Arm Bandages 6
Calico 3 yds.
Flannel Bandages, 7 yds. long, 6
in. wide 2
Flannel 2 yds.
Triangular Bandages, base 48
in., sides 33 in. each 2
† Minim Measures 2
† 1 oz. Measures 1
† 2 oz. Measures 1
† Set of Splints 1
† Waterproof sheeting 4 yds.
† Oiled Silk 1 yd.
† Enema Syringe and Stomach Pump 1
† Box of Small Scales and Weights 1
† Wedgwood Mortar and Pestle 1
Wedgwood Funnel 1
† Spatulas 2
† Authorised Book of Directions for
Medicine Chests 1
† British Pharmacopœia 1
† One set only of these articles required, irrespective of number of
passengers.
N.B.——Only one set of instruments required, without regard to the number
of surgeons, passengers, or the length of the voyage.
_Instruments._
I { 1 Tenaculum.
n { 1 Artery Forceps.
{ 1 Operating ditto.
P { 1 Finger Knife.
o { 1 Curve Bistoury, Probe Point.
c { 1 Curve Bistoury, Spear Point.
k { 2 Probes.
e { 1 Silver Director.
t { 1 Caustic Case.
{ 1 Scissors.
C { 1 Spatula.
a { 12 Needles.
s { 1 Skein Ligature Silk.
e { 3 Lancets.
1 Amputating Saw.
2 Amputating Knives.
1 Bone Forceps.
3 Tooth Forceps.
1 Skull Forceps.
1 Trephine.
1 Elevator.
1 Hey’s Saw.
1 Trephine Brush.
2 Scalpels.
1 Hernia Knife.
2 Trocars and Canulas.
1 Aneurism Needle.
1 Hernia Director.
1 Tourniquet.
2 Silver Catheters (Nos. 4 and 8).
4 Elastic Gum Catheters (Nos. 3, 5, and 7).
1 Clinical Thermometer.
1 Hypodermic Syringe.
1 dozen charged Tubes for Vaccination.
1 Set of Midwifery Instruments.
=MEER′SCHAUM.= _Syn._ ECUME DE MER, L. A native silicate of magnesia. It
has a sp. gr. ranging between 2·6 to 3·4; is readily acted on by acids,
and fuses before a powerful blowpipe into a white enamel. The finest
qualities are found in Greece and Turkey. Its principal application is to
the manufacture of tobacco-pipes. The Germans prepare their pipes for sale
by soaking them in tallow, then in white wax, and, finally, by polishing
them with shavegrass. Genuine meerschaum pipes are distinguished from mock
ones by the beautiful brown colour which they assume after being smoked
for some time. Of late years some of the pipemakers have produced a
composition clay pipe, which closely resembles meerschaum in appearance,
and is “warranted to colour well.” The composition, which is comparatively
valueless, is made up into pipes of suitable patterns, which are
frequently sold to the ignorant for “meerschaums.” See CEMENTS, HYDRAULIC.
=ME′GRIM.= _Syn._ MEAGRIM, HEMICRANIA, L. A pain affecting one side of the
head only, often periodic, like an ague, and generally of a nervous,
hysterical, or bilious character. It is clavus when there is a strong
pulsation, conveying the sensation of a nail piercing the part. See
HEADACHE.
=MEG′RIMS.= _Syn._ MEAGRIMS, VERTIGO. In veterinary medicine this term is
applied to horses which when at work reel, then stand for a minute dull
and stupid, or fall to the ground, and lie partially insensible for a few
minutes. “Horses subject to this affection should be driven with a
breastplate or pipe collar, so as to prevent pressure on the veins
carrying the blood from the head; the bowels should be kept in good order;
an occasional laxative is advisable, and a course, either of arsenic or
quinine, or of arsenic and iron.” (Dun.)
=MEL′ANCHOLY.= See HYPOCHONDRIASIS and INSANITY.
=MELIS′SIC ALCOHOL.= A substance obtained by Brodie from beeswax. By
oxidation it yields ‘melissic acid.’
=MELLA′GO.= The old name for a medicine having the consistence of honey,
with a somewhat sweetish taste. Mellago taraxaci is fluid extract of
dandelion.
=MELTING-POINT.= The temperature at which solids assume the liquid form.
=MEN′STRUUM.= [L.] A solvent or dissolvent. The principal MENSTRUA
employed in chemistry and pharmacy to extract the active principles of
bodies by digestion, decoction, infusion, or maceration, are water,
alcohol, oils, and solutions of the acids and alkalies.
=MERCU′′RIAL BAL′SAM.= See OINTMENT OF NITRATE OF MERCURY.
=MERCU′′RIAL DISEASE′.= _Syn._ MORBUS MERCURIALIS, HYDRARGYRIASIS, L. This
results from the injudicious or excessive use of mercury, or exposure to
the fumes of this metal. The common and leading symptoms are a
disagreeable coppery taste; excessive salivation; sponginess, tumefaction,
and ulceration of the gums; swollen tongue; loosening of the teeth;
exfoliation of the jaws; remarkably offensive breath; debility;
emaciation; ending (when not arrested) in death from exhaustion. Fever,
cachexia, violent purging and griping, a species of eczema (ECZEMA
MERCURIALE, LEPRA MERCURIALIS), and other forms of skin disease, are also
phases of the same affection, the first of which occasionally proves fatal
under the influence of sudden and violent physical exertion.
The treatment, in ordinary cases, may consist in free exposure to the open
air, avoiding either heat or cold; the administration of saline aperients,
as Epsom salts, phosphate of soda, &c.; the free use of lemon juice and
water as a common drink; with weak gargles or washes of chloride of soda
or chloride of lime to the gums, mouth, and throat. Severe cases often
resist every variety of treatment, and instances are recorded in the
medical journals in which the use of even small doses of mercurials,
administered by the faculty, have, owing to the peculiar idiosyncrasy of
the patients, been followed by the most horrible sufferings, terminating
in death.
=MER′CURY.= Hg. _Syn._ QUICKSILVER, HYDRARGYRUM (B. P., Ph. L. E. and D.);
MERCURE, VIF ARGENT, Fr.; QUECKSILBER, Ger. A remarkable metal, which has
been known from a very early period. The Romans employed it as a medicine
externally, as did the Arabs; but the Hindoos were probably the first to
prescribe it internally.
_Sources._ The most important are the mines of Idria, in Carniola;
Almaden, in New Castile; and New Almaden, in California, where it exists
combined with sulphur, under the form of cinnabar. From this ore the pure
metal is obtained by distilling it with lime or iron filings, in iron
retorts, by which the sulphur it contains is seized and retained, while
the mercury rises in the state of vapour, and is condensed in suitable
receivers. Quicksilver is commonly imported in cylindrical iron bottles;
containing 1/2 cwt. to 1 cwt. each. It is also imported in small
quantities from China, contained in bamboo bottles holding about 20 lbs.
each.
_Prep._ Mercury, as imported, is usually sufficiently pure for medicinal
purposes without any further preparation. Mere mechanical impurities, as
floating dust, dirt, &c., may be got rid of by squeezing the metal through
chamois leather or flannel, or by filtering it through a small hole in the
apex of an inverted cone of paper. It can be further cleaned by shaking
well with a little strong nitric acid, washing with distilled water, and
drying by blotting paper, or filtering through warm chamois leather.
_Prop., &c._ Mercury, at all common temperatures, is a heavy liquid,
possessing a nearly silver-white colour, and a brilliant metallic lustre;
solidifies (freezes) at -40° Fahr., and is then ductile, malleable, and
tenacious; boils at 662° Fahr., and escapes in colourless transparent
vapour, of great density; it also volatilises slowly at the ordinary
temperature of the atmosphere. The presence of minute quantities of lead
and zinc greatly retard its evaporation at its boiling heat. It unites
with oxygen, chlorine, iodine, &c., forming numerous compounds. With the
metals it unites to form AMALGAMS. The only acids which act directly on
metallic mercury are the sulphuric and nitric, but for this purpose the
former must be heated and concentrated. Nitric acid, however, even when
dilute and in the cold, dissolves it freely. Pure mercury is unalterable
in the air at ordinary temperatures. Sp. gr. 13·59 at 60° Fahr.; about 14·
when in the solid state.
_Uses, &c._ Mercury is applied to various purposes in the arts; as the
amalgamation of gold and silver, ‘wash gilding,’ the silvering of
looking-glasses, the manufacture of barometers and thermometers, and the
preparation of several very valuable medicines. In its metallic state it
appears to be inert when swallowed, unless it meets with much acidity in
the alimentary canal, or is in a state of minute division; its compounds
are, however, all of them more or less poisonous.
Mercury has been employed in one or other of its forms in almost _all_
diseases; but each of its numerous preparations is supposed to have some
peculiarity of action of its own, combined with that common to all the
compounds of this metal. The mercurials form, indeed, one of the most
important classes of the materia medica.
_Tests._ 1. _Metallic mercury_ is detected by its liquid condition and
volatility; and, when in a finely divided or pulverulent state, by the
microscope, or by staining a piece of copper white when the two are rubbed
together.
Mercury, when present in combination, can be detected as under:
When intimately mixed with anhydrous sodium carbonate, and heated in a
small test-tube, under a layer of the carbonate, decomposition ensues, and
a crust of grey sublimate forms on the cooler portion of the tube. When
examined by a lens this crust is seen to consist of minute metallic
globules. By friction with a bright glass or iron rod these are united
into globules, which are visible to the naked eye.
A perfectly clean and bright piece of copper, immersed in a slightly acid
solution of mercury, becomes in a short time covered with a grey or
whitish stain, which assumes a silvery lustre when gently rubbed with a
piece of soft cork or leather, and is removed by the subsequent
application of heat. A single drop of liquid may be tested on a bright
copper coin in this way.
The plate of copper with the deposit of mercury, obtained as above, after
being washed with a weak solution of ammonia, and in distilled water, and
dried by pressure between the folds of bibulous paper, may be cut into
small pieces, and heated in a test-tube, in order to obtain metallic
globules. When the suspected solution contains organic matter, bright
copper filings may be employed, and the process modified so as nearly to
resemble Reinsch’s test for arsenious acid. According to Orfila, “scraped
copper plate” is capable of detecting the presence of 1/80000th part of
corrosive sublimate in a solution. MM. Trousseau and Reveil state that a
plate of yellow copper (brass) is even more susceptible than one of red
copper.
(Smithson’s electrolytic test.) This consists in the use of a polished
wire or plate of gold or copper round which a strip or thread of zinc or
tin is wound in a spiral direction. The suspected liquid is acidulated
with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, and after immersion for a longer or
a shorter period (as half an hour to an hour or two), the gold will have
become white if any mercury is present. The coil of zinc or tin is then
removed from the gold, and the latter, after being washed and dried
between the folds of bibulous paper, is heated in a test-tube, to obtain
metallic globules, as before.
An ingenious extemporaneous application of the electrolytic test may be
made as follows:——Place a drop or two of the suspected liquid on a clean
and bright gold or copper coin, and apply a bright key, so that it may at
once touch the edge of the coin and the solution. (See _engr._) An
electric current will then be established as before, and a white spot of
reduced mercury will appear on the surface of the metal, which may be
recognised in the manner already explained.
[Illustration:
_a._ A gold or copper coin.
_b._ Drop of suspected solution.
_c._ A bright key.]
The salts of mercury are divided into two classes——mercurous, where
mercury is a monad element, and unites with one atom of chlorine; and
mercuric salts, where it plays the part of a dyad element, or unites with
two atoms. The latter of these will be taken first.
=Mercury, Pure.= (Ph. B.) _Syn._ HYDRARGYRUM PURUM. Place commercial
mercury, 3 lbs., in a glass retort or iron bottle, and applying heat cause
2-1/2 lbs. of the metal to distil over into a flask employed as a
receiver. Boil on this for five minutes hydrochloric acid, 3 dr., diluted
with distilled water, 9 fl. dr., and having by repeated affusions of
distilled water, and decantations, removed every trace of acid, let the
mercury be transferred to a porcelain capsule, and dried first by
filtering paper, and finally on a water bath.
=Mercuric Salts.= _Tests._ Sulphuretted hydrogen and ammonium sulphide,
added in very small quantities, produce on agitation a perfectly white
precipitate, which acquires successively a yellow, orange, and
brownish-red colour, as more of the test is added; and, ultimately, when
the test is added in considerable excess, an intensely black colour. This
precipitate is insoluble in excess of the precipitant, potassium hydrate,
potassium cyanide, hydrochloric acid, or nitric acid, even when boiling;
but it dissolves readily and completely in potassium sulphide and in ‘aqua
regia’ with decomposition. These reactions are characteristic.
Ammonia gives a white precipitate.
Potassium hydrate gives a reddish precipitate, turning yellow when the
test is added in excess. The presence of ammonia causes the precipitate to
be white, and when the solution contains much acid both reactions are
imperfect.
Alkaline carbonates give a brick-red precipitate.
Potassium iodide gives a scarlet precipitate, which is soluble in excess,
and in alcohol, and solution of sodium chloride.
The alkaline bicarbonates either do not disturb the solution, or only
cause a slight degree of opalescence.
=Mercuric Acetate.= Hg(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}. _Syn._ PROTACETATE OF
MERCURY. _Prep._ By dissolving mercuric oxide in warm acetic acid. It
crystallises in brilliant micaceous lamina, soluble in their own weight of
cold water, and somewhat more soluble in boiling water. According to
Robiquet, this is the basis of Keyser’s antivenereal pills, which do not
contain subacetate of mercury, as has been asserted.
=Mercuric Bromide.= HgBr_{2}. _Syn._ PROTOBROMIDE OF MERCURY, HYDRARGYRI
BIBROMIDUM. _Prep._ Two equal parts of bromine and mercury and sublime.
Soluble reddish mass; resembles the iodide in its action.——_Dose_, 1/20 to
1/8 gr.
=Mercuric Chloride.= HgCl_{2}. _Syn._ PROTOCHLORIDE OF MERCURY,
PERCHLORIDE OF MERCURY, BICHLORIDE OF MERCURY, CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE;
HYDRARGYRI PERCHLORIDUM (B. P.), HYDRARGYRI BICHLORIDUM (Ph. L.),
SUBLIMATUS CORROSIVUS (Ph. E.), SUBLIMATUM CORROSIVUM (Ph. D.), HYDRARGYRI
CHLORIDUM CORROSIVUM (Ph. U. S.), HYDRARGYRI MURIAS CORROSIVUS, L. This is
the ‘corrosive sublimate’ of the shops.
_Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Mercury, 2 lbs.; sulphuric acid, 21-1/2 fl. oz.; boil
to dryness, and rub the residuum, when cold, with sodium chloride, 1-1/2
lb., in an earthenware mortar; lastly, sublime by a gradually increased
heat.
2. (Ph. E.) Mercury, 4 oz.; sulphuric acid, 2 fl. oz. 3 fl. dr.; pure
nitric acid, 1/2 fl. oz.; dissolve, add of sodium chloride, 3 oz., and
sublime as before.
3. (Ph. D.) ‘Persulphate of mercury’ (mercuric sulphate), 2 parts; dried
sodium chloride, 1 part; triturate, &c., as before.
4. (Ph. B.) Reduce sulphate of mercury, 20 oz., and chloride of sodium,
dried, 16 oz., each to fine powder, and having mixed them add black oxide
of manganese, in fine powder, 1 oz., thoroughly by trituration in a
mortar, place the mixture in an apparatus adapted for sublimation, and
apply sufficient heat to cause vapours of perchloride of mercury to rise
into the less heated part of the apparatus arranged for their
condensation.
_Obs._ In preparing corrosive sublimate, as well as calomel, by the common
process, the solution of the mercury is usually made in an iron pot, set
in a furnace under a chimney, to carry off the fumes; and the sublimation
is conducted in an earthen alembic placed in a sand bath, or in an iron
pot, covered with a semi-spherical earthen head. Corrosive sublimate may
also be made by the direct solution of mercuric oxide in hydrochloric
acid, or by bringing its constituents together in the state of vapour. The
latter plan was patented by the late Dr A. T. Thomson.
_Prop._ The mercuric chloride of commerce occurs in white,
semi-transparent, crystalline masses, of considerable density; it
possesses an intense coppery taste, is soluble in about 16 parts of cold,
and in 3 parts of boiling water; the boiling solution deposits its excess
of salt in long white prisms as it cools; soluble in alcohol and ether, in
the latter so much so that it has even the property of withdrawing it from
its aqueous solutions; the addition of hydrochloric acid, ammonious
chloride or camphor, increases its solubility in all these menstrua. It is
decomposed by contact with nearly all metallic bodies, and in solution by
various organic substances, and by exposure to light. Sp. gr. 5·2 (5·14 to
5·42——Liebig). It melts at about 509° Fahr., and boils and volatilises at
a higher temperature.
_Tests._ The presence of mercuric chloride may, under most circumstances,
be readily detected by the tests given. To distinguish it from other
salts, special tests for chlorine or hydrochloric acid must be applied. If
on filtering the solution, acidulating it with dilute nitric acid, and
testing it with silver nitrate, a cloudy white precipitate be formed,
which is insoluble in excess of the precipitant, and in nitric acid, but
soluble in ammonia water, and blackened by lengthened exposure to light,
corrosive sublimate is shown to be present in the substance examined.
Calomel, the only compound of mercury with chlorine besides corrosive
sublimate, is an insoluble powder, which could not, therefore, be found in
the filtered liquid. Calomel, or the white precipitate formed by the
mercurous salt, with hydrochloric acid and the soluble chlorides, is
soluble in excess of the precipitant, and is not only insoluble in liquor
of ammonia, but is immediately blackened by it.
For the purpose of demonstrating the presence of corrosive sublimate in a
highly coloured liquid, or one loaded with organic matter, it is necessary
to agitate it for some minutes with an equal volume of ether. After repose
for a short time, the ethereal solution is decanted, and allowed to
evaporate spontaneously. The residuum (if any) contains the corrosive
sublimate, which, after being dissolved in distilled water, is readily
recognised by the above characteristics.
When the substance under examination consists of food, or the contents of
the digestive canal, or of animal tissue, it is in general necessary to
destroy the organic matter in a nearly similar way to that described under
ARSENIOUS ACID. The process adopted by Devergie for this purpose consists
in dissolving the substance in concentrated hydrochloric acid, and passing
a stream of chlorine through the liquid.——Flandin first carbonises the
mass with 1/3 or 1/2 its weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, at 212°
Fahr., and then saturates the acid in the cold, with dry ‘chloride of
lime,’ added in fragments, assisting the action by stirring, and further
adding, by degrees, as the matter thickens and becomes white, a sufficient
quantity of distilled water.——Lassaigne boils the suspected mixture for
some time with a solution of sodium chloride; a method which, according to
Orfila, is not sufficiently delicate to withdraw minute portions of
mercury from flesh.——Millon agitates organic liquids (more especially
blood, milk, &c.) in large flasks containing gaseous chlorine, which is
frequently renewed.——Orfila either dissolves the matter in aqua regia, and
passes a stream of chlorine through the liquid, or he carbonises it by
means of concentrated sulphuric acid, in close vessels.——Personne proceeds
by a similar method, but avoids raising the temperature of the substances
operated on.——Reveil employs either the last method or that of Millon. In
all cases it is advisable to operate in close vessels, on account of the
volatility of the bichloride; Orfila’s apparatus consists of a matrass,
provided with a bent tube, the one end of which is plunged into a jar of
cold distilled water. The corrosive sublimate is found both in the
volatilised matter and in the carbonised residuum, and is extracted from
the latter by boiling it for 15 or 20 minutes in aqua regia.
When the organic matter has been destroyed by any of the above processes,
and a colourless and filtered solution in distilled water obtained, the
usual tests may be at once applied. But in this way we can only detect the
presence of mercury, but are unable to decide in what way it has entered
the system, although we may infer it from other circumstances. It is,
therefore, absolutely necessary, in all medico-legal investigations, to
previously employ ether (see _above_), in order that we may be enabled to
examine the deleterious matter in its original form, or that in which it
was swallowed.
_Uses, &c._ Mercuric chloride is employed as an alterative, diaphoretic,
and resolvent, in the chronic forms of secondary syphilis, rheumatism,
scrofula, cancer, old dropsies, numerous skin diseases, &c.; and
externally, as a caustic, in cancer, and made into an ointment, lotion, or
injection, in a vast number of skin diseases, ulcers, gleet, &c., and as a
preventive of contagion. It acts quicker than the other preparations of
mercury, and it is less apt to induce salivation; but it has been said
that its effects are less apparent.——_Dose_, 1/10 to 1/4 gr., either made
into a pill, or in solution. It is highly poisonous, and must be exhibited
and handled with the greatest caution. Its use is contra-indicated in
cases complicated with pulmonary affections or nervous derangement.
_Pois._——1. _Symptoms._ Strong coppery or metallic taste; intense pain in
the mouth, pharynx, œsophagus, stomach, and intestines; nausea, vomiting
(often bloody), diarrhœa, and (sometimes) violent dysentery (these
evacuations are generally more frequent than in poisoning by other
metallic compounds). After a certain time there is generally an abatement
of the severity of the symptoms; the circulation becomes slower, the pulse
small and thready, the respiration gentle, and the skin cold; syncope then
supervenes, and great general insensibility, always commencing at the
pelvic extremities; and sometimes convulsions occur; the secretion of
urine is generally diminished, sometimes even entirely suppressed; but the
patients always urinate if the sublimate has been employed in a very
diluted state, and if drinks have been administered. Death often appears
to result from the shock to the nervous system, from intense exhaustion,
or from mortification or intense inflammation of the primæ viæ. Poisoning
by corrosive sublimate is distinguished from that by arsenic, by the
countenance being flushed, and even swollen; whereas, in poisoning by
arsenic, it is wholly contracted and ghastly, and by the whitened
condition of the epithelium of the mouth.
2. _Antidotes._ White of egg, hydrated ferric sulphide or ferrous
sulphide, and gluten, are each of them powerful antidotes. White of egg
has proved efficacious in numerous cases. It requires the white of one egg
to decompose 4 gr. of corrosive sublimate. (Peschier.) The recently
precipitated protosulphuret of iron is, however, according to Mialhe, the
antidote par excellence, not only to corrosive sublimate, but to the salts
of lead and copper. The gluten of wheat has also been recommended
(Taddei); or, what is equally efficacious, wheat flour mixed up with
water. When any of the above are not at hand, copious draughts of milk may
be substituted. Iron filings have been occasionally used as an antidote.
All these substances should be taken in considerable quantities; the dose
should be frequently repeated, and the general treatment similar to that
in cases of poisoning by arsenic. Vomiting should be, in all cases,
immediately induced, to remove, if possible, the poisonous matter from the
stomach.
=Mercuric-ammonium Chloride.= HgNH_{2}Cl. _Syn._ AMMONIO-CHLORIDE OF
MERCURY, AMMONIATED CHLORIDE OF MERCURY, WHITE PRECIPITATE, LEMERY’S W.
P., COSMETIC MERCURY; HYDRARGYRI AMMONIATUM (B. P.), HYDRARGYRI
AMMONIO-CHLORIDUM (Ph. L.), HYDRARGYRUM PRECIPITATUM ALBUM (Ph. E.)
_Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Mercuric chloride, 6 oz.; distilled water, 3 quarts;
dissolve, with heat, and when the solution has cooled, add of liquor of
ammonia 8 fl. oz., frequently shaking it; lastly, wash the precipitate
with water, and dry it. The formulæ of the Ph. E. & D. are nearly similar.
2. Mercuric chloride and ammonium chloride, of each 1/2 lb.; water, 3
quarts; dissolve, and precipitate with solution of potassium hydrate,
q. s.
_Prop., &c._ A white, inodorous, light mass, or powder; insoluble in
alcohol, partially soluble in boiling water, and wholly dissolved by
sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids, without effervescence. It is
totally dissipated by heat. When heated with solution of potash, it
exhales ammonia, and assumes a yellow colour. Used to make an ointment,
which is employed in herpes, porrigo, itch, and other skin diseases, &c.;
and by the lower orders as a dusting powder to destroy pediculi, an
application which, from its liberal employment, is not always a safe one.
It is highly poisonous, and must not be swallowed.
=Mercuric and Ammonium Chloride.= NH_{4}Cl,HgCl_{2}. _Syn._ CHLORIDE OF
MERCURY AND AMMONIUM, SAL ALEMBROTH; HYDRARGYRI ET AMMONII CHLORIDIUM, L.
_Prep._ (P. Cod.) From mercuric chloride and ammonium chloride, equal
parts, triturated together. “The object in adding the ammonium chloride
here is to render the corrosive sublimate more soluble in water. The
action of the latter is not otherwise altered.” (Redwood.) It is chiefly
used for lotions and injections.
=Mercuric and Quinine Chloride.= _Syn._ CHLORIDE OF MERCURY AND QUININE;
HYDRARGYRI ET QUINÆ CHLORIDUM, L. _Prep._ (M’Dermott.) From mercuric
chloride, 1 part; quinine chloride, 3 parts; separately formed into
saturated solutions with water and then mixed; the crystalline precipitate
is collected and dried by a gentle heat.——_Dose_, 1/8 to 1/2 gr., made
into a pill with crum of bread; daily, as an alterative in debilitated
habits; or combined with opium thrice daily, to produce salivation.
=Mercuric Cyanide.= HgCy_{2} or Hg(CN)_{2}. _Syn._ CYANIDE OF MERCURY;
HYDRARGYRI CYANIDUM, H. BICYANIDUM, H. CYANURETUM (Ph. U. S.), L. _Prep._
1. (Pb. L. 1836.) Ferric ferrocyanide (pure Prussian blue), 8 oz.;
mercuric oxide, 10 oz.; distilled water, 4 pints; boil for half an hour,
filter, evaporate, and crystallise; wash what remains frequently with
boiling distilled water, and again evaporate, that crystals may form. This
is Proust’s process. The formula of the Ph. U. S. is similar.
2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Prussian blue (pure), 6 parts; mercuric oxide, 5 parts;
distilled water, 40 parts; as the last.
3. (Desfosses.) Potassium ferrocyanide, 1 part, is boiled for 1/4 hour
with mercuric sulphate, 2 parts, and distilled water, 8 parts; the deposit
is separated by filtration, and the liquid evaporated to crystallising
point.
4. (Winckler.) Saturate dilute hydrocyanic acid with mercuric oxide;
evaporate and crystallise. Pure.
_Prop., &c._ Heavy, colourless, inodorous, square prisms; tasting strongly
metallic; soluble in 8 parts of cold water; slightly soluble in alcohol.
Those made by the first two formulæ are of a pale yellow colour. It is
transparent and totally soluble in water. The solution, on the addition of
hydrochloric acid, evolves hydrocyanic acid, known by its smell; and a
glass moistened with a solution of nitrate of silver, and held over it,
gives a deposit soluble in boiling nitric acid. When heated it evolves
cyanogen, and runs into globules of metallic mercury. It has been
administered in some hepatic and skin diseases, and has been proposed as a
substitute for corrosive sublimate. (Parent.) It has been said to act
directly on the skin and bones, and to have proved useful in allaying the
pain of nodes and in dispersing them. (Mendaga.) It is, however,
principally used as a source of cyanogen and hydrocyanic acid.——_Dose_,
1/16 to 1/4 gr. (beginning with the smaller quantity), made into pills
with crum of bread, or in alcoholic solution; as a gargle or lotion, 10
gr. to water, 1 pint; as an ointment, 10 or 12 gr., to lard, 1 oz.
=Mercuric Iodide.= HgI_{2}. _Syn._ PROTIODIDE OF MERCURY, RED IODIDE OF
MERCURY, IODIDE OF MERCURY, BINIODIDE OF MERCURY; HYDRARGYRI IODIDUM
RUBRUM (B. P.), HYDRARGYRI IODIDUM, H. BINIODIDUM (Ph. E.), H. IODIDUM
RUBRUM (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Mercuric chloride (corrosive
sublimate), 4; potassium iodide, 5; boiling distilled water, 80. Dissolve
the mercuric chloride in 60 of water, and the potassium iodide in the
remainder, and mix the two solutions. Allow to stand, decant the
supernatant liquor, and collect the precipitate on a filter, wash twice
with cold water, and dry at 212° F.
2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Mercury, 1 oz.; iodine, 10 dr.; rectified spirit, q. s.
(2 or 3 fl. dr.); triturate until the globules of mercury disappear, and
the mixture assumes a scarlet colour, then dry it in the shade, and
preserve it in a well-stoppered vessel.
3. (Ph. E.) Mercury, 2 oz.; iodine, 2-1/2 oz.; spirit, q. s.; triturate
together as last, dissolve the product, by brisk ebullition, in
concentrated solution of sodium chloride, 1 gall., filter whilst boiling
hot, wash the crystals that are deposited as the solution cools, and dry
them.
4. (Ph. D.) Mercuric chloride, 1 oz.; hot distilled water, 25 fl. oz.;
dissolve potassium iodide, 1-1/2 oz.; water, 5 fl. oz.; dissolve; when the
solutions are cold, mix them, collect the precipitate on a paper filter,
drain it, wash it with distilled water, 10 fl. oz., and dry it at a heat
not above that of boiling water.
_Prop., &c._ A bright scarlet powder, insoluble in water, but soluble in
alcohol and ether, and in the solutions of several of the iodides and
chlorides. It is also soluble in cod-liver oil, and in several other fixed
oils. Readily sublimed.——_Dose_, 1/16 to 1/4 gr., dissolved in alcohol or
made into a pill; in the same cases as the subiodides, from which it
differs chiefly in its greater energy and poisonous qualities.
=Mercuric Oleate.= See OINTMENT OF OLEATE OF MERCURY.
=Mercuric and Potassium Iodide.= HgI_{2}.KI. _Syn._ IODIDE OF MERCURY AND
POTASSIUM, IODO-HYDRARGYRATE OF POTASSIUM; HYDRARGYRI ET POTASSII IODIDUM,
L. _Prep._ 1. (M. Boullay.) Mercuric iodide, potassium iodide, and water,
equal parts; dissolve by heat, and crystallise by evaporation or
refrigeration, or gently evaporate to dryness.
2. (Puche.) From mercuric iodide and potassium iodide, equal parts,
triturated together.——_Dose_, 1/16 to 1/8 gr., dissolved in water; in the
same cases as the biniodide, and in chronic bronchitis, hooping-cough,
inflammatory sore throat, &c.
=Mercuric and Potassium Iodo-cy′anide.= _Syn._ HYDRARGYRI ET POTASSII
IODO-CYANIDUM, L. _Prep._ To a concentrated solution of mercuric cyanide
add a rather strong solution of potassium iodide, and dry the precipitate
by a gentle heat.
_Prop., &c._ Small, white, pearly, crystalline plates or scales. It is
chiefly used as a test of the purity of hydrocyanic acid. When put into
this liquid it is instantly turned red if any mineral acid is present.
=Mercuric Nitrate.= Hg(NO_{3})_{2}. _Syn._ PROTONITRATE OF MERCURY,
PERNITRATE OF MERCURY. _Prep._ 1. (NEUTRAL.) This is obtained by solution
of mercuric oxide, in excess of nitric acid. The solution, evaporated in a
bell-jar over sulphuric acid, yields crystals which are neutral. The same
compound is obtained as a crystalline powder when the syrupy liquid is
dropped into strong nitric acid.
(Basic.) 1st. 2Hg(NO_{3})HO.H_{2}O. _Prep._ _a._ By saturating hot dilute
nitric acid with mercuric oxide. The salt, which is bibasic, crystallises
on cooling.
_b._ By dissolving mercury in excess of nitric acid, with heat, until the
solution, when diluted with distilled water, ceases to give a precipitate
with common salt. It is now a mixed solution of the neutral and bibasic
pernitrates; but by evaporation crystals of the latter salt only are
deposited. The acid solution (before evaporation) is used as a caustic in
cancerous, syphilitic, and other ulcerations; but it frequently produces
intense pain, and occasionally the usual constitutional effects of
mercury. It was formerly given in similar cases to those in which the
bichloride is now employed.——_Dose_ (of the dry salt), 1/20 to 1/12 gr.
This is the preparation ordinarily referred to under the name ‘pernitrate
of mercury.’
2nd. 2Hg(NO_{3})HO.HgO. _c._ By saturating strong nitric acid with
mercury, by heat, throwing the solution into cold water, and collecting
and drying the precipitate. This salt, which is tribasic, is also formed
when the preceding crystallised salts are put into hot water.
_Obs._ This last preparation is a heavy, yellow powder, but the shade
varies according to its basicity, which increases with the temperature of
the water employed to effect the precipitation, until, at the boiling
temperature, the colour is a dull red. It is extensively employed for the
extemporaneous preparation of the ointment of nitrate of mercury,
according to the formula on the following label which accompanies each
bottle:——“Hydrarg. subnitras.” “Two scruples, mixed with one ounce of
simple cerate, make the ung. hydrarg. nit. of the London Pharmacopœia.” We
need scarcely add that this statement, so unblushingly uttered, is a
dangerous falsehood. An ointment so made possesses neither the quantity of
mercury nor of nitric acid employed in the Pharmacopœia preparation,
besides wanting many of its most sensible and valuable properties.
=Mercuric Oxide.= HgO. _Syn._ PROTOXIDE OF MERCURY, RED OXIDE OF MERCURY,
OXIDE OF M., BINOXIDE OF M., DEUTOXIDE OF M., PEROXIDE OF M.; HYDRARGYRI
OXYDUM, H. O. RUBRUM, B. & L. There are several methods by which this
substance may be prepared. The following are those which have been ordered
at different times in the Pharmacopœias:——
1. By precipitation (HYDRARGYRI BINOXYDUM——Ph. L. 1836.). Mercuric
chloride (corrosive sublimate), 4 oz.; distilled water, 6 pints; dissolve
and add of liquor of potass, 28 fl. oz.; drain the precipitate, wash it in
distilled water, and dry it by a gentle heat.
_Obs._ A bright orange-red powder. It usually contains a little combined
water; hence its readier solubility in acids than the oxide prepared by
heat. When heated sufficiently it yields oxygen, and the mercury either
runs into globules or is totally dissipated. It is entirely soluble in
hydrochloric acid. (Ph. L. 1836.) The preparation of the shops has
frequently a brick-red colour, and contains a little oxychloride, arising
from too little alkali being used.
2. By calcination of the nitrate (RED PRECIPITATE; HYDRARGYRI NITRICI
OXYDUM Ph. L. HYDRARGYRI OXIDUM RUBRUM, B. P., Ph. L., Ph. D.) _Prep._ B.
P. Mercury, by weight, 8; nitric acid, 4-1/2; water, 2. Dissolve half the
mercury in the water and acid, evaporate to dryness, and triturate with
the rest of the mercury until well blended. Heat in a porcelain capsule,
repeatedly stirring, until acid vapours cease to be evolved.
Mercury, 3 lbs.; nitric acid, 18 fl. oz. (1-1/2 lb., Ph. L. 1836); water,
2 quarts; dissolve by a gentle heat, evaporate to dryness, powder, and
calcine this in a shallow vessel, with a gradually increased heat, until
red vapours cease to arise. The process of the Ph. E. and D. are similar,
except that the Dublin College directs the evaporation and calcination to
be performed in the same vessel, without powdering or stirring the mass.
_Obs._ Bright red crystalline scales, which usually contain a little
undecomposed pernitrate of mercury; in other respects it resembles the
last two preparations. It is more generally used as an escharotic and in
ointments than the precipitated oxide. It is volatilised by heat without
the evolution of nitrous vapours.
According to Mr Brande it contains about 2-1/2 per cent. of nitric acid.
According to Mr Barker the process of the Ph. D. yields the finest
coloured product; but Mr Brande states that “the nitrate requires to be
constantly stirred during the process, which is usually performed in a
cast-iron pot.” On the large scale, the evaporation is generally conducted
in a shallow earthen dish, and as soon as the mass becomes dry a second
dish is inverted over it, and the calcination is continued, without
disturbance, until the process is concluded. The heat of a sand bath is
employed. 120 lbs. of mercury, and 48 lbs. of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·48)
yields 112 lbs. of red precipitate. (Brande.)
_Uses, &c._ Red oxide of mercury, whether obtained by calcination or
precipitation, possesses the same general properties. It is very slightly
soluble in water, but sufficiently so to give that fluid an alkaline
reaction, and a metallic taste. It was formerly employed in medicine to
induce salivation; but is now chiefly used as an escharotic, either in the
form of powder or made into an ointment.——_Dose_, 1/8 to 1 gr., combined
with opium. It is very poisonous.
=Mercuric Sulphide.= HgSO_{4}. _Syn._ PROTOSULPHATE OF MERCURY; HYDRARGYRI
SULPHAS (Ph. B.), H. PERSULPHAS, H. BIPERSULPHAS, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Neutral.)——_a._ By boiling together sulphuric acid and metallic mercury
until the latter is wholly converted into a heavy, white, crystalline
powder; the excess of acid is removed by evaporation. Equal weights of
acid and metal may conveniently be employed.
_b._ (Ph. D. 1826.) Dissolve mercury, 6 parts, in a mixture of sulphuric
acid, 6 parts, and nitric acid, 1 part, by boiling them in a glass vessel,
and continue the heat until the mass becomes perfectly dry and white. Used
to make calomel.
_c._ (Ph. B.) Place 20 oz. of quicksilver in a porcelain capsule with 12
fl. oz. of sulphuric acid, and apply heat until nothing remains but a
white, dry, crystalline salt. Used to make perchloride and chloride of
mercury.
2. (Basic.) HgSO_{4,2}HgO. _Syn._ TRIBASIC SULPHATE OF MERCURY, TURPETH
MINERAL, TURBITH M., QUEEN’S YELLOW, SUBSULPHATE OF MERCURY†, TRIBASIC
PERSULPHATE OF M.; HYDRARGYRI SUBSULPHAS, H. S. FLAVUS, TERPETHUM
MINERALE, L.——_a._ Dissolve mercury in an equal weight of sulphuric acid
by boiling them to dryness, fling the mass into hot water, and wash and
dry the resulting yellow powder.
_b._ (Ph. D. 1826.) Mercuric sulphate, 1 part; warm water, 20 parts;
triturate together in an earthen mortar, wash well with distilled water,
drain, and dry it.
_Prop., &c._ A heavy, lemon-yellow powder, soluble in 2000 parts of cold,
and about 600 parts of boiling water. By long-continued washing with very
hot water it loses all its remaining acid, and is at length converted into
red oxide of mercury.——_Dose._ As an alterative, 1/8 to 1/2 gr.; as an
emetic, 3 to 5 gr.; as an errhine, 1 gr.; mixed up with a pinch of
liquorice powder or fine snuff. It is a powerful poison, and one of the
least useful of the mercurial preparations.
_Obs._ The temperature of the water employed to decompose the neutral
sulphate influences the shade of colour of the resulting salt in a similar
manner to that pointed out under the nitrate. It is now superseded as a
pigment by chrome yellow and orpiment, which are not only more beautiful,
but cheaper preparations.
=Mercuric Sulphide.= HgS. _Syn._ PROTOSULPHIDE OF MERCURY, RED SULPHURET
OF MERCURY, FACTITIOUS CINNABAR, VERMILION, SULPHURET OF MERCURY, SULPHIDE
OF M., BISULPHURET OF M.†; HYDRARGYRI BISULPHURETUM (Ph. B. & Ph. L.),
CINNABARIS (Ph. E.), H. SULPHURETUM RUBRUM. L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.)
Quicksilver, 24 oz.; sulphur, 5 oz.; melt together, and continue the heat
till the mixture swells up, then cover the vessel, remove it from the
heat, and when cold, powder and sublime it. (Ph. B.) Quicksilver, 2 lbs.;
sulphur, 5 oz.
_Prop., &c._ Mercuric sulphide has a dark-red semi-crystalline appearance
in the mass, but acquires a brilliant scarlet colour by powdering. It is
tasteless, odourless, and insoluble. It is chiefly used as a pigment; but
it is occasionally employed in medicine as a diaphoretic and vermifuge,
and in some cutaneous diseases and gout.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr.; as a
fumigation, about 1/2 dr. is thrown on a plate of iron heated to dull
redness. For the last purpose it is inferior to mercurous oxide, owing to
the more irritating nature of its vapour.
_Tests._ MERCUROUS SALTS. Sulphuretted hydrogen and ammonium sulphide give
black precipitates, insoluble in dilute acids, ammonium sulphide,
potassium cyanide, and hot nitric acid, but slightly soluble in sodium
sulphide, and decomposed by nitro-hydrochloric acid.
Potassium hydrate and ammonia give black grey or black precipitates, which
are insoluble in excess of the precipitant.
Hydrochloric acid and the soluble metallic chlorides occasion a
precipitate, which assumes the form of a very fine powder of dazzling
whiteness, insoluble in excess, but soluble in aqua regia and liquid
chlorine. Potassium hydrate and ammonia turn it dark grey or black.
Potassium iodide gives a greenish-yellow precipitate, soluble in ether,
and subliming in red crystals when heated.
=Mercurous Acetate.= Hg(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}). _Syn._ ACETATE OF MERCURY,
SUBACETATE. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Dissolve mercurous nitrate, 1 part, in water
(slightly acidulated with nitric acid), 4 parts, and precipitate the
liquid with a solution of sodium acetate, gradually added, until in slight
excess; carefully wash the precipitate with cold water, and dry it in the
shade.
_Prop., &c._ Small, white, micaceous, flexible scales; insoluble in
alcohol; soluble in about 300 parts of water; blackened by light; and
carbonised by a strong heat. It has been said to be one of the mildest of
the mercurials; but this cannot be the case, as it occasionally acts with
great violence on both the stomach and bowels, producing much pain and
prostration.——_Dose_, 1/6 to 1 gr., night and morning, gradually
increased.
=Mercurous Bromide.= HgBr. _Syn._ SUBBROMIDE OF MERCURY; HYDRARGYRUM
BROMIDUM, L. _Prep._ (Magendie.) By precipitating a solution of mercurous
nitrate by another of potassium bromide. It closely resembles calomel in
both its appearance and properties.——_Dose_, 1 to 5 gr.
=Mercurous Chloride.= HgCl or Hg_{2}Cl_{2}. _Syn._ CALOMEL, SUBCHLORIDE OF
MERCURY, MERCURY CHLORIDE; HYDRARGYRI SUBCHLORIDUM (B. P.), HYDRARGYRI
CHLORIDUM (Ph. L.), H. C. MITE (Ph. U. S.), CALOMELAS (Ph. E. & D.), L.
This substance is one of the best known, and probably the most valuable,
of all the mercurials.
_Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Mercury, 2 lbs.; sulphuric acid, 21-1/2 fl. oz.; mix,
boil to dryness (in a cast-iron vessel), and when the resulting mass has
cooled, add of mercury, 2 lbs., and triturate the ingredients in an
earthenware mortar until they are well mixed; then add of sodium chloride,
1-1/2 lb., and again triturate until the globules are no longer visible;
next sublime the mixture, reduce the sublimate to the finest possible
powder, diligently wash it with boiling distilled water, and dry
it.——_Prod._ 117 or 118% of the weight of mercury employed.
2. (Ph. F.) Mercury, 4 oz., is dissolved in a mixture of sulphuric acid, 2
fl. oz. 3 fl. dr., and nitric acid, 1/2 fl. oz., by the aid of heat; when
cold, mercury, 4 oz., is added, and the remainder of the process is
conducted as before.
3. (CALOMELAS SUBLIMATUM.——Ph. D.) Sulphate of mercury, 10 parts; mercury,
7 parts; dry sodium chloride, 5 parts; triturate, &c., as before, and
afterwards resublime it into a large chamber or receiver.
4. (Ph. B.) Same as Dublin.
5. (Apothecaries’ Hall.) Quicksilver, 50 lbs., and sulphuric acid, 70
lbs., are boiled to dryness in a cast-iron vessel; of the dry salt, 62
lbs. are triturated with quicksilver, 40-1/2 lbs., until the globules are
extinguished, when sodium chloride, 34 lbs., is added, and after thorough
admixture the whole is sublimed, &c., as before.——_Prod._ 96 to 100 lbs.
6. (Jewel’s Patent.) The receiver, which is capacious, is filled with
steam, so that the calomel vapour is condensed in it in a state of
extremely minute division. The engr. represents the apparatus now usually
employed when this plan is adopted. The product is extremely white, and of
the finest quality. It is sometimes called ‘hydrosublimed calomel’ and
‘hydrosublimate of mercury.’ The ‘flowers of calomel,’ of old pharmacy,
were prepared in a nearly similar manner.
[Illustration: _a._ Furnace.
_b._ An earthenware retort, having a short and wide neck, containing the
ingredients for making calomel.
_c._ An earthen receiver, having three tubulatures.
_d._ A vessel containing water.
_e._ A steam-boiler.]
7. (Soubeiran.) The crude calomel mixture is heated in an earthen tube in
a furnace, and a current of air is directed uninterruptedly into the tube
by means of a small ventilator. This sweeps away, as it were, the vapours
of calomel, and in a straight tube will carry them a distance of 60 feet,
to avoid which the end of the recipient is immersed in water, by which
means the calomel is moistened and falls down. This plan, slightly
modified, is now extensively adopted in this country.
8. (PRECIPITATED CALOMEL; CALOMELAS PRÆCIPITATUM, L.) Digest pure
quicksilver, 9 parts, in nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·02 to 1·25), 8 parts,
until no more metal will dissolve, applying heat as the effervescence
ceases; then mix the hot liquid quickly with a boiling solution of sodium
chloride, 8 parts, dissolved in water (slightly acidulated with
hydrochloric acid), 64 parts; lastly, well wash the precipitate in boiling
distilled water, and dry it. The product, when the process is skilfully
managed, is perfectly white and pure.
_Prop._ A heavy, white, tasteless powder; insoluble in water, alcohol, and
cold dilute nitric acid; volatilises at a temperature below redness, and
yields a white or yellowish-white sublimate; hot nitric acid oxidises and
dissolves it; alkalies, the alkaline carbonates, and lime water, decompose
it, with the production of the black oxide; ammonia converts it into a
dark slate-grey coloured powder (BLACK PRECIPITATE——Kane). Sp. gr. 7·14
(Boullay; 7·156——Pelouze and Fremy; 7·176——Ure).
_Pur._ Calomel is frequently contaminated with small quantities of
corrosive sublimate, which may be detected by digesting a little in
alcohol, decanting the clear portion, and testing it with a drop or two of
potassium hydrate, when a reddish precipitate will be formed if any
mercuric chloride be present. It is pulverulent, whitish, and sublimes
entirely by heat. It becomes black on the addition of potassium hydrate,
then, heat being applied, it runs into globules of mercury. Neither silver
nitrate, lime water, nor sulphuretted hydrogen, being added to the water
in which it has been washed, or boiled throws down anything.
_Uses._ Calomel is one of the milder mercurials, and in this respect takes
its position immediately after blue pill, mercury with chalk, and the grey
oxide; but it probably ranks before all the other salts of mercury.
Universal experience appears to show it to be a most valuable alterative
when judiciously administered. With this intention it is given in doses of
1/4 to 1 gr., generally combined with antimonials, as in Plummer’s pill,
and repeated every night, or every other night, for some time, followed by
a mild saline aperient in the morning. As a purgative, 2 to 5 gr., either
combined with or followed by other purgatives, as jalap, rhubarb, senna,
colocynth, Epsom salts, &c. As a vermifuge, 2 to 5 gr., over-night,
followed by a sufficient dose of castor oil next morning. Combined with
opium it is frequently used in various complaints to produce salivation,
or bring the system under the influence of mercury. It is also employed as
a sedative and errhine, and in a vast number of other indications. It is,
indeed, more frequently used, and in a greater variety of complaints, than
probably any other medicine.
_Obs._ Of the two methods of preparing calomel, that by precipitation is
not only the best, but the most economical. That by sublimation is,
however, the one generally adopted in England. Mr Brande states that “a
small portion of sodium chloride is apt to remain combined with it, which
might affect its medical uses.” Such a contamination is not found in
carefully prepared precipitated calomel, although we doubt whether the
quantity of it which exists in any of the samples we have met with (being
merely a trace) would at all interfere with its therapeutical action; more
especially when it is recollected that alkaline chlorides are present in,
not merely the primæ viæ, but also in every part of the animal body. The
late Mr Fownes, a chemist who was unsurpassed in the accuracy of his
researches, and the caution and delicacy with which he expressed his
opinions, once assured us that calomel was more easily and cheaply
prepared of the best quality by precipitation than by sublimation, and
that if, from careless manipulation, it occasionally contained a minute
quantity of common salt, this was of much less importance than the
contamination of corrosive sublimate, which was frequently present in
samples of sublimed calomel.
To produce a superior article of calomel in the dry way is a somewhat
difficult task, and the process frequently fails in the hands of
inexperienced operators. The solution of the mercury is best made in an
iron vessel, and the sublimation should be conducted (preferably) in an
earthenware retort with a short but very wide neck, and fitted in a
spacious receiver, having a large flat bottom, also of earthenware, and
containing a little cold water. On the small scale the heat may be applied
by means of a sand bath. The form above given for calomel, by
precipitation, produces a large product, perfectly free from corrosive
sublimate and mercurous nitrate, and is consequently free from the
objections frequently raised against that mode of preparing it.
“The form in which calomel sublimes depends much upon the dimensions and
temperature of the subliming vessels. In small vessels it generally
condenses in a crystalline cake, the interior surface of which is often
covered with beautiful quadrangular prismatic crystals, transparent, and
of a texture somewhat elastic or horny. In this state it acquires, by the
necessary rubbing into powder, a decided yellow or buff colour, more or
less deep, according to the degree of trituration it has undergone. If, on
the contrary, the calomel be sublimed into a very capacious and cold
receiver, it falls in an impalpable and perfectly white powder, which
requires only one elutriation to fit it for use; it then remains perfectly
colourless.” (Brande.)
The long-continued action of steam on calomel in a state of minute
division is attended by the formation of a small quantity of corrosive
sublimate. (Righini.) Boiling water, hot air, and light, also produce a
like effect.
=Mercurous Iodide.= HgI. _Syn._ SUBIODIDE OF MERCURY, GREEN IODIDE OF
MERCURY, MERCUROUS IODIDE; HYDRARGYRI IODIDUM VIRIDE (B. P.), HYDRARGYRI
SUBIODUM, H. IODIDUM (Ph. L.), H. I. VIRIDE (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B.
P.) Mercury, 1 oz.; iodine, 278 gr.; rectified spirit, a sufficiency. Rub
the iodine and mercury in a porcelain mortar, moistening occasionally with
a few drops of spirit, and continue the trituration until the mass assumes
a uniform green colour, and no metallic globules are visible.
2. Precipitate a solution of mercurous nitrate by another of mercurous
potassium iodide; wash the precipitate, first in a solution of sodium
chloride, and then in pure water; lastly, dry it in the shade.
3. (Ph. L.) Mercury, 1 oz.; iodine, 5 dr.; triturate together, gradually
adding of rectified spirit, q. s. (about 1 to 2 fl. dr.), until globules
are no longer seen; dry the powder, by a gentle heat, in the shade, as
quickly as possible, and preserve it in a well-stoppered black glass
vessel. The formula of the Ph. D. is similar.
_Prop., &c._ A heavy, greenish-yellow powder; insoluble in water, alcohol,
and a solution of common salt; soluble in ether, and slightly so in an
aqueous solution of iodide of potassium. “Freshly prepared, it is
yellowish. Heat being cautiously applied, it sublimes in red crystals,
which quickly turn yellow, and, on access of light, blacken. It is
insoluble in a solution of chloride of sodium.” The process of the Ph. L.
and F. P. does not answer when larger quantities than 4 or 5 oz. are
prepared at once, owing to the great heat generated by the reaction of the
ingredients, and the consequent volatilisation of a portion of the iodine,
by which the colour of the product suffers.——_Dose_, 1/8 to 1 gr., made
into pills; “in syphilis and scrofula, especially where they occur in the
same individual.” It is also used externally, in the form of ointment. It
is very poisonous.
=Mercurous Nitrate.= HgNO_{3}. _Syn._ SUBNITRATE OF MERCURY; HYDRARGYRI
SUBNITRAS, H. NITRAS, H. PROTONITRAS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Neutral.) By
digesting mercury in excess of cold dilute nitric acid, observing to
remove the short prismatic crystals within a short time after they are
formed; these, when drained, and redissolved in water slightly acidulated
with nitric acid, furnish crystals of pure neutral mercurous nitrate by
cautious evaporation.
2. (Basic.) Deposited after some time, when excess of mercury has been
employed as above. A fine crystallised salt.
_Prop., &c._ Both the above are decomposed by water, but the former may be
dissolved in a very small quantity without decomposition. When the neutral
salt is triturated with an excess of sodium chloride, and water
subsequently added, the whole of the mercury is thrown down as calomel,
and the filtered supernatant liquid does not contain corrosive sublimate.
If this salt is detected, the salt examined contained mercuric nitrate,
and if any basic mercurous nitrate was present, the newly formed calomel
has a grey or black colour, due to presence of oxide.——_Dose._ Of the
neutral salts, 1/16 to 1/8 gr. It is seldom used internally. A solution is
sometimes employed as a mild caustic to ulcers; and, more dilute, as a
lotion in lepra, porrigo, psoriasis, etc.; or made into an ointment, in
the same diseases.
=Mercurous Oxide.= Hg_{2}O. _Syn._ SUBOXIDE OF MERCURY, GREY O. OF M.,
BLACK O. OF M., MERCUROUS O., DIOXIDE OF M., PROTOXIDE OF M.†; HYDRARGYRI
SUBOXYDUM, H. OXYDUM, H. O. CINEREUM, H. O. NIGRUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.
1836.) Calomel, 1 oz.; lime water, 1 gall.; mix, agitate well together,
decant the clear liquid after subsidence, and well wash the sediment with
distilled water; lastly, drain and dry it, wrapped in bibulous paper, in
the air.
2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Sublimed calomel, 1 part; solution of potassium hydrate
(warm), 4 parts; triturate together, &c., as last.
3. Briskly triturate calomel in a mortar with pure potassium hydrate, in
excess; wash it with water, and dry it in the shade.
_Prop., &c._ A very dark grey or black powder, suffering decomposition by
exposure to light and air, becoming olive coloured, from a portion being
resolved into metallic mercury and binoxide. Digested for a short time in
dilute hydrochloric acid, it remains undissolved, and the filtered liquid
is not affected by potassium hydrate, or by ammonium oxalate. It is
totally soluble in acetic acid, and entirely dissipated by heat. As a
medicine pure mercurous oxide is one of the mildest of the mercurials, and
is used both internally and externally; but chiefly as a fumigant, or made
into an ointment.——_Dose_, 1/2 gr. to 3 gr. twice a day.
=Mercurous Phosphate=, _Syn._ HYDRARGYRI PHOSPHAS, L. _Prep._ Add a
solution of mercurous nitrate (slightly acidulated with nitric acid) to a
solution of sodium phosphate, and wash and dry the precipitate which
forms. In its physical characters it closely resembles calomel, than which
it is said to be more appropriate in certain cases, especially in
secondary syphilis. Alkalies turn it black.——_Dose_, 1/4 to 1 gr., made
into a pill with sugar and aromatics.
=Mercurous Sulphate.= Hg_{2}SO_{4}. _Syn._ SUBSULPHATE OF MERCURY,
SULPHATE OF THE SUBOXIDE OF M., PROTOSULPHATE OF M.†; HYDRARGYRI
SUBSULPHAS, L. _Prep._ By adding sulphuric acid to a solution of mercurous
nitrate. The salt falls as a white crystalline powder.
=Mercurous Sulphide.= Hg_{2}S. _Syn._ SUBSULPHATE OF MERCURY; HYDRARGYRI
SUBSULPHURETUM CUM SULPHURE, H. S. NIGRUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Pure.) This
falls as a black precipitate when a solution of mercurous nitrate is
treated with sulphuretted hydrogen or ammonium sulphide.
2. (Impure; ETHIOPS MINERAL; HYDRARGYRI SULPHURETUM CUM SULPHURE, H. S.
NIGRUM——Ph. L. 1824 & Ph. D. 1826); (ÆTHIOPS MINERALIS——Ph. L. 1836 & Ph.
D. 1826.) (Quicksilver and sulphur, equal parts, triturated together in a
stoneware mortar——Ph. D.) until globules are no longer visible.
_Prop., &c._ The last preparation of mercurous sulphide is alone employed
medicinally. It is a heavy, insoluble, black powder. It is frequently met
with imperfectly prepared, and sometimes adulterated. It is said to be a
mixture of mercurous sulphide and sulphur, in variable proportions
depending on the length of the trituration. On the large scale it is
generally made by melting the ingredients together, and afterwards
reducing the mass to a fine powder in a mill or mortar. It is said to be
vermifuge and alterative, and has been used in some cutaneous and
glandular diseases, but appears to be nearly inert.——_Dose_, 5 to 30 gr.
=Mercurous Tartrate.= (P. Cod.) _Syn._ PROTO-TARTRATE OF MERCURY,
HYDRARGYRI TARTRAS. Made by adding a solution of proto-nitrate of mercury
in water, slightly acidulated with nitric acid, to a solution of tartrate
of potash as long as a precipitate forms. Wash it with distilled water,
dry it in the shade, and keep it in bottles covered with black
paper.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 gr.
=MERCURY, Other Preparations of.=
=Mercury, Hahnemann’s.= _Syn._ HAHNEMANN’S SOLUBLE MERCURY, H.’S BLACK
OXIDE OF M., BLACK PRECIPITATE OF M.; HYDRARGYRI PRÆCIPITATUM NIGRUM,
MERCURIUS SOLUBILIS HAHNEMANNI, L.——_a._ By dropping weak ammonia into a
solution of mercurous nitrate as long as the precipitate formed is of a
black colour; the powder is washed, dried in the shade without artificial
heat, and then preserved from the light and air.
(Ph. Bor. 1847.) Solution of mercurous nitrate (recent; sp. gr. 1·1),
9-1/4 oz.; distilled water, 2 lbs.; mix, filter, and add to the solution
of ammonia (sp. gr. ·960), 1/2 oz., diluted with water, 4 fl. oz.; collect
the powder immediately on a filter, wash it with water, 3 fl. oz., and dry
it, &c., as before. A very black powder.——_Dose_, 1/4 to 1 gr.
=Mercury, Precipitates of.= 1. BLACK PRECIPITATE, Hahnemann’s soluble
mercury (basic mercurous and ammonium nitrate). 2. GREEN P. (MERCURIUS
PRÆCIPITATUS VIRIDIS, LACERTA VIRIDIS), from equal parts of mercury and
copper, separately dissolved in nitric acid, the solutions mixed,
evaporated to dryness, and then calcined until red fumes cease to arise.
Caustic. 3. RED P., mercuric oxide. 4. WHITE P., ammonio-chloride of
mercury.
=Mercury, Ward’s.= _Syn._ AMMONIO-NITRATE OF MERCURY; HYDRARGYRI AMMONIÆ
NITRAS, L. To nitric acid, 4 parts, contained in a spacious bolt-head or
matrass, add, gradually, ammonium sesquicarbonate, 2 parts; afterwards add
of mercury, 1 part, and digest in a gentle heat, until the solution is
complete.
=Mercury with Chalk.= _Syn._ HYDRARGYRUM CUM CRETÂ. GREY POWDER (B. P.)
_Prep._ Rub 1 oz. (by weight) of mercury, and prepared chalk, 2 oz., in a
porcelain mortar, until metallic globules cease to be visible to the naked
eye and the mixture acquires a uniform grey colour.——_Dose._ From 3 to 8
gr.
A little water is said to aid in the extinction of the mercury. Mr Bottle
suggests a slight departure from the Grey _modus operandi_ followed by the
British Pharmacopœia in the above preparation. He proposes to substitute
for the tedious process of trituration in a porcelain mortar the agitation
of the mercury with the chalk in a wide-mouthed glass bottle; by which
means the metal may be minutely subdivided, at a considerably less
expenditure of time and labour.
=Mercury with Magnesia.= (Ph. D.) _Syn._ HYDRARGYRUM CUM MAGNESIÂ. Pure
mercury, 1 oz., carbonate of magnesia, 2 oz. Rub together in a porcelain
mortar until the globules cease to be visible and the mixture acquires a
uniform, grey colour.——_Dose_, 3 to 8 grains.
=Mercury, Yellow Oxide of.= (Ph. B.) _Syn._ HYDRARGYRI OXYDUM FLAVUM.
_Prep._ Perchloride of mercury, 4 oz.; solution of soda (Ph. B.), 2 pints;
distilled water, q. s. Dissolve the perchloride in 4 pints of distilled
water, adding the solution by the application of heat, and add this to the
solution of soda. Stir them together, allow the yellow precipitate to
subside, remove the supernatant liquor by decantation, thoroughly wash the
precipitated oxide on a calico filter with distilled water, and finally
dry it by the heat of a water bath.
=MES′LIN.= A mixture of various kinds of grain. (Brande.)
=METAGAL′LIC ACID.= Obtained by heating dry gallic acid, by a quick fire,
to about 480° Fahr., or until it froths, melts, and becomes black and
solid, then dissolving the residuum in an alkali, filtering, and
precipitating by an acid. An insoluble, black powder.
=ME′TAL.= _Syn._ METALLUM, L. See METALS.
=METAL′LICA.= [L.] Preparations of the metals. One of the divisions of the
Ph. L.
=METAL′LIC TREES.= See VEGETATION (Metallic).
=METAL′LO-CHROMES.= A name given by Nobili to extremely thin films of
peroxide of lead deposited by electrolytic action upon plates or polished
steel, so as to produce an iridescent play of colours. The effect is often
very beautiful.
=MET′ALLOIDS.= A name sometimes applied to the NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS.
=METAL′LURGY.= “The art of extracting metals from their ores, and adapting
them to various processes of manufacture.” (Percy.)
“Notwithstanding the striking analogy which exists between common chemical
and metallurgic operations, since both are employed to isolate certain
bodies from each other, there are essential differences which should be
carefully noted. In the first place, the quantity of materials being
always very great in metallurgy, requires corresponding adaptations of
apparatus, and often produces peculiar phenomena; in the second place, the
agents to be employed for treating great masses must be selected with a
view to economy, as well as chemical action. In analytical chemistry, the
main object being exactness of result and purity of product, little
attention is bestowed upon the value of the reagents, on account of the
small quantity required for any particular process. But in smelting metals
upon the large scale, profit being the sole object, cheap materials and
easy operations are alone admissible.”[35]
[Footnote 35: ‘Ure’s Dict. of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines,’ 4th edit.]
The limits of this work do not permit of more than a general reference to
the leading operations of metallurgy under this head. These are——digging,
picking or sorting, stamping or crushing, and washing, included under the
general term, ‘dressing ore,’——roasting or calcination, which is either
performed with the fuel in contact with the ore, or in reverberatory
furnaces; and the liquation or reduction to the reguline form. The
application of these processes is noticed under the leading metals. Those
who desire to study the subject minutely are referred to the treatises of
Dr Percy, Robert Hunt, Karsten, and Le Play.
=MET′ALS.= _Syn._ METALLA, L. Metals are elementary bodies, which are
generally distinguished by their lustre and power of conducting heat and
electricity. When their solutions are electrolysed, the metals always
appear at the electro-negative surface, and are hence termed
electro-positive elements.
Formerly, when science was much less advanced than at present, the metals
constituted a well-defined class. The properties which were regarded as
specially characteristic were physical, and were not founded on chemical
relations; thus, lustre and high specific gravity were considered to be
essential characters of all metals. But we are now acquainted with metals
which have a lower specific gravity than water (lithium, sodium, &c.), and
with so-called non-metallic elements which present a strong metallic
lustre (carbon in the state of graphite, crystallised silicon). It will
therefore be seen that the term ‘metal’ is rather conventional than
strictly scientific. By far the greater number of elementary bodies at
present known are metals. Their physical characters and leading chemical
properties are noticed under each of them in its alphabetical place. The
following table exhibits some useful particulars:——
TABLE _of some of the properties of some of the
metals._
Names arranged in the order of their
/-----------------------/\----------------------\
Ductility. | Malleability.
|
Gold. | Gold.
Silver. | Silver.
Platinum. | Copper.
Iron. | Tin.
Nickel. | Platinum.
Copper. | Lead.
Zinc. | Zinc.
Tin. | Iron.
Lead. | Nickel.
Names arranged in the order of their
/-----------------------/\----------------------\
Power of conducting | Power of conducting
Heat. | Electricity.
|
Silver. | Silver.
Copper. | Copper.
Gold. | Gold.
Tin. | Zinc.
Iron. | Iron.
Lead. | Tin.
Bismuth. | Lead.
| Antimony.
| Bismuth.
=METANTIMON′IC ACID.= H_{4}Sb_{2}O_{7}. The name given by M. Fremy to that
variety of antimonic acid obtained by decomposing pentachloride of
antimony with excess of water. It differs from common antimonic acid in
being tetra, and forming two different classes of salts with the acids.
The acid metantimoniate of potassium is the only reagent which yields a
precipitate with the sodium salts, and is therefore of great value in
chemical analysis. It is prepared by fusing antimonic acid with excess of
potassa, in a silver crucible, dissolving the fused mass in a little cold
water, and allowing it to crystallise in vacuo. The resulting crystals
(metantimoniate of potassa), by solution in pure water, are resolved into
free potassa and the acid salt. See ANTIMONY.
=METAPEC′TIC ACID.= See PECTIN.
=METAPEC′TIN.= See PECTIN.
=METAPHOSPHOR′IC ACID.= See PHOSPHORIC ACID.
=METHEG′LIN.= _Syn._ HYDROMELI, H. VINOSUM, MELLIS VINUM, L. _Prep._ From
honey, 1 cwt.; warm water, 24 galls.; stir well until dissolved; the next
day add of yeast, 1 pint, and hops, 1 lb., previously boiled in water, 1
gall.; along with water q. s. to make the whole measure 1 barrel; mix
well, and ferment the whole with the usual precautions adopted for other
liquors. It contains on the average from 7% to 8% of alcohol. See MEAD.
=ME′THYL.= CH_{3}. The hypothetical radical of PYROXYLIC SPIRIT
(WOOD-SPIRIT, METHYLIC ALCOHOL) and the methyl series. It forms a number
of compounds analogous to those of ethyl.
=METHYLAMINE.= _Syn._ METHYLIA. CH_{3}H_{2}N. A colourless gas possessing
a very powerful odour of ammonia, and a strongly alkaline reaction. It
differs from ammonia, however, in being non-inflammable. In other respects
it bears a considerable resemblance to it. Water at 55° Fahr. dissolves
more than eleven hundred times its bulk of methylamine. It may be easily
condensed to a liquid by means of a freezing mixture.
To obtain it nascent hydrogen is made to react on prussic or formic acid.
Methylia exists in herring brine, and is a frequent product of the
destructive distillation of substances containing nitrogen. Most of its
salts are very soluble in water.
=METHYLATED SPIRIT.= A mixture of 1 part of methylic alcohol (wood spirit)
and 9 parts of ethylic alcohol (spirit of wine). See SPIRIT.
=METHYLENE CHLORIDE.= CH_{2}Cl_{2}. _Syn._ METHYLENE BICHLORIDE. There are
various methods of obtaining this compound:——1. By heating chloroform with
zinc filings and dilute sulphuric acid. 2. By acting on methylene iodide
with chlorine. In this process prolonged treatment with chlorine, at
ordinary temperatures, is required to remove the last traces of iodine.
(Buttlerow.) Chloride of methylene is a colourless mobile fluid, having a
smell like chloroform, and a burning taste. It is used as an anæsthetic in
place of chloroform. According to Dr Armstrong, the substance known as
METHYLENE ETHER is a mechanical mixture of bichloride of methylene and
ethylic ether. Dr Richardson says of this latter it is not so quick in its
action as the methylene chloride, but that it is safer. See ANÆSTHETICS.
=METHYLIC ALCOHOL.= See WOOD SPIRIT.
=MEZE′REON.= _Syn._ GAROU; MEZEREON BARK, MEZEREI CORTEX (B. P.);
MEZEREON——Ph. L., E., & D. The dried bark of the _Daphne Mezereum_,
mezereon; or _Daphne Laureola_, spurge, or wood-laurel. The “bark of the
root of _Daphne Mezereum_,” or spurge olive. (Ph. L.) A stimulant and
diuretic. It is employed as a sudorific and alterative, in syphilis,
rheumatism, scrofula, and chronic cutaneous diseases, usually in
conjunction with sarsaparilla. It has also been used as a masticatory in
toothache, paralysis of the tongue, &c. On the Continent it is used as a
vesicant. For this purpose it is softened by soaking it in hot vinegar,
and is then bound on the part, and renewed after intervals of some hours,
until vesication is produced.
=MICE.= See RATS.
=MI′CROSMIC SALT.= NaNH_{4}HPO_{4}, _Syn._ TRIBASIC PHOSPHATE OF SODIUM
AND AMMONIUM. _Prep._ 1. Phosphates of soda and ammonia, equal parts;
water, q. s.; dissolve separately, mix the solutions, evaporate, and
crystallise. A slight excess of phosphate of ammonia aids the
crystallisation.
2. (Fownes.) Phosphate of sodium, 6 parts; water, 2 parts; liquefy by
heat, and add of sal ammoniac (in powder), 1 part; common salt separates,
and after its removal the liquid is concentrated so that crystals may
form. Used as a flux in blowpipe assays.
=MI′CROSCOPE.= The value of the microscope in chemistry and the collateral
sciences is now so generally acknowledged that it would be folly to do
more than merely allude to the subject here.
In the COMPOUND MICROSCOPE, which has quite superseded the ‘simple
microscope’ as an instrument of research, the object is magnified in the
first instance by the object-glass, and then remagnified by the eye-piece.
It follows, therefore, that the magnifying power of the instrument may be
increased either by increasing the power of the object-glass or that of
the eye-piece. It must be borne in mind, however, that in increasing the
power of the eye-piece we do not magnify the object itself in a greater
degree, but simply increase the image of the object formed by the
object-glass. Any imperfections which may exist in the latter are thus
greatly increased. At first the great drawback to the use of the compound
microscope was its deficiency in achromatism; but the researches of Mr
Lester and Dr Goring led to the achromatising of the object-glass, which
was the first of the rapid strides towards perfection made by this
instrument during the last twenty years. The two most useful
object-glasses are the ‘quarter-inch,’ which should magnify from 200 to
220 diameters, and the ‘inch,’ which should magnify from 30 to 40
diameters. The definition of these glasses should be good, and they should
transmit plenty of light. Any lines in a structure examined by them should
appear sharp and distinct, and there should be no coloured fringes around
the object. It is of great importance that the object-glasses are kept
perfectly free from dust. A few shreds of wash-leather of the finest
quality should be kept in a pill-box for cleaning them. Before rubbing
them with the leather they may be breathed upon, but no whiting or liquid
of any kind should be used, as each object-glass, being achromatic, is a
very delicate piece of workmanship, consisting of two lenses of flint and
crown-glass cemented together by Canada balsam. Compound microscopes are
now sold by the best London makers at very low prices. A really good
instrument, adapted to most of the wants of the chemical, pharmaceutical,
or medical student, may be obtained for five guineas.
The following formulæ for the preparation of the chief substances,
together with the principal reagents required in the working of the
microscope, are from Dr Lionel Beale’s valuable book, ‘How to Work with
the Microscope,’[36]
[Footnote 36: Harrison, 59, Pall Mall.]
_Reagents_——
1. Alcohol, of various strengths.
2. Ether, to dissolve oil globules.
3. Nitric acid (1 part of strong acid to 5 of water)
4. Sulphuric acid (1 to 5).
5. Hydrochloric acid.
6. Acetic acid, glacial and dilute (1 to 5).
7. Chromic acid, very dilute, to harden tissues.
8. Solution of potash, saturated and dilute (1 to 10).
9. Solution of soda (25 gr. of fused soda to 1 oz.).
10. Ammonia (1 part of the strongest solution to 3 of water).
11. Nitrate of baryta, a cold saturated solution of.
12. Nitrate of silver (120 gr. to 2 oz.). These two are for the mineral
acids.
13. Oxalate of ammonia in solution. Test for lime.
14. Solution of iodine saturated, _i.e._ 1 to 7000 parts of water. Another
solution is——1 gr. of iodine and 3 of iodide of potassium in 1 oz. of
distilled water.
1. _Cements._——1. _Brunswick Black._ Boil together 1/4 lb. foreign
asphaltum and 4-1/4 oz. of linseed oil (previously thickened with
litharge), then mix to a proper consistence with oil of turpentine (about
1 pint).
2. _Gold Size._ Boil 25 parts of linseed oil with 1 of minium and 1/3rd
part of umber for 3 hours; pour off the clear fluid, and mix with equal
parts of powdered white lead, and yellow ochre, added in small successive
portions. Then boil well the whole again, and pour off the clear fluid. It
dries slowly, but firmly. Both this and the last are dissolved by
turpentine.
3. _Goadby’s Marine Glue._ Dissolve separately in coal naphtha equal parts
of shell-lac and india rubber. Mix thoroughly with heat.
4. _Sealing-wax Varnish._ Dissolve the best sealing-wax in enough strong
spirit of wine to reduce it to the proper consistence. This is brittle.
5. _Canada Balsam._ This dries spontaneously.
Solutions of shell-lac, gum, and various other cements and glues are
employed by microscopic manipulators.
_Preservative Fluids._ Canada balsam, spirit and water, glycerin, solution
of gelatin, saturated solution of alum, chloride of zinc, and chloride of
calcium, are all used to preserve microscopic objects.
The following formulæ will be found useful:——
1. _Goadby’s Solution._ Bay salt, 4 oz.; alum, 2 oz.; corrosive sublimate,
4 gr.; boiling water, 4 pints. Mix and filter. It may often be more
diluted.
2. _Thwaite’s Fluid._ Mix spirit of wine, 1 oz., with creosote sufficient
to saturate it; rub up with chalk to form a thin paste, and mix gradually
with 16 oz. of water. To this may be added an equal quantity of water,
saturated with camphor.
3. _Simple Creosote Solution._ Dissolve creosote, 1 dr., in pyroligneous
acid, 1 dr., and mix gradually with cold water, 1 pint.
4. _Passini’s Solution. For blood-globules, nerves, and white tissues
generally._ Perchloride of mercury, 1 part; chloride of sodium, 2 parts;
glycerin, 13 parts; distilled water, 113 parts.
=MIL′DEW.= _Syn._ RUST, BLIGHT. The mouldy appearance on the leaves of
plants produced by innumerable microscopic fungi. The hop, wheat, and the
choicest garden fruit trees, are those most commonly attacked. The causes
are said to be excess of moisture, and absence of the free circulation of
air and sunshine. On the small scale, finely powered sulphur is
occasionally dusted over the parts affected, as a remedy.
=MIL′IARY FEVER.= _Syn._ MILIARIA, L. Among the other symptoms
are——anxiety and frequent sighing, the perspiration has a strong and
peculiar smell, and there is a sensation of pricking on the neck and
breast, followed by an eruption of small red pimples, which in two or
three days become white vesicles, dry up, peel off, and are succeeded by
others. The moist weather of spring and autumn are the periods in which it
is most prevalent; and delicate females, particularly in child-bed, are
those most liable to its attacks. Sometimes it assumes a malignant
character. The _treatment_ of this affection consists chiefly in
combating the depression of the system by a supporting diet; but
everything that heats or stimulates the skin should be avoided. The
apartment should be kept cool and well ventilated, and cooling saline
laxatives and bitter tonics, with cooling drinks, should also be had
recourse to.
=MILK.= _Syn._ LAC, L. The value of milk as an article of food is clearly
shown by the fact of it being sufficient to support, and to increase the
growth of, the young of every species of the mammalia; at once supplying
materials for the formation of the osseous, fleshy, and liquid portions of
the body. “The substances present in milk are wonderfully adapted to its
office of producing materials for the rapid growth and development of the
animal frame. It contains an azotised matter, casein, nearly identical in
composition with muscular flesh, fatty principles, and a peculiar sugar,
and, lastly, various salts, among which may be mentioned phosphate of
lime, held in complete solution in a slightly alkaline liquid.
“The white and almost opaque, appearance of milk is an optical illusion.
Examined by a microscope of even moderate power, it is seen to consist of
a perfectly transparent fluid, in which float about numbers of minute
transparent globules; these consist of fat surrounded by an albuminous
envelope, which can be broken mechanically, as in the churning, or
dissolved by the chemical action of caustic potassa, after which, by
agitating the milk with ether, the fat can be dissolved.” (Fownes.)
_Comp._ COWS’ MILK, of average quality, contains from 10% to 12% of solid
matter when evaporated to dryness by steam heat, and has the mean sp. gr.
1·030; while that of the skimmed milk is about 1·035; and of the cream,
1·0244. (Ure.) The average CREAM of cows’ milk contains 4·5% of butter,
3·5% of curd, and 92% of whey. (Berzelius.) The SKIMMED MILK consists of
water, 92·9%; curd, 2·%; sugar of milk, 3·5%; lactic acid, lactate of
potassa, and a trace of lactate of iron, ·6%, chloride of potassium,
phosphate of potassa, and earthy phosphates (lime), ·2%. (Berzelius.)
The following analysis of fresh milk is by M. Haidlen:——
Water 873·00
Butter 30·00
Casein 48·20
Milk sugar 43·90
Phosphate of lime 2·31
Phosphate of magnesia ·42
Phosphate of iron ·07
Chloride of potassium 1·44
Chloride of sodium ·24
Soda in combination with casein ·42
————————
1000.
Professor Wanklyn has devised and published in his excellent little manual
‘Milk Analysis’[37] a process by which a very thorough chemical
examination of milk may be accomplished with great facility and
expedition.
[Footnote 37: Trubner and Co.]
In his preliminary remarks he condemns, as utterly unreliable and
misleading, the inferences to be drawn from those hydrometric instruments,
the lactometer or lactodensimeter, and creamometer. “A very little
consideration,” he says “will suffice to make intelligible the obliquity
of the indications of the lactometer and to show how untrustworthy it must
be. The lactometer, as of course will be understood, is simply the
hydrometer applied to milk; and readings of the instrument are neither
more nor less than specific gravities. The more milk-sugar, and casein,
and mineral matter there is in a given specimen of milk, the greater
(other things being equal) will be its density or specific gravity, and
the higher the lactometer reading.
“If, however, fat globules (as happens in the instance of milk) be
diffused through the fluid, then, because fat is lighter than water, the
effect of the other milk solids on the gravity of the liquid, will be more
or less neutralised. The density of milk-fat is about 0·9, water being
1·0. Now, if a solution of casein and milk-sugar, of specific gravity
1·030, be sufficiently charged with fat globules, its specific gravity may
be sent down even below the gravity of water. How much would be required
to bring about such a result is a matter of simple calculation.
“This being understood, it will be obvious that if the specimens of milk
differ in specific gravity, there must be two distinct and equally valid
ways of accounting for the difference.
“The milk with the lower gravity may be milk let down with water, or let
down with fat, _i. e._ milk let down by being enriched.”
In support of this last assertion Professor Wanklyn quotes corroborative
instances afforded by the examination of different specimens of milk known
as ‘strippings,’ these being the last portions of milk yielded by the cow
at the termination of the milking. All these ‘strippings’ had a lower
specific gravity than normal milk.
Further, Professor Wanklyn points out that the specific gravity of organic
fluids is a fallacious index of the amount of solids they may contain, as
is illustrated by the fact, that whilst a 10 per cent. solution of
chloride of potassium has a specific gravity of 1·065 at 15° C., and a 10
per cent. solution of casein and milk sugar, has a specific gravity of
only about 1·035.
The creamometer meets with equal condemnation in Professor Wanklyn’s
little book, since different specimens of milk vary considerably in their
yield of cream, and a perfectly pure sample of milk may yield less cream
than one which has been tampered with.
A complete analysis of milk involves the determination of the water, the
fat (the essential constituent of the cream), the casein, milk-sugar, and
ash.
The following is an outline of Professor Wanklyn’s neat and ingenious
method of analysis:——
By means of an accurately graduated pipette, he first places 5 cubic
centimetres of the milk in a small weighed platinum dish (about 14 grammes
in weight) just previously ensuring the sample from which the milk is
taken being thoroughly mixed.
The dish is then placed over a water-bath (the water in which must be kept
vigorously boiling the whole time) for three hours, at the end of which
time all the water having been driven off, there will remain in the dish a
completely dried up residue.
The increase in weight between the empty dish and the residue, will give
the weight of the ‘milk solids’ from 5 c.c. of milk. Of course, if this
weight be multiplied by 20, the yield from 100 c.c. of milk will be
obtained.
To reduce this to a percentage statement it is necessary to remember that
100 c.c. of average milk weigh 102·9 grammes. The next proceeding consists
in the determination of the fat. This is done by treating the dried milk
solids resulting from the 5 c.c. of milk with ether. There are several
important minutiæ necessary to be observed in connection with this part of
the process, for the particulars of which the reader is referred to
Professor Wanklyn’s book. Suffice it to say, that if properly performed,
the whole of the fat is dissolved by the ether, and being separated from
the non-fatty portion of the residue is weighed and calculated as ‘fat.’
If, then, the amount found as fat be deducted from the whole of the milk
solids previous to their treatment with ether, the ‘milk solids, not fat,’
will be arrived at. Professor Wanklyn estimates the casein[38] as
follows:——He treats the milk solids, not fat, with hot alcohol, by which
means he dissolves out from them, and removes the milk-sugar and the
soluble chlorides. The remaining residue, consisting of casein and
phosphate of sodium (chemically combined with the casein), is dried on a
water-bath until it ceases to lose weight. It is then weighed along with
the vessel containing it, and ignited. The combined weight of the vessel
and phosphate of sodium remaining after ignition being deducted from the
weight previous to ignition, the difference is the casein.
[Footnote 38: Under the head “Casein” Prof Wanklyn includes the entire
nitrogenous materials of milk.]
Another and quicker method, recommended by Professor Wanklyn, for the
determination of the casein, is to measure it by the amount of albuminoid
ammonia it is capable of yielding when subjected to the ‘albuminoid
ammonia process,’ invented by Messrs Wanklyn, Chapman, and Smith.
The alcoholic solution filtered off from the combined casein and phosphate
of sodium, contains the milk sugar and soluble chlorides. It is
evaporated to dryness on a water-bath, and the residue with the vessel
containing it, is weighed. It is then gently ignited, and the weight of
the remaining residue being deducted from the total weight before
ignition, gives the yield of milk sugar. Or the milk sugar may be
determined by titration with a standard copper solution.
For the determination of the ash it is only necessary to ignite the milk
solids from 5 c.c. of milk, in the small platinum dish, by which operation
all the organic matter being driven off, that which remains behind
constitutes the ‘ash’ and is weighed as such.
It will be obvious that in order to determine with anything like rigid
accuracy the quality of any sample of milk by analysis, not only must a
normal standard for the purpose of comparison be adopted, but such normal
standard must represent very closely and with but little variation the
definite composition of all sound and genuine milk.
Professor Wanklyn says that “the following, which is the result of several
concordant analyses of country-fed milk, may be taken as representing
normal milk. In 100 grammes of milk——
Solids (dry at 100° C) 12·5 grammes.
Water 87·5
——————
100·0
“The 12·5 grammes consist of 9·3 grammes of ‘solids which are not fat,’
and 3·2 grammes of fat.” The above data, which are founded on the
examination of a very large number of different samples of milk, are
confirmed by the researches of Müller and Eisenstuck, who were employed by
the Royal Agricultural Society of Sweden in a similar investigation. The
labours of these chemists extended over a twelvemonth, and the result of
them was to show that the milk yielded day by day, for a whole year, by a
herd of cows was remarkably constant in composition.
Professor Wanklyn gives the following formulæ for the calculation and
statement of the results of milk analysis. He says, treating the question
quite rigidly, which I believe is the proper way of dealing with it, we
arrive at the following:——
_Problem_ 1. Given the percentage of ‘solids, not fat’ (= _a_), in a
specimen of sophisticated milk (_i. e._ milk, either watered, or skimmed,
or both)——required the number of grammes of genuine milk which was
employed to form 100 grammes of it.
_Answer._ Multiply the percentage of ‘solids, not fat’ by 100, and divide
by 9·3.
Or—— (100 / 9·3)_a_.
_Problem_ II.——Given the percentage of ‘solids, not fat’ (= _a_), also the
percentage of fat (= _b_), in a specimen of sophisticated milk——required
the number of grammes of fat which have been removed by skimming from the
genuine milk which was employed to form 100 grammes of it.
_Answer._—— (3·2 / 9·3)(_a_ - _b_).
In translating fat into cream, the rule is that a removal of 0·2 gramme of
fat equals a removal of 1·0 gramme of cream. This rule is directly founded
on experiment. I do not, however, claim a high degree of accuracy for the
measurement of the cream.
Finally, a slight refinement may be noticed. If a specimen of
sophisticated milk has been produced by both skimming and watering, it
will be obvious, on consideration, that the extraneous waters employed in
manufacturing 100 grammes of it is equal to the difference between 100 and
the quantity of genuine milk employed to make 100 grammes of sophisticated
milk, together with a quantity of water equal to that of fat removed by
skimming.
Extraneous water = 100(100 / 9·3)_a_ + (3·2 / 9·3)(_a_ - _b_)
= 100[(100 + 3·2) / 9·3](_a_ - _b_)
Save for the purpose of finding out the presence of matters other than an
excess of water in the milk (a contingency regarded as very improbable),
the estimation of the casein and milk sugar is unnecessary. The
determination of the ash is for the object of learning if foreign mineral
matters, such as chalk or any other inorganic impurity, are present.
Professor Wanklyn says he believes that such like extraneous bodies are
never employed. The chief, if not the sole, form of dishonesty are
watering and skimming.
The amount of ash, however, is a good criterion as to the extent of
dilution that has been practised, a deficient amount being, of course,
confirmatory of a watered milk.
The determination of the amount of ‘solids, not fat,’ is, in almost every
instance, all that is necessary to enable an opinion to be arrived at as
to whether the sample of milk has had water added to it or not.
Out of fifty-six samples of milk supplied to the different London unions
in 1873, Professor Wanklyn reports that he found only fifteen unwatered,
or nearly unwatered. Of these fifteen samples nine had been skimmed,
leaving only six that were at once unwatered and unskimmed. These figures,
therefore, show that only about 10 per cent. of the milk supplied in the
above year to the Metropolitan unions was genuine. He adds——“It is curious
to compare the language of the contract under which (as it appears from Mr
Rowsell’s report) the dealer supplied the various unions with milk, with
the quality of the article as exhibited by the analysis. ‘New unskimmed
milk unadulterated,’ ‘genuine as from the cow,’ ‘best new unskimmed milk,
to produce 10 per cent. of cream,’ occur in these contracts.”
_Prop._ These are well known. Perfectly fresh milk is slightly alkaline,
but soon becomes acid on exposure to the air, and after a time white
coagula of casein (CURDS) separate from it. This change is immediately
effected by the addition of rennet or an acid. That from the first, when
dried and pressed, constitutes cheese.
_Pur., Tests, &c._ The common frauds practised by the milk-dealers are the
addition of water and the subtraction of part of the cream. Sometimes
potato starch is added to the milk, to give it a creamy or rich
appearance, and this addition is still more frequently made to cream, to
increase its consistence and quality.
The presence of potato starch may be determined by boiling some of the
milk with a little vinegar, and after separating the coagulum by a
strainer, and allowing the liquid to become cold, testing it with solution
or tincture of iodine. If it turns blue, starch, flour, or some other
amylaceous substance, has been used to adulterate it. In most cases it
will be sufficient to apply the test to the unprepared suspected milk.
It has frequently been stated that chalk, plaster of Paris, gum, gelatin,
sugar, flour, mucilage of hemp-seed, the brains of animals, and other
similar substances, are often added to London milk, but there is no reason
to suppose there is any truth in these assertions, as some of these
articles are too costly to be used, and the presence of others would so
alter the flavour or appearance of the milk, or would so soon exhibit
themselves by subsidence, as to lead to their detection.
_Pres._ Milk may be preserved in stout bottles, well corked, and wired
down, by heating them, in this state, to the boiling-point, in a water
bath, by which means the oxygen of the small quantity of enclosed air
becomes absorbed. It must be afterwards stored in a cool situation. By
this method, which is also extensively adopted for the preservation of
green gooseberries, green peas, &c., milk will retain its properties
unaltered for years. A few grains of carbonate of magnesia, or, still
better, of bicarbonate of potassa or soda, may be advantageously dissolved
in each bottle before corking it.
Under Bethel’s patent the milk or cream is scalded, and, when cold,
strongly charged with carbonic-acid gas, by means of a soda-water machine,
and the corks are wired down in the usual manner. The bottles should be
kept inverted, in a cool place.
An excellent method of preventing milk from turning sour, or coagulating,
is to add to every pint of it about 10 or 12 gr. of carbonate or
bicarbonate of soda. Milk thus prepared may be kept for eight or ten days
in temperate weather. This addition is harmless, and, indeed, is
advantageous to dyspeptic patients. According to D’Arcot, 1/2000th part
of the bicarbonate is sufficient for the purpose. An excess of alkali used
in this manner may be detected by the milk turning turmeric paper brown,
even after it has been kept some hours, and by the ash obtained by
evaporating a little to dryness, and then heating it to dull redness,
effervescing with an acid. (See _below_.)
⁂ Milk should not be kept in lead or zinc vessels, as it speedily
dissolves a portion of these metals, and becomes poisonous.
_Concluding Remarks._ The principal difference between cows’ milk and
human milk consists in the former containing more casein and less sugar of
milk than the latter. The remarkable indisposition to coagulate is another
character which distinguishes human milk from cows’ milk. Prof. Falkland,
who has practically investigated the subject has prepared a nutritive
fluid for infants from cows’ milk, closely resembling that of the healthy
adult woman. His process is, however, unnecessarily complicated, and,
therefore, unsuited to those who would have to employ it in the nursery.
To remove this objection we have adopted the following formula:——Sugar of
milk, 2 oz.; hot water, 1/4 pint; dissolve, and, when the liquor has
become quite cold, add it to fresh cows’ milk, 3/4 pint, and stir them
together. This quantity, prepared morning and evening, will constitute the
proper food for an infant of from 5 to 8 months old. More may be allowed
it if it ‘craves’ it; but there must be no ‘cramming.’ At first it will be
advisable to remove a little of the cream from the milk before adding to
it the saccharine solution; but after a few days this will be found to be
unnecessary, and, indeed, injurious. One very important particular to be
attended to is, the employment of pure cows’ milk, obtained from a healthy
grass-fed animal only. With this precaution, and the use of a good
FEEDING-BOTTLE, the infant will thrive nearly as well as on the breast of
any human female, excepting its mother’s. (See _below_.)
ASSES’ MILK closely resembles human milk in colour, smell, and
consistence, but it contains rather less cream. (See _below_.)
EWES’ MILK closely resembles cows’ milk, than which, however, it is
slightly richer in cream.
GOATS’ MILK, for the most part, resembles cows’ milk, but its consistence
is much greater, and it contains much more solid matter. (See _below_.)
MARES’ MILK, in consistence; is between that of cows’ and human milk. Its
cream is not converted into butter by agitation. See BUTTER, CHEESE,
LACTIC ACID, &c.
_Milk as a cause or carrier of disease._——Milk of a mother labouring under
strong mental emotion is, as is well known, capable of seriously
endangering the health of the suckling babe. Payne narrates the case of a
woman suffering under a nervous affection whose milk, two hours after an
attack of the disease, became viscid, like the white of an egg. Similarly,
a deterioration and consequent alteration in properties is induced in the
milk of the cow if she be over driven, exhausted, or harassed. The food of
the animal likewise exercises an influence on the quality of its milk;
thus when cows are fed on turnips, wormwood, decayed leaves, and plants of
the cabbage or onion families, the flavour of these substances is imparted
to their milk. The milk of animals that have fed on poisonous or
deleterious plants is capable of setting up toxic symptoms in human beings
partaking of it. In June, 1875, the inhabitants of a certain quarter of
Rome were attacked with an epidemic, distinguished by great
gastro-intestinal irritation. The cause of the outbreak was traced to the
use of goats’ milk, yielded by goats that had eaten of the meadow saffron,
the _Colchicum autumnale_. It also appears that in the Western States of
America the milk of cows that have fed on the poison-oak, the _Rhus
toxicodendron_, has on several occasions given rise to attacks of illness
in children, marked by extreme weakness, vomiting, fall in bodily
temperature, swollen and dry tongue, and constipation. Boiling seems to
remove the dangerous properties of the milk.
Milk, as has been shown by Fuchs, is sometimes infested by a fungus, the
_Oidium lactis_ or _Penicillium_, which is capable of giving rise to
gastric irritation, and sometimes to severe febrile gastritis.[39]
[Footnote 39: Parkes.]
Although the evidence as to the power of the milk of animals affected with
epizootic diseases to convey the particular affection to human beings is
contradictory, there is little reason to doubt that soured milk may become
a carrier of infection from the ailing or convalescent subject to the
healthy one.
Typhoid and scarlet fever have been known to have originated in this
manner.
The outbreak of the former malady in Marylebone in 1874 was traced to the
contamination of milk by the remains of the water which had been used in
rinsing the milk pans. This water had been obtained from a well into which
the excrete from a typhus patient had percolated from a privy.
At Leeds a similar outbreak was caused by the absorption by the milk of
the typhoid effluvium. In the case of scarlet fever the malady has been
conveyed by means of the throat-discharges and cuticle falling into the
milk from the persons of servants and others employed in dairies.
=Milk, Al′mond.= See EMULSION and MIXTURE.
=Milk, Arrowroot.= _Prep._ From arrowroot, 1 table-spoonful, first wetted
and stirred with a little cold water, afterwards adding, gradually, of
boiling water, 1/4 pint; and, lastly, of boiling milk, 1/2 pint; with
sugar, spice, wine, &c., to palate. Very nutritious, and excellent in
chronic diarrhœa. Some persons employ all milk.
=Milk, Choc′olate.= _Prep._ Dissolve chocolate (scraped), 1 oz., in
boiling new milk, 1 pint. Nutritious; but apt to offend delicate stomachs.
=Milk, Cof′fee.= _Prep._ 1. Coffee, 1 oz.; boiling water, 1/4 pint; infuse
for 10 or 15 minutes in a warm situation, and add the strained liquid to
boiling milk, 3/4 pint.
2. Coffee, 1 oz.; tie it loosely in a piece of muslin, and simmer it for
15 minutes in milk, 1 pint. Both the above have been recommended for
persons of spare habits, and for those disposed to affections of the
lungs, more especially for the asthmatic.
=Milk, Facti′′tious.= _Syn._ ARTIFICIAL MILK. Of the numerous compounds
which have been proposed as substitutes for natural milks, the following
are examples:——
1. (FACTITIOUS ASSES’ MILK; LAC ASININUM FACTITIUM, LAC A. ARTIFICIALE,
L.)——_a._ Cows’ milk, 1 quart; ground rice, 1 oz.; oringo root (bruised),
1 dr,; boil, strain, and add sugar candy (or white sugar), 1 oz.
_b._ Whites of 2 eggs; lump sugar, 1 oz.; cows’ milk (new), 3/4 pint; mix,
then add syrup of tolu, 3/4 oz.
_c._ Water, 1 pint; hartshorn shavings, 1 oz.; boil to a jelly; then add
lump sugar, 2 oz.; cool, add new milk, 1 pint; syrup of tolu, 1/2 oz. Used
as substitutes for asses’ milk, taken freely as a beverage. A cupful, with
or without a spoonful of rum, 3 or 4 times daily, is a popular remedy in
consumption and debility.
2. (F. GOATS’ MILK——A. T. Thomson.) Fresh mutton suet (minced), 1 oz.; tie
it in a muslin bag, and boil it in cows’ milk, 1 quart; lastly, add of
sugar candy, 2 gr. In scrofulous emaciation, and in the latter stages of
phthisis. The proportion of suet in the above may be advantageously
increased a little. The LAC CUM SERO of Guy’s Hospital is a similar
preparation.
3. (F. HUMAN MILK; LAC HUMANUM FACTITIUM, L.)——_a._ See _above_.
_b._ (Rosenstein.) Almonds (blanched), 2 in number; white sugar, 1 dr.;
water, 4 fl. oz.; make an emulsion, strain, and add of fresh cows’ milk, 6
fl. oz. As a substitute for the breast in nursing.
=Milk, Preserved′.= _Syn._ MILK POWDER; LACTIS PULVIS, LAC PULVERATUM, L.
_Prep._ 1. Fresh skimmed milk, 1 gall.; carbonate of soda (in very fine
powder), 1-1/2 dr.; mix, evaporate to 1/3rd by the heat of steam or a
water bath, with constant agitation, then add of powdered white sugar,
3-1/2 lbs., and complete the evaporation at a reduced temperature; reduce
the dry mass to powder, add the cream (well drained) which was taken from
the milk, and after thorough admixture put the whole into well-stoppered
bottles or tins, which must be at once hermetically sealed.
2. (Legrip.) Carbonate of soda, 1/2 dr.; water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve, add
of fresh milk, 1 quart; sugar, 1 lb.; reduce it by heat to the
consistence of a syrup, and finish the evaporation on plates by exposure
in an oven.
_Obs._ About an ounce of the powder agitated with a pint of water, forms
an agreeable and nutritious drink, and a good substitute for milk at sea.
It may also be used for tea or coffee in a solid form. This process, which
is very old, has been recently patented. See MILK (_above_).
The condensed or preserved milk, now in such general use, and which is met
with in tins as milk which has been more or less deprived of water by
evaporation in _vacuo_. It occurs in the market in two forms——in one
simply as condensed milk, and in the other as condensed milk mixed with a
large quantity of sugar. Milk preserved as above without sugar will keep
only for two or three days; whereas with sugar it may be preserved for an
almost indefinite time. Either variety mixed with the proper quantity of
water becomes normal milk again, the sweetened kind being, of course, milk
with the addition of a considerable amount of cane sugar. Professor
Wanklyn says he has examined the principal brands of preserved and
condensed milk sent to the London market, and finds they contain their due
proportion of fat. He gives the following analyses of the produce of the
English Condensed Milk Company:
PRESERVED MILK.
In 100 parts by weight.
Water 20·5
Fat 10·4
Casein 11·0
Ash 2·0
Cane and milk sugar 56·1
——————
100·0
CONDENSED MILK.
Water 51·12
Fat 12·11
Casein 13·64
Milk sugar 20·36
Ash 2·77
——————
100·00
=Roses, Milk of.= _Syn._ LAC ROSÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (English.)——_a._ Almonds
(blanched), 1 oz.; oil of almonds and white soft soap, of each 1 dr.; rose
water, 1 pint; make an emulsion.
_b._ From liquor of potassa and oil of almonds, of each 1 fl. oz.; hot
water, 2 fl. oz,; agitate together until mixed, then add of rose water and
distilled or filtered soft water, of each 1/4 pint, and again agitate
well.
_c._ As the last, but using half a tea-spoonful of salt of tartar for the
liquor of potassa.
_d._ (Redwood.) Blanched almonds, 8 oz.; rose water, 3 pints; make an
emulsion, add of white Windsor soap, white wax, and oil of almonds, of
each 1/2 oz.; previously melted together by a gentle heat; triturate
until united, and strain; lastly, add a solution of oil of bergamot, 1/2
oz.; oil of lavender, 1 dr.; and attar of roses, 1/2 dr.; (dissolved in)
rectified spirit, 12 oz.
2. (FRENCH.)——_a._ From rose water, 1 quart; tinctures of benzoin and
styrax, of each 1 fl. oz.; spirit of roses, 1/2 fl. oz.; rectified spirit,
1/2 fl. oz.; mix.
_b._ (Augustin.) Tincture of benzoin, 1/2 fl. oz.; liquor of carbonate of
potassa, 2-1/2 fl. dr.; rose water, 1/2 pint; agitate well together. As a
lotion in acne.
_c._ (Gianinni.) Tincture of benzoin, 1 dr.; tincture of balsam of Peru,
20 drops; rose water, 1 pint; as the last.
_d._ (Schubarth.) Almond paste, 3 dr.; rose water, 1/2 pint; tincture of
benzoin, 1/2 fl. oz. As before. The addition to the last 3 of a little
rectified spirit is an improvement.
3. (GERMAN.) From dilute solution of diacetate of lead (Goulard water),
and spirit of lavender, of each 1 fl. oz.; rose water, 6 fl. oz.; soft
water, 1 pint.
_Obs._ All the above are used as cosmetic washes, and to remove scurf,
pimples, and eruptions, in slight cases.
=Milk, Sa′go.= _Syn._ LAC SAGO, L. _Prep._ (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Sago, 1
oz.; cold water, 1 pint; macerate half an hour, pour off the water, add of
milk, 1-1/2 pint, and boil slowly until the sago is dissolved. Very
nutritious; also in lieu of arrow-root milk.
=Milk of Sulphur.= _See_ SULPHUR (Precipitated).
=Milk, Thick.= Mix one table-spoonful of flour with a pint of milk, and
boil for ten minutes, stirring it well the whole time. It may be flavoured
either with a little salt, or sugar.
=Milk, Vanil′la.= _Syn._ LAC VANILLÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Essence of vanilla, 12
drops; lump sugar, 1 oz.; triturate, and add gradually, new milk, 1 pint.
2. (Bèral.) Vanilla sugar, 1/2 oz.; milk, 16 oz.; dissolve.
=MILK FEVER.= _Syn._ FEBRIS LACTEA, L. A febrile condition of the system
that sometimes occurs at the time the milk begins to be secreted after
parturition. It often assumes a malignant character. See PUERPERAL FEVER.
=MIL′LET.= _Syn._ MILIUM, L. Several varieties of grain are known by this
name. That commonly referred to under the name is the produce of _Panicum
miliaceum_ (‘Indian millet’). The husked seeds (MILIUM MUNDATUM) are used
to make gruel, and are ground for flour. ‘Turkish millet,’ or ‘Guinea
corn,’ is produced by _Sorgham vulgare_; and the ‘German’ and ‘Italian
millet’ by species of _Setaria_. In some parts of the world millet flour
is used for bread, but it is chiefly cultivated as food for domestic
animals.
Letheby says millets are a little more nutritious than rice.
In the subjoined table, is given the composition of three different
samples of millet meal, free from bran.
+--------------+-------------+---------------+------------
| | _Panicum_ | _Penicillaria_| _Sorghum_
| |_miliaceum_, | _spicata_ |_vulgare_,
| | common | a kind of | Dharra of
| | millet. | millet, | the Arabs,
| | | much used | Goar of
| | | in India | India.
| | | under the |
| | | name of |
| | | Bajia. |
+--------------+-------------+---------------+------------
| | | |
| Water | 12·22 | 11·8 | 11·95
| Nitrogenous | | |
| substances | 9·27 | 10·13 | 8·64
| Dextrin | 9·13 | ... | 3·82
| Sugar | 1·80 | ... | 1·46
| Fat | 7·43 | 4·62 | 3·90
| Starch | 59·04 | 71·75 | 70·23[40]
| Silicin | 0·11 | ... | ...
+--------------+-------------+---------------+------------
[Footnote 40: With husks.]
=MINCE MEAT.= _Prep._ From stoned raisins, currants, sugar, and suet, of
each 2 lbs.; sultana raisins and boiled beef (lean and tender), of each 1
lb.; apples 4 lbs.; juice of 2 lemons; the rind of 1 lemon, chopped very
fine; mixed spice, 1/4 lb.; candied citron and lemon peel, of each 2 oz.;
brandy, a glassful or two; the whole chopped very fine. It may be varied
by adding other spice or flavouring, and by the addition of eggs, or the
substitution of chopped fowl or veal for beef, according to the state of
the cuisinier.
=MINCE PIES.= Take 3 apples, 3 lemons, 1 lb. of raisins, 3/4 lb. of
currants, 1 lb. of suet, 1/4 lb. of raw beef, 2 lbs. of moist sugar, 1/4
lb. of mixed candied peel, 1/4 of a rind of a fresh orange, 1 teaspoonful
of powdered mixed spice, composed of equal parts of cloves, cinnamon, and
nutmeg, 1/2 pint of brandy, and 1 glass of port wine. Peel the apples and
cut out the cores very carefully, and then bake the pieces until they are
quite soft. The raisins must be carefully stoned, and the currants well
washed, dried, and picked. Chop the suet very finely, as well as the raw
meat and lemon-peel. Mix all the ingredients thoroughly together, add the
brandy last of all, and press the whole down into a stone jar, and place a
piece of paper soaked in brandy on the top. Remove the paper and stir up
the mixture thoroughly every three days, replacing the paper. If this is
done the mincemeat will keep a long time. To make the pies, roll out some
thin puff-paste, butter a small round tin, and line it with a piece of
paste, then put in a generous quantity of the mincemeat, cover it over
with a similar piece of puff paste, and bake it in a moderate oven. Mince
pies are none the worse for being warmed up, but pray take care they are
sent to table hot. (Cassell.)
=MINDERE′′RUS’ SPIRIT.= See AMMONIA (Acetate of), and SOLUTION.
=MINERAL CHAME′LEON.= _Prep._ From a mixture of binoxide of manganese and
potassa and nitre, equal parts, heated to redness. It must be preserved
in a well-corked bottle until required for use.
_Prop., &c._ When dissolved in water, its solution, at first green, passes
spontaneously through all the coloured rays to the red, when, if potassa
be added, the colour retrogrades until it reaches the original green. The
addition of oil of vitriol, or of chlorine, renders the solution
colourless. The addition of a weak acid, or even boiling or agitating the
liquid, turns it from green to red. See MANGANIC ACID.
=MIN′ÉRALISERS.= Substances which, by association with metallic bodies,
deprive them of their usual properties, and impart to them the character
of ores. Their removal belongs to metallurgy. The term ‘MINERALISED’ has
been applied to caoutchouc, gutta percha, bitumen, &c., which has been
combined with sulphur, silica, or metallic matter.
=MIN′IM.= _Syn._ MINIMUM, L. A measured drop, of which 60 are equal to a
fluid drachm. The size of drops vary so greatly with different liquids and
are also so much influenced by the size and shape of the vessels from
which they are poured, that they afford no reliable measure of quantity
for medicinal purposes. The poured drop has, in some cases, only 1/3rd the
volume of the measured drop, or minim; whilst, in others, it is nearly 3
times as large. According to Mr Durande, “liquids which contain a small
proportion of water, afford a small drop; while, on the contrary, liquids
containing a large quantity of water furnish a large drop.” “Among liquids
containing a large proportion of water, those which are not charged with
remedial substances, give a larger and heavier drop than the same liquids
when containing extraneous bodies in solution.” In all cases in which the
word ‘drop’ is mentioned in this work a minim is intended, and the
quantity should be determined by means of a graduated minim measure.
=MIN′IUM.= See RED PIGMENTS.
=MINT.= _Syn._ SPEARMINT, GREEN M.; MENTHA VIRIDIS (Ph. L.), L. “The
recent and the dried flowering herb” of _Mentha viridis_. It is aromatic
and carminative, but its flavour is less agreeable than that of
peppermint. It is employed in flatulence, colic, nausea, diarrhœa, &c.;
also to make sauce.
=MIR′RORS.= See AMALGAM (Silvering), SILVERING, SPECULUM METAL, &c.
=MITES.= See ACARI.
=MITH′RIDATE.= _Syn._ DAMOCRATE’S CONFECTION; MITHRIDATIUM, CONFECTIO
DAMOCRATIS, L. “This composition originally consisted of but few
ingredients; viz. 20 leaves of rue, 2 walnuts, 2 figs, and a little salt.
Of this we are informed that Mithridates took a dose every morning, to
guard himself against the effects of poison. It was afterwards altered,
and the number of the ingredients increased to sixty-one. In this more
complex form it contained opium, and was, in effect, an aromatic opiate,
of which the confection of opium of the present day may be considered as
a simplification. The ‘mithridate’ is still prepared in some shops, and is
occasionally, though very rarely, prescribed.” (Med. Lex.) “The formulæ
for CONFECTION or ELECTUARY OF CATECHU may be considered as the
representatives, in our modern Pharmacopœias, of the once celebrated
recipes for CONFECTIO DAMOCRATIS and THERIACA ANDROMACHI.” (Redwood.)
Mithridate was formerly conceived to be good for nearly every disease, and
an antidote for every known poison.
=MIXTURE.= _Syn._ MISTURA, L. A compound liquid medicine, taken in divided
doses. Mixtures are usually extemporaneous preparations, and in
prescribing them care should be taken not to bring together substances
that decompose each other, nor to order heavy powders, that speedily
separate from the body of the liquid by subsidence. EMULSIONS, JULEPS, and
MUCILAGES, are included in the ‘MISTURÆ’ of the London Pharmacopœia.
Mixtures are usually dispensed in flat octagonal 6-or 8-oz. bottles, with
long necks; or in regular ‘octagons’ with short necks, having the doses
marked on the glass, to which the strength of the medicine is made to
correspond.
Our remarks respecting ‘DRAUGHTS’ equally apply here. By putting the
active ingredients of six draughts into a 6-oz. mixture bottle, and
filling it up with distilled water, a mixture will be made of
corresponding properties, of which the dose will be 2 table-spoonfuls.
When the formula for the draughts includes a decoction or infusion as the
vehicle, instead of water, four of them only must be taken, which will
then fill the 6-oz. bottle, and the proper dose will be 3 table-spoonfuls,
or a small wine-glassful.
The following formulæ embraces the whole of the ‘MISTURÆ’ of the British
Pharmacopœia, as well as a few others in general use. These will serve as
examples for the like preparations of medicinals which are not included in
the list. (See also DRAUGHT, EMULSION, JULEP, WATER, &c.)
=Mixture, Absor′bent.= See MIXTURE, ANTACID.
=Mixture, Aca′cia.= See MIXTURE, GUM.
=Mixture, Ace′tate of Ammo′′nia.= _Syn._ MINDERERUS’S MIXTURE; MISTURA
AMMONIÆ ACETATIS, L. _Prep._ From solution of acetate of ammonia, 1-1/2
fl. oz.; nitre, 40 gr.; camphor mixture, 6 fl. oz.; rose syrup, 1/2 fl.
oz.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 table-spoonfuls, every third or fourth hour, as a
diaphoretic in inflammatory fevers, &c.
=Mixture of Acetic Acid.= _Syn._ MISTURA ACIDI ACETICI. _Prep._ Distilled
vinegar, 2 fl. dr.; syrup, 4 fl. dr.; water, 2 fl. oz. A fourth part every
three hours. For children with scarlatina.
=Mixture of Aconite.= (Mr Fleming.) _Syn._ MISTURA ACONITI. _Prep._
Tincture of aconite, 1 fl. dr.; carbonate of soda, 1-1/2 dr.; sulphate of
magnesia, 1-1/2 oz.; water, 6 oz. A table-spoonful when the pain is
urgent. In gastralgia this should only be administered under medical
supervision or advice.
=Mixture, Al′kaline.= See MIXTURE, ANTACID.
=Mixture, Al′mond.= _Syn._ EMULSION OF ALMONDS, MILK OF A.; MISTURA
AMYGDALÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), LAC AMYGDALÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.)
Confection of almonds, 2-1/2 oz.; distilled water, 1 pint; gradually add
the water to the confection while triturating, until they are mixed; then
strain the liquid through linen.
2. (Ph. E.) From almond confection, 2 oz., and water, 1 quart; as the
last. Or, from sweet almonds (blanched), 10 dr.; white sugar, 5 dr.;
mucilage, 1/2 fl. oz. (or powdered gum, 3 dr.); made into an emulsion with
water, 1 quart.
3. (Ph. D.) Sweet almonds (blanched), 5 dr.; refined sugar, 2 dr.;
powdered gum, 1 dr.; distilled water, 8 fl. oz.; as the last.
4. (B. P.) Compound powder of almonds (sweet), 1; water, 8; triturate and
strain.
_Obs._ The last formula produces the article usually employed in
dispensing in the shops. The addition of a little more sugar renders it
more pleasant; and 2 or 3 bitter almonds, as in the formula of the Ph. D.
1826, or 1 or 2 fl. dr. of rose or orange-flower water, may occasionally
be added, to diversify the flavour.——_Dose_, 2 or 3 table-spoonfuls, _ad
libitum_; as a demulcent and emollient in coughs and colds, or as a
vehicle for more active medicines.
=Mixture of Ammonia, Muriate of.= (Sir G. Lefevre.) _Syn._ MISTURA AMMONIÆ
MURIATIS. _Prep._ Muriate of ammonia, 60 gr.; extract of liquorice, 3 dr.;
tartarised antimony, 2 gr.; distilled water, 8 oz. A tablespoonful every 2
hours in pleurisy, congestion of mucous membranes, &c.
=Mixture, Ammoni′acum.= _Syn._ EMULSION OF AMMONIACUM, MILK OF A.; MISTURA
AMMONIACI (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), LAC AMMONIACI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.)
Prepared ammoniacum, 5 dr.; distilled water, 1 pint; rub the ammoniacum
with the water, gradually added, until they are perfectly mixed.
2. (Ph. D.) Ammoniacum, 1/4 oz.; water, 8 fl. oz.; as the last, but
straining through muslin.
3. (B. P.) Ammoniacum, 1/4 oz.; rubbed down with water, 8 oz., and
strain.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 gr.
_Obs._ The last formula produces the best and most effective mixture,
owing to the use of the raw instead of the strained drug.——_Dose_, 1 to 2
table-spoonfuls, either alone or combined with squills or ipecacuanha; as
an expectorant and demulcent in chronic coughs, humoral asthma, &c.
=Mixture, A′nodyne.= _Syn._ MISTURA ANODYNA, JULEPUM CALMANS, L. _Prep._
1. Prepared chalk, 2 dr.; syrup of poppies, 1 oz.; fetid spirit of
ammonia, 1-1/2 dr.; oils of dill and aniseed, of each 3 drops; water,
4-1/4 fl. oz.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful 3 or 4 times a day; in the diarrhœa
and colic of infancy.
2. (P. Cod.) Syrup of opium, 2 dr.; syrup of orange flowers, 6 dr.;
lettuce water, 4 fl. oz. To allay pain, induce sleep, &c. _Dose_, 1
table-spoonful.
3. (Vicat.) Ammoniated alcohol, 3/4 fl. oz.; powdered opium, 1 dr.;
powdered camphor, 1/2 dr.; proof spirit, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; digest, with
agitation, for 3 or 4 days, and filter. In toothache arising from caries,
and as a lotion to the temples in headache.
=Mixture, Antac′id.= _Syn._ ABSORBENT MIXTURE, ALKALINE M.; MISTURA
ALKALINA, M. ANTACIDA, L. _Prep._ 1. Liquor of potassa and spirit of
nutmeg, of each 2 fl. dr.; tincture of rhubarb, 3 fl. dr.; tincture of
opium, 1 fl. dr.; water, 5 fl. oz. In dyspepsia, heartburn, &c.,
accompanied with flatulence.
2. Spirit of sal volatile and orange-flower water, of each 1 fl. oz.;
simple syrup, 1-1/2 fl. oz; water, 2-1/2 fl. oz. In acidity, &c.,
accompanied with languor and low spirits.
3. Sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 2 dr.; syrup of orange peel and tincture of
gentian, of each 1 fl. oz.; water, 4 fl. oz. In dyspepsia, heartburn, &c.,
arising from excessive indulgence in spirituous or fermented liquors. It
also possesses considerable stimulating properties, and will partially
remove the fit of drunkenness.
4. (Collier.) Prepared chalk, 2 dr.; tincture of ginger, 2 fl. dr.;
compound tincture of cardamoms, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; pimento water, 6 fl. oz. In
diarrhœa accompanied with acidity.
5. (Collier.) Chalk mixture, 5 fl. oz.; tinctures of catechu and cinnamon,
of each 1/2 fl. oz. In chronic diarrhœa.
6. (Ryan.) Liquor of potassa, 2 fl. dr.; tincture of opium, 1 fl. dr.;
calcined magnesia, 1 dr.; oil of peppermint, 5 drops; lime water, 8 fl.
oz. In dyspepsia accompanied with acidity, flatulence, and constipation.
=Mixture, Anticroup′al.= _Syn._ MISTURA SENEGÆ, L. _Prep._ (Jadelot.)
Infusion of senega, 4 oz.; syrup of ipecacuanha, 1 oz.; oxymel of squills,
3 dr.; tartarised antimony, 1-1/2 gr.; mix. By spoonfuls, in croup.
=Mixture, Anti-eme′tic.= _Syn._ MISTURA ANTI-EMETICA, L. _Prep._ 1.
Creasote, 12 drops; acetate of morphia, 1-1/2 gr.; camphor, 10 gr.
rectified spirit, 1/2 fl. oz.; syrup of orange peel, 1-1/2 fl. oz.;
distilled vinegar, 4 fl. oz. In sea-sickness, &c.——_Dose_, 1
table-spoonful on the approach of vomiting, and repeated at intervals of
half an hour until the vomiting ceases.
2. (Dr. Barker.) Compound tincture of camphor, 1 fl. dr.; burnt brandy, 1
fl. oz.; sugar, 1/2 oz.; infusion of mint, 6 fl. oz.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1
table-spoonful, every 1/4 hour, until the vomiting ceases.
=Mixture, Anti-epilep′tic.= _Syn._ MISTURA ANTI-EPILEPTICA, L. _Prep._ (M.
Lemoine.) Liquor of ammonia, 12 drops; syrup of orange flowers, 1 oz.;
distilled water of linden flowers, 2 oz.; do. of cherry laurel, 1/2 oz.;
mix. According to M. Lemoine, this is a specific in epilepsy.——_Dose_, 1
table-spoonful, or more.
=Mixture, Antihyster′ic.= _Syn._ MISTURA ANTIHYSTERICA, L.; POTION
ANTIHYSTERIQUE, Fr. _Prep._ (Dr Josat.) Cyanide of potassium, 1-3/4 gr.;
distilled lettuce water, 4-1/2 fl. oz.; syrup of orange flowers, 1-1/2 fl.
oz.——_Dose_, 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls every ten minutes, when the fit is
expected; during the fit it may be given in double doses. Dr Josat
declares its efficacy to have been indisputably proved in upwards of 55
cases.
2. (Magendie.) Cyanide of potassium, 2 gr.; lettuce water (distilled), 4
oz.; syrup of marshmallow, 2 oz. Resembles the last.
3. (Dr Paris.) Assafœtida, 1 dr.; peppermint water, 5 fl. oz.; make an
emulsion, and add of ammoniated tincture of valerian, 2 fl. dr.; tincture
of castor, 3 fl. dr.; sulphuric ether, 1-1/2 fl. dr.——_Dose_, 1
table-spoonful, 3 or 4 times a day, or oftener.
4. (P. Cod.) Syrup of wormwood, 1 oz.; tincture of castor, 1/2 dr.;
valerian water and orange-flower water, of each 2 oz.; ether, 1 dr. As the
last.
=Mixture, Antimo′′nial.= See MIXTURE, CONTRA-STIMULANT.
=Mixture, Antipertus′sic.= _Syn._ MISTURA ANTIPERTUSSIENS, L. _Prep._ 1.
COCHINEAL (powdered), 2 dr.; carbonate of potassa, 1 dr.; boiling water, 8
fl. oz.; infuse for 1 hour, strain, and add of lump sugar, 1-1/2 oz.
2. (Dr Bird.) Extract of hemlock, 12 gr.; alum, 25 gr.; syrup of red
poppies, 2 fl. dr.; dill water, 3 fl. oz.
3. (Dr Reece.) Tincture of assafœtida, 1 fl. dr.; tincture of opium, 10 or
12 drops; powdered ipecacuanha, 10 gr.; water, 2 fl. oz.——_Dose_. A
teaspoonful every 3 hours, in hooping cough, for a child 2 or 3 years old,
and other ages in proportion.
=Mixture, Antiscrof′ulous.= _Syn._ MISTURA ANTISCROFULOSA, L. _Prep._ From
tincture of bichloride of gold, 30 drops; tincture of iodine, 40 drops;
tincture of gentian, 1 fl. dr.; simple syrup, 7 fl. dr.; rose water, 5 fl.
oz.——_Dose._ A dessert-spoonful, 3 or 4 times daily, in a wine-glassful of
water; observing to shake the bottle before pouring out the liquid. Mr
Cooley states that he has seen repeated instances of the excellent effects
of this medicine in scrofula, syphilis, and various glandular diseases,
even under all the disadvantages of a salt-meat diet and confinement on
shipboard.
=Mixture, Antispasmod′ic.= _Syn._ MISTURA ANTISPASMODICA, L. _Prep._ 1.
Tincture of castor, 6 fl. dr.; sulphuric ether and laudanum, of each 1 fl.
dr.; syrup of saffron, 1 fl. oz.; cinnamon water, 4 fl. oz.
2. (Dr Collier.) Assafœtida and camphor mixtures, of each 2-1/2 fl. oz.;
tincture of valerian, 1 fl. oz.
3 (P. Cod.) Lime or linden-flower water and orange-flower water, of each 2
oz.; syrup of orange flowers, 1 oz.; ether, 1/2 dr.——_Dose._ (Of each of
the above) 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls.
=Mixture, Ape′′rient.= _Syn._ MISTURA APERIENS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Abernethy.)
Sulphate of magnesia, 1 oz.; manna, 1/2 oz.; infusion of senna, 1-1/2 fl.
oz.; tincture of senna, 1/2 fl. oz.; mint water, 2 fl. oz.; distilled
water, 4 fl. oz.; mix. This is the true ‘ABERNETHY BLACK DRAUGHT,’
2. (Dr Christison.) Sulphate of magnesia, 1-1/2 oz.; water, 4 fl. oz.;
dissolve, and add, of tincture of senna, 1 fl. oz.; infusion of roses, 4
fl. oz.——_Dose._ A wine-glassful hourly, until it begins to operate.
3. (Dr Collier.) Sulphate of iron, 20 gr.; Epsom salts, 1 oz.; pennyroyal
water, 1 pint; dissolve.——_Dose._ A wine-glassful twice a day, in atonic
amenorrhœa.
=Mixture, Aromat′ic.= _Syn._ MISTURA AROMATICA, L. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.)
Syrup of clove gilliflowers, 1 oz.; spirit of cinnamon, 1/2 oz.;
confection of hyacinth, 2 dr.; peppermint water and orange-flower water,
of each 2 oz.
2. (Guy’s Hosp.) Aromatic confection (Ph. L., in powder), 3 dr.;
peppermint water, 9 fl. oz. Sometimes a little tincture of calumba is
added.
3. (St Barth. Hosp.) Aromatic confection, 2-1/2 dr.; water, 5 fl. oz.;
pimento water, 3 fl. oz.; mix. The last two are excellent aromatic
absorbents in diarrhœa, heartburn, flatulence, acidity, &c.——_Dose_, 1 or
2 table-spoonfuls every 2 or 3 hours, or as required.
=Mixture, Aromatic Iron.= Pale bark, in powder, 4; calumba, in powder, 2;
cloves, bruised, 1; iron wire, 2; compound tincture of cardamoms, 12;
tincture of orange peel, 2; peppermint water, 50; macerate the first four
ingredients in the last one for three days, agitating occasionally,
filter, add the tinctures, and make up to 50. Used as a tonic.——_Dose_, 1
to 2 oz.
=Mixture, Arsen′ical.= _Syn._ MISTURA ARSENICALIS, L. _Prep._ From liquor
of arsenite of potassa——Ph. L., 2 fl. dr.; compound tincture of cardamoms,
4 fl. dr.; cinnamon water, 2 fl. oz.; pure water, 3 fl. oz.; mix.——_Dose._
A small table-spoonful, twice a day, after a full meal; in agues, periodic
headaches, lepra, psoriasis, chronic rheumatism, &c. It should be
exhibited with caution, and its effects watched; and after 5 or 6 days the
dose should be reduced to half the quantity.
=Mixture, Astrin′gent.= _Syn._ MISTURA ASTRINGENS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Pradel.)
Tannin, 12 gr.; tincture of rhatany, 1 dr.; simple syrup, 7 dr.; mucilage,
1 oz.; camphor mixture, 4 oz.
2. (A. T. Thomson.) Extract of catechu, 2 dr. (or tincture 1 oz.);
cinnamon water, 8 oz.; dissolve.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 table-spoonfuls, after
every liquid dejection, in diarrhœa and dysentery.
=Mixture, Atroph′ic.= _Syn._ MISTURA ATROPHICA, L.; POTION ATROPHIQUE, Fr.
_Prep._ (Magendie.) Iodide of potassium, 4 dr.; lettuce water, 8 oz.;
peppermint water, 2 dr.; syrup of marshmallow, 1 oz.——_Dose_, 1
tablespoonful, twice a day; in hypertrophy (enlargement) of the heart.
Sometimes 1 to 2 dr. of tincture of foxglove is added to the mixture.
=Mixture, Balsamic.= (P. Cod.) _Syn._ MISTURA BALSAMICA. _Prep._ Balsam
copaiba, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 oz.; syrup of tolu, 2 oz.; peppermint
water, 4 oz.; nitric ether, 2 dr. Mix the alcohol and ether, add the
balsam, then the syrup and water.
=Mixture, Bar′ley.= _Syn._ MISTURA HORDEI, L. See DECOCTION.
=Mixture of Bismuth.= (St Th. Hosp.) _Syn._ MISTURA BISMUTHI. _Prep._
Subnitrate of bismuth, 10 gr.; compound powder of tragacanth, 5 gr.;
water, 1 oz. For 1 dose.
=Mixture of Bisulphide of Carbon.= (Clarus.) _Syn._ MISTURA BISULPHURETI
CARBONIS. _Prep._ Bisulphide of carbon, 20 minims; sugar, 2 dr.; milk, 6
oz.——_Dose_, 1/2 oz. 4 times a day.
=Mixture of Boracic Acid.= (Chaussier.) _Syn._ MISTURA ACIDI BORACICI.
_Prep._ Camphor mixture, 4 oz.; boracic acid, 60 gr.; syrup of orange
peel, 1 oz.
=Mixture of Burnt Hartshorn.= See DECOCTION, WHITE.
=Mixture, Brandy.= _Syn._ MIXTURE OF SPIRIT OF FRENCH WINE, EGG FLIP‡;
MISTURA SPIRITUS VINI GALLICI (B. P., Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.)
Brandy and cinnamon water of each 4 fl. oz.; yolks of 2 eggs; white sugar,
1/2 oz.; oil of cinnamon, 2 drops; mix. A valuable stimulant and
restorative in low fevers, and in extreme exhaustion from hæmorrhages,
&c.; but scarcely a fitting subject for the labours of the College of
Physicians, since almost every cook and housewife could produce a better
compound than the product of the College formula.
2. (B. P.) Brandy, 4 gr.; cinnamon water, 4 oz.; the yolks of 2 eggs;
sugar, 1/2 oz.; mix.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1-1/2 oz., in prostration and last
stages of fever.
=Mixture of Caffein.= (Vanden-Corput.) _Syn._ MISTURA CAFFEINÆ. _Prep._
Caffein, 7 gr.; distilled water, 3 oz.; hydrochloric acid, 2 drops; syrup
of orange-flower water, 1/2 oz.; mix.——_Dose_, 1 tablespoonful.
=Mixture, Cam′phor.= _Syn._ CAMPHOR JULEP, CAMPHOR WATER; MISTURA CAMPHORÆ
(Ph. L. & D.), EMULSIO CAMPHORÆ (Ph. E.) MISTURA CAMPHORATA, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Ph. L.) Camphor, 1/2 dr.; rectified spirit, 10 drops; triturate together,
gradually adding of water, 1 pint; and strain through linen.
2. (Ph. D.) Tincture of camphor, 1 fl. oz.; distilled water, 3 pints;
agitate well together, and after 24 hours filter through paper.
3. (Ph. E.) See EMULSION.
_Uses, &c._ Camphor julep is chiefly used as a vehicle for other
medicines.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 wine-glassful.
4. (With MAGNESIA: MISTURA CAMPHORÆ CUM MAGNESIA——Ph. E. & D., AQUA
CAMPHORÆ——Ph. U. S.)——_a._ (Ph. E.) Camphor, 10 gr., carbonate of
magnesia, 25 gr.; triturate together, then gradually add of water, 6 fl.
oz., still continuing the trituration.
_b._ (Ph. D.) Camphor, 12 gr.; carbonate of magnesia, 1/2 dr.; water, 6
fl. oz.; as last.
_c._ (Ph. U. S.) Camphor, 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 40 drops; triturate,
add of carbonate of magnesia, 4 dr., and again triturate, adding,
gradually, of water, 32 fl. oz. Antacid, antispasmodic, and
anodyne.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls. Used without straining. It is
stronger than the simple mixture.
_d._ CARBONATED CAMPHOR MIXTURE. _Syn._ MISTURA CAMPHOR CARBONICA. Water
strongly charged with carbonic acid gas, agitated with powdered camphor
and strained.
=Mixture, Carmin′ative.= _Syn._ MISTURA CARMINATIVA, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Paris.) Calcined magnesia, 1/2 dr.; peppermint water, 2-1/2 fl. dr.;
compound tincture of lavender, 1/2 fl. dr.; spirit of caraway, 4 fl. dr.;
syrup of ginger, 2 fl. dr.; mix. Antacid and carminative. For 1 or 2
doses.
=Mixture of Cassia.= (Fr. Hosp.) _Syn._ MISTURA CASSIÆ, L.; EAU DE CASSE,
F. Cassia pulp, 2 oz.; hot water, 1-1/2 pint. May be taken by the
wineglass. Laxative.
=Mixture of Cassia, Antimoniated.= (Foy.) _Syn._ MISTURA CASSIÆ
ANTIMONIATA, EAU DE CASSE. Emitisée. _Prep._ Pulp of cassia, 1 oz.;
boiling water, 1-1/2 pint. Macerate, strain, and add sulphate of magnesia,
1 oz.; emetic tartar, 3 gr. By cupfuls. In painters’ colic.
=Mixture, Cathar′tic.= See MIXTURE, APERIENT, M. SENNA, &c.
=Mixture, Chalk.= _Syn._ CRETACEOUS MIXTURE; MISTURA CRETÆ (B. P.),
MISTURA CRETA (Ph. L. E. & D.), M. CRETACEA, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.)
Prepared chalk, 1/2 oz.; sugar, 3 dr.; mixture of acacia (mucilage), 1-1/2
fl. oz., triturate together, then add of cinnamon water, 18 fl. oz.
2. (Ph. E.) Prepared chalk, 10 dr.; white sugar, 5 dr.; mucilage, 3 fl.
oz; spirit of cinnamon, 2 fl. oz.; water, 1 quart; as the last.
3. (Ph. D.) Prepared chalk, 2 dr.; syrup and mucilage, of each, 1/2 oz.;
cinnamon water, 7 fl. oz.
4. (B. P.) Prepared chalk, 1; gum Arabic, in powder, 1; syrup, 2; cinnamon
water, 30; mix by trituration.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 gr., with astringent
tinctures and opium.
_Obs._ The above are antacid and absorbent.——_Dose_, 1 to 3
table-spoonfuls, either alone or combined with aromatic confection; in
heartburn, and in diarrhœa after every liquid motion. In the latter
affection, a little tincture of catechu or laudanum is often added; and
when there is vomiting or nausea, either peppermint or spearmint water is
generally substituted for the whole or a part of the simple water ordered
in the above formulæ.
=Mixture of Chlorine.= _Syn._ MISTURA CHLORINII. Dr Watson prescribes 2
fl. dr. of the solution to 1 pint of water. The dose of the mixture is 4
fl. dr. every 3 hours, according to age, in scarlatina.
=Mixture of Chloroform.= (Ph. U. S.) _Syn._ MISTURA CHLOROFORMI. _Prep._
Chloroform, 1/2 oz. (by weight); camphor, 1 dr.; yolk of 1 egg; water, 6
oz. Rub the yolk first by itself, then with the camphor, previously
dissolved in the chloroform, and lastly, with the water gradually added.
=Mixture, Cincho′na.= _Syn._ BARK MIXTURE; MISTURA CINCHONÆ, L. _Prep._
(Copland.) Confection of roses, 1/2 oz.; boiling decoction of bark, 1 fl.
oz.; triturate, in 10 minutes strain, and add diluted sulphuric acid,
1-1/2 fl. dr.; spirit of nutmeg, 4 fl. dr. Febrifuge, tonic, and
stomachic.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 table-spoonfuls, 2 or 3 times a day.
=Mixture of Citrate of Caffein.= _Syn._ MISTURA CAFFEINÆ CITRATIS, POTION
CONTRE MIGRAINÆ. Syrup of citrate of caffein, 1 fl. oz.; water (or any
agreeable diluent), 5 oz. A table-spoonful frequently.
=Mixture, Col′chicum.= _Syn._ GOUT MIXTURE; MISTURA ANTARTHRITICA, M.
COLCHICI, L. _Prep._ (Sir S. Scudamore.) Magnesia, 1-1/2 dr.; vinegar of
colchicum and syrup of orange peel, of each 4 fl. dr.; peppermint water, 3
fl. oz. A table-spoonful every 3 or 4 hours during the fit of gout.
=Mixture, Contra-stim′ulant.= _Syn._ MISTURA CONTRA-STIMULANS, JULEPUM C.,
M. ANTIMONII POTASSIO-TARTRATIS, L. _Prep._ (Laennec.) Tartar emetic, 3
gr.; infusion of orange leaves, 8 fl. oz.; syrup of do., 1 fl.
oz.——_Dose._ A wine-glassful, or more, every 2 hours; in inflammation of
the lungs, hooping-cough, &c.
=Mixture of Copaiba.= (Guy’s Hosp.) _Syn._ MISTURA COPAIBÆ. _Prep._ Balsam
of copaiba, 3 dr.; solution of carbonate of potash, 1-1/2 dr. Rub together
and gradually add decoction of barley, 8 oz.; spirit of nitric ether, 3
dr.——_Dose_, 1 oz. 3 times a day. See MIXTURES, BALSAMIC.
=Mixture, Cough.= _Syn._ MISTURA BECHICA, L. _Prep._ 1. Almond mixture, 4
fl. oz.; oxymel of squills, 1 fl. oz.; ipecacuanha wine and syrup of tolu,
of each 1/2 fl. oz.
2. Tincture of tolu, 1/8 fl. oz.; paregoric elixir and tincture of
squills, of each 1 fl. oz.; syrup of poppies, 3 fl. oz.; water, 3-1/2 fl.
oz.
3. Mixture of ammoniacum, 4 fl. oz.; syrup of squills, 2 fl. oz. In the
coughs of old persons.
4. Antimonial wine, 3 fl. dr.; syrup of poppies, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; water, 4
fl. oz. In dry, husky coughs.——_Dose_ (of each of the above), 1
table-spoonful, 2 or 3 times a day, or oftener.
5. (Dr Monro.) Paregoric, 1/2 fl. oz.; sulphuric ether and tincture of
tolu, of each 1/4 oz.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful in water, night and morning,
or when the cough is troublesome.
6. (Dr Radcliff.) Syrup of poppies, syrup of squills, and paregoric,
equal parts.——_Dose._ As the last. In all cases the bowels should be kept
gently moved by some mild aperient.
7. (Dr Wood’s Brown Mixture.) Extract of liquorice, 2 dr.; powdered gum
Arabic, 2 dr.; boiling water, 4 oz.; dissolve, and add antimonial wine, 2
dr.; laudanum, 20 minims.——_Dose._ A table-spoonful occasionally. A
popular American remedy.
=Mixture, Cre′asote.= _Syn._ MISTURA CREASOTI, M. CREAZOTI (B. P., Ph.
E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Creasote and acetic acid, of each 16 drops;
mix, then add of compound spirit of juniper and syrup, of each 1 fl. oz.;
water, 14 fl. oz.; and agitate well together.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1
wine-glassful, in nausea and vomiting, especially to prevent or relieve
sea-sickness.
2. (B. P.) Creasote, 16 minims; glacial acetic acid, 16 minims; spirit of
juniper, 1/2 dr.; syrup, 1 oz.; distilled water, 15 oz.; mix.——1 to 2 oz.
=Mixture of Cubebs.= _Syn._ MISTURA CUBEBÆ. Powder of cubebs, 1 oz.;
sugar, 2 dr.; mucilage, 2 oz.; cinnamon water, 6 oz.——_Dose_, 1/2 oz. to 1
oz.
=Mixture, Demul′cent.= Syn. MISTURA DEMULCENS, L. See ALMOND MIXTURE, GUM
M., &c.
=Mixture, Diaphoret′ic.= _Syn._ MISTURA DIAPHORETICA, L. _Prep._ 1.
Solution of acetate of ammonia, 3 fl. oz.; antimonial wine, 2 fl. dr.;
tincture of henbane, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; camphor mixture, 3 fl. oz.——_Dose_, 1
table-spoonful every 3 or 4 hours; in fevers, &c.
2. To the last add of sweet spirit of nitre, 1/2 fl. oz. As above.
=Mixture for Diarrhœa.= (Board of Health.) _Syn._ MISTURA PRO DIARRHŒA.
Aromatic powder, 3 dr.; compound spirits of ammonia, 3 dr.; tincture of
catechu, 10 dr.; compound tincture of cardamoms, 6 dr.; tincture of opium,
1 dr.; chalk mixture to make 20 oz.——_Dose._ For an adult, 1 oz.; for a
child of 12 years of age, 1/2 oz.; for 7 years, 1/4 oz.; after each liquid
stool.
=Mixture, Diarrhœ′a.= See MIXTURE, CHALK, &c.
=Mixture, Diuret′ic= _Syn._ MISTURA DIURETICA, L. _Prep._ 1. Nitrate of
potassa, 2 dr.; sweet spirit of nitre, 3 fl. dr.; syrup of squills, 1-1/2
fl. oz.; peppermint water, 4 fl. oz.
2. (A. T. Thomson.) Infusion of foxglove, 5-1/2 fl. oz.; tincture of
foxglove, 1/2 fl. dr.; acetate of potassa, 2 dr.; spirit of juniper, 1/2
fl. oz.; tincture of opium, 1/2 fl. In dropsy.——_Dose_, 1 to 2
table-spoonfuls, every 2 or 3 hours. The last must be used with caution.
=Mixture, Effervescing.= (P. Cod.) _Syn._ MISTURA EFFERVESCENS; POTION
GAZEUSE DE RIVIÈRE. _Prep._ Dissolve 1/2 dr. of bicarbonate of potash in 2
oz. of water, and add 4 dr. of syrup. Mix also 1/2 dr. of citric acid with
1/3 oz. of syrup of citric acid and 2 oz. of water. Mix an equal quantity
of each, and give it while effervescing.
=Mixture of Elaterium.= (Dr Ferriar.) _Syn._ MISTURA ELATERII. _Prep._
Elaterium, 1 gr.; spirit of nitric ether, 2 fl. oz.; tincture of squills,
1/2 oz.; oxymel of colchicum, 1/2 oz.; syrup of buckthorn, 1 fl.
oz.——_Dose_, 1 dr. 3 times a day in water.
=Mixture, Emet′ic.= _Syn._ MISTURA EMETICA, L. _Prep._ 1. (Copland.)
Sulphate of zinc, 40 gr.; ipecacuanha wine and tincture of serpentary, of
each 4 fl. dr.; tincture of capsicum, 40 drops; oil of chamomile, 12
drops; peppermint water, 4-1/2 fl. oz. As an excitant emetic; in cases of
poisoning by narcotics, &c.
2. (Magendie.) Coloured emetine, 4 gr. (or white emetine, 1 gr.); acetic
acid, 8 drops; mix, and add of infusion of orange leaves or lime flowers,
3-1/2 fl. oz.; syrup of marshmallows, 1 fl. oz.
3. (A. T. Thomson.) Ipecacuanha, 1/2 dr.; tartar emetic, 1 gr.; tincture
of squills, 1 fl. dr.; water, 6 fl. oz. _Dose_, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls,
followed by half the quantity every 10 or 15 minutes, until vomiting is
produced; at the same time assisting the action of the medicine by
drinking copiously of warm water.
=Mixture, Emmen′agogue.= See MIXTURE, STEEL, &c.
=Mixture, Expec′torant.= _Syn._ MISTURA EXPECTORANS, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Collier.) Oxymel of squills and mucilage, of each 1 oz.; syrup of
marshmallows, 2 oz.; camphor julep, 3 fl. oz.——_Dose_, 1 to 2
table-spoonfuls, 2 or 3 times a day; in coughs, hoarseness, asthma, &c.
2. (A. T. Thomson.) Almond mixture, 5 fl. oz.; ipecacuanha wine and
tincture of squills, of each 1 fl. dr.; syrup of tolu, 6 fl. dr.——_Dose_,
1 table-spoonful; in humoral asthma, catarrh, &c., when the cough is
urgent.
=Mixture, Feb′rifuge.= _Syn._ MISTURA FEBRIFUGA, L. See ACETATE OF AMMONIA
MIXTURE, DIAPHORETIC M., &c.
=Mixture of Gentian.= (Ph. B.) _Syn._ MISTURA GENTIANÆ. _Prep._ Macerate
gentian root, sliced, 1/4 oz.; bitter orange peel, cut small, and
coriander fruit, bruised, of each 30 gr., in proof spirit, 2 fl. oz., for
2 hours. Add distilled water, 8 fl. oz.; macerate again for 2 hours, and
strain through calico.——_Dose_, 1 oz.
=Mixture, Gentian (Compound).= Gentian, bruised, 1-1/2; bitter orange
peel, bruised, 3/4; cardamom seeds, bruised, 1/4; proof spirit, 20:
macerate for forty-eight hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating
occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, and then pour on the
remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to
make up 20.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 drachms.
=Mixture, Gregory’s.= See POWDERS.
=Mixture, Griffith’s.= See MIXTURE, STEEL.
=Mixture, Guai′acum.= _Syn._ EMULSION OF GUAIACUM, MILI OF G.; MISTURA
GUAIACI (B. P.), (Ph. L. & E.), LAC G., L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Gum guaiacum,
3 dr.; white sugar, 1/2 oz.; gum acacia, 2 dr. (all in powder); triturate
together, and to these, whilst rubbing, gradually add of cinnamon water, 1
pint.
2. (Ph. E.) Guaiacum, 3 dr.; sugar, 1/2 oz.; mucilage, 1/2 fl. oz.;
cinnamon water, 19-1/2 fl. oz.; as before.——_Dose_, 1 to 3
table-spoonfuls, 2 or 3 times a day; in chronic rheumatism, gout, &c.
3. (B. P.) Guaiac resin, in powder, 2; sugar, 2; gum Arabic, in powder, 1;
cinnamon water, 80; triturate, adding the cinnamon water
gradually.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 oz.
=Mixture, Gum.= _Syn._ MUCILAGE; MISTURA ACACIÆ (Ph. L.), MUCILAGO (Ph.
E.), MUCILAGO ACACIÆ (Ph. D.), MUCILAGO ARABICI GUMMI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph.
L.) Gum acacia (in powder), 13 oz.; boiling distilled water, 1 pint; rub
the gum with the water, gradually poured in, until solution is complete.
2. (Ph. E.) Gum, 9 oz.; cold water, 1 pint; macerate, with occasional
stirring, until dissolved, then strain through linen or calico.
3. (Ph. D.) Gum (coarsely powdered), 4 oz.; water (cold), 6 fl. oz.;
dissolve, and strain through flannel.
_Uses, &c._ Mucilage of gum acacia is chiefly employed to render oily and
resinous substances miscible with water. “Oils require about 3/4 their
weight; balsams and spermaceti, equal parts; resins, 2 parts; and musk, 5
times its weight,” for this purpose. (Montgomery.) The GUM MIXTURE, Ph.
E., will be found under ‘EMULSION,’
=Mixture of Hemidesmus.= (Mid. Hosp.) _Syn._ MISTURA HEMIDESMI. _Prep._
Bruised root of hemidesmus, 10 oz.; extract of liquorice, 10 gr.;
distilled water, 10 oz. Digest for 12 hours, heat the strained liquor to
180° F., and strain again.——_Dose_, 1/3 part 3 times a day.
=Mixture of Hemlock, Compound.= (Guy’s Hosp.) _Syn._ MISTURA CONII
COMPOSITA. _Prep._ Extract of hemlock, 1 dr.; carbonate of soda, 1-1/2
dr.; decoction of liquorice, 11 oz.; spirit of pimento, 6 dr.——_Dose_, 1
oz. to 2 oz. Myrrh mixture is sometimes substituted for decoction of
liquorice.
=Mixture of Horseradish, Compound.= (Dr Paris.) _Syn._ MISTURA ARMORACIÆ
COMPOSITA. _Prep._ Horseradish root, 1/2 oz.; mustard seed, 1/2 oz.;
boiling water, 1 pint. Macerate for an hour, and to 7 oz. of the strained
infusion add aromatic spirit of ammonia, 1 fl. dr.; spirit of pimento, 1/2
oz. In paralysis.
=Mixture, Hydrocyan′ic.= _Syn._ MIXTURE OF PRUSSIC ACID; MISTURA ACIDI
HYDROCYANICI, L. _Prep._ From medicinal prussic acid, 15 drops; simple
syrup (pure), 1 fl. oz.; distilled water, 5 fl. oz.;——_Dose_, 1
table-spoonful, 2 or 3 times daily. Each dose contains 1-1/4 drop of
medicinal prussic acid. The bottle should be shaken before pouring out the
dose. Magendie’s formulæ for this mixture are omitted, because the acid
which he orders is not kept in the shops in England.
=Mixture of Iodine with Sarsaparilla.= (Magendie.) _Syn._ MISTURA IODINII
CUM SARZA. _Prep._ Decoction of sarsaparilla, 1-1/2 pint; iodide of
potassium, 1 dr.; syrup of orange, 2 oz.
=Mixture, I′ron.= See MIXTURE, STEEL.
=Mixture, I′ron (Compound).= See MIXTURE, STEEL.
=Mixture, Marshmallow.= _Syn._ MISTURA ALTHÆÆ (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph.
E.) Marshmallow root (dried), 4 oz.; stoned raisins, 2 oz.; water, 5
pints; boil to 3 pints, strain through linen, and after the sediment has
subsided, decant the clear portion.
2. (Ph. D.) See DECOCTION. Demulcent.——_Dose._ A few spoonfuls _ad
libitum_, so as to take 1 to 3 pints in the 24 hours; in strangury,
calculus, coughs, fevers, &c.
=Mixture of Monesia.= (Neligan.) _Syn._ MISTURA MONESIÆ. _Prep._ Extract
of monesia, 2 scruples; water, 7-1/2 oz.; compound tincture of cardamoms,
1/2{?} oz.
=Mixture of Musk.= (Ph. L.) _Syn._ MISTURA MOSCHI. _Prep._ Musk, 3 dr.;
triturate it with white sugar, 3 dr.; gum acacia, 3 dr.; and gradually add
rose water, 1 pint.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz.
=Mixture of Musk-seed.= (Dr Reece.) _Syn._ MISTURA ABELMOSCHI. _Prep._
Tincture of musk-seeds, 1 oz.; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 3 fl. dr.;
compound spirit of lavender, 4 fl. dr.; camphor mixture, 6 oz.——_Dose_,
1/2 oz. to 1 oz.
=Mixture, Myrrh.= _Syn._ EMULSION OF MYRRH; MISTURA MYRRHÆ, L. _Prep._
(Copland.) Myrrh, 1-1/2 dr.; add to it gradually, triturating all the
time, decoction of liquorice, 6 fl. oz., and strain.——_Dose_, 1 to 2
table-spoonfuls, twice or thrice a day, combined with carbonate of soda,
dilute hydrochloric acid, or paregoric; in debility, and diseases of the
digestive organs.
=Mixture, Narcot′ic.= _Syn._ MISTURA NARCOTICA, M. FEBRIFUGA, L. _Prep._
1. Tincture of henbane, 2 fl. dr.; solution of acetate of ammonia, 3 fl.
oz.; water, 2-3/4 fl. oz.; mix.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, to
relieve pain, procure sleep in fevers, &c.
2. (W. Cooley.) Laudanum, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; syrup of poppies, sulphuric
ether, and spirit of cinnamon, of each 1 oz.; tincture of henbane, 2-1/2
fl. dr.; tincture of capsicum, 4 fl. dr.; water 2 fl. oz.——_Dose_, 1 to 2
table-spoonfuls, at the commencement of the hot fit of ague.
=Mixture, Oleo-balsam′ic.= _Syn._ MISTURA OLEO-BALSAMICA, L. _Prep._
(Hamb. Cod.) Oils of cedrat, cinnamon, cloves, lavender, mace, and
marjoram, of each 20 drops; oil of rue, 10 drops; balsam of Peru, 1/2 dr.;
rectified spirit, 10 oz.; digest and filter.
=Mixture of Oxalic Acid.= (Nardo.) _Syn._ MISTURA ACIDI OXALICI. _Prep._
Oxalic acid, 8 gr.; mucilage, 3 oz.; syrup, 1 oz. In inflammation, of the
fauces and digestive tube.
=Mixture of Phosphorus.= (Soubeiran.) _Syn._ MISTURA PHOSPHORICI. _Prep._
Phosphorated oil, 2 dr.; powdered gum acacia, 2 dr.; peppermint water, 3
oz.; syrup, 2 oz. Mix the gum with 10 dr. of water, and thin with the oil,
and gradually add the others. Contains 1 gr. of phosphorus.——_Dose_, 1/2
fl. oz.
=Mixture of Platinum Chloride.= (Hoeffer.) _Syn._ MISTURA PLATINI
CHLORIDI. _Prep._ Perchloride of platinum, 1-1/2 gr.; gum juleps, 6 oz.
=Mixture of Potassium Iodide.= (Cazenave.) _Syn._ MISTURA POTASSII IODIDI.
_Prep._ Iodide of potassium, 2 dr.; distilled water, 16 oz.; syrup, 2 fl.
oz. 2 or 3 table-spoonfuls per diem.
=Mixture, Pur′gative.= _Syn._ MISTURA CATHARTICA, M. LAXATIVA, M. PURGANS.
L. _Prep._ 1. From any of the purging salts (Epsom, Glauber, tasteless,
&c.), 2 oz.; infusion of senna, 5 fl. oz.; syrup of orange peel, 1 fl.
oz.; tincture of ginger, 1/2 fl. oz.; spirit of pimento, 2 fl. dr.;
mix.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 table-spoonfuls, early in the morning; as an aperient
in stomach complaints, &c.
2. (Dr Copland.) Manna, 1-1/2 oz.; cream of tartar, 1/2 oz.; whey, 1
quart. By wine-glassfuls, as an aperient drink, in fevers, &c.
3. (Corvisart.) Borotartrate of potassa (soluble tartar), 1 oz.; tartar
emetic, 1/2 gr.; sugar, 2 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; dissolve. By
wine-glassfuls, until it begins to operate. This has been called
‘NAPOLEON’S MEDICINE,’ from its having been frequently taken by Napoleon
I. See MIXTURES OF SCAMMONY, SENNA, &c.
=Mixture of Quinine and Coffee.= _Syn._ MISTURA QUINIÆ ET CAFFEÆ; CAFÉ
QUININE. Prepare 5 oz. of infusion from 4 dr. of ground coffee by
percolation, and add 24 gr. of neutral sulphate of quinine and 4 dr. of
sugar.——_Dose._ A tablespoonful. The coffee conceals the bitterness of the
quinine.
=Mixture of Quinine with Iron.= _Syn._ MISTURA QUINIÆ CUM FERRO. Sulphate
of quinine, 1 gr.; sulphate of iron, 2 gr.; dilute sulphuric acid, 5
minims; water, 1 oz. For 1 dose.
=Mixture of Rhubarb with Magnesia.= (St Thom. Hosp.) _Syn._ MISTURA RHEI
CUM MAGNESIA. _Prep._ Rhubarb, 7-1/2 gr.; carbonate of magnesia, 15 gr.;
peppermint water, 1-1/2 oz. For 1 dose.
=Mixture, Saline.= _Syn._ MISTURA SALINA, L. See DRAUGHT and LEMONADE.
=Mixture, Scam′mony.= _Syn._ SCAMMONY MILK; MISTURA SCAMMONII (B. P.), L.
_Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Resin of scammony, 7 gr.; unskimmed milk, 3 fl. oz.:
gradually mix, triturating all the time, so as to form an emulsion.
Purgative.——_Dose._ One half.
2. (Planche’s PURGATIVE POTION.) To the last add of white sugar, 1/4 oz.;
cherry-laurel (or bitter-almond) water, 4 or 5 drops. The above are the
most tasteless and pleasant purgatives of an active character known.
3. (B. P.) Resin of scammony, 4 gr.; fresh milk, 2 oz.; triturate and form
an emulsion.——_Dose._ The quantity of the formula for an adult, half for a
child.
=Mixture, Senega, with Ammonia.= (St Th. H.) _Syn._ MISTURA SENEGÆ CUM
AMMONIA. _Prep._ Infusion of senega, 1 oz.; carbonate of ammonia, 4 gr.
For 1 dose.
=Mixture, Sen′na (Compound).= _Syn._ BLACK DRAUGHT, ABERNETHY’S D.,
CATHARTIC MIXTURE; MISTURA SENNÆ COMPOSITA (B. P.), L. _Prep._ 1. Infusion
of senna, 3/4 pint; tincture of senna, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; Epsom salts, 4 oz.;
carbonate of ammonia, 1/2 dr.; sugar, 3 oz.; agitate until the solids are
dissolved.
2. Senna, 13 oz.; boiling water, 2 quarts; digest for 4 hours in a hot
place, then press out the liquor in a tincture press, and add, of compound
tincture of senna, 3/4 pint; Epsom salts, 1 lb.
3. East India senna, 2 lbs.; boiling water, 9 quarts; tincture of senna
and Epsom salts, of each 3-1/4 lbs.; as the last.
4. Senna, 8 lbs.; boiling water, 9 galls.; Epsom salts, 16 lbs.; tincture
of senna, 1-1/2 galls.; treacle and colouring, of each 1 quart.
5. (Guy’s Hosp.) Senna and mint, of each 1-1/4 oz. (say 1-1/2 oz.);
boiling water, 1 quart; Epsom salts, 7-1/2 oz. (say 1/2 lb.).
6. (Redwood.) Infusion of senna, 18 oz.; tincture of senna, 3 oz.;
sulphate of magnesia, 6 oz.; extract of liquorice and spirit of sal
volatile, of each 3/4 oz.; oil of cloves, 6 drops.
7. (B. P.) Infusion of senna, 14; sulphate of magnesia, 4; extract of
liquorice, 1/2; tincture of senna, 2-1/2; compound tincture of cardamoms,
1-1/4: dissolve and mix.——_Dose_, 1 to 1-1/2 oz.
_Obs._ As the above mixture contains very little spirit, and from its
great consumption being made in large quantities at a time, it frequently
spoils before the whole is sold especially in hot weather. To avoid this,
1-1/2 dr. of cloves, and 3 dr. of mustard seed, both bruised, may be added
to every gall. of the strained liquor at the same time with the salts,
spirit, and colouring, after which it must be shaken up repeatedly for a
few days, and then allowed to repose for a few days more when it will
become quite clear. It may be filtered through a flannel bag, but there is
much loss and delay, owing to the consistence of the liquid. It is
purgative in doses of 1 to 1-1/2 fl. oz.
It is a singular circumstance, that although an enormous quantity of this
preparation is consumed in these countries, there is no standard formula
for it in the British Pharmacopœias. See MIXTURE, APERIENT, &c.
=Mixture, Steel.= _Syn._ MISTURA FERRI COMPOSITA (B. P.), MISTURA
CHALYBEATA, L. Two compounds of this class are officinal:——
1. (GRIFFITH’S MIXTURE, COMPOUND IRON M.; MISTURA FERRI, M. F. PROTOXYDI,
M. F. COMPOSITA——Ph. L. E. & D.) _Prep._——_a._ (Ph. L. & E.) Carbonate of
potassa, 1 dr.; powdered myrrh, 2 dr.; spirit of nutmeg, 1 fl. oz.;
triturate together, and whilst rubbing, add gradually, of sugar, 2 dr.;
rose water, 18 fl. oz.; mix well; then add of sulphate of iron (powdered),
50 gr.; and place it at once in a bottle, which must be kept closely
corked.
_b._ (Ph. D.) Powdered myrrh and sugar, of each 1 dr.; carbonate of
potassa, 1/2 dr.; essence of nutmeg, 1 fl. dr.; rose water, 7 fl. oz.;
sulphate of iron, 1/2 dr.; (dissolved in) rose water, 1 fl. oz.;——_Dose_,
1 to 2 oz., 3 or 4 times a day, as a mild and genial chalybeate tonic and
stimulant; in amenorrhœa, chlorosis, debility, &c., when there is no
determination of blood to the head.
2. (HEBERDEN’S MIXTURE, H.’S INK; ATRAMENTUM HEBERDII; MISTURA FERRI
AROMATICA——Ph. D.) Pale cinchona bark, 1 oz.; calumba root, 3 dr. (both in
coarse powder;) cloves (bruised), 2 dr.; iron filings, 1/2 oz.; peppermint
water, 16 fl. oz.; digest in a close vessel for 3 days, agitating
frequently, then strain, and add of tincture of cardamoms (comp.), 3 fl.
oz.; tincture of orange peel, 3 fl. dr. Bitter, stomachic, and
aromatic.——_Dose_, 1 or 2 table-spoonfuls, or more, 3 or 4 times a day. It
is very slightly chalybeated. See also MIXTURE, AROMATIC IRON.
3. Sulphate of iron, 25 gr.; carbonate of potash, 30 gr.; myrrh, 60 gr.;
sugar, 60 gr.; spirit of nutmegs, 4 dr.; rose water, 9-1/2 oz. Reduce the
myrrh to powder, add the carbonate of potash of sugar, and triturate them
with a small quantity of rose water so as to form a thin paste, then
gradually add more rose water, and the spirit of nutmegs, continuing the
trituration and further addition of rose water until about eight fluid
ounces of milky liquid is formed, then add the sulphate of iron previously
dissolved in the remainder of the rose water and cork the bottle
immediately.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz. as a stimulating tonic.
=Mixture of Sulphuric Acid.= (Ph. G.) _Syn._ MISTURA ACIDI SULPHURICI;
HALLER’S ELIXIR. _Prep._ To 3 oz. (by weight) of rectified spirit add
gradually 1 oz. (by weight) of pure sulphuric acid.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 drops
diluted.
=Mixture, Ton′ic.= _Syn._ STRENGTHENING MIXTURE; MISTURA TONICA, L.
_Prep._ 1. Infusion of cascarilla, 5 fl. oz.; tincture of orange peel, 7
fl. dr.; aromatic sulphuric acid, 2 fl. dr.
2. (Collier.) Decoction of bark, 5-1/2 fl. oz.; tincture of do., 3 fl.
dr.; aromatic confection, 20 gr.; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 1 fl. dr.
3. (Thomson.) Infusion of calumba, 5-1/2 fl. oz.; compound tincture of
cinnamon and syrup of orange peel, of each 2 fl. dr.——_Dose_, 1 to 3
table-spoonfuls, 2 or 3 times a day; in debility of the digestive organs,
loss of appetite, to check nausea and vomiting, &c.
=Mixture of Wine.= (Guy’s Hosp.) _Syn._ MISTURA VINI. White wine, 6 fl.
oz.; yolks of 2 eggs; sugar, 1/2 oz.; oil of cinnamon, 3 drops.——_Dose_, 1
oz.
=Mixture, Worm.= _Syn._ MISTURA ANTHELMINTICA, M. VERMIFUGA, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Collier.) Sulphate of iron, 20 gr.; infusion of quassia, 8 fl.
oz.——_Dose._ Two table-spoonfuls every morning fasting.
2. (Copland.) Valerian, 2 dr.; worm-seed, 4 dr.; boiling water, 8 fl.
oz.; macerate 1 hour, strain, and add of assafœtida, 1 dr., previously
triturated with the yolk of one egg. As the last.
3. (Richard.) Root of male fern, 1 oz.; water, 9 fl. oz.; boil to 6 fl.
oz., strain, and add, of sulphuric ether, 1 dr.; syrup of tansy, 1 fl. oz.
In tapeworm; as above.
=Mixture, Zinc.= _Syn._ MISTURA ZINCI, M. Z. SULPHATIS, L. _Prep._
(Collier.) Sulphate of zinc, 5 gr.; sulphate of quinine, 10 gr.; compound
infusion of roses, 2 fl. oz. Tonic.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful 2 or 3 times a
day, in a glass of water. Said to be very efficacious in the cure of
coughs of a spasmodic character.
=MIXTURES (Arithmetic of).= The constantly recurring necessity in business
and chemical manipulations of determining the value of mixtures, and of
producing articles and preparations of different strengths or prices to
those already in stock, has rendered a ready means of making such
calculations an indispensable qualification in almost every department of
trade and industrial art. As we address ourselves to the intelligent
operative and busy tradesman, as well as to those more blessed by
education and leisure, we feel we are bestowing a boon on many of our
readers in giving a short, but sufficient, outline of this useful branch
of commercial arithmetic, which is most intimately connected with the
objects of the present work.
1. To determine the price of a mixture from the value and quantity of each
ingredient of which it is composed.——RULE. Divide the ‘gross value’ by the
‘gross saleable’ or ‘useful quantity,’ the quotient is the value or cost
per gallon, pound, &c., as the case may be.——_Example._ Required, the
value per gallon of a hogshead of wine containing——
_s._ _d._ £ _s._ _d._
30 gallons @ 10 6 = 15 15 0
20 ” ” 12 6 = 12 10 0
13 ” ” 14 6 = 9 8 6
—— ---------------
63 divide into 37 13 6
---------------
Cost per gallon 0 11 11-1/2
2. To determine the proportions of substances or articles of different
values or strengths which must be taken to prepare a mixture of any other
value or strength.——RULE. Arrange the ‘prices’ or ‘strengths of the
ingredients’ in a column, and link them together in pairs; each of those
above the required price being always connected with another below it.
Then set the difference between the required price and these numbers,
alternately against those they are linked to; when they will indicate the
quantities to be taken, as in the following examples:——_a._ Required the
proportions of tea at 3_s._, 4_s._, 6_s._, and 7_s._, that must be taken
to produce a mixture 5_s._ the pound. Here——
{ 3——+ 1, or 1 lb. @ 3_s._
{ 4——|——+ 2, ” 2 ” ” 4_s._
5 { 6——+ | 2, ” 2 ” ” 6_s._
{ 7-----+ 1, ” 1 ” ” 7_s._
_b._ (When the number of the ingredients or prices is odd.) Required the
proportions of teas at 3_s._, 5_s._, and 6_s._, the pound, to sell at
4_s._ Here the odd number must be taken a second time:——
{ 3——+——+ 1 + 2 or 3 lbs @ 3_s._
4 { 5——+ | 1, ” 1 ” ” 6_s._
{ 6-----+ 1, ” 1 ” ” 6_s._
_c._ (When the number of the ingredients is not merely odd, but the prices
are unequally distributed either above or below the required price.) A
dealer having wines of the same name at 7_s._, 9_s._, 11_s._, 12_s._, and
14_s._, per gallon, wishes to produce a mixture of them worth 10_s._ per
gallon:——
{ 7——+---+ 1 + 4, or 5 galls. @ 7_s._
{ 9——+-+ | 2, ” 2 ” ” 9_s._
10 { 11——+ | | 3, ” 3 ” ” 11_s._
{ 12----+ | 1, ” 1 ” ” 12_s._
{ 14------+ 3, ” 3 ” ” 14_s._
It will be seen that by varying the manner of linking the numbers,
different answers may often be obtained to the same question. It also
often happens that the dealer or operator desires to use a given quantity
of one particular article, or to produce a certain quantity only of the
mixture instead of those indicated by the above calculations. In these
instances he has simply to apply the common rule of ‘practice’ or the
‘rule of three,’ as the particular case may demand.
In the above manner the proportions of the constituents of a compound may
be determined from their specific gravity, when no change of volume has
arisen from their admixture; but when this is the case, as in alloys,
alcoholic mixtures, &c., it is either quite inapplicable or the results
obtained are mere approximations to the truth. It may, however, be
conveniently employed for calculations connected with the ‘mixing’ and
‘reduction’ of spirits and other liquids, by substituting their
per-centage value in ‘proof gallons’ or other corresponding denomination,
for the prices in the above examples; water, when introduced be reckoned,
=0. Thus:——A spirit merchant having two puncheons of rum of the strengths
of 17 and 21 o. p., wishes to know what proportions of each and of water
he must take to form a spirit 10 u. up. The proof value of 100 gallons of
these spirits are respectively equal to 121, 117, 90, and 0 (water).
Therefore——
| 0----+ 27 + 31, or 58 g. water.
90 | 117——| | 90, ” 90 ” rum @ 117 o.p.
| 121----+ 90, ” 90 ” rum ” 121 ”
Suppose the dealer required to use different proportions of the spirits
referred to, instead of equal measures, he has only to take such aliquot
parts of the quantities thus found referring to the smaller proportion; or
such multiples of those referring to the larger one, as he wishes them to
bear to each in the new mixture. Numerous other applications of this rule
will occur to the ingenious reader.
Questions in ‘alligation,’ as the department of arithmetic above referred
to is called, are very easily resolved by the ‘method of indeterminate
analysis,’ even by persons but slightly conversant with rudimentary
algebra; of which, indeed, they form a simple class of problems, often
admitting of an almost indefinite number of solutions.
=MO′HAIR.= The hair of a goat indigenous in Asia Minor. It is dyed and
manufactured by similar materials and in a similar manner to wool.
=MOIL.= See CIDER.
=MOIRÉE METALLIQUE.= [Fr.] A beautiful crystalline appearance produced on
the surface of tin plate by acids. The tin plate is submitted for a few
seconds, whilst gently heated, to the action of dilute aqua regia, by
which it acquires a variegated primrose appearance. It is afterwards
washed in hot water, dried, and lacquered. The degree of heat and dilution
of the acid modifies the beauty and character of the surface. The effect
is also varied by employing dilute sulphuric acid, either alone or mixed
with a portion of nitric or hydrochloric acid; or by using a solution of
citric acid or caustic potassa. According to Herberger, the best metal for
the purpose is plate iron, which has been coated by dipping it into a tin
bath composed of pure tin, 200 parts; copper, 3 parts; arsenic, 1 part.
The varnish should consist of copal in highly rectified spirit. Moirée
metallique is in much less demand now than formerly.
=MO′LASSES.= See TREACLE.
=MOLES.= The small, soft excrescences and discolorations of the skin which
are popularly known under this name may, when slight, be removed by
touching them every day with a little concentrated acetic acid, by means
of a hair pencil, observing due care to prevent the application from
spreading to the surrounding parts. This does not discolour the skin. The
application of lunar caustic is also very effective, but it turns the spot
temporarily black. In the pure mole there is always a considerable
production of hair. When other means fail, they may be easily and safely
removed by surgical means. The operation is trifling; and when judiciously
performed no trace of such a proceeding is left behind.
=MOLUC′CA BALM.= See LIQUEUR.
=MOLYBDATE OF AMMONIUM.= (NH_{4})_{2} MoO_{4}. _Syn._ MOLYBDENIC ACID,
PEROXIDE OF MOLYBDENUM; ACIDUM MOLYBDICUM, L. _Prep._ Native sulphide of
molybdenum, after being well roasted, is reduced to fine powder, digested
with ammonia, and the mixture filtered, and the filtrate evaporated to
dryness; the residue, molybdate of ammonium, is then dissolved in water,
purified by crystallisation; and, lastly, decomposed by heat.
_Prop., &c._ Small white scales, soluble in 570 parts of water; the
solution reddens litmus paper; dissolves in the alkalies, forming alkaline
molybdates, from which it is again precipitated by strong acids. It is
used in the preparation of molybdenum blue, and in calico-printing, but
its scarcity precludes its extensive employment in the arts. Molybdate of
ammonium is the salt principally used in dyeing. Silks and cottons passed
through a solution of this salt, then through a bath soured with
hydrochloric acid, and, lastly (without washing), through another of
protochloride of tin, are dyed of a rich and permanent blue colour. A
solution of molybdate of ammonia in excess of nitric acid forms a valuable
agent as a test for phosphates, with which it gives a beautiful yellow
precipitate (phospho-molybdate of ammonia). See PHOSPHORIC ACID.
=MOLYB′DENUM.= Mo. A very rare metal, having a white colour, discovered by
Hielm in 1782.
_Prep._ By exposing molybdic acid, mixed with charcoal and placed in a
covered crucible, to the strongest heat of a smith’s forge.
_Prop., &c._ It is brittle and very infusible; when heated in contact with
the air, it is converted into molybdic anhydride, MoO_{3}.
=MOMOR′DICINE.= See ELATERIN.
=MOMRAUGHAN FOR HARNESS, &c.= A correspondent of the ‘Field’ newspaper
gives the following formulæ for momraughan, a substance used in India for
preserving saddles and every description of leather. It is made as
follows:——1 lb. white wax, 3 lb. mutton fat, 1 pint spirits of turpentine;
melt, and mix well together while liquid. The saddle or leather should be
rubbed well with a lime in the sun, then scrubbed with a brush with soap
and water; when thoroughly dry, rub it well with the momraughan (letting
it soak in) in the sun. One tablespoonful will be enough for a saddle.
Another recipe is:——1 pint neats-foot oil, 2 oz. beeswax, 2 oz. spirits of
turpentine, other directions as above. This latter mixture, with the
addition of 1 oz. Burgundy pitch, makes a very good waterproof composition
for boots.
=MONE′SIA.= _Syn._ MONESIA BARK, BURANHEIM B.; CORTEX MONESIÆ, L. The bark
of _Chrysophyllum Buranheim_, a tree growing in the Brazils. The rough,
imported extract of this drug also commonly passes under the name of
MONESIA. It is astringent, and possesses no advantage over rhatany or
catechu.——_Dose_ (of the latter), 18 to 20 gr.
=MONE′SIN.= A peculiar acrid principle, analogous to saponin, found in
monesia bark, to the extent of 4·7%.
=MONOBROMATED CAMPHOR.= See CAMPHOR, MONOBROMATED.
=MONOMA′NIA.= See INSANITY.
=MOR′DANT.= In _dyeing_ and _calico printing_, any substance employed to
fix the colouring matter of dye-stuffs in the fibres of organic bodies,
and to give it brilliancy and permanency. This it effects either by
serving as a bond of union between the two, owing to its attraction for
each of them; or it acts by uniting with the colouring particles in the
minute pores of the fibres, and rendered them insoluble in the alkaline,
soapy, and other liquids, to the action of which they will subsequently be
exposed. When an infusion of some dye-stuff, as cochineal or madder, for
example, is mixed with alum or acetate of alumina, and a little alkali, a
precipitate immediately forms, consisting of alumina in combination with
colouring matter, constituting a LAKE. It is by a similar reaction
occurring within the fibres that the permanent dyeing of the cloth is
effected. Here the colouring matter of the dyeing materials not only
passes from the soluble to the insoluble form, but it enters into chemical
combination with other substances, and in the new compounds it assumes
greater brilliancy and permanency than it previously possessed. Annotta
and safflower afford instances of the second mode of action above referred
to, by which substances operate as mordants. The colouring matter of these
dye-stuffs is soluble in alkaline lyes, and into a solution of this kind
the cloth is dipped. It has now received an extremely fugitive colour
only; but by passing it through acidulated water the alkaline solvent is
abstracted, and the tinctorial matter is precipitated in an insoluble and
minutely divided state within its pores, and it becomes permanently dyed.
A similar reaction takes place in dyeing with the ‘indigo vat,’ in which
atmospheric oxygen performs the part of a mordant. It is believed that
even in these cases the colouring principle, during its transition from
the liquid to the solid form, enters into combination with the fibres of
the organic substance, and that, in proportion to the affinity existing
between the two, is the integrity and excellence of the dye. In wool and
silk the affinity between their filaments and the tinctorial particles of
the dye-bath is, in general, so considerable, that a permanent stain is
very easily communicated to them; but with cotton and flax, the materials
of which calico and linen goods are made, the reverse is the case, and the
intervention of a third material, in the shape of a mordant, is absolutely
necessary to dye them of a permanent colour.
“Experience has proved that, of all the bases, those which succeed best as
mordants are alumina, tin, and oxide of iron; the first two of which,
being naturally white, are the only ones which can be employed for
preserving to the colour its original tint, at least without much
variation. But whenever the mordant itself is coloured, it will cause the
dye to take a compound colour quite different from its own. If, as is
usually said, the mordant enters into a real chemical union with the
stuff to be dyed, the application of the mordant should obviously be made
in such circumstances as are known to be most favorable to the combination
taking place; and this is the principle of every day’s practice in the
dye-house.
“In order that a combination may result between two bodies, they must not
only be in contact, but they must be reduced to their ultimate molecules.
The mordants to be united with stuffs are, as we have seen, insoluble in
themselves, for which reason their particles must be divided by solution
in an appropriate vehicle. Now, this solvent or menstruum will exert in
its own favour an affinity for the mordant, which will prove to that
extent an obstacle to its attraction for the stuff. Hence we must select
such solvents as have a weaker affinity for the mordants than the mordants
have for the stuffs. Of all acids which can be employed to dissolve
alumina, for example, vinegar (acetic acid) is the one which will retain
it with the least energy, for which reason the acetate of alumina is now
generally substituted for alum, because the acetic acid gives up the
alumina with such readiness that mere elevation of temperature is
sufficient to effect the separation of these two substances. Before the
substitution of the acetate, alum alone was employed; but without knowing
the true reason, all the French dyers preferred the alum of Rome, simply
regarding it to be the purest; it is only within these few years that they
have understood the real grounds of this preference.
“The two principal conditions, namely, extreme tenuity of particles and
liberty of action, being found in a mordant, its operation is certain. But
as the combination to be effected is merely the result of the play of
affinity between the solvent and the stuff to be dyed, a sort of partition
must take place, proportioned to the mass of the solvent, as well as to
its attractive force. Hence the stuff will retain more of the mordant when
its solution is more concentrated, that is, when the base diffused through
it is not so much protected by a large mass of menstruum; a fact applied
to very valuable uses by the practical man. On impregnating, in calico
printing, for example, different spots of the same web with the same
mordant in different degrees of concentration, there is obtained in the
dye-bath a depth of colour upon these spots intense in proportion to the
strength of their various mordants. Thus, with solution of acetate of
alumina in different grades of density, and with madder, every shade can
be produced from the fullest red to the lightest pink, and with acetate of
iron and madder, every shade from black to pale violet.” (Ure.)
In the employment of mordants in the ordinary processes of dyeing the
goods are passed through the solution for a period varying, under
different circumstances, according to the object in view. The cloth is
subsequently aired, dried, and well rinsed, before immersing it in the
colouring bath. In _calico printing_ the mordant is applied partially or
topically to the cloth by means of wooden blocks, or some similar
contrivance; or certain parts of the cloth are stopped out by a suitable
preparation, or ‘resist,’ by which means a pattern is produced, as the
colouring matter of the dye-bath is removed from the other portions by the
washing or scouring to which it is subsequently subjected. The substances
used to thicken the mordant by the calico printers, to prevent them
spreading, are starch and British gum. The first is prepared for neutral
solutions; the last for acidulous ones. The removal of the undecomposed
particles of the mordant, so as to preserve the other portion of the cloth
from their action, is effected by the process of DUNGING (which _see_).
The process of GALLING or ROOTING, commonly employed as a preparation of
cotton and linen for fast dyes, consists in working the stuff for some
time, at a good hand heat, in a decoction of galls or an infusion of
sumach. In this case the astringent matter plays the part of a mordant.
About 2-1/2 oz. of galls, or 5 oz. of sumach, and 3 or 4 pints of water,
are commonly taken for every lb. of cotton. See CALICO PRINTING, DYEING,
and the respective dye-stuffs and mordants.
=Mordant.= In _gilding_, any sticky matter by which gold-leaf is made to
adhere. _Prep._ 1. Water or beer, rendered adhesive by the addition of a
little gum, sugar, or honey, and tinged with a little gamboge or carmine,
to mark the parts to which it is applied. Used to attach gold leaf to
paper, taffety, vellum, &c.
2. (Mixtion.) From asphaltum, 1 part; mastic, 4 parts; amber, 12 parts;
fused together, and then mixed with hot boiled oil, 1 pint. Used for
gilding wood, &c. See GOLD SIZE.
=MORPHIA.= C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3}. _Syn._ MORPHINE (Ph. D.), MORPHINA,
MORPHIUM, L. The chief active principle of opium. Morphia was discovered
by Ludwig in 1688, but it was first obtained pure, and its precise nature
pointed out by Sertuerner in 1804. It is peculiar to the _Papaveraceæ_, or
poppy family.
_Prep._ 1. (Ph. D.) Turkey opium (cut into thin slices), 1 lb., is
macerated for 24 hours in water, 1 quart, and the liquid portion decanted;
the residuum is macerated for 12 hours with a second quart of water, and
the process is repeated with a third quart of water, after which the
insoluble portion is subjected to strong pressure; the mixed liquids are
evaporated by water or steam heat to a pint, and filtered through calico;
to the filtrate is added a solution formed of chloride of calcium, 6 dr.,
dissolved in distilled water, 4 fl. oz., and the liquid is further
evaporated until it is so far concentrated that nearly the whole of it
becomes solid on cooling; this is enveloped in a couple of folds of strong
calico, and subjected to powerful pressure, the dark liquid which exudes
being preserved for subsequent use; the squeezed cake is next treated with
about 1/2 pint of boiling water, and the undissolved portion is washed on
a paper filter; the filtered solution is again evaporated, and the solid
portion thus obtained submitted to pressure, as before; if the product is
not quite white, this process is repeated a third time; the squeezed cake
is now dissolved in boiling water, 6 fl. oz., and the solution filtered
through animal charcoal (if necessary); to the clear solution is added
ammonia, in slight excess; the crystalline precipitate which forms as the
liquid cools is collected on a paper filter, washed with cold distilled
water, and, lastly, the filter is transferred to a porous brick, in order
that the morphia which it contains may become dry. (From the liquids
reserved from the expressions more morphia may be obtained by dilution
with water, precipitation with ammonia, re-solution in boiling water, and
treatment with a little animal charcoal, &c., as before.)
2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Hydrochlorate of morphia, 1 oz., is dissolved in
distilled water, 1 pint; and ammonia, 5 fl. dr. (or q. s.), previously
diluted with water, 1 fl. oz., is added, with agitation; the precipitate
is well washed in distilled water, and dried by a gentle heat. By a
similar process morphia may be obtained from its other salts.
3. (Merck.) A cold aqueous infusion of opium is precipitated with
carbonate of sodium, in excess; the precipitate washed, first with cold
water, and then with cold alcohol of sp. gr. 85; the residuum is dissolved
in weak acetic acid, the solution filtered through animal charcoal, and
precipitated with ammonia; the precipitate is again washed with cold
water, dissolved in alcohol, and crystallised. A good process where spirit
is cheap.
4. (Mohr.) Opium, 4 parts, is made into a strong infusion with water,
q. s.; lime, 1 part, reduced to a state of milk with water, is then added;
the mixture is next heated to boiling, at once filtered through linen, and
treated, whilst still hot, with chloride of ammonium, in fine powder, in
slight excess (about 1 oz. to each lb. of opium); the morphia is deposited
as the liquid cools, and may be purified by a second solution in lime and
precipitation by chloride of ammonium. This process is remarkably simple,
and in many points is preferable to any other, either on the small or
large scale.
5. (PURE.) A filtered solution of opium in tepid water is mixed with
acetate of lead in excess; the precipitate (meconate of lead) is separated
by a filter, and a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through the
nearly colourless filtrate; the latter is warmed, to expel excess of the
gas, once more filtered, and then mixed with a slight excess of ammonia,
which throws down narcotine and morphia; these are separated by boiling
ether, in which the former is soluble.
_Prop._ The morphia of commerce is a white crystalline powder; but when
crystallised from alcohol, it forms brilliant prismatic crystals of
adamantine lustre, and the formula C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3}.H_{2}O. It exerts an
alkaline reaction on test paper; imparts a perceptible bitter taste to
water; requires 1160 parts of cold water, and 94 parts of boiling water,
for its solution; insoluble in ether; dissolves in 90 parts of cold and
about 30 parts of boiling alcohol; it also dissolves in the fixed and
volatile oils, and in solutions of the alkalies; heated in close vessels,
it forms a yellow liquid, like melted sulphur, which becomes white and
crystalline on cooling; heated in the air, it melts, inflames like a
resin, and leaves a small quantity of charcoal behind. With the acids it
forms salts, which are mostly soluble and crystallisable. These may all be
made by the direct solution of the alkaloid in the dilute acid. The only
ones of importance are the acetate, hydrochlorate, and sulphate.
_Pur._ Commercial morphia and its preparations are often contaminated with
codeine, narcotine, and colouring matter. The proportion of the first two
may be estimated by the loss of weight which the sample suffers when
digested in ether; or by dissolving out the morphine by digestion in weak
liquor of potassa. Pure morphia “is scarcely soluble in cold water,
sparingly so in boiling water, and readily so in alcohol. This solution is
alkaline to test paper, and by evaporation leaves crystals, which are
wholly dissipated by heat. It is soluble in pure potassa.” (Ph. L. 1836.)
_Tests._ 1. Potassium hydrate and ammonia precipitate morphia from
solution of its salts, under the form of a white crystalline powder, which
is very soluble in excess of hydrate of potassium, and, with somewhat more
difficulty, in excess of ammonia. The solution formed by excess of the
first is precipitated on the addition of bicarbonate of potassium. The
precipitate in either case is soluble in a solution of chloride of
ammonium, and in dilute acetic acid, and is insoluble in ether. A careful
inspection of the precipitate through a lens of small power shows it to
consist of minute acicular crystals; and seen through a glass which
magnifies 100 times, these crystals present the form of right rhombic
prisms.——2. The carbonates of potassium and sodium produce the same
precipitate as hydrate of potassium, and which is insoluble in excess of
the precipitant.——3. The bicarbonates of potassium and sodium also give
similar precipitates from neutral solutions, insoluble in excess. In each
of the above cases stirring with a glass rod and friction on the sides of
the vessel promote the separation of the precipitate.——4. If to a mixture
of morphia and oil of vitriol a minute fragment of bichromate of potassium
be added, oxide of chromium is set free, and a fine green colour
developed.——5. A drop or two of solution of terchloride of gold added to a
weak solution of morphia gives a yellow precipitate, which is mostly
redissolved on agitating the liquid, which then assumes various hues
(green, blue, violet, purple) on the addition of a drop of liquor of
potassa.——6. A minute fragment of terchloride of gold and of hydrate of
potassium very gently dropped into the liquid, occasion purple clouds or
streaks in dilute solutions, followed by a precipitate, which is violet,
purple, or blue-black, according to the strength of the liquid.
Another test, given by Siebold,[41] is the following:——“Heat the substance
which is believed to be, or to contain, morphia, gently with a few drops
of sulphuric acid, add a very small quantity of pure perchlorate of
potassium. The liquid immediately surrounding the perchlorate will at once
assume a deep brown colour, which will soon spread and extend over the
greater part of the acid. Warming increases the delicacy of the test.
0·0001 gramme of morphia can be distinctly recognised in this way, and no
other alkaloid is acted upon in a similar way by the substances named. It
is indispensable, however, for the success of the experiment that the
perchlorate of potassium be absolutely free from chlorate.” See ALKALOIDS.
[Footnote 41: ‘Year Book of Pharmacy,’ 1873.]
The above are the most reliable precipitates for morphia; the first two
may, indeed, be regarded as characteristic, and the remainder as almost
so. The following are often referred to by medical writers, but are less
exclusive and trustworthy:——Morphia and its salts are——7. Reddened by
nitric acid, and form orange-red solutions, darkened by ammonia in excess,
and ultimately turning yellow, with the production of oxalic acid.——8.
They are turned blue by ferric chloride, either at once or on the addition
of an alkali, and this colour is destroyed by water and by alkalies, or
acids in excess.——9. Iodic acid added to their solutions turns them
yellowish brown, by setting iodine free, and the liquid forms a blue
compound with starch.
_Uses._ Morphia and its salts are exhibited either in substance, made into
pills, or in solution, generally the latter; or externally, in fine
powder, applied to the dermis denuded of the cuticle. They are principally
employed as anodynes and hypnotics in cases in which opium is
inadmissible, and are justly regarded as the most valuable medicines of
their class. “In cases wherein both opium and the morphine salts are
equally admissible, I prefer the former, its effects being better known
and regulated; moreover, opium is to be preferred as a stimulant and
sudorific, and for suppressing excessive mucous discharges.”
(Pereira.)——_Dose._ Of pure morphia, 1/12 to 1/6 gr.; of its salts, 1/8 to
1/4 gr.; externally, 1/2 to 1-1/2 gr. Morphine is chiefly used for the
preparation of the acetate, and some of its other salts.
Good opium yields from 10% to 13% of morphia. See OPIUM.
=Morphia, Ac′etate of.= C_{17}H_{20}NO_{3}C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}. _Syn._ MORPHIÆ
ACETAS (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) Morphia, 6 dr.;
acetic acid (Ph. L.), 3 fl. dr.; distilled water, 4 fl. oz.; dissolve,
gently evaporate, and crystallise.
2. (Ph. E.) Hydrochlorate of morphia, 1 part, is dissolved in warm water,
14 parts; and the solution, when cold, is precipitated with ammonia, in
slight excess, the precipitate is washed in cold water, and dissolved by
means of acetic acid, in excess, in warm water, 12 parts; from the
solution crystals are obtained as before.
3. (Ph. D.) Morphia (in fine powder), 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz.;
mix, apply a gentle heat, and add of acetic acid (sp. gr. 1·044), 4-1/2
fl. dr. or q. s., until a neutral or slightly acid solution is obtained;
evaporate this to the consistence of a syrup by steam or water heat, and
set aside the residuum for a few days until it solidifies.
4. (Ph. L.) Similar to the Edinburgh process.
_Pur._ “Soluble in water and in rectified spirit” (less so in the former
than the latter); “and when the spirit is distilled from the solution, it
yields crystals which are totally destroyed by heat.” (Ph. L.) “100
measures of a solution of 10 gr. in 1/2 fl. oz. of water, and 5 minims of
acetic acid, heated to 212° and decomposed by a very slight excess of
ammonia, yield by agitation a precipitate which, in 24 hours, occupies
15-1/2 measures of the liquid.” (Ph. E.)
_Obs._ The acetate of morphia of commerce is usually in the form of a
whitish powder, and is prepared by the mere evaporation of the solution to
dryness by a gentle heat. During the process a portion of the acetic acid
is dissipated, and hence this preparation is seldom perfectly soluble in
water, unless it has been slightly acidulated with acetic acid. In the Ph.
L. 1851 this salt (in crystals) is included in the materia medica. See
MORPHIA (_above_).
=Morphia, Hydri′odate of.= C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3},HI. _Syn._ MORPHIÆ
HYDRIODAS, L. _Prep._ (A. T. Thomson.) Hydrochlorate of morphia, 2 parts;
iodide of potassium, 1 part; dissolve each separately in a little water,
mix the solutions, wash the precipitate in a little very cold water, press
it in bibulous paper, redissolve it in hot water, and crystallise.
=Morphia, Hydriodate of, with Iodine.= _Syn._ MORPHIÆ HYDRIODAS CUM
IODINIO; BOUCHARDAT’S IODURE D’IODHYDRATE, &c.; MORPHINE. _Prep._ Mix an
acid solution of sulphate of morphia with an ioduretted solution of iodide
of potassium, keeping the liquid at the temperature of 140° for an hour.
Pour off the liquid, wash the scales, and dry them.——_Dose_, 3/4 gr. at
bedtime.
=Morphia and Hydriodate of Zinc with Iodine.= (Bouchardat.) _Syn._ MORPHIÆ
ET ZINCI HYDRIODAS CUM IODINIO. _Prep._ Boil 1 scruple of ioduretted
hydriodate of morphia with 2 fl. oz. of water and 10 scruples of zinc.
After some days’ action filter the boiling liquid, which deposits the
salt. Make 1-1/2 gr. into 8 pills, with powdered marshmallow root and
syrup.
=Morphia, Hydrochlo′′rate of.= C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3},HI. _Syn._ MURIATE OF
MORPHIA; MORPHIÆ HYDROCHLORAS (Ph. L. & Ph. B.), MORPHIÆ MURIAS (Ph. E.,
D. & U. S.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) Macerate sliced opium, 1 lb., in
water, 4 pints, for 30 hours; then bruise it, digest it for 20 hours more,
and press it; macerate what remains a second and a third time in water
until exhausted, and as often bruise and press it; mix the liquors, and
evaporate at 140° Fahr. to the consistence of a syrup; add of water, 3
pints, and after defecation decant the clear portion; gradually add to
this liquid crystallised chloride of lead, 2 oz. (or q. s.), dissolved in
boiling water, 4 pints, until it ceases to produce a precipitate; decant
the clear liquid, wash the residuum with water, and evaporate the mixed
liquids, as before, that crystals may form; press these in a cloth, then
dissolve them in distilled water, 1 pint, add freshly burnt animal
charcoal, 1-1/2 oz., digest at 120°, and filter; finally, the charcoal
being washed, cautiously evaporate the mixed liquors, that pure crystals
of hydrochlorate of morphia may form. To the decanted liquor from which
the crystals were first separated, add of water, 1 pint, and drop in
liquor of ammonia, frequently shaking, until all the morphine is
precipitated; wash this precipitate with cold distilled water, saturate it
with hydrochloric acid, digest with animal charcoal, 2 oz.; filter, wash
the filtrate as before, and evaporate the mixed liquors, cautiously, as
above, that pure crystals may be obtained.
2. (Ph. E.) Opium, 20 oz., is exhausted with water, 1 gall., in the
quantity of a quart at a time, and the mixed liquors are evaporated to a
pint; chloride of calcium, 1 oz., dissolved in water, 4 fl. oz., is added,
and, after agitation, the liquid is placed aside to settle; the clear
decanted liquid, and the washings of the sediment, are next evaporated, so
that they may solidify on cooling; the cooled mass, after very strong
pressure in a cloth, is redissolved in warm water, a little powdered white
marble added, and the whole filtered; the filtrate is acidulated with
hydrochloric acid, the solution again concentrated for crystallisation,
and the crystals submitted to powerful pressure, as before; the process of
solution, clarification, with powdered marble and hydrochloric acid, and
crystallisation, is repeated until a snow-white mass is obtained. This is
the process of Gregory and Robertson, and is one of the easiest and most
productive on the large scale. To procure the salt quite white, 2 to 4
crystallisations are required, according to the power of the press
employed. The Edinburgh College recommends, on the small scale, the
solution, after two crystallisations, to be decoloured by means of animal
charcoal; but, on the large scale, to purify the salt by repeated
crystallisations alone.
3. (Ph. B.) Macerate opium, sliced, 1 lb., for 24 hours with distilled
water, 2 pints, and decant. Macerate the residue for 12 hours with
distilled water, 2 pints, decant, and repeat the process with the same
quantity of water, subjecting the insoluble residue to strong pressure.
Unite the liquors, evaporate on a water bath to the bulk of 1 pint, and
strain through calico. Pour in now chloride of calcium, 3/4 oz.,
previously dissolved in 4 fl. oz. of distilled water, and evaporate until
the solution is so far concentrated that upon cooling it becomes solid.
Envelope the mass in a double fold of strong calico, and subject it to
powerful pressure, preserving the dark fluid which exudes. Triturate the
squeezed cake with about 1/2 pint of boiling distilled water, and, the
whole being thrown upon a paper filter, wash the residue well with boiling
distilled water. The filtered fluids having been evaporated as before,
cooled, and solidified, again subject the mass to pressure, and if it be
still much coloured, repeat this process a third time, the expressed
liquids being always preserved. Dissolve the pressed cake in 6 fl. oz. of
boiling distilled water, add purified animal charcoal, 1/4 oz., and digest
for 20 minutes; filter; wash the filter and charcoal with boiling
distilled water, and to the solution thus obtained add solution of ammonia
in slight excess. Let the pure crystalline morphia which separates as the
liquid cools be collected on a paper filter, and washed with cold
distilled water until the washings cease to give a precipitate with
solution of nitrate of silver acidulated with nitric acid.
From the dark liquids expressed in the above process an additional product
may be obtained by diluting them with distilled water, precipitating with
solution of potash added in considerable excess, filtering, and
supersaturating the filtrate with hydrochloric acid. This acid liquid,
digested with a little animal charcoal, and again filtered, gives upon the
addition of ammonia a small quantity of pure morphia. Diffuse the pure
morphia obtained as above through 2 oz. of boiling distilled water placed
in a porcelain capsule, kept hot, and add, constantly stirring, dilute
hydrochloric acid, 2 fl. oz., or q. s., proceeding with caution, so that
the morphia may be entirely dissolved and a neutral solution obtained. Set
aside to cool and crystallise. Drain the crystals and dry them on
filtering paper. By further evaporating the mother liquor, and again
cooling, additional crystals are obtained.——_Dose._ From 1/8th to 1/2 gr.
4. (Mohr.) By dissolving the precipitate of morphia (see MORPHIA, _Prep._
4) in dilute hydrochloric acid, and by crystallisation, as before.
_Pur., &c._ It “is completely soluble in rectified spirit, and in water.
What is precipitated from the aqueous solution by nitrate of silver is not
entirely dissolved, either by ammonia, unless added in excess, or by
hydrochloric or nitric acid.” (Ph. L.) “Snowy white; entirely soluble;
solution colourless; loss of weight at 212° Fahr. not above 13%; 100
measures of a solution of 10 gr., in water, 1/2 fl. oz., heated to 212°,
and decomposed with agitation by a faint excess of ammonia, yield a
precipitate which, in 24 hours, occupies 12-1/2 measures of the liquid.”
(Ph. E.) It takes 20 parts of cold and about its own weight of boiling
water to dissolve it. The hydrochlorate of morphia of the shops is
usually, like the acetate, under the form of a white crystalline powder.
_Obs._ Of all the salts of morphia, this one appears to be that most
suitable for medical purposes, from its free solubility, and from its
solution not being liable to spontaneous decomposition, at least under
ordinary circumstances. “The opium which yields the largest quantity of
precipitate by carbonate of sodium yields muriate of morphia, not only in
the greatest proportion, but also with the fewest crystallisations.” (Ph.
E.) Smyrna opium contains the most morphine.
=Morphia and Codei′a (Hydrochlorate of).= _Syn._ GREGORY’S SALT; MORPHIÆ
ET CODEIÆ HYDROCHLORAS, L.; SEL DE GREGORY, Fr. This is commercial
HYDROCHLORATE OF MORPHINE prepared according to Dr Gregory’s process.
=Morphia Mec′onates of.= (C_{19}H_{20}NO_{3})_{2},C_{7}H_{2}O_{7}. _Prep._
1. (NEUTRAL MECONATE OF MORPHINE; MORPHIÆ MECONAS, L.) By saturating an
aqueous solution of meconic acid with morphia, and evaporating the
solution by a gentle heat, so that crystals may be obtained.
(2.) BIMECONATE OF MORPHINE; (MORPHIÆ BIMECONAS, L.)
C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3}HC_{7}H_{3}O_{7}. Meconic acid, 11 parts; morphia, 14
parts; dissolve each separately in hot water, q. s.; mix the solutions,
and either gently evaporate and crystallise, or at once evaporate to
dryness.
_Obs._ Morphia exists in opium under the form of bimeconate, and hence
this preparation of that drug has been preferred by some practitioners. A
solution of this salt for medical purposes may be directly prepared from
opium, by treating its solution in cold water with a little animal
charcoal, filtering, gently evaporating to dryness, redissolving the
residuum, in cold water, filtering, and repeating the treatment with
animal charcoal. The dose of the dry bimeconate is 1/4 gr., or more; and
of the meconate rather less. “A powder is also sold, called ‘bimeconate of
morphia,’ which is of the same strength as powdered opium, and is given in
similar doses. It is obviously incorrect to apply this name to a powder
which consists principally of foreign matter. It is to be hoped that
physicians will not prescribe this powder under the above name, as such a
practice might lead to fatal results, if the prescription should be
prepared with the substance which the name strictly indicates.” (REDWOOD.)
=Morphia, Nitrate of.= (A. T. Thomson.) _Syn._ MORPHIÆ NITRAS. Add morphia
in slight excess to very dilute nitric acid, filter, concentrate by gentle
evaporation, and set aside that crystals may form.
=Morphia, Phosphate of.= _Syn._ MORPHIÆ PHOSPHAS. As the nitrate,
substituting dilute phosphoric by nitric acid.
=Morphia, Sul′phate of.= _Syn._ MORPHIÆ SULPHAS, L. _Prep._ Saturate very
dilute sulphuric acid with morphia, evaporate to one half, add a little
animal charcoal, continue the evaporation for a short time longer at a
gentle heat, filter whilst hot, and abandon it to spontaneous evaporation.
It is decomposed by driving off the water of crystallisation. Sulphate of
morphia is included in the Ph. U. S. According to Magendie, this salt
sometimes agrees with patients who cannot bear the acetate.
=Morphia, Tartrate of.= (A. T. Thomson.) _Syn._ MORPHIÆ TARTRAS. _Prep._
Saturate a solution of tartaric acid with morphiæ, concentrate by
evaporation, and set aside that crystals may form. By using an excess of
acid an acid tartrate may be formed.
=MORPHIOM′ETRY.= A name given to the process of determining the richness
of opium in morphia. See OPIUM.
=MORISON’S PILLS.= See _Patent medicines_.
=MORSU′LI.= An old name applied to lozenges and masticatories. It is still
retained in some foreign Pharmacopœias.
=MOR′TAR= is the well-known cement, made of lime, sand, and water,
employed to bind bricks and stones together in the construction of walls,
buildings, &c.
In the composition of mortar stone lime is preferred to that obtained from
chalk, and river sand to pit or road sand. Sea sand is unfitted for mortar
until it has been well soaked and washed in fresh water. Sifted coal ashes
are frequently substituted for the whole or a part of the sand.
HYDRAULIC MORTARS or CEMENTS are those which, like Roman cement, are
employed for works which are either constantly submerged or are frequently
exposed to the action of water. The poorer sorts of limestone are chosen
for this purpose, or those which contain from 8% to 25% of alumina,
magnesia, and silica. Such limestones, though calcined, do not slake when
moistened; but if pulverised, they absorb water without swelling up or
heating, like fat lime, and afford a paste which hardens in a few days
under water, but in the air they never acquire much solidity.
“The essential constituents of every good hydraulic mortar are caustic
lime and silica; and the hardening of this composition under water
consists mainly in a chemical combination of these two ingredients through
the agency of the water, producing a hydrated silicate of lime. But such
mortars may contain other ingredients besides lime, as, for example, clay
and magnesia, when double silicates of great solidity are formed; on which
account dolomite is a good ingredient in these mortars. But the silica
must be in a peculiar state for these purposes, namely, capable of
affording a gelatinous paste with acids; and if not so already, it must be
brought into this condition, by calcining it along with an alkali or an
alkaline earth, at a bright red heat, when it will dissolve and gelatinise
in acids. Quartzose sand, however fine its powder may be, will form no
water mortar with lime; but if the powder be ignited with the lime, it
then becomes fit for hydraulic cement. Ground felspar or clay forms with
slaked lime, no water cement; but when they are previously calcined along
with the lime, the mixture becomes capable of hardening under water.
“All sorts of lime are made hydraulic, in the humid way, by mixing the
slaked lime with solutions of common alum or sulphate of alumina; but the
best method consists in employing a solution of the silicate of potash,
called liquor of flints or soluble glass, to mix in with the slaked lime
or lime and clay. An hydraulic cement may also be made which will serve
for the manufacture of architectural ornaments, by making a paste of
pulverised chalk, with a solution of the silicate of potash. The said
liquor of flints likewise gives chalk and plaster a stony hardness, by
merely soaking them in it after they are cut or moulded to a proper shape.
On exposure to the air they get progressively indurated. Superficial
hardness may be readily procured by washing over the surface of chalk,
&c., with liquor of flints, by means of a brush. This method affords an
easy and elegant method of giving a stony crust to the plastered walls and
ceilings of apartments; as also to statues and busts cast in gypsum mixed
with chalk.”
Under Prof. Kuhlman’s patent, dated April, 1841, “instead of calcining the
limestone with clay and sand alone, as has been hitherto commonly
practised, this inventor introduces a small quantity of soda, or,
preferably, potash, in the state of sulphate, carbonate, or muriate; salts
susceptible of forming silicates when the earthy mixture is calcined. The
alkaline salt, equal in weight to about 1-5th that of the lime, is
introduced in solution among the earths.” (Ure.)
The hardening of the common mortars and cements is in a great measure due
to the gradual absorption of carbonic acid; but even after a very great
length of time this conversion into carbonate is not complete. Good
mortar, under favorable circumstances, acquires extreme hardness by age.
Attempts have been made at various times to introduce the use of
bituminous cements into this country, and thus to restore both to land and
submarine architecture a valuable material which has now lain neglected
for a period of fully thirty centuries; but, unfortunately, owing to the
interest of our great building and engineering firms lying in another
direction, these attempts have been hitherto unsuccessful. See ASPHALTUM,
CEMENT, LIME, &c.
=MORTIFICA′TION= _Syn._ GANGRENE; GANGRENA, MORTIFICATION, L. Local death;
the loss of vitality in one part of the animal body, whilst the rest
continues living. “The terms gangrene and mortification are often used
synonymously; but gangrene properly signifies the state which immediately
precedes mortification, while the complete mortification, or absolute
death of a part, is called sphacelus. A part which has passed into the
state of sphacelus is called a slough.
=MOSA′IC GOLD.= See BRASS, GOLD, &c.
=MOS′SES.= _Syn._ MUSCI, L. Several vegetables of the natural orders
_Algæ_, _Fungi_, _Lichenes_, and _Musci_, commonly pass under this name
with the vulgar. Of these the following are the principal:——
BOG MOSS (_Sphagnum palustre_). Very retentive of moisture. Used to pack
up plants for exportation.
CEYLON MOSS (_Gracilaria candida_). Very nutritive; made into a decoction
or jelly, which is highly esteemed as an article of diet for invalids and
children, more especially for those suffering under affections of the
mucous membranes or phthisis.
CLUB MOSS (_Lycopodium clavatum_). See LYCOPODIUM.
CORSICAN MOSS, C. WORM M. (_Gracilaria Helminthocorton_).——_Dose_, 1/2 to
2 dr., in powder, mixed up with sugar; as a vermifuge.
CUP MOSS, C. LICHEN (_Cladonia pyxidata_). Astringent and febrifuge. A
cupful of the decoction, taken warm, generally proves gently emetic. Used
in hooping-cough, &c.
FIR CLUB MOSS (_Lycopodium Selago_). Violently emetic and purgative. It is
also irritant and narcotic.
ICELAND MOSS (_Cetraria Islandica_). Highly nutritious and easy of
digestion. The decoction is a favourite alimentary substance in affections
of the lungs and digestive organs. In Iceland, after the bitter has been
removed by soaking it in hot water, it is made into jelly, or dried,
ground to flour, and made into bread.
IRISH MOSS, PEARL M., CARRAGEEN M. (_Chondrus crispus_). Very nutritious.
The decoction or jelly is a useful and popular demulcent and emollient in
pulmonary affections, dysentery, scrofula, rickets, &c. It is often
employed by cooks and confectioners instead of isinglass, and by painters
to make their size.
REINDEER MOSS (_Cladonia rangiferina_). Esculent, very nutritious.
=MOTHER-OF-PEARL.= See PEARL.
=MOTH′ER WATER.= See CRYSTALLISATION.
=MOULDS.= Numerous materials and compositions are employed for the purpose
of taking moulds, among which are the following:
1. (COMPO’.)——_a_ From spermaceti, stearine or hard tallow, and white wax,
equal parts, melted together. For fine work, as medals, small casts, &c.
_b._ From black resin, 3/4 lb.; hard tallow, 1/2 lb.; beeswax, 6 oz.; as
the last. For coarse work, as architectural ornaments, &c. The above are
poured on the objects to be copied (previously oiled) whilst in the melted
state. Articles in plaster of Paris are first soaked in water, observing
that none of it remains on the surface so as to interfere with the design.
2. (ELASTIC.)——_a._ Flexible or elastic moulds may be made of gutta percha
softened in boiling water, and after being freed from moisture, pressed
strongly against the object to be copied by means of a screw press. A ring
or support should be employed to prevent undue lateral spreading.
_b._ By the use of gelatin or glue, elastic moulds are formed capable of
reproducing, with accuracy, and in a single piece, the most elaborately
sculptured objects, of exquisite finish and delicacy. Casts from these are
now common in the streets. The credit of the application of this substance
to this purpose is due to M. H. Vincent. The process of casting consists
in simply dissolving a certain quantity of gelatin in hot water until it
is reduced to the state of liquid paste, when it is run over the object,
previously oiled, intended to be reproduced. As it cools, the gelatin
assumes a consistency offering a considerable degree of resistance, and is
highly elastic, which latter quality enables it to be easily detached from
the work on which it has been fitted. In the hollow formed by the gelatin
the finest plaster, mixed to a thick cream with water, is next run; and
when the plaster has acquired the requisite hardness, the gelatin mould is
detached in the same manner as from the original. From this apparently
fragile mould as many as six copies may be taken, all reproducing the
original with unerring fidelity.
3. (METALLIC.)——_a._ From fusible metal.[42]
[Footnote 42: See FUSIBLE ALLOYS.]
_b._ (CLICHÉE MOULDS.) From a fusible alloy formed of bismuth, 8 parts;
lead, 5 parts; tin, 4 parts; antimony, 1 part; repeatedly melted together.
The above are poured out in the melted state on a plate or slab, and after
being stirred until in a pasty state, the object to be copied is strongly
pressed on the alloy at the moment it begins to solidify. They are chiefly
used for medals and other like objects.
_c._ (Chameroy’s Patent.) By melting together one part of some easily
fusible metal in a crucible, and then mixing with it four parts of a metal
far less readily fusible, steeped in ammonia and reduced to powder. Such a
compound is stated to be of great solidity, hardness, facility of
soldering, melts at a low temperature, and has great tractability in
moulding to any form; and in casting takes the sharpest impressions,
whilst in its nature it is peculiarly unchangeable. See ELECTROTYPE.
=MOUTH COSMET′ICS.= See BREATH, TEETH, LOZENGE, PASTE, POWDER, &c.
=MOX′AS.= Substances burnt upon the body, for the purpose of acting as
counter-irritants, and allaying deep-seated pains and inflammation. They
have been used in gout, rheumatism, &c. The small cone constituting the
moxa is placed upon a part, lighted, and allowed to burn to its base. The
CHINESE and JAPANESE moxas are made of the downy portion of the leaves of
a species of wormwood (_Artemisia sinensis_); but various other
substances, as the pith of the sunflower, cotton, or paper, soaked in a
weak solution of nitrate, chlorate, or chromate of potassium, answer as
well. Larrey’s moxas consist of lycopodium, 4 oz.; nitre, 2 oz.; formed
into small cones, with alcohol, and dried for some days. Dr Osborne used
quicklime enclosed in a hoop of card, and moistened with water. The actual
cautery is said to be preferable to any of them.
=MU′CILAGE.= _Syn._ MUCILAGO, L. An aqueous solution of gum, or other like
substance, that gives a considerable consistency to water. See DECOCTION,
MIXTURE, &c.
=Mucilage, Acacia.= (Ph. B.) _Syn._ MUCILAGO ACACIÆ. Put gum acacia, in
small pieces, 4 oz., and distilled water, 6 oz., into a covered earthen
jar, and stir frequently until the gum is dissolved. If necessary, strain
through muslin.
=Mucilage, Fenugreek.= _Syn._ MUCILAGO FENUGRECI. Digest 1 oz. of
fenugreek seed with 1/2 pint of water for 12 hours, boil, and strain with
pressure.
=Mucilage, Linseed.= (P. Cod.) _Syn._ MUCILAGO LINI. Linseed, 1 oz.; warm
water, 6 oz. Digest for 6 hours, stirring now and then, and strain.
=Mucilage, Liquorice.= _Syn._ MUCILAGO GLYCYRRHIZÆ. From liquorice root,
as MARSHMALLOW MUCILAGE.
=Mucilage, Marshmallow.= (P. Cod.) _Syn._ MUCILAGO ALTHÆÆ. Marshmallow
root, 1 oz.; boiling water, 6 oz.; digest for 6 hours, and strain.
=Mucilage, Quicksilver.= _Syn._ MUCILAGO MERCURIALIS PLENKII. Quicksilver,
1 dr.; gum Arabic, 3 dr.; syrup of poppies, 4 oz. Mix.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr.
=Mucilage, Sassafras.= (Ph. U. S.) _Syn._ MUCILAGO SASSAFRAS. Infuse 2 dr.
of pith of sassafras in 16 oz. (old measure) of boiling water for 3 hours,
and strain.
=Mucilage, Slippery-Elm Bark.= (Ph. U. S.) _Syn._ MUCILAGO ULMI.
Slippery-elm bark, sliced and bruised, 1 oz.; boiling water, 16 oz. Infuse
for 2 hours.
=Mucilage, Starch.= (Ph. B.) Same as DECOCTION OF STARCH (Ph. L.), which
_see_.
=Mucilage, Tra′gacanth.= _Syn._ MUCILAGO TRAGACANTHÆ (B. P., Ph. E., and
Ph. D 1826), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Tragacanth, 2 dr.; boiling water, 9
fl. oz. (8 fl. oz.——Ph. D.); macerate for 24 hours, triturate, and press
through linen.
2. (B. P.) Tragacanth, in powder, 60 gr.; distilled water, 10 oz. To the
water contained in a pint bottle add the tragacanth, agitate briskly for a
few minutes, and again at short intervals, until the tragacanth is
perfectly diffused, and has finally formed a mucilage.——_Dose_, 1 oz.
(Should be made as required. One part of tragacanth gives more viscosity
to water than twenty-five parts of gum Arabic——Squire.) Used in medicine
as a demulcent, and as an application to burns, &c., and in pharmacy in
making up pills, and to suspend heavy powders in liquids.
=MUDAR′IN.= _Syn._ MADARINE. A peculiar substance, possessing powerful
emetic properties, extracted from the root bark of _Calotropis gigantea_,
in which it exists to the extent of 11%. (Duncan.) It is soluble in water
and in alcohol, and its aqueous solution, unlike that of most other
substances, gelatinises by heat, and becomes fluid again on cooling.
=MUF′FINS.= _Prep._ Take of fine flour, 1/4 peck; warm milk-and-water, 1
quart; yeast, a wine-glassful; salt, 2 oz.; mix for 15 minutes, then
further add of flour, 1/4 peck, make a dough, let it rise 1 hour, roll it
up, pull it into pieces, make them into balls, put them in a warm place,
and when the whole dough is made into balls, shape them into muffins, and
bake them on tins; turn them when half done, dip them into warm milk, and
bake them to a pale brown.
=MUF′FLE.= See ASSAYING.
=MUL′BERRY.= _Syn._ MORUM, L. Mulberries (MORA, MORI BACCÆ) are the fruit
of _Morus nigra_, or black mulberry tree. They are cooling and laxative;
but when eaten too freely are apt to disorder the stomach and bowels.
Mulberry juice (_mori succus_) is officinal in the Ph. L. A syrup (SYRUPUS
MORI) is made of it. It is also, occasionally, made into wine.
=MUL′TUM.= A mixture of extract of quassia and liquorice, used by
fraudulent brewers instead of malt and hops.
=MUM.= A beverage prepared from wheat malt, in a similar way to ordinary
beer from barley malt. A little oat and bean meal is frequently added. It
was formerly much drunk in England; but its use at the present day is
chiefly confined to Germany, and to Brunswick more particularly.
=MUMPS.= _Syn._ PAROTITIS, L. Inflammation of the parotid gland, which is
situated under the ear. There is little constitutional derangement, but
the cheeks become swollen and painful, and there is some difficulty in
opening the mouth, and in swallowing. The treatment consists in simply
keeping the part warm with flannel, and the use of warm fomentations, at
the same time that the bowels are kept freely open with some mild
laxative.
The mumps are said to be contagious, as, when the affection appears in a
school, it generally attacks every member of it. Low, damp situations are
those most favorable to this affection.
=MUREX′ID.= C_{8}N_{6}H_{8}O_{6}. _Syn._ PURPURATE OF AMMONIUM.
_Prep._ (Gregory.) Alloxan, 7 parts; alloxantin, 4 parts; boiling water,
240 parts; dissolve, and add the solution to a cold and strong solution of
carbonate of ammonia, 80 parts; crystals of murexid will separate as the
liquid cools.
_Obs._ Murexid can be obtained directly from uric acid by the action of
nitric acid and subsequent treatment with ammonia. This process is,
however, very precarious, and often fails altogether.
_Prop., &c._ It is only very slightly soluble in cold water; freely
soluble in solutions of ammonia and the fixed alkalies; the first, by
exposure to the air, becomes purple, and deposits brilliant crystals of
murexid. These compounds are the purpurates of Dr Prout. It forms
iridescent crystals, having a metallic lustre, of a magnificent green
colour by reflected light, and an equally beautiful reddish purple by
transmitted light. It is soluble in boiling water, only very slightly
soluble in cold water, and insoluble in alcohol and ether. A few years ago
murexid was extensively used in dyeing; it is now almost superseded by
rosaniline or magenta. An analogous substance, formed as above, by
treating amalic acid with ammonia, is called ‘caffein-murexid.’
=MU′′RIATE.= An old name for hydrochlorate and chloride.
=MURIATIC ACID.= _Syn._ HYDROCHLORIC ACID, which _see_.
=MURIDE.= The name originally given to bromine by M. Balard.
=MUR′RAIN.= _Syn._ BLACK-LEG, BLACK-QUARTER. A disease affecting meat
cattle, more especially young animals, in the spring and autumn. The
common symptoms are swelling and discoloration of one of the hind quarters
of the animal, with consequent lameness and inability to move; a peculiar
emphysema and intumescence of various parts of the body, particularly over
the region of the spine, accompanied with all the common indications of
putrid fever. In severe cases gangrene soon follows, and death frequently
ensues in from 12 to 24 hours.
The rapid progress of this disease admits of little being done in the way
of cure. Extensive scarifications of the affected part, charcoal or hot
yeast poultices, or fomentations, and active purgatives, appear to
constitute the most useful treatment. The following drenches have been
recommended for this affection:——
1. (Blaine.) Sweet spirit of nitre, 1/2 fl. oz.; powdered cascarilla, 2
oz.; solution of acetate of ammonia, 4 fl. oz.; yeast, 8 fl. oz.; given
every 3 or 4 hours.
2 (Clater.) Laudanum and sweet spirit of nitre, of each 1/2 fl. oz.;
solution of chloride of lime, 1/4 fl. oz.; prepared chalk, 1 oz.; warm
gruel, 1 pint.
The apparent incurability of this disease renders it of the utmost
importance to the farmer to adopt preventive measures. These should
consist of the supply of wholesome food and pure water, the adoption of
extreme cleanliness, and the free access of pure air to all the stalls,
sheds, and other buildings in which the cattle may be sheltered. As the
disease is regarded as contagious by many persons, it is prudent to
separate, as speedily as possible, the healthy animals from those
affected. The free use of sulphurous acid, chloride of lime, &c., as
disinfectants, is also advisable.
Other and more immediate preventives consist of the occasional exhibition
of a saline aperient, and the introduction of a seton into the dewlap.
=MUSCULAR POWER.= Fick and Wislicenus proved, in 1865, that muscular power
is to a great extent produced by the oxidation of such non-nitrogenous
substance as fat. Frankland has put the matter beyond dispute by a series
of experiments determining the amount of potential energy locked up in
muscle. Some of the conclusions at which he has arrived are extremely
interesting. He considers that a muscle is a machine for the conversion of
potential energy into mechanical force; that the mechanical force of the
muscles is derived chiefly, if not entirely, from the oxidation of matters
either contained in the blood or deposited around the muscular fibres, and
not from the oxidation of the muscles themselves; that in man the chief
materials used for the production of muscular power are non-nitrogenous;
but nitrogenous matters can also be employed for the same purpose, and
hence the greatly increased evolution of nitrogen, under the influence of
a flesh diet, even with no increase of muscular exertion; that like every
other part of the body, the muscles are constantly being renewed, but this
renewal is scarcely perceptibly more rapid during great muscular activity
than during comparative quiescence; that after the supply of sufficient
albuminoid matters in the food of man to provide for the necessary renewal
of the tissues, the best materials for the production both of internal and
external work are non-nitrogenous matters, such as oil, fat, sugars,
starch, and gum; that the non-nitrogenous matters of food which find their
way into the blood yield up all their potential energy as actual energy;
the nitrogenous matters, on the other hand, leave the body with a portion
(at least one seventh) of their potential energy unexpended; and, lastly,
that the transformation of potential energy into muscular power is
necessarily accompanied by the production of heat within the body, even
when the muscular power is exerted externally. This is doubtless the
chief, and probably the only, source of natural heat. See ENERGY,
EXERCISE.
=MUSH′ROOMS.= Edible fungi. The species commonly eaten in England are the
_Agaricus campestris_, or common field or garden mushroom, used to make
ketchup, and eaten either raw, stewed, or broiled;——the _Morchella
esculenta_, or morel, used to flavour soups and gravies;——and the _Tuber
cibarium_, or common truffle, also used as a seasoning.
Several fungi, which to the inexperienced closely resemble the common
edible mushroom, possess poisonous narcotic properties, and their use has
not unfrequently been productive of serious, and, in some cases, even
fatal results. Unfortunately, no simple tests exist by which the edible
and poisonous varieties can be distinguished from each other. So strongly
was the late Professor L. C. Richards, the eminent botanist, impressed
with this feeling, that though no one was better acquainted with the
distinctions of fungi than he was, yet he would never eat any except such
as had been raised in gardens, in mushroom beds.
“This difficulty of distinguishing edible from poisonous and noxious fungi
must not be ignored. If only one out of a hundred, or for the matter of
that a thousand, species were poisonous or noxious, it would not be sound
advice to say that we should eat all that come to hand, and stand the
chance of baneful results. Unfortunately it is the case that some of the
most poisonous fungi are the most common, and there is scarcely a field,
and perhaps not a single wood, which does not abound with varieties of
_Coprinus_, the _Agaricus fascicularis_, and the beautifully coloured
_Thussula emetica_, and several other very undesirable species. Some
writers, and among them, if we remember rightly, the learned and
enthusiastic mycologist, Dr Badham, deny the existence of any poisonous
fungi in our islands, and they account for the effects which are often
produced by eating varieties different from our common mushroom by stating
that some people, through idiosyncrasy of constitution, are injuriously
affected by all fungi; and in support of this statement they instance the
well-known fact that some people experience the most unpleasant effects
after eating the common edible mushroom, which chemically contains noxious
ingredients. We all know that idiosyncrasy of constitution may account for
much and for very strange phenomena; for instance, oysters are almost
poison to some persons, while roast beef will cause hysterics in other
cases; and to not a few certain odours, harmless in themselves, are causes
of serious attacks of illness; but the fact remains that persons who can
eat with impunity and greatly enjoy the common mushroom are unpleasantly
affected by other species of fungi. Not a year passes but deaths are
recorded of persons——sometimes of whole families——after eating noxious
fungi, though they had no idiosyncrasy of constitution; and shortly prior
to the writing of this article a learned botanist and enthusiastic
mycologist, and a friend, in experimenting on some specimens of fungi sent
to him, narrowly escaped death, while another person who partook of the
dish prepared actually succumbed. A thousand and one tests have been given
in writing from time to time whereby our ordinary mushroom is to be
distinguished from species which resemble it——and one species is to be
distinguished from another; but we fear that practically they are not to
be depended upon. Fungi differ in appearance according to the localities
in which they grow, and according to their age. The common belief that the
edible species never change colour when cut or bruised is untenable, for
three varieties at least are perfectly edible, and yet assume different
tints when injured in any way. The test of taste, too, which is applied
under the idea that those with a pleasant savour and an inoffensive smell
are always wholesome, is fallacious, for a raw mushroom is quite a
different thing from the stewed or grilled one, and often what has an
acrid taste when raw becomes perfectly savoury when cooked; and, _vice
versâ_, a tasteless fungus may be poisonous, but only develop its latent
flavour when submitted to the cook. Dr Christison declares that a sure
test of poisonous fungus is an astringent, styptic taste, and a
disagreeable pungent odour; but this, again, cannot always be depended on.
Nor, again, is the popular idea that a mushroom which will skin easily is
wholesome altogether based on fact. What, then, is to be done to enlarge
the field of our mushroom gatherers and to bring about the utilisation of
food now suffered to run to waste, or, in other words, how is a knowledge
of our fungi to be obtained? The only answer is that knowledge on this
matter is to be got, generally speaking, as knowledge on other
matters——partly from books, but more especially from oral instruction and
demonstration. Such eminent authorities as Dr Badham, the Rev. M.
Berkeley, Mr Cooke, and Mr Worthington Smith may be consulted with profit,
and works such as that on ‘Domestic Economy,’ in which coloured plates
bring accurately before the eye the different species of our fungi. And
here we may mention that the plates prepared by Mr Worthington Smith,
which were once at the South Kensington Museum, but now, we believe, at
Bethnal Green, have done much to help the Londoner when in search for
mushrooms in the country to distinguish between the good and bad species
of fungi. It might be well that in our schools, where so many practically
useless branches of knowledge are crammed into children both in town and
country, practical lessons on fungi should be given. Those, too, who wish
to learn what is to be learned on this subject should avail themselves of
opportunities now often given at exhibitions and botanical meetings. At
Paris, in 1876, there was an exhibition of edible and poisonous fungi, in
a fresh and dry state, together with books and drawings; and a similar
exhibition took place in Aberdeen two years before; and, as most of our
readers are probably aware, there exists a Fungus Club, or, rather, a
botanical society which makes fungi a special study. This is the Woolhope
Club, which has its head quarters at Hereford, and embraces in its
scientific investigations all the district between Shropshire and the
Bristol Channel. One day in each autumn is devoted to a fungus hunt, and
the numbers that are gathered by this enthusiastic band are something
enormous. The labours of the day are closed by a dinner, at which the main
dishes are composed of the spoils of the chase, dressed in the most
epicurean fashion, and of other good things flavoured with the most
appetising (fungus) sauces. In the annual volume published of the
transactions of the club there is a description of the fungi of the
district, and the best modes of cooking them. It would be a great gain to
the public if at least that part dealing with fungi were generally
obtainable.
“Gastronomically the ordinary mushroom, and a large number of our British
fungi, are most estimable, and ketchup produced from them——not the
ordinary ketchup ‘of commerce,’ which is often innocent of any fungi
whatever——is to the cultivated taste of the gourmet the best of sauces.
Many an epicurean has been heard to aver that after that of an oyster that
of a mushroom is the finest in the whole world of gastronomy. Bacon, in
his ‘Naturall Historie,’ says of mushrooms, ‘they yield a delicious meat,’
and to these commendations it may be added that they can be cooked in
almost as many ways as the French can cook eggs. Their alimentary value is
also great, for chemistry has revealed in them the presence of the leading
principles which exist in the flesh of animals. Dr Letheby says that ‘the
edible varieties are highly nutritious,’ and that well-known dietist, the
late Dr Edward Smith, who was very chary of commending anything, also has
a good word for them.
“Our word ‘mushroom’ is evidently an adaptation of the French _mousseron_,
which, of course, is from _mousse_ ‘_moss_’ (Latin, _muscus_); but the
suggestion of the learned Salmasius, that the French gave this name to the
edible fungus ‘because it grows only where the grass is the shortest and
there is little else but moss,’ strikes one as rather weak. The mushroom,
like the moss, is a cryptogamous plant; but there is little connection in
any way between the two. Perhaps, then, we must look to the Greek word
_mucos_, though only used by the grammarians, for the origin of the French
word and so of our own. This was one of the terms which signified a
‘sponge,’ and was probably applied to the ‘fungi’ because of their
sponge-like growth. It is evident that some of our more exact botanists,
or etymologists who compounded the word for them, consider the Greek word
and not the Latin as the origin of the _mu_ in the English word and the
_mou_ in the French, though, according to analogy, the _u_ should have
been changed into a _y_, for the study of ‘fungi’ is termed by them
_mycology_. It is hardly necessary to add that the words ‘fungology’ and
‘fungologist’ are hybrid compounds of Greek and Latin, which are simply
intolerable to ears correct, as are many other words similarly compounded,
and recently introduced into our language. The Latin _fungus_ is plainly a
weakened form of the Greek _spongos_, and goes to show that the idea of a
‘sponge’ was from the first associated with the _fungi_, and that the
Greek _mucos_ must be taken as the origin of the French _mousseron_ and
the English ‘mushroom.’ It is curious that the Greek, Latin, and English
‘fungous’ terms have all been used in a sense reflecting on some of our
species. The Greek _mucos_ represented a silly, stupid fellow, and the
Plautus couples the fungi——‘soft-pated’——with the ‘fools,’ ‘stolid’ and
‘fatuous.’ In like manner in our own language, Bacon speaks of certain
persons as ‘mushrooms and upstart weeds’ because of their sudden growth
from a lowly origin. South, in one of his sermons, reflects on “mushroom
divines who start up of a sudden,” and whose success is ‘not so good as to
recommend their practice.’ Carrying out the same analogy, the late Albert
Smith, if we recollect rightly, spoke of ‘stuck-up people’ as springing
like mushrooms suddenly into notice, and, like them, from very
questionable soil.
“One word as to the connection between fungi and what are called ‘fairy
rings’ in our meadows. These fairy rings unfortunately lose all their
poetry when it is known that they are simply produced by the growth of
various kinds of fungi. The fungi start from a centre, owing to some
peculiarity of the soil and decaying vegetable matter in it, and when they
have exhausted the spot on which they originally sprang up, they enlarge
their borders, as it were, and thus form circles, giving a darker tinge to
the herbage affected by them. These rings increase in size annually, and
thus they vary considerably in circumference. This is a prosaic but
truthful explanation of the phenomenon which so often attracts the
attention of children and puzzles the heads of older persons.”[43]
[Footnote 43: ‘Daily Telegraph.’]
In cases of poisoning by fungi, vomiting should be immediately induced by
an emetic and tickling the fauces with the finger or a feather; after
which a purgative clyster or a strong cathartic should be administered,
with 1/2 to 1 fl. dr. of ether in a glassful of water or weak brandy. As
an antidote, a solution of tannin, 1/2 dr., in water, 1-1/2 pint, or a
decoction of 1/2 oz. of powdered galls, or of 1 oz. of powdered cinchona
bark, in a like quantity of water, has been strongly recommended by M.
Chansarel.
Alexis Soyer recommended the excellent method of cooking mushrooms by
baking them under a glass or basin on toast, along with scalded or clotted
cream, or a little melted butter, with one clove, and salt, pepper, &c.,
to taste. They take about 1/4 of an hour in a gentle oven or before the
fire. When they are taken up, do not remove the glass for a few minutes,
by which time the vapour will have become condensed and gone into the
bread; but when it is, the aroma, which is the essence of the mushroom, is
so powerful as to pervade the whole apartment.
=MUSK.= _Syn._ MOSCHUS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “A secretion
deposited in a follicle of the prepuce of _Moschus moschiferus_, Linn.”
(Ph. L.), an animal inhabiting the mountains of Eastern Asia. It is
imported from Bengal, China, and Russia; and, latterly, from the United
States of America. That known as TONQUIN MUSK is the most esteemed for its
odour; but that from Russia is the only kind which reaches us in perfect
bags, or which has not been tampered with. POD MUSK (MOSCHUS IN VESICIS)
is the bag in its natural state, containing the musk. The average weight
of one of the pods is about 6 dr.; that of the grain musk which it
contains, about 2-1/2 dr.
_Pur_, _&c._ The musk of the shops is generally adulterated. Dried
bullock’s blood or chocolate is commonly employed for this purpose, along
with a little bone-black. The extent of these additions varies from 25% to
75% of the gross weight of the mixture. The blood is dried by the heat of
steam or a water bath, then reduced to coarse powder, and triturated with
the genuine musk in a mortar along with a few drops of liquid of ammonia.
It is then either replaced in the empty pods, or it is put into bottles,
and sold as grain musk. There are only three certain ways of detecting
this fraud, viz.——by the inferiority of the odour, by an assay for the
iron contained in the blood, or——by the microscope. Genuine musk often
becomes nearly inodorous by keeping, but recovers its smell on being
exposed to the vapour of ammonia, or by being moistened with ammonia
water. The perfumers sometimes expose it to the fetid ammoniacal effluvia
of privies for the same purpose.
Pure musk, by trituration or digestion with boiling water, loses about 75%
of its weight, and the boiling solution, after precipitation with nitric
acid, is nearly colourless. A solution of acetate of lead, and a cold
decoction of galls, also precipitate the solution; but one of corrosive
sublimate does not disturb it. The ashes left after the incineration of
pure musk are neither red nor yellow, but grey, and should not exceed 5 to
6%. The Chinese appear to be the most skilful and successful adulterators
of musk. One of the best solvents for musk is ether.
_Uses_, _&c._ Musk is chiefly employed for its odour. As a _medicine_ it
is a powerful stimulant and antispasmodic, and is a valuable remedy in
various diseases of a spasmodic or hysterical character, or attended with
low fever.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 grains made into an emulsion.
=Musk, Factitious.= _Syn._ RESIN OF AMBER; RESINA SUCCINI, MOSCHUS
ARTIFICIALIS, M. FACTITIUS, L. _Prep._ 1. Oil of amber, 1 fl. dr.; nitric
acid, 3-1/2 fl. dr.; digest in a cold tumbler, and after 24 hours, wash in
cold water the orange-yellow resinous matter which has formed, and
carefully dry it.
2. (Elsner.) From oil of amber, 1 part; fuming nitric acid, 3 parts; as
the last, but employing artificial cold to prevent any portion of the oil
being carbonised.
_Obs._ Resin of amber smells strongly of musk, and is said to be
antispasmodic and nervine. A tincture (TINCTURA RESINÆ SUCCINI) is made by
dissolving 1 dr. of it in rectified spirit, 10 fl. dr., of which the dose
is 1 fl. dr.; in hooping-cough, low fevers, &c.
Dr Collier mentions an artificial musk, prepared by digesting for 10 days
nitric acid, 1/2 oz., on fetid animal oil, obtained by distillation, 1
oz.; then adding of rectified spirit, 1 pint, and digesting the whole for
a month.
=MUSK SEED.= _Syn._ GRAINS D’AMBRETTE. The seed of _Abelmoschus
moschatus_, or musk mallow. They are chiefly used for their odour, in
perfumery, hair powder, coffee, &c.
=MUS′SEL.= See SHELL-FISH.
=MUST.= _Syn._ MUSTUM, L. The expressed juice of ripe grapes, before
fermentation. When boiled to 2-3 dr. it is called CARENUM; when boiled to
1/2, it is called SAPA. On further concentration, it yields a species of
granular sugar (grape sugar.)
=Must, Facti′′tious.= _Syn._ MUSTUM FACTITIUM, L. _Prep._ Dissolve cream
of tartar, 3/4 oz., in boiling water, 7 pints; when cold, add of lump
sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.; raisins (chopped small), 1/2 lb.; digest for 3 or 4
hours, strain through flannel as quickly as possible, and add of lemon
juice, 1/2 pint.
=MUS′TARD.= _Syn._ SINAPIS, L. “The seed of _Sinapis nigra_ and _S.
alba_.” (Ph. L.) “Flour of the seeds of _Sinapis nigra_, generally mixed
with those of _Sinapis alba_, and deprived of fixed oil by expression.”
(Ph. E.) “The flour of the seeds.” (Ph. D.) “The seeds of the _Sinapis
nigra_ and _S. alba_ reduced to powder and mixed.” (B. P.) That of the
shops is very frequently adulterated with wheat flour. When this is the
case it does not readily make a smooth paste with water, but exhibits
considerable toughness, and somewhat of a stringy appearance, especially
when little water and much heat is employed. The common proportions taken
by some grocers are——dried common salt, wheat flour, and superfine
mustard, equal parts; with turmeric, to colour, and cayenne, q. s. to give
it piquancy and fire.
_Uses_, _&c._ Pure flour of mustard is used in medicine, to make
stimulating poultices, pediluvia, &c. As a condiment it is useful in
torpor and coldness of the digestive organs. A few years since the use of
mustard seed, by spoonfuls, _ad libitum_, was a common and fashionable
remedy in torpor or atony of the digestive organs. The practice was a
revival of that recommended by Dr Cullen; but it has now again sunk into
disuse. Sir John Sinclair also approved of the use of mustard seed in this
way, especially for the preservation of the health of the aged. (‘Lancet,’
Jan., 1834.) See POULTICES, &c.
=Mustard for the Table.= The common practice of preparing mustard for the
table with vinegar, or still more, with boiling water, materially checks
the development of those peculiar principles on which its pungency or
strength almost entirely depends. To economise this substance, we should
use lukewarm water only; and when flavouring matter is to be added to it,
this is better deferred until after the paste is made. The following forms
for ‘made mustard’ are much esteemed for their flavour:——
_Prep._ 1. Mustard (ground), 3-1/2 lbs.; water, q. s. to form a stiff
paste; in 1/2 hour add of common salt (rubbed very fine), 1 lb.; with
vinegar, grape juice, lemon juice, or white wine, q. s. to reduce it to a
proper consistence.
2. To the last add a little soluble cayenne pepper or essence of cayenne.
3. (Lenormand.) Best flour of mustard, 2 lbs.; fresh parsley, chervil,
celery, and tarragon, of each 1/2 oz.; garlic, 1 clove; 12 salt anchovies;
(all well chopped); grind well together, add of salt, 1 oz.; grape juice
or sugar q. s. to sweeten; with sufficient water to form the mass into a
thinnish paste by trituration in a mortar. When put into pots, a red-hot
poker is to be thrust into each, and a little vinegar afterwards poured
upon the surface.
4. (MOUTARDE A L’ESTRAGON.) From black mustard seed (gently dried until
friable, and then finely powdered), 1 lb.; salt, 2 oz.; tarragon vinegar,
q. s. to mix. In a similar way the French prepare several other
‘mustards,’ by employing vinegars flavoured with the respective
substances, or walnut or mushroom ketchup, or the liquors of the richer
pickles.
5. (MOUTARDE SUPERBE.) Salt, 1-1/2 lb.; scraped horseradish, 1 lb.;
garlic, 2 cloves; boiling vinegar, 2 galls.; macerate in a covered vessel
for 24 hours, strain, and add of flour of mustard, q. s.
6. (Patent.) Black ginger (bruised), 12 lbs.; common salt, 18 lbs.; water,
15 galls.; boil, strain, and add to each gallon flour of mustard, 5 lbs.
=Mustard Leaves= (Rigollot’s) are made by spreading moistened mustard on
paper, and drying.
=MUS′TINESS.= See MALT LIQUORS and WINES.
=MU′TAGE.= The term applied to the ‘matching’ of grape must to arrest the
progress of fermentation. See ANTIFERMENT, MATCHES, &c.
=MUT′TON.= The flesh of sheep. That of the first quality is “between four
and five years old; but at present it is rarely got above three, and often
under two. The flesh ought to be of a darkish, clear, red colour, the fat
firm and white, the meat short and tender when pinched, and it ought not
to be too fat.” The flesh of the ‘Southdown wether’ is esteemed the finest
flavoured. Mutton is one of the most wholesome of the ‘red meats,’ and in
commercial importance is second only to beef. See MEAT.
=MY′COSE.= A peculiar variety of sugar, extracted by alcohol from ergot of
rye. It crystallises in colourless prisms, and is distinguished from cane
sugar by not reducing the acetate of copper, when boiled with a solution
of that salt.
=MYLABRIS.= _Syn._ MYLABRIS CICHORII; CHINESE BLISTERING FLY. An insect
found on the flowers of the succory plant in India and China. It is about
an inch and a quarter in length; sheath-wings black, each presenting
anteriorly two almost quadrate, brownish-yellow spots; behind these two
brownish-yellow bands, each of which equals about one sixth of the length
of the sheath-wings. Its vesicant properties are due to the presence of
cantharidin.
Its physiological actions are the same as those of cantharides, except
that it is said not to affect the kidneys when topically applied.
=MYRICIN.= The portion of beeswax which is least soluble in alcohol, and
saponified with difficulty.
=MYRISTIC ACID.= HC_{14}H_{27}O_{2}. A monobasic fatty acid, obtained by
the saponification of myristin. It melts at 120° Fahr.
=MYRIS′TIN.= C_{45}H_{86}O_{6}. _Syn._ SERICINE. The white, solid portion
of the expressed oil of nutmegs, which is insoluble in cold alcohol. See
MYRISTIC ACID.
=MYROLES.= In French _pharmacy_, solutions of oleaginous or resinous
substances in the volatile oils.
=MYRON′IC ACID.= HC_{10}H_{18}NS_{2}O_{10}. Bussy has given this name to
an inodorous, bitter, non-crystallisable acid, obtained by him from black
mustard, in which it exists as myronate of potassium. It is soluble in
water and alcohol.
=MYROSIN.= _Syn._ EMULSIN OR BLACK MUSTARD. A name given by Bussy to a
peculiar substance, soluble in water, and which possesses the power of
converting myronic acid, in the presence of water, into the volatile oil
of mustard seed.
=MYROSPERMIN.= The name given by Richter to the portion of the oil of
balsam of Peru, which is soluble in alcohol.
=MYROX′ILIN.= The name given by Richter to the portion of the oil of
balsam of Peru which is insoluble in alcohol. By oxygenation it forms
myroxilic acid.
=MYRRH.= _Syn._ MYRRHA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “Gum resin exuded
from the bark of _Balsamodendron myrrha_.” (B. P., Ph. L.)
_Pur._——1. Triturate a small quantity of the powder of the suspected myrrh
with an equal amount of chloride of ammonium, adding water, gradually; if
the whole is readily dissolved, the myrrh is genuine; otherwise it is
sophisticated with some inferior substance. (Righini.)——2. When
incinerated it should not leave more than 3-1/2 to 4% of ashes.
_Uses, &c._ Myrrh is a stimulating aromatic bitter and tonic, and is given
in several diseases accompanied by relaxation and debility; especially in
excessive secretions from the mucous membranes, and in disorders of the
digestive organs. _Externally_, as an ingredient in dentifrices and
rashes, in caries of the teeth, spongy and ulcerated gums, &c.——_Dose_, 10
to 30 gr.; either alone or combined with aloes or chalybeates.
=NAILS (The)= should be kept clean by the daily use of the nail-brush and
soap-and-water. After wiping the hands, but whilst they are still soft
from the action of the water, the skin, which is apt to grow over the
nails, should be gently loosened and pressed back, which will not only
preserve them neatly rounded, but will prevent the skin cracking around
their roots (agnails, nail-springs), and becoming sore. The free ends or
points of the nails should be pared about once a week; and biting them
should be particularly avoided, as being at once destructive to their
beauty and usefulness. “The (free) edge of the scarf-skin should never be
pared, the surface of the nail never scraped, or the nails cleaned with
any instrument whatever saving the nail-brush.” (Eras. Wilson.)
The consequences of wearing a shoe that is obviously too short for the
foot are thus described by the above authority:——“In this case Nature
gives us warning, by means of her agent, pain, that such a proceeding is
contrary to her laws. We stop our ears, and get accustomed to the pain,
which, perhaps, is not severe, and soon goes off; the shoes get a scolding
for their malice, and we forget all about it for a time. But does Nature
check her course to suit the convenience of thoughtless men? No, no. In a
short time we find that the nail, intercepted in its forward course, has
become unusually thick and hard, and has spread out so much upon the
sides, that it is now growing into the flesh, and so makes a case for the
doctor. Or, perhaps, the continuance of pressure may have inflamed the
sensitive skin at the root, and caused a sore and painful place there. And
instances are by no means infrequent in which the power of production of
the nail at the root becomes entirely abrogated, and then it grows in
thickness only.”
When the nails are stained or discoloured, a little lemon juice, or
vinegar-and-water, is the best application. Occasionally, a little
pumice-stone, in impalpable powder, or a little ‘putty powder,’ may be
used along with water and a piece of soft leather or flannel for the same
purpose. The frequent employment of these substances is, however,
injurious to the healthy growth of the nail.
=NANKEEN′.= The coloured cotton cloth which bears this name was originally
brought from Nankin, the ancient capital of China, and was prepared from a
native cotton, of a brownish-yellow hue. It is now successfully imitated
in England, and at the present time the English manufacturers supply the
Canton market. In this country the colour is generally given to the cloth
by successive baths of sulphate of iron and crude carbonate of soda or
lime water.
=NANKEEN DYE.= The liquid sold under this name in the shops is a solution
of annotta. It is employed to dye white calicoes of a nankeen colour; but
chiefly to restore the colour of faded nankeen clothing.
=NAPH′THA.= _Syn._ MINERAL NAPHTHA; NAPHTHA, L. A name given to the limpid
and purer varieties of PETROLEUM (which _see_), or ROCK OIL, which exudes
from the surface of the earth in various parts of the world.
_Prop._ Naphtha possesses a penetrating odour and a yellow colour, but may
be rendered colourless by distillation; it usually begins to boil at a
temperature of about 180° Fahr., but, being a mixture of several different
hydrocarbons, it has no fixed boiling-point; it is very inflammable; it
does not mix with water, but imparts to that fluid its peculiar taste and
smell; mixes with alcohol and oils, and dissolves sulphur, phosphorus,
camphor, iodine, most of the resins, wax, fats, and spermaceti; and forms
with caoutchouc a gelatinous varnish, which dries with very great
difficulty.
_Pur._ Mineral naphtha is very frequently adulterated with oil of
turpentine, a fraud which may be detected by——1. The addition of some oil
of vitriol, which will, in that case, thicken and darken it.——2.
Hydrochloric acid gas passed through the liquid for an hour, will occasion
the formation of hydrochlorate of camphine, either at once or after a few
hours’ repose, even if only 5% of oil of turpentine is present. (Dr
Bolley.)——3. If a few grains of iodide of potassium and a little water are
rubbed with the suspected sample, the colour of the water should continue
unchanged; the presence of 1/300th part of oil turpentine will cause it to
assume a red or orange colour. (Saladin.)
_Uses._ Naphtha is chiefly employed for the purposes of illumination, as a
solvent for india rubber, and in the preparation of a very superior black
pigment. It has been highly spoken of as a remedy for cholera, by Dr
Andreosky, a Russian physician. See PETROLEUM, and _below_.
=Naphtha, Coal-tar.= _Syn._ NAPHTHA, COAL N. A mixture of volatile
hydrocarbons, obtained by distilling coal-tar. It is one of the first
products which comes over, and flows from the still as crude coal naphtha.
To obtain rectified coal naphtha, this crude liquid is distilled, and the
product agitated with 10% of concentrated sulphuric acid; when cold, the
mixture is treated with 5% of peroxide of manganese, and the upper portion
is submitted to further distillation. The specific gravity of this
purified product is ·850. It is extensively used as a solvent of
caoutchouc, and other allied substances, also of resins for the
preparation of varnishes. By repeated purification and fractional
distillation, benzol, the chief and most important constituent of coal
naphtha, is obtained. See BENZOL.
=Naphtha, Wood.= See PYROXYLIC SPIRIT.
=NAPH′THALIN.= C_{10}H_{9}. _Syn._ NAPHTHALINE, NAPHTHALENE. A white
crystallisable, odorous, volatile substance, obtained from coal-tar.
_Prep._ The last portion of the volatile oily product is collected
separately, and allowed to repose, when crude naphthalin separates in the
solid state. By pushing the distillation until the residuum in the still
begins to char, a further portion of dark-coloured naphthalin may be
obtained. It is purified by resublimation a second, or even a third time.
_Prop., &c._ Soluble in alcohol and ether; slightly soluble in boiling
water; melts at 176° Fahr.; boils at 412°; highly inflammable, burning
with a red and smoky flame; with sulphuric acid, it unites to form
sulpho-naphthalic acid. By the action of nitric acid upon naphthalin,
numerous substances may be formed, the most interesting being
nitro-naphthalin. Naphthalin has lately been extensively employed as a
stimulating expectorant.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 gr.; or, preferably, 1/2 gr.,
frequently. _Externally_, made into an ointment, in dry tetters,
psoriasis, &c. 30 gr. may be mixed with 1 oz. of lard.
=NA′PLES YEL′LOW.= See YELLOW PIGMENTS.
=NAR′CEIA.= C_{23}H_{20}G_{9}. _Syn._ NARCEINA, NARCEIA. A peculiar
substance discovered by Pelletier in opium. It is obtained from the
aqueous solution of opium, after it has been freed from morphia, and
narcotina, by ammonia, by adding to it hydrate of lime, or preferably,
baryta. On boiling the filtered solution, to expel the ammonia, and
evaporating the liquid, crystals of narceine are gradually deposited. It
may be purified by solution in hot alcohol and recrystallisation.
_Prop., &c._ White, silky, acicular prisms; neutral; inodorous; bitter;
pungent; soluble in 375 parts of water at 60°, and in 330 parts at 212°
Fahr.; insoluble in ether; does not neutralise the acids, and is destitute
of basic properties. It is distinguished from morphia by its easier
fusibility (190°), and by forming a blue liquid with the dilute mineral
acids, which on gradual dilution changes to violet and rose red, and
ultimately becomes colourless. It does not strike a blue colour with
ferric chloride, like morphia, but forms a blue compound with iodine,
which is decomposed by boiling water. It appears to be inert, and has not
been applied to any useful purpose.
=NAR′COTICS.= _Syn._ STUPEFACIENTS; NARCOTICA, STUPEFACIENTIA, L.
Medicines which produce drowsiness, sleep, and stupor. In small doses,
narcotics mostly act as stimulants, but in larger ones they produce
calmness of mind, drowsiness, and torpor; and in poisonous doses,
delirium, coma, and death. The general objects in the administration of
these agents are the production of sleep and the alleviation of pain.
Their action is modified to a greater degree by idiosyncrasy and habit
than that of, perhaps, any other class of medicines. Hence the care
necessary in their administration. Alcohol, camphor, chloroform, chloral
hydrate, ether, foxglove, hemlock, henbane, morphia, opium, and tobacco,
are narcotics.
=NAR′COTINA.= C_{22}H_{23}NO_{7}. _Syn._ NARCOTINE, L.; SEL D’OPIUM,
MATIÈRE DE DEROSNE, Fr. A peculiar crystalline substance, found by Derosne
in opium, and on which its stimulant property was at first supposed to
depend.
_Prep._ 1. From opium exhausted of soluble matter by cold water, by
treating it with water acidulated with acetic or hydrochloric acid,
filtering, neutralising, with ammonia, and dissolving the washed
precipitate in boiling alcohol; the narcotine is deposited as the liquid
cools, and may be purified by solution in ether.
2. By acting on opium, previously exhausted by cold water, with ether.
_Prop., &c._ White, inodorous, fluted, or striated prisms; neutral to test
paper; insoluble in cold water; sparingly soluble in boiling water; freely
soluble in boiling alcohol and in ether. It is only feebly basic.
Narcotine is distinguished from morphia by its insipidity, solubility in
ether, insolubility in alkalies, giving an orange tint to nitric acid, and
a greasy stain to paper when heated on it over a candle. Another test for
narcotina, said by Orfila to be characteristic, is to add to a little of
the suspected substance a drop or two of oil of vitriol, and then to add a
very small fragment of nitrate of potassium; the liquid speedily acquires
a deep blood-red colour if narcotina is present. Morphia treated in the
same way strikes a brown or olive-green colour.
_Obs._ The physiological action of narcotina is differently stated by
different authorities. 1 gr. of it, dissolved in olive oil, killed a dog
in 24 hours: but 24 gr. dissolved in acetic acid were given with impunity.
(Magendie.) In the solid state it is inert; 120 gr. at a dose scarcely
produce any obvious effects. (Bally.) Scruple doses have been given
without injury. (Dr Roots.) It has been recently proposed as a substitute
for quinine in the cure of agues. For this purpose the sulphate or
hydrochlorate is preferable. 200 cases of intermittent and remittent
fevers have been thus successfully treated in India. (Dr
O’Shaughnessy.)——_Dose_, 3 to 10 gr., as an antiperiodic sedative, &c.
Turkey opium contains about 1%, and East Indian opium about 3%, of
narcotine.
=NA′TRIUM.= See SODIUM.
=NA′TRON.= Native carbonate of soda.
=NAU′SEA.= See SICKNESS.
=NAU′SEANTS.= _Syn._ NAUSEANTIA, L. Substances which induce an inclination
to vomit, without effecting it. See EMETICS.
=NAVEL, Starting of.= To remedy this, take a slice of cork about the
circumference of a shilling, and a little thicker; and having covered the
projecting navel with a small circular piece of clean, soft linen, place
the cork on the linen, strapping it into position by means of cross strips
of _white_ sticking plaster (simple lead plaster) over which the usual
roller is to be adjusted. Be careful to have the plaster of sufficient
length, and to see that it adheres tightly to the skin.
=NEC′TAR.= The fabled drink of the mythological deities. The name was
formerly given to wine dulcified with honey; it is now occasionally
applied to other sweet and pleasant beverages of a stimulating character.
The following LIQUEURS are so called:——
_Prep._ 1. Chopped raisins, 2 lbs.; loaf sugar, 4 lbs.; boiling water, 2
galls.; mix, and stir frequently until cold, then add 2 lemons, sliced;
proof spirit (brandy or rum), 3 pints; macerate in a covered vessel for 6
or 7 days, occasionally shaking, next strain with pressure, and let the
strained liquid stand in a cold place for a week to clear; lastly, decant
the clear portion, and bottle it.
2. Red ratafia, 3 gall.; oils of cassia and caraway, of each 25 drops
(dissolved in); brandy, 1/2 pint; orange wine, 1 gall.; sliced oranges, 6
in no.; lump sugar, 2 lbs.; macerate for a week, decant and bottle. See
ARRACK (Factitious.)
=NE′GUS.= A well-known beverage, so named after its originator and patron,
Colonel Negus. It is made of either port or sherry wine, mixed with about
twice its bulk of hot water, sweetened with lump sugar, and flavoured with
a little lemon juice and grated nutmeg, and a small fragment only of the
yellow peel of the lemon. The addition of about 1 drop of essence of
ambergris, or 8 or 10 drops of essence of vanilla, distributed between
about a dozen glasses, improves it.
=NEPEN′THE.= A drink calculated to banish the remembrance of grief. In the
“Odyssey” Homer describes Helen as administering it to Telemachus. Nothing
is known respecting the composition of the ancient nepenthe. The name is
applied to a preparation of opium by many old writers, and is now employed
by a Bristol firm to designate a preparation resembling in all essential
points Battley’s ‘LIQUOR OPII SEDATIVUS,’
=NER′VOUSNESS.= The indescribable derangement of health, and the
complication of disagreeable sensations which are popularly described
under this name, quite as much deserve the serious attention of both
patient and physician as any other affection to which the human frame is
liable. Although, in itself, not a definite disease, it is indicative of
the vital system being out of order, that its energies are failing or
overtasked, and that the functions of some of its organs are languidly or
imperfectly performed. This condition, if not removed, may gradually lead
to the development of actual disease, and imperil life if the conditions
whereon it is dependent be not detected and subdued.
The _treatment_ of nervousness consists mainly in restoring the healthy
action of the stomach and bowels, and in the use of proper exercise,
especially in the open air. The stomach should not be overloaded with
indigestible food, and the bowels should be occasionally relieved by the
use of some mild aperient. Mental as well as bodily relaxation should be
sought, and the pleasures without the vices of society should be indulged
in as discretion and inclination may direct. Abernethy’s injunction to a
nervous and dyspeptic lady, “Dismiss your servants, madam, and make your
own beds,” should be recollected by all, and may be taken as a proof of
the importance that eminent surgeon attached to exercise; his advice to
the indolent and nervous dyspeptic should not be forgotten, “Live on
sixpence a day——and earn it.” See EXERCISE, FLATULENCE, HYPOCHONDRIASIS,
HYSTERIA, INDIGESTION, &c.
=NESSLER’S TEST for ammonia, &c.= This, the most delicate test for
ammonia, was devised by Nessler. It is prepared by saturating a solution
of iodide of potassium with the biniodide of mercury, and then adding a
weak solution of hydrate of sodium. The addition of a few drops of this
solution, to one containing ammonia, produces a yellowish tint when only a
trace of ammonia is present, but a dark brown precipitate when the ammonia
is present in larger quantity. The composition of the precipitate may be
represented thus:——NHg_{2}I. A modification of this test is applied to the
detection of wood spirit in common alcohol. A dilute solution of the
iodides in question in pure alcohol is formed, in the proportion of 2 or 3
gr. of the salts to 100 c.c. of alcohol. About 4 c.c. of the suspected
alcohol are taken, to which are added 2 or 3 drops of the test solution, a
few drops of alcoholic ammonia, and, lastly, a little alcoholic potash; if
wood spirit be present, the solution will remain clear, but if the alcohol
be pure, the characteristic reddish brown precipitate will appear. The
precipitate is soluble in acetone, which is always present in wood spirit.
Professor Wanklyn gives the following formulæ for the preparation of the
Nessler test:——Mercuric chloride in powder, 35 grammes; iodide of
potassium, 90 grammes; water, 1-3/4 litres; heat gently till dissolved
(say 20 minutes) in a large basin. Then add of stick caustic potash, 320
grammes, and 50 c.c. of saturated solution of mercuric chloride. The above
will be ready for use in 2 hours, and gives maximum colour in 3 minutes.
=NESTS, EDIBLE.= These dietetic curiosities, which are esteemed as great
gastronomic luxuries by the Chinese, are formed by several species of
swallows frequenting the Indian Seas. The so-called nests chiefly abound
in Java, Borneo, and the Celebes, being found in the caverns both inland
and on the sea-shores of those islands.
They are not in reality birds’ nests, but merely supports, by which the
bird is enabled to sustain and also to attach its nest to the rock. The
nests themselves consist of grass, leaves, and seaweed; the latter of
which substances it was for a long time erroneously considered formed the
esculent; whereas it is the support which exclusively constitutes this
Eastern table luxury.
This, in great part, consists of a peculiar mucus, of a gelatinous nature,
which it has been ascertained the bird secretes and discharges from its
mouth in large quantities. The Chinese mostly use it in the form of soup,
and believe it to be possessed of considerable nutrient power. As many as
8,400,000 of edible nests are said to be annually imported into Canton.
“The finest and whitest kind sells for £5 or £6 the lb.; but it requires
about fifty nests to make up one pound. The brackets or supports are moved
three times, the best being obtained in July and August.”[44]
[Footnote 44: Church.]
=NET′TLE RASH.= See RASH.
=NEURAL′GIA.= Literally, pain in a nerve. “Various parts of the body are
liable to be affected with excruciating pain, which is quite independent
of any inflammation of the part, and which may often be traced in the
course of the nerves.” These affections constitute neuralgia. One of the
most distressing forms of this disease is FACIAL NEURALGIA or TIC
DOULOUREUX (NEURALGIA FACIALIS), which, when it assumes a marked
intermittent character, is popularly known as ‘FACE AGUE,’ Sometimes it
attacks the nerves of the female breast; or those of the hand, feet, hip,
or loins, in which cases it is often confounded with acute rheumatism of
those parts, occurring towards the inner extremity of the eyebrow and
extending over the forehead, it is known as “Brow-ague.”
The treatment, when neuralgia is symptomatic of any other affection, must
be directed to the primary disease. When it is idiopathic, or an
independent affection, powerful tonic medicines and powerful local
counter-irritation are generally found the most successful remedies. Of
tonics, carbonates of iron and bark (both in very large doses) are
generally preferred; the last more particularly when the affection is of
an intermittent kind. As a counter-irritant, caustic ammonia has been much
relied on. When all other means fail, a current of mild streaming
electricity through the part will often give immediate relief. In the
present day quinine in large doses is much depended on, although the
affection should not present the intermittent type.
_Plain Advice to the Neuralgic by a Family Doctor._[45]——Here, reader, are
two facts, which are patent to every thinking medical man: first, this
agonising complaint, called neuralgia, is very much more common or
prevalent in our day than it was in the days of our forefathers; and
secondly, those among us who are most apt to suffer from it are they who
live in luxury, or who live too fast, and neglect to keep their bodies up
to the proper health-pitch. The poor, too, are often afflicted in the same
way, and those who are much confined in workshops, and badly ventilated
factories. From this it is not difficult to perceive a lesson may be
learned.
[Footnote 45: The article entitled “Plain Advice to the Neuralgic,” which
appeared in ‘Cassell’s Family Magazine,’ is so good that we reprint it
verbatim.]
Little need is there to describe the symptoms of neuralgia, whether it
takes the form of tic douloureux or faceache, hemicrania or half headache
(sometimes, but wrongly, called sun-pain), or sciatica, in which the pain
follows the course of a nerve running down the back of the leg, even at
times as far as the toes. The pain when fully established is of a terribly
acute kind, and indescribable burning and shooting——torture, in fact. It
generally comes on without any warning at all, in one sharp twinge, which
soon recurs and keeps on increasing, till the poor patient is half
distracted, and his pale anxious face is beaded with perspiration.
Of the three kinds of neuralgia, the most common by far is tic, or
faceache. This pain seems to ‘come out,’ as I have heard patients describe
it, from a spot between the ear and temple, and spread itself over one
side of the face, adown the jaws along one side of the nose, and into the
eye itself. The fits of pain seem at times induced by the most trifling
causes, such as a sudden start, a loud, quick sound, as the slamming of a
door, or the slightest draught of cold air, a mouthful of hot tea or cold
water. Sometimes the patient will get ease if he keeps in bed, with the
face entirely buried in warm soft flannel, but contact with the pillow
will at once induce a paroxysm. Sleep banishes the pain entirely for the
time, or perhaps altogether, if the slumber has been natural, and not
induced by weakening, enervating narcotics.
Now let us see for a moment what are the usual causes of neuralgia. If we
know these, it will assist us materially in laying down rules for the
general treatment of the complaint. And here let me premise that some
cases are incurable, because they depend upon pressure by tumours of some
kind at the root of the nerve, maybe a bit of bone growing into it. For
remember the nerves are extremely sensitive if pressed upon directly. A
kinder-hearted man than Professor L——, of Aberdeen, or ‘Sandie’ as he was
familiarly termed, never lived; but he used to tell us students,
“Gentlemen, in cutting down upon an artery, in one of the extremities, you
will often find the artery, the vein, and the corresponding nerve lying in
juxtaposition. You can easily tell the vein, but you may be puzzled to
know which is nerve and which artery; give one of them, then, a slight
pinch with the forceps——if it is the former, oh! won’t the patient holloa!
but if he doesn’t holloa, go on, tie away.”
And I have often seen this put in practice with the very happiest results,
so far as the operator was concerned. I merely mention this to prove to
you that pressure on the root of a nerve may cause an incurable form of
neuralgia. But do not think that I wish to frighten you! I therefore
hasten to tell the perhaps afflicted reader, that these cases are very
rare indeed, and that the large majority of those who suffer from the
malady may be cured for the time, and the disease even prevented from
returning.
I said that very often neuralgia gave no warning, but came on suddenly,
but it more often comes on gradually, and is preceded by some derangement
of the general health, such as indigestion. From this fact, again, the
wise may take a hint.
I do not say that strong men with robust constitutions never take
neuralgia, but all my experience, and that I believe of nearly all medical
men, go to prove that it is more frequently an accompaniment of a weakened
frame of body, with a nervous system below par. This may have been
occasioned by bodily fatigue combined with want of sleep, anxiety of mind,
worry, &c., or from debility from whatever cause. But I must not forget to
say that indigestion is a frequent cause, and excess in eating and
drinking combined with late hours in hot rooms. Another hint, please,
reader. Foul air, especially living in malarious districts, will also
bring on neuralgia, and in this case the attacks are generally of a
periodical kind. The great majority, however, of the cases of neuralgia
which come under the notice of the practitioner, are caused by decayed
teeth. And this fact gives us hint number three.
Sciatica cases are at times exceedingly distressing. I shall just mention
one, which I cured not long since; and we may learn something from it
because the cure was so simple. A gentleman, thirty-two years of age he
was, spare but wiry; from errors in diet, I elicited, he had become
troubled with indigestion and heartburn, which lasted for months; and,
moreover, he had quite his own share of that heart-eating canker, care.
For the heartburn he was in the habit of swallowing large quantities of
the bicarbonate of soda. Now it is well known that antacids, although they
may palliate fits of indigestion, cannot cure them; and, moreover, the
constant use of an antacid like soda never fails to bring on a state of
debility and poverty of blood. In the present case the pains in the limb
were almost constant, combined with stiffness of the muscles, which
necessitated the use of a staff in walking. At about three or four o’clock
every morning there were paroxysms of the most terrible agony, during
which the patient would leave his bed because, he said, “it wasn’t level,”
and, rolled in a rug, lie at full length on the floor, bathed in
pain-induced perspiration. It was no wonder he was glad to take that
dangerous narcotic, hydrate of chloral, to give him quiet nights. But this
only reduced his system more and more, and gave the enemy a stronger hold
thereon. When I saw him he had been suffering thus for two months, and was
indeed in a pitiable plight. But giving up both the chloral and the soda,
going for change of air, using some simple tonic, and being careful in his
diet, worked wonders for him. The sciatica left him in one week, and in
six weeks he was well and hearty.
One of the most distressing things in connection with neuralgia is the
length of time it sometimes lasts, and its habit of returning
periodically, without giving, perhaps, any warning of its approach. The
depression, too, of the nervous system which it effects is very great;
even the mind to some extent suffers; the patient becomes timid and
irritable, while at times even the muscles waste. The sufferer, if the
complaint continues long, seems positively to age under it. That he soon
recovers strength and spirits when the enemy has been driven from his
stronghold, is only a proof of the recuperative power of nature in our
systems, so long as youth or middle age is on our side.
Some ancient physician has said that no one thinks of taking care of his
health until death stares him in the face. There is one exception,
however: people very rarely die directly from neuralgia, unless it be that
dreadful form of it called angina pectoris, or heart-cramp; but so great
is the pain and torture from tic douloureux or sciatica, that sufferers
therefrom are glad and willing to do anything that may present some hopes
of relief.
The patient, then, who wishes to recover from this disease must first try
to find out the cause of it, in his or her particular case. Is the
digestion good? are the teeth good? is the health below par? are the
spirits buoyant or the reverse? is the kind of life led that which seems
to conduce to health and longevity?——these are questions which he had
better put to himself and think well over before commencing any treatment
except the simple means of local relief which I shall presently mention;
for, depend upon it, whatsoever tends to place the system below par opens
the door for the cruel foe’s entrance. And the converse is likewise true.
If you, then, suffer from tic douloureux, see, first and foremost, that it
does not arise from caries of the teeth. Only a dentist can find this out
for you, for a tooth may be sound enough to appearance, and yet decayed
within. Often the removal of one or two teeth will effect, in an hour, the
complete cure of a case that has been going on for months.
The treatment for neuralgia may be fitly divided into the topical, or that
which gives relief at once, without reference to permanent cure, and the
constitutional, or that which tends to remove the cause and prevent any
recurrence. I shall mention the former of these first. Probably that which
gives the greatest relief is the subcutaneous injection of morphia; but as
this tiny but comforting operation can only be performed by some one with
skill, I pass it by, and tell you of the great good that may be done by
twice a day smearing the track of the nerve with the aconitine ointment;
only remember, it must not be applied to an abraded surface. When it can
be borne, alternate douches of hot and cold water sometimes give relief,
and rubbing or shampooing the parts for some length of time may result in
good.
But if the pain is at its worst, and immediate relief is needed, the
inhalation of or smelling at a vial of chloroform will act like a charm.
Take first a little good Scotch whiskey, with from 20 to 40 drops of the
spirit of ether in it; then have, not one sniff, but two or three good
sniffs at the vial of chloroform. It will not make you insensible, but it
will scare away the pain. I often do good by administering one large dose
of quinine. I am rather chary of advising you, however, to try it, because
ten or fifteen grains of this invaluable medicine may work injury if
either head or heart is easily affected.
People often complain of what they call rheumatism in the jaw, where
probably the whole of the teeth in one side, not one more than another,
are affected. Now the drug called sal ammoniac (chloride of ammonium) is
almost a specific for this kind of faceache. It strikes me I have
recommended this before——probably in my paper on the teeth——however, it
will bear repeating. The dose is half a dram three or four times a day,
but if it doesn’t do good after the fourth or fifth dose, it may be
stopped. It is well worth a trial, and is safe.
Neuralgia and rheumatism are at times mysteriously allied, and, did space
permit, I could tell you of some very strange cures effected by the use of
the dumb-bells——first, I think, recommended by Dr Arnott. When the pain
comes on, the patient has recourse to these; and whether it is the
indomitable power of will or the effect on the circulation I know not——all
I know is, it often scares the tic away, and that is something.
Nothing probably gives more certain relief in cases of sciatica than a
small blister, not bigger than a penny-piece, just over the spot where the
nerve seems to come out, _i. e._ where the pain begins, and afterwards
dusting not more than half a grain of morphia on the raw surface. And now
for constitutional remedies. I will not allow any patient of mine to
cuddle and fondle himself and his neuralgia over the fire or in bed one
hour longer than is necessary. The mind has a wonderful effect on nervous
ailments, and by letting it dwell on them you assuredly increase them;
besides, the body is under par, exercise is needed, and pure air and many
things besides; and therefore I prescribe activity, to begin with, not
senseless walk-taking, but healthy exercise-with-a-purpose.
Medicine must not be neglected; but I assure you, unless you not only take
plenty of exercise, regulate your diet, and in some way alter for the
better your usual mode of life, it will just be as well, if not better, to
pour the medicine down the nearest rat’s hole. That may be a plain way of
putting it, but it is very true notwithstanding. Now, I think in most
cases an occasional mild purgative will do good, for tonics should never
be taken unless the bowels are regular; and as the liver is at times just
a _little_ to blame, a claret-glassful of Friedrichshall water may be
taken twice a week with benefit. Your tonic, unless there be great fulness
of blood, had better be an iron one, combined with quinine, which any
chemist will compound you. Tell him you want the tincture of iron, and a
little dilute hydrochloric acid, in a quinine mixture. Probably he will
say the citrate of iron and quinine is better (it is more easily
compounded), and then it will be for you to consider whether you will be
advised by him or by your ‘Family Doctor.’ Here is a beautiful wee
mixture, which you can compound for yourself, and the dose of which is a
teaspoonful in a little water 3 times a day:——Take 2 oz. of tincture of
quinine, 1/2 oz. of tincture of ginger, and the same quantity of pure
glycerin, and mix. The following is a capital tonic to be taken after an
attack of neuralgia and continued some weeks:——Liquor arsenicalis
hydrochlorici, 100 drops; quinine, 30 gr.; elixir of vitriol, 2 dr.;
ginger syrup, 3 oz.; mix. And the dose is a teaspoonful after every meal
in a drop of water. When mentioning sal ammoniac, I ought to have said
that in those cases where good is done——and they are very many——whenever
the pain is gone, you should reduce the dose to 10 or 15 gr. thrice a day
for a week. In some cases of sciatica, where the subject is a gouty or
rheumatic one, good is done by a course of iodide of potassium in
combination with tonics.
As for food, the more nourishing it is the better——good meat, plenty of
eggs and milk, &c., and perhaps a little brandy and Apollinaris water.
Give up tea and coffee for a time, and use cocoa; the less oily kind is
the best. My advice for the prevention of the return of neuralgia may be
summed up in a few substantives——air, exercise, regularity, temperance,
tonics, cocoa, and cod-liver oil.
=NEUTRALISA′TION.= The admixtures of an alkali or base with an acid in
such proportions that neither shall predominate. A neutral compound
neither turns red litmus paper blue, nor blue litmus paper red.
=NEUTRALISING PROPORTIONS, Table of.=
_Table of the Neutralising Proportions of some of the
Acids and Alkaline Carbonates omitting minute
fractions. The best commercial preparations must be
used._
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
| | || |Bicarb. of| |Carbonate| Sesqui- | Bi-
Tartaric|Citric |Lemon ||Cr. Carb.| Soda and |Bicarb. of| of |carbonate | carbonate
Acid. | Acid. |Juice.||of Soda. | Carb. of | Potash. |Magnesia.| of | of
| | || | Potash. | | | Ammonia. | Ammonia.
--------+-------+------++---------+----------+----------+---------+----------+---------
Grs. | Grs. | ʒ || Grs. | Grs. | Grs. | Grs. | Grs. | Grs.
10 | 9-1/4| 2-1/6|| 19 | 11 | 13-1/2 | 6-1/2 | 8-1/4 | 10-1/2
10-3/4| 10 | 2-1/3|| 20-1/2| 12 | 14-1/2 | 7 | 8-1/2 | 11-1/2
13 | 12 | 2-4/5|| 25 | 14-1/2 | 17-1/2 | 8-1/4 | 10 | 13-1/2
15 | 14 | 3-1/4|| 29 | 17 | 20-1/3 | 9-1/2 | 12 | 16
15-1/2| 14-1/2| 3-1/3|| 30 | 17-1/4 | 21 | 10 | 12-1/4 | 16-1/2
18 | 17 | 4 || 34-1/2| 20 | 24-1/4 | 11-1/2 | 14 | 19
20 | 18-1/2| 4-1/3|| 38-1/2| 22-1/3 | 27 | 12-3/4 | 15-1/2 | 21
20-1/2| 19 | 4-1/2|| 40 | 23 | 27-1/2 | 13 | 16 | 21-1/2
26 | 24 | 5-1/2|| 50 | 29 | 35 | 16-1/2 | 18-1/4 | 27
27 | 25 | 5-5/6|| 52 | 30 | 36 | 17 | 21 | 28-1/2
32 | 30 | 7 || 61 | 36 | 43 | 20-1/2 | 25 | 33-1/2
36 | 33-1/2| 7-5/6|| 69 | 40 | 48-1/2 | 23 | 28 | 38
47 | 44 |10-1/4|| 90 | 52-1/2 | 63 | 30 | 37 | 49-1/2
52 | 48-1/2|11-1/3|| 100 | 58 | 70 | 33 | 41 | 55
62 | 58 |13-1/2|| 120 | 69 | 84 | 40 | 49 | 65-1/2
73 | 68 |15-5/6|| 140 | 82 | 98 | 46-1/2 | 57 | 77
75 | 70 |16-1/4|| 144 | 84 | 101 | 48-1/2 | 59 | 79
90 | 84 |19-1/2|| 172 | 101 | 121 | 57-1/2 | 71 | 94-1/2
92 | 86 |20 || 177 | 103 | 124 | 59 | 72 | 97
100 | 93 |21-2/3|| 192 | 112 | 134 | 64 | 78 | 105-1/2
108 |100 |23-1/3|| 206 | 120 | 145 | 69 | 84 | 113
180 |168 |39-1/5|| 344 | 202 | 242 | 115 | 141 | 190
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
=NEW BERLIN SANITARY LIQUEUR——Gesundheits-Liqueur, neuer Berliner=
(Apotheker Emil Trotz). An unpleasantly-tasting bitter spicey schnapps,
containing 18 per cent. of sugar. Leaves an after-taste of aloes. (Hager.)
=NICK′EL.= Ni. _Syn._ NICKELIUM, L. A metal obtained from kupfernickel, a
native arsenide of nickel found in Westphalia; also from nickel speiss, an
impure arsenio-sulphide of nickel left after the manufacture of cobalt
blue from its ores.
_Prep._ The powdered ore is roasted first by itself, and next with
charcoal powder, until all the arsenic is expelled, and a garlic odour
ceases to be evolved; the residuum is mixed with sulphur 3 parts, and
potassium hydrate, 1 part, and the compound is melted in a crucible with a
gentle heat; the fused mass when cold, is reduced to powder, edulcorated
with water, dissolved in sulphuric acid mixed with a little nitric acid,
and precipitated with potassium carbonate; the precipitate (nickelous
carbonate) is washed, dried, mixed with powdered charcoal, and, lastly,
reduced by the heat of a powerful furnace.
When nickel predominates in the ore, after the arsenic, iron, and copper
have been separated, ammonia is digested in the mixed nickelous and
cobaltous oxides, and the resulting blue solution, after dilution with
boiled pure water, is treated with potassium hydrate until the colour
disappears, when the whole is put into an air-tight vessel, and set it
aside for some time. The powder (nickelous hydrate) which subsides, after
edulcoration, is mixed with charcoal, and reduced by fusion in a crucible
containing some crown glass.
On the small scale, for chemical purposes, pure nickel is best obtained by
moderately heating nickelous oxalate in a covered crucible lined with
charcoal.
_Prop._ White; hard; malleable; magnetic; capable of receiving the lustre
of silver; sp. gr., when hammered, about 8·82; fusibility between that of
manganese and iron; it is not oxidised in the air; and is little attacked
by dilute acids unless when nitric acid is present; this last acid
dissolves it freely. With the acids, &c., it forms numerous compounds,
most of which may be prepared by the direct solution of the carbonate. A
specimen of the metal reduced from the pure oxide in a current of hydrogen
was beautifully white and silvery; its sp. gr. was 8·575, and it was
almost as soft as copper.
_Tests._ The salts of nickel in the anhydrous state are for the most part
yellow; when hydrated, green,——and furnish solutions possessing a pale
green colour. Solutions of its salts exhibit the following
reactions:——Alkaline hydrates give a pale apple-green precipitate,
insoluble in excess, but soluble in a solution of carbonate of ammonium,
yielding a greenish-blue liquid. Ammonia gives a similar precipitate,
soluble in excess, yielding a deep purplish-blue solution. The presence of
ammonium salts or free acids interferes with this reaction. Cyanide of
potassium produces a green precipitate, soluble in excess, forming an
amber-coloured liquid, which is reprecipitated by hydrochloric acid. This
last precipitate is scarcely soluble in excess of the acid in the cold,
but readily so upon boiling the liquid. Ferrocyanide of potassium gives a
greenish-white precipitate. Sulphuretted hydrogen occasions no change in
solutions of nickel containing free mineral acid; but in alkaline
solutions gives a black precipitate. Sulphide of ammonium in neutral
solutions gives a black precipitate, soluble with difficulty in
hydrochloric acid; but freely soluble in aqua regia.
_Estim._ Nickel may be thrown down from its ore in the form of either
carbonate or hydrate, and after ignition may be weighed as oxide, each
grain of which is equal to 7/8 gr. of pure nickel; or, more accurately,
·7871 gr.
According to Rose, nickel may be separated from cobalt as follows:——The
mixed metals are dissolved in considerable excess of hydrochloric acids,
and the solution is diluted with a very large quantity of water; a current
of chlorine is then passed through the liquor for several hours, and the
upper part of the flask is left filled with the gas after the current has
ceased; barium carbonate is next added, in excess, the whole digested
together, with frequent agitation for 15 or 18 hours, and then thrown on a
filter. The filtrate yields pure nickelous oxide by precipitation with
hydrate of potassium; whilst the residuum on the filter, after being
washed in water, dissolved in hot hydrochloric acid, and the barium
precipitated with sulphuric acid, furnishes, with hydrate of potassium, a
precipitate of cobaltous hydrate, free from nickel, which, when washed and
dried, is reduced in a platinum or porcelain crucible by hydrogen gas.
_Uses._ Nickel is chiefly employed in the manufacture of German silver.
Some of its salts have been recently introduced into medical practice, and
appear likely to prove most valuable additions to the materia medica. It
has also been recently used for deposition by electrolysis on other
metals, forming a hard, brilliant, non-tarnishing coating.
=Nickelic Oxide.= Ni_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ SESQUIOXIDE OF NICKEL, PEROXIDE OF
NICKEL. _Prep._ By passing chlorine through water holding the hydrate in
suspension; or by mixing a salt of nickel with bleaching powder. An
insoluble, black powder, which is decomposed by heat.
=Nick′elous Ace′tate.= Ni(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}. _Syn._ NICKELII ACETAS, L.
_Prep._ By neutralising acetic acid with nickelous carbonate, and gently
concentrating by evaporation, so that crystals may form. Small green
crystals, soluble in 6 parts of water.
=Nickelous Car′bonate.= NiCO_{3} _Syn._ NICKELII CARBONAS, L. _Prep._ This
salt may be obtained in the manner described above in connection with the
preparation of metallic nickel, or by simply adding carbonate of sodium to
a solution of nickelous chloride of sulphate, but in this case some
hydrate is precipitated along with it. The following is another formula
which produces a nearly pure carbonate, but one which may still contain a
little cobalt, the entire separation of which is a matter of extreme
difficulty, and can best be effected in the manner recommended by Rose,
described above:——
The mineral (crude speiss or kupfernickel) is broken into small fragments,
mixed with from one fourth to one half its weight of iron filings, and the
whole dissolved in aqua regia; the solution is gently evaporated to
dryness, the residue treated with boiling water, and the insoluble ferrous
arseniate removed by filtration; the liquid is next acidulated with
hydrochloric acid, treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, in excess, to
precipitate the copper, and, after filtration, is boiled with a little
nitric acid, to bring back the iron into ferric salts; to the cold and
largely diluted liquid a solution of bicarbonate of sodium is gradually
added, and the ferric oxide separated by filtration; lastly, the filtered
solution is boiled with carbonate of sodium in excess, and the pale green
precipitate of carbonate collected, washed, and dried.
_Uses, &c._ It is freely soluble in the acids, and is chiefly employed to
prepare the salts and other compounds of nickel.
=Nickelous Chlo′′ride.= NiCl_{2}. _Syn._ NICKELII CHLORIDUM, L. _Prep._
From nickelous carbonate and hydrochloric acid, as the acetate. Small
green crystals, of the formula NiCl_{2},9Aq., which are rendered yellow
and anhydrous by heat, unless they contain cobalt, when the salt retains a
tint of green.
DOUBLE CHLORIDES. Nickelous chloride unites with the chlorides of
ammonium, potassium, and sodium, to form pale green crystallisable salts,
which have been used for depositing nickel in iron, lead, copper, &c.
=Nickelous Hy′drate.= Ni(HO)_{2}. By precipitating a soluble salt of
nickel with caustic potassa. Hydrated. An ash-gray powder, freely soluble
in acids, forming the ordinary salts of nickel.
=Nickelous Ox′alate.= NiC_{2}O_{4}. _Syn._ NICKELII OXALAS, L. _Prep._ By
adding a strong solution of oxalic acid to a like solution of nickelous
sulphate, and collecting the pale bluish-green precipitate which forms
after a time. Used to prepare both metallic nickel and its oxide.
=Nickelous Oxide.= NiO. _Syn._ PROTOXIDE OF NICKEL. _Prep._ 1. By heating
the nitrate, carbonate, or oxalate, to redness in open vessels. Anhydrous.
=Nickelous Sulphate.= NiSO_{4}. _Syn._ SULPHATE OF NICKEL. _Prep._
Dissolve nickelous carbonate or oxide in dilute sulphuric acid, evaporate
down, and crystallise. Pale green prismatic crystals, and of the formula
NiSO_{4},7Aq., or small pale green octahedrons, when crystallised at a
higher temperature, containing NiSO_{4},6Aq.
=Nickelous and Potassium Sulphate.= NiSO_{4} K_{2}SO_{4},6Aq. _Syn._
DOUBLE SULPHATE OF NICKEL AND POTASSIUM. _Prep._ By crystallising a
mixture of nickelous and potassium sulphates. Pale green crystals, readily
soluble in water. Sodium and ammonium sulphates form similar compounds
with nickelous sulphate.
=NICK′EL SIL′VER.= See GERMAN SILVER.
=NIC′OTINE.= C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}. _Syn._ NICOTINA, NICOTIA, L. A volatile
base, discovered by Reiman and Posselt in tobacco.
_Prep._ (Ortigosa.) Infuse tobacco leaves for 24 hours in water acidulated
with sulphuric acid, strain, evaporate to a syrup, add 1/6 of its volume
of a strong solution of potassa, and distil in an oil bath at 288°,
occasionally adding a little water to assist the process, and prevent the
too great concentration of the solution of potassa in the retort; next
saturate the distilled product with oxalic acid, evaporate to dryness,
digest in boiling absolute alcohol, evaporate the resulting tincture to a
syrup, and decompose the oxalate of nicotine thus obtained by adding
potassa to it in a close vessel, and agitate the mass with ether,
repeating the process with more ether until all the nicotine is dissolved
out; lastly, distil the mixed ethereal solution in an oil bath. At first
ether comes over, then water, and, lastly, nicotina, which, towards the
end of the process, assumes a yellowish tint.
2. (Schloesing.) This chiefly differs from the preceding by directing the
concluding distillation to be conducted in a retort, by the heat of an oil
bath, at the temperature of 284° Fahr., in a current of hydrogen, for 12
hours; after which, by raising the heat to 356° Fahr., the nicotine
distils over pure, drop by drop.
3. (Kirchmann). A tin vessel provided with two tubulures, is filled with
tobacco, which is previously damped with sodium carbonate. One of the
tubulures admits a glass tube reaching nearly to the bottom of the vessel;
the other is provided with a glass tube merely penetrating the cork.
The vessel is made air-tight, placed into a boiling hot steam bath, and a
rapid stream of carbonic acid gas passed through it, entering the vessel
by the longer and leaving it by the shorter tube; the latter dips into a
mixture of alcohol and dilute sulphuric acid.
In this manner a large yield of perfectly colourless nicotine is obtained.
In order to obtain the pure alkaloid, caustic baryta is added to the
solution, the latter evaporated to dryness, and the pure nicotine
extracted with ether.
To estimate nicotine, weigh out 15 gr. of tobacco, digest for twenty-four
hours with alcohol of 85 per cent. acidified with 15 drops of sulphuric
acid, so as to make 150 cubic centimètres. Evaporate 50 cubic centimètres
of the filtered liquid, and add iododydrargyrate of potassium to the
residue. The number of cubic centimètres employed, multiplied by 0·00405
(0·001 of the equivalent of nicotine), gives the quantity of alkaloid
contained in 5 grams of tobacco. (Linoffsky.)
_Prop., &c._ Nicotina is a colourless, volatile liquid; highly acrid and
pungent; smelling strongly of tobacco; boiling at 375° Fahr.
(482°——Pereira); soluble in water, ether, alcohol, and oils; and combining
with the acids, forming salts, many of which are crystallisable. It is a
frightful poison; 1/4 of a drop will kill a rabbit; a single drop will
kill a large dog. Nicotina is the substance which was employed by the
Count Bocarmé for the purpose of poisoning his brother-in-law, Gustave
Fougnies, the particulars of which were developed in the celebrated trial,
in Belgium, of that nobleman, in 1851. Good Virginia and Kentucky tobacco,
dried at 212° Fahr., contain from 6% to 7% of nicotina; Havannah tobacco
(_cigars_) less than 2%. (Schloesing.)
=NIGHT′MARE.= _Syn._ INCUBUS, EPHIALTES, L. The common causes of nightmare
are indigestion and the use of narcotic and intoxicating substances. Its
prevention consists in the selection of proper food, and in duly attending
to the state of the stomach and bowels. Heavy and late suppers should be
particularly avoided, as well as all articles of diet that are of
difficult digestion, or apt to induce flatulency. When it arises from
strong drink, tobacco, or opium, these should be abandoned, or employed in
smaller quantities. A teaspoonful of aromatic spirits of ammonia,
magnesia, or bicarbonate of soda, taken in a glass of cold water on going
to bed, is a good and simple preventive. In cases accompanied by
restlessness, a few drops of laudanum or tincture of henbane may be added.
An occasional aperient is also excellent. See CHAMOMILE.
=NIGHT′SHADE (Deadly).= _Syn._ BELLADONNA (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.). “The
leaf, fresh and dried (leaves and root——Ph. D.), of _Atropa belladonna_,
Linn.” “The fresh leaves and branches to which they are attached; also the
leaves separate from the branches, carefully dried, of _Atropa
belladonna_, gathered, when the fruit has begun to form, from wild or
cultivated plants in Britain” (B. P.). “Oval, acute, very perfect,
glabrous, when bruised, exhaling a disagreeable odour. The herb which
grows spontaneously in hedges and uncultivated places is to be preferred
to that which is cultivated in gardens.” (Ph. L.)
Belladonna is a powerful narcotic, and is used as an anodyne,
antispasmodic, and discutient, in a variety of diseases,——neuralgia,
arthritic pains, migratory rheumatic pains, spasmodic rigidity and
strictures, angina pectoris, hooping-cough, fevers, phthisis, &c.; also as
a prophylactic of scarlet fever, as a resolvent in enlarged and indurated
glands, to produce dilatation of the pupil, &c., &c.——_Dose._ Of the
powder, commencing with 1 gr., gradually and cautiously increased until
dryness of the throat or dilation of the pupil occurs, or the head is
affected. See ATROPIA.
=NIGHTSHADE (Woody).= _Syn._ BITTERSWEET; DULCAMARA (B. P., Ph. L. E. &
D.), L. The “new shoots (caules) of _Solanum Dulcamara_, Linn.” “The dried
young branches of the _Solanum Dulcamara_ (Bittersweet) from indigenous
plants which have shed their leaves” (B. P.). “It is to be collected in
autumn, after the leaves have fallen.” (Ph. L.) Diaphoretic, diuretic, and
(in large doses) narcotic. See INFUSION OF DULCAMARA.
=NIO′BIUM.= See TANTALUM.
=NIP′PLES (Sore).= The most common form of this affection is that termed
“chapped nipples” by nurses. As a preventive measure, the part may be
moistened morning and evening, for some weeks before the period of
lactation, with a little rum or brandy, which is more effective if
slightly acidulated with a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid. Some
persons employ tincture of tolu, or compound tincture of benzoin (Friar’s
balsam) for this purpose.
When chaps, cracks, or like sores, arising from lactation, are once
developed, one of the safest and most effective remedies is tincture of
catechu, applied 3 or 4 times a day, by means of a camel-hair pencil.
The celebrated nostrum of Liebert for cracked nipples, “_Cosmétique
infaillible et prompt contre les gerçures ou crevasses aux seins et
autres_,” is a lotion formed of 10 gr. of nitrate of lead dissolved in 4
fl. oz. of rose water, and tinged with a little cochineal. The parts are
moistened with the liquid, and are then covered with fine leaden
nipple-shields, two of which are provided for the purpose. This is
repeated soon after each time the child leaves the breast; and the nipple
is carefully washed with a soft sponge and lukewarm water, and gently
dabbed dry with a very soft towel, before the infant is again applied to
it. This remedy is very successful, and has acquired great popularity and
patronage in Brussels, Paris, Frankfort, and other parts. It must be
recollected, however, that all applications of an active or poisonous
nature should be employed with the greatest possible caution, as, unless
unusual care is taken, a portion of the remedy may remain concealed
within the delicate pores of the skin, and be sucked off by the infant, to
the serious disturbance of its health.
=NITRAN′ILINE.= This substance is obtained by acting on nitrobenzol with a
mixture of fuming nitric acid and oil of vitriol; Dinitro-benzol is
formed, which is dissolved in alcohol, and the resulting solution
subjected to the reducing action of ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen, as
described under aniline. Nitraniline forms yellow, acicular crystals,
little soluble in cold water, but freely soluble in alcohol and ether. Its
salts are crystallisable.
=NI′TRATE.= _Syn._ NITRAS, L. A salt of nitric acid (_e.g._ AgNO_{3},
nitrate of silver). The nitrates are very easily prepared by the direct
solution of the metal, or its oxide, or carbonate, in nitric acid, which,
in most cases, should be previously diluted with water. By evaporation,
with the usual precautions, they may be obtained either in the pulverulent
or crystalline form.
The nitrates are characterised by deflagrating when thrown on red-hot
charcoal; also by their aqueous solutions, after being mixed with half
their bulk of strong sulphuric acid and thoroughly cooled, yielding a
brown cloud with a crystal or concentrated solution of ferrous sulphate.
See NITRIC ACID, and the respective metals.
=NI′TRE.= Nitrate of Potassa. See POTASSIUM.
=NI′TRIC ACID. HNO_{3}.= _Syn._ AZOTIC ACID; ACIDUM NITRICUM (B. P., Ph.
L., E., & D.); AQUAFORTIS.
_Prep._ 1. (Ph. E. and Ph. L. 1836.) Purified nitre (dried) and sulphuric
acid, equal parts; mix in a glass retort, and distil with a moderate heat,
from a sand bath (or naked gas flame——Ph. E.) into a cool receiver, as
long as the fused materials continue to evolve vapours. “The pale yellow
acid thus obtained may be rendered nearly colourless (if desired) by
gently heating it in a retort.” (Ph. E.) Sp. gr. 1·500. In the present Ph.
L. this acid is included in the materia medica. (See _below_.)
2. (Ph. D.) The nitrate of potassa is dissolved in water, the solution
treated with a little nitrate of silver, filtered, evaporated to dryness,
weighed, and then treated as above.
3. Nitrate of soda (cubic nitre, Chili saltpetre) is introduced, in
quantities varying between 4 and 10 lbs., into a cylindrical iron retort,
which it will only half fill, and after the lid is luted on and the
connection made with the condensers, an equivalent of oil of vitriol is
poured in through an aperture provided for the purpose, and the charge is
worked off with a gradually increased heat. The condensing apparatus
consists of a series of 5 or 6 salt-glazed stoneware receivers, about
1/6th part filled with cold water. The product of this process is the
strongest brown and fuming ‘NITROUS ACID’ of commerce (AQUAFORTIS, FUMING
NITRIC ACID; ACIDUM NITROSUM; ACIDUM NITRICUM FUMANS), and has usually
the sp. gr. 1·45. It is rendered colourless by gently heating it in a
glass retort, when it forms COMMERCIAL NITRIC ACID (sp. gr. 1·37 to 1·4.)
4. (PURE MONOHYDRATED NITRIC ACID.) By mixing the strongest commercial
acid with about an equal quantity of oil of vitriol; redistilling;
collecting apart the first portion which comes over, and exposing it, in a
vessel slightly warmed and sheltered from the light, to a current of dry
air made to bubble through it until the nitrous acid is completely
removed.
_Prop._ Pure liquid nitric acid is colourless, highly corrosive, and
possesses powerful acid and oxygenising properties. The sp. gr. of the
strongest liquid acid (monohydrated nitric acid) has the sp. gr. 1·517 at
60° Fahr. “On boiling nitric acid of different degrees of concentration at
the ordinary atmospheric pressure, a residue is left boiling at 249°
Fahr., and 29 in. barometer, having a sp. gr. 1·414 at 60° Fahr.”
(Fownes.) Acid of less density than 1·414 parts with water, and gradually
becomes stronger by boiling; but acid of less sp. gr. than 1·414 is
weakened by exposure to heat. When exposed to intense cold, liquid nitric
acid freezes. It is rapidly decomposed, with loss of oxygen, by contact
with most organic and many metallic and non-metallic bodies. In many cases
these reactions occur with considerable violence, and the production of
light and heat.
_Pur._ The nitric acid of commerce is generally contaminated by
hydrochloric acid, nitrous acid, sulphuric acid, or chlorine, or by their
soda or potassa salts, and, occasionally, iodine, together with an excess
of water. The last is readily detected by the sp. gr., and the others by
the appropriate tests. “Colourless. Contains 70% of HNO_{3}. Sp. gr. 1·42.
90 gr. by weight, mixed with 1/2 oz. of distilled water, require for
neutralisation 1000 grain measures of the volumetric solution of soda.
Evaporated, it leaves no residue. Diluted with six volumes of distilled
water, it gives no precipitate with chloride of barium or nitrate of
silver——indicating absence of sulphuric and hydrochloric acids.” (B. P.) 5
measures of acid, sp. gr. 1·5, mixed with 2 of water, condensed into 6-1/2
measures, and makes the sp. gr. 1·42. “Free from colour. Sp. gr. 1·42.
Exposed to the air, it emits very acrid vapours. Totally volatilised by
heat. Diluted with 3 times its volume of water, it gives no precipitate
with either nitrate of silver or chloride of barium. 100 gr. of this acid
(sp. gr. 1·42) are saturated by 161 gr. of crystallised carbonate of
soda.” (Ph. L.) The Ph. E. states the density of commercial nitric acid is
1·380 to 1·390. “If diluted with distilled water it precipitates but
slightly, or not at all, with solution of nitrate of baryta or nitrate of
silver.” The best ‘double aquafortis’ of the shops (aquafortis duplex) has
usually the sp. gr. 1·36; and the single aquafortis (aquafortis simplex),
the sp. gr. 1·22; but both are commonly sold at much lower strengths.
_Tests._——1. It stains the skin yellow.——2. When mixed with a little
hydrochloric acid or chloride of ammonium, it acquires the power of
dissolving gold leaf.——3. Morphia, brucia, and strychnia, give it a red
colour, which is heightened by ammonia in excess.——4. When placed in a
tube, and a solution of protosulphate of iron is cautiously added, a dark
colour is developed at the line of junction, which is distinctly visible
when only 1/24,000th part of nitric acid is present. This test may be
often conveniently modified by dropping into the liquid a crystal of
protosulphate of iron; the fluid immediately surrounding this crystal then
acquires a dark brown colour, which disappears upon simple agitation of
the fluid, or by heating it.——5. When mixed with a weak solution of
sulphate of indigo, and heated, the colour of the latter is destroyed.——6.
When saturated with carbonate of potassium or sodium, and evaporated to
dryness, the residuum deflagrates when thrown on burning coals.——7. When
the mixture of a nitrate with cyanide of potassium, in powder, is heated
on a piece of platinum, a vivid deflagration follows, attended with
distinct ignition and detonation. (Fresenius.) It is stated that sulphate
of aniline is an extremely delicate test for nitric acid. The following is
the method of its application:——About a cubic centimètre of pure
concentrated sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1·84) is placed in a watch-glass;
half a cubic centimètre of a solution of sulphate of aniline (formed by
adding ten drops of commercial aniline to 50 c.c. of diluted sulphuric
acid in the proportion of 1 to 6) is poured on, drop by drop; a glass tube
is moistened with the liquid to be tested, and moved circularly in the
watch-glass. By blowing on the mixture during the circular agitation, when
a trace of nitric acid is present, circular striæ are developed of a very
intense red colour, tinting the liquid rose. With more than a trace of
nitric acid the colour becomes carmine, passing to a brownish red. This
process serves to detect the presence of nitric acid in the sulphuric acid
of commerce. It will also reveal the presence of nitrates in
water.[46]——8. Take a quantity of diphenylamine, about the size of a
mustard seed, put it into a test-tube, and pour a little sulphuric acid
over it, then add a drop or two of water, so as to increase the
temperature sufficiently to effect the solution of the diphenylamine, and
the test is ready for use. Now add very gently the solution to be tested,
and if only a trace of nitric or nitrous acid be present, a beautiful and
very permanent blue colouration is produced at the junction of the two
liquids, but if there be any quantity of the nitrogen compound, the colour
becomes almost black. This reaction is so delicate and certain that, in
the case of a solution of nitric acid containing about 1 part B. P. acid
in 10,000 of water, the reaction is most distinct; one part of nitrite of
potassium in 30,000 of water gives also almost unmistakable evidence of
the presence of the nitrogen acid.
[Footnote 46: ‘Pharmaceutical Year Book.’]
The following process for the quantitative estimation of nitric acid is by
Fischer:[47]——Indigotin prepared by reduction of indigo by means of grape
sugar, alcohol, and caustic soda, oxidation in the air, and solution in
sulphuric acid, may be kept unchanged for years. Five c.c. of such a
solution, diluted with water and mixed with 30 c.c. of pure sulphuric
acid, is titrated by adding a standard nitric acid solution until the blue
colour gives place to a light green; the indigo solution is then diluted,
so that 1 c.c. shall be equal to 0·0025 milligramme equivalents of nitric
acid, or 0·2525 milligramme of potassium nitrate. If a water is being
examined it is run into 4 c.c. of the titrated indigo solution, mixed with
20 c.c. of sulphuric acid, until the blue colour changes to light green.
Ten, divided by the number of c.c. of water used, expresses the
milligramme equivalents of nitric acid per litre; thus, if 4 c.c. of water
are used, there are 2·5 milligramme equivalents of nitric acid, equal to
252·5 milligrammes of potassium nitrate per litre. If a preliminary test
with brucine has shown that the water contains very little nitric acid, 2
c.c. only of the indigo solution must be used, or sometimes as little as 1
c.c. If more than 8 c.c. of water is required to destroy the blue colour,
100 c.c. must be evaporated down to the volume of 8 c.c. and then
titrated. The volume of sulphuric acid must be at least double the sum of
the volumes of indigo and water; the temperature must not sink under 110°.
[Footnote 47: Dingl., ‘Polyt. Journ.’ ccxiii, 423-427; ‘Journ. Chem.
Soc.,’ 2nd series, xiii, 481.]
The nitrates may all be tested as above by first adding a small quantity
of pure sulphuric acid, which will liberate the nitric acid of the salt.
_Estim._——The strength of nitric acid may be roughly estimated by its sp.
gr.; but more accurately by ascertaining the amount of carbonate of
sodium, or other salt of known composition, which is required to
neutralise it. To render this assay trustworthy, it must be, in all cases,
also tested to detect the presence of impurities. See ACIDIMETRY.
_Ant., &c._ See ACIDS.
_Uses._ Nitric acid is employed in assaying, in dyeing, in etching on
copper, in the preparation of gun-cotton, oxalic and sulphuric acids, &c.
In medicine it is used as a caustic to corns and warts; and in doses of 1
to 10 drops, in a tumbler of water, in liver complaints, fevers,
dyspepsia, syphilis, to remove the effects of mercury, or as a substitute
for that drug, &c. Externally, it is employed in the form of baths,
lotions, and ointment. Dr Collier states that a strong lotion of nitric
acid is almost a specific in lepra, and several other kindred skin
diseases.
_Concluding Remarks._——The common source of nitric acid is nitrate of
potassium, but it may also be obtained from other nitrates by a similar
process. Nitrate of sodium is frequently used instead of nitrate of
potassium, and is more convenient in some respects, as the residuum is
more easily dissolved out of the retort or cylinder. The residuum of the
common process with nitre (‘sal enixum’) is chiefly employed as a flux by
the glass-houses, and as a source of potash in the manufacture of alum.
By proper management nitre yields more than 2/3 of its weight of pure
nitric acid, sp. gr. 1·500; and nitrate of soda, its own weight of acid,
sp. gr. 1·4.
By the patent process of M. Mallet, dried nitrate of soda is decomposed by
dried or monohydrated boracic acid, by heating the two together. The
products are liquid nitric acid, which distils over, and biborate of soda
(borax), which remains in the retort.
The crude coloured nitric acid of commerce (aquafortis) was originally
prepared by distilling a mixture of nitre and copperas, and is still
sometimes obtained in this way.
The nitric acid of commerce may be freed from the impurities alluded to
above by one or other of the following methods:——
1. By the addition of a little nitrate of silver, as long as it produces
any cloudiness, and, after repose, decanting the clear acid, and
rectifying it at a heat under 212°. To ensure a perfectly colourless
product, a small portion of pure black oxide of manganese should be put
into the retort. (Murray.)
2. By agitating the acid with a little red oxide of lead, and then
rectifying it, as before.
3. By adding 1% of bichromate of potassa to the acid before rectifying it.
This answers well for acid not stronger than sp. gr. 1·48.
4. By rectification at a gentle heat, rejecting the first portion that
comes over, receiving the middle portion as genuine acid, and leaving a
residuum in the retort. (Ure.)
According to Apjohn and others, the strongest liquid nitric acid, sp. gr.
1·520, is a monohydrate; that of the sp. gr. 1·500, a sesquihydrate; that
of 1·486, a binhydrate; and that of 1·244, a quadrihydrate; or containing
respectively 1, 1-1/2, 2, and 4 atoms of water. (See _below_.)
=Nitric Acid, Anhy′drous.= N_{2}O_{5}. _Syn._ NITRIC ANHYDRIDE. This
interesting substance was first obtained in a separate form by M. Deville,
in 1849.
_Prep._ (M. Deville.) Nitrate of silver is dried by exposure to a current
of dry carbonic acid at a temperature of 356° Fahr., and the tube
containing it is then immersed in a water bath heated to 203° Fahr.; pure
dry chlorine gas is next passed through the apparatus, and, as soon as the
reaction commences, the temperature is retraced to 154° or even 136°, but
not lower; the production of crystals in the receiver, which must be
cooled by a powerful freezing mixture, soon commences; lastly, the liquid
portion of the product is removed by a current of dry carbonic-acid gas.
_Prop., &c._ Colourless prismatic crystals, which melt at 86° Fahr., boil
at about 115°, and at 122° begin to suffer decomposition; added to water,
much heat is generated; it rapidly attacks organic bodies, even
caoutchouc; sometimes it explodes spontaneously. The process for its
preparation is tedious and difficult.
=Nitric Acid, Dilute.= ACIDUM NITRICUM DILUTUM (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.),
L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·42), 3 fl. oz.; distilled
water, 17 fl. oz.; mix. Sp. gr. 1·082. “1 fl. oz. is saturated by 154 gr.
of the crystals of carbonate of soda.” It contains about 12% of pure
anhydrous acid.
2. (Ph. E.) Nitric acid (1·500), 1 fl. oz.; distilled water, 9 fl. oz. Or,
commercial nitric acid (1·390), 1 fl. oz. 5-1/2 dr.; water, 9-1/2 fl. oz.
Sp. gr. 1·077. It contains 11·16% of pure dry nitric acid.
3. (Ph. D.) Nitric acid (1·500), 4 fl. oz.; water, 29 fl. oz. Contains
about 9·7% of pure acid. The above are used for convenience in
dispensing.——_Dose_, 15 drops to 1/2 fl. dr., or more. The above must not
be confounded with the acidum nitricum dilutum, Ph. D. 1826, which had the
sp. gr. 1·280, nor with the following:——
4. (Henry’s.) Sp. gr. 1·143; equal in saturating power to hydrochloric
acid sp. gr. 1·074, and sulphuric acid 1·135. Used in assaying.
5. (B. P.) Nitric acid, 6; distilled water sufficient to make the mixture
when cooled to 60° Fahr., measure 31. Contains 15 per cent. of anhydrous
nitric acid. _Test._ Sp. gr. 1·101. Six fluid drachms (361·3 grains) by
weight require for neutralisation 1000 grain measures of the volumetric
solution of soda, and, therefore, contain exactly one equivalent in grains
of anhydrous acid, namely, 54 gr.——_Use._ Tonic, astringent,
lithonlytic.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 minims.
=Nitric Acid, Fuming.= _Syn._ NITROUS ACID‡; ACIDUM NITRICUM FUMANS, L.
The red fuming nitrous or nitric acid of commerce is simply nitric acid
loaded with nitric peroxide (which _see_). That of the Ph. Bor. is
distilled from nitre, 2 parts; oil of vitriol, 1 part.
=NI′TRIC ANHY′DRIDE.= See NITRIC ACID, ANHYDROUS.
=NI′TRIC OXIDE.= See NITROGEN, OXIDES OF.
=NI′TRITE.= A salt of nitrous acid; _e.g._ KNO_{2}, nitrite of potassium.
=NITRO-BEN′ZOL.= C_{2}H_{5}NO_{2}. _Prep._ By treating benzol with strong
fuming nitric acid, with heat; after the violence of the reaction is over,
the liquid is diluted with water, and the heavy oily fluid which separates
is collected, washed, and dried.
_Prop., &c._ Yellowish, very sweet; smells of bitter almonds; insoluble in
water; little affected by reagents; boils at 415° Fahr.; sp. gr. 1·209.
Heated with an alcoholic solution of caustic potassa, and the mixture
submitted to distillation, it yields a red, oily liquid, from which large
red crystals of azobenzol separate. These are nearly insoluble in water,
freely soluble in alcohol and ether, melt at 149° Fahr., and boil at
559·4° Fahr. BINITROBENZOL is made by dissolving benzol in a mixture of
equal volumes of the strongest nitric and sulphuric acids, and boiling the
liquid for a few minutes; the crystals (dinitrobenzol) which form as it
cools are insoluble in water, but are freely soluble in alcohol.
Nitro-benzol is extensively used as a substitute for the essential oil of
bitter almonds, in perfumery. It is very poisonous, a quality, which
Letheby asserts, it acquires owing to its conversion in the animal economy
into aniline. M. Ferrand states that the presence of nitro-benzol in
essence of bitter almonds may be detected as follows:——Heat to ebullition,
in a test tube, three or four c.c. of a 20 per cent. alcoholic solution of
potash, together with ten drops of the suspected essence. If nitro-benzol
be present, the mixture takes a red colour; if the essence of bitter
almonds be pure, it becomes a pale straw colour.
=NI′TROGEN.= N. _Syn._ AZOTE; NITROGENIUM, AZOTUM, L. A gaseous elementary
substance, discovered by Rutherford, in 1722, and found to be a
constituent of the atmosphere by Lavoisier, 1755. It is found both in the
organic and inorganic kingdoms of nature; it forms about 4/5, or 78% of
the bulk of the atmosphere, enters largely into the composition of most
animal substances, and is a constituent of gluten, the alkaloids, and
other vegetable principles.
_Prep._ 1. A small piece of phosphorus is placed in a capsule floating on
the surface of the water of the pneumatic trough, and after setting it on
fire a gas or bell-jar is inverted over it; as soon as the combustion is
over, and the fumes of phosphoric anhydride have subsided, the residual
gas is washed by agitation with recently boiled distilled water, or with a
solution of pure potassa. It may be dried by either letting it stand over
fused chloride of calcium, or, what is better, by passing it through
concentrated oil of vitriol.
2. A porcelain tube is filled with copper turnings, or, preferably, with
spongy copper (obtained by reducing the oxide with hydrogen), and is then
heated to redness, a stream of dry atmospheric air being at the same time
directed through it. By repeating the process with the same air, and
finally passing it over fragments of pumice moistened with strong solution
of potassa to absorb carbonic anhydride, the product is rendered quite
pure.
3. Chlorine gas is passed into a solution of pure ammonia, care being
taken to employ a considerable excess of the latter; the evolved gas,
after being dried, is pure nitrogen. There is some danger of producing
the explosive compound, chloride of nitrogen, with this process.
4. (Corenwinder.) From solution of nitrate of potassium, 1 volume;
concentrated solution of chloride of ammonium, 3 vols.; gently heated
together in a flask, and the evolved gas passed through sulphuric acid.
Pure.
5. By boiling a solution of nitrite of ammonium, or, which amounts to the
same thing, a mixture of one measure of a solution of nitrite of potassium
and three measures of a solution of chloride of ammonium. Both solutions
must be concentrated. This is the easiest method of preparing nitrogen and
of obtaining the gas in a pure state.
_Note._——The nitrite of potassium to be employed in this process is best
prepared by passing nitrous anhydride, evolved from starch and nitric
acid, into a solution of potassa (sp. gr. 1·38) till it imparts an acid
reaction to test-paper, and then neutralising by the addition of potassa.
6. From lean flesh digested in nitric acid, at a gentle heat.
_Prop., &c._ Pure nitrogen is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas,
neither combustible nor capable of supporting combustion or respiration.
It is neutral to test-paper, does not affect lime water, and is only
slightly absorbed by pure water. Its sp. gr. is ·9713. It is recognised by
its purely negative qualities.
=Nitrogen, Chlo′′ride of.= NCl_{3}. _Syn._ NITROGEN TRICHLORIDE,
TERCHLORIDE OF NITROGEN. This compound was discovered by Dulong in 1811,
but its nature was first accurately determined by Sir H. Davy.
_Prep._ (Liebig.) Dissolve chloride of ammonium, 1 oz., in hot water, 12
or 14 oz., and as soon as the temperature has fallen to 90° Fahr., invert
a wide-mouthed glass bottle full of chlorine over it. The gas is gradually
absorbed, the solution acquires a yellowish colour, and in the course of
15 to 20 minutes yellow, oil-like globules of chloride of nitrogen form
upon the surface of the liquid, and ultimately sink to the bottom. The
globules, as they descend, should be received in a small leaden saucer,
placed under the mouth of the bottle for the purpose.
_Prop., &c._ Chloride of nitrogen should consequently be only prepared in
very small quantities at a time. Both its discoverer and Sir H. Davy met
with severe injuries while experimenting on it. Its sp. gr. is 1·653; it
volatilises at 160° Fahr., and between 200° and 212° fulminates violently.
Contact with combustible bodies at ordinary temperatures immediately
causes detonation. _The explosive power of this compound seems to exceed
that of every known substance, not even excepting fulminating silver:_ A
minute globule, no larger than a grain of mustard seed, placed on a
platina spoon, and touched with a piece of phosphorus stuck on the point
of a penknife, immediately explodes, and shivers the blade into
fragments, at the same time that the vessel that contains it is broken to
pieces. Olive oil, naphtha, and oil of turpentine, have a similar effect.
See NITROGEN, IODIDE OF (_below_).
=Nitrogen, I′odide of.= NI_{2}. _Syn._ NITROGEN TRI-IODIDE, TERIODIDE OF
NITROGEN. A dark brown or black insoluble powder, which is most safely and
conveniently prepared by saturating alcohol (sp. gr. ·852) with iodine,
adding a large quantity of the strongest pure solution of ammonia, and
agitating the mixture; water must now be added, when iodide of nitrogen
will be precipitated, and must be carefully washed with cold distilled
water. The filter containing the precipitate should be spread out on a
sheet of glass and torn into small pieces while the iodide is still moist.
The precipitate should be simply exposed to air only.
_Prop., &c._ It detonates violently as soon as it becomes dry, by the
slightest pressure or friction, even that of a feather, and often
spontaneously; but this explosion is scarcely so powerful as that of the
chloride of nitrogen. It also explodes whilst moist, though less readily.
It should only be prepared in very small quantities at a time. Recent
researches induce the belief that both the above compounds contain
hydrogen.
=Nitrogen, Ox′ides of.= Nitrogen forms 5 distinct compounds with oxygen.
1. =Nitrous ox′ide.= _Syn._ PROTOXIDE OF NITROGEN; LAUGING GAS; NITROGENII
PROTOXYDUM, L. _Prep._ From fused nitrate of ammonium, introduced into a
glass retort, or a flask furnished with a bent tube, and then exposed,
over a spirit-lamp, or charcoal-chauffer, to a temperature of about 389°
Fahr.; the evolved gas may be collected in bladders, gas-bags, a
gasometer, or in the pneumatic trough over warm water. The gas may be
purified by pouring it through three wash-bottles, one containing water,
one a solution of sulphate of iron, and the other a solution of potassa.
_Prop., &c._ Colourless; possesses an agreeable odour, and a sweetish
taste; at 32°, under a pressure of 30 atmospheres, it is liquid; this,
when exposed under the receiver of a powerful air-pump, changes into a
snow-like solid; at -180° Fahr., it is a transparent, colourless,
crystalline body; it supports combustion, and is absorbed by cold water.
Sp. gr. 1·520. Its most remarkable property is its action on the system
when inspired. A few deep inspirations are usually succeeded by a pleasing
state of excitement, and a strong propensity to laughter and muscular
exertion, which soon subside, without being followed by languor or
depression. Its effects, however, vary with different constitutions. From
4 to 12 quarts may be breathed with safety. It produces temporary
insensibility to pain, like chloroform or ether; but its use is dangerous
when affections of the heart, lungs, or brain are present. This gas is
now successfully and extensively employed as an anæsthetic in dental
surgery.
_Obs._ No particular caution is required in preparing the above compound,
except the use of too much heat. The temperature should be so arranged as
to keep the melted mass in a state of gentle ebullition, and should not be
allowed, under any circumstances, to exceed about 500° Fahr. Should white
fumes appear within the retort after the evolution of the gas has
commenced, the heat should be at once lowered, as, when heated to about
600°, nitrate of ammonia explodes with violence.
Nitrous oxide may also be made in the same way, from crystallised nitrate
of ammonia, or by exposing nitric oxide for some days over iron filings
moistened with water, but, without great care, the product is not always
fit for respiration. When pure, it is colourless, has an agreeable odour,
and does not affect solution of nitrate of silver. See ANÆSTHETICS.
2. =Nitric oxide.= NO. _Syn._ DEUTOXIDE OF NITROGEN, NITROUS GAS, BINOXIDE
OF NITROGEN; NITROGENEE BINOXYDUM, L. _Prep._ By pouring nitric acid, sp.
gr. 1·2, on metallic copper, in the form of turnings, clippings, or wire.
Effervescence ensues, and nitric oxide is evolved, and may be collected
over water or mercury in the pneumatic trough. The residual liquid yields
crystals of nitrate of copper on evaporation.
_Prop., &c._ A colourless, tasteless, inodorous, irrespirable, and
incombustible gas. In contact with free oxygen, it produces dense orange
or red vapours of nitric peroxide (NO_{2}), which are freely absorbed by
water. Nitric oxide is absorbed by a solution of ferrous sulphate, which
it turns of a deep brown or nearly black colour, which is removed by
boiling. Sp. gr. 1·039.
=Nitrous Anhydride.= N_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ NITROGEN TRIOXIDE, ANHYDROUS
NITROUS ACID. The easiest method of obtaining this compound consists in
heating 1 part of powdered starch with 8 parts of nitric acid of sp. gr.
1·25, and passing the evolved gases, first through a drying tube two feet
long containing fused chloride of calcium, and then into a dry and empty
U-tube cooled to 20° Fahr. by surrounding it with a mixture of pounded ice
and crystallised chloride of calcium. Nitrous anhydride thus produced is
a blue liquid which emits red fumes, and which on admixture with water at
ordinary temperatures is decomposed, producing nitric acid and nitric
oxide. If nitrous anhydride be mixed with water at temperatures below 0°
Fahr. the two combine, and a blue solution is formed which (probably)
contains nitrous acid (HNO_{2}). See NITROUS ACID.
=Nitrogen Pentoxide.= N_{2}O_{5}. _Syn._ NITRIC PENTOXIDE, NITRIC
ANHYDRIDE, ANHYDROUS NITRIC ACID. See NITRIC ACID (ANHYDROUS).
=Nitrogen Peroxide.= NO_{2}. _Syn._ NITRIC PEROXIDE, PEROXIDE OF NITROGEN,
NITROGEN TETROXIDE, HYPONITRIC ANHYDRIDE. This compound forms the chief
constituent of the red fumes which develop on mixing nitric oxide with air
or oxygen. It is most readily prepared by heating thoroughly dried nitrate
of lead in a retort, and conducting the evolved gases into a U-tube
surrounded with a freezing mixture of ice and salt for the purpose of
condensing the nitric peroxide. If the U-tube be perfectly dry, and the
cold intense, the nitric peroxide obtained assumes the form of transparent
crystals, but the presence of the slightest trace of moisture prevents
their formation and produces instead a colourless liquid which, as the
temperature rises, acquires a yellow and ultimately a red colour. Nitric
peroxide dissolves in nitric acid and turns it of a yellow or red hue. The
so-called ‘_nitrous acid_’ or ‘_fuming nitric acid_’ of commerce owes its
deep red colour to the presence of this compound. At very low temperatures
water converts nitric peroxide into nitric and nitrous acids; at ordinary
temperatures it transforms it into nitric acid, nitrous acid, and nitric
oxide.
=NITRO-GLYCERIN.= _Syn._ GLONOIN, NITRATE OF GLYCERYL, TRINITRITE,
NITROLEUM, FULMINATING OIL, TRI-NITROGLYCERIN. This dangerously explosive
compound, from the use of which in mining, quarrying, and such like
operations so many fatal accidents have occurred, is glycerin in which 3
atoms of hydrogen have been replaced by 3 molecules of nitroxyl (NO_{2}),
as illustrated by the following formulæ:
Glycerin. Nitro-glycerin.
C_{3}H_{5} } (H } ) = C_{3}H_{5} } (H } )
}O_{3} + 3 ( }O ) } O_{3} + 3 ( } O)
H_{3} } (NO_{2} } ) (NO_{2})_{3} } (H } )
It was discovered in 1847 by Dr. Sobrero, a pupil of Pelouze.
Kopp prepares nitro glycerin by mixing 3 parts of sulphuric acid, of sp.
gr. of 1·767, with 1 part of fuming nitric acid. 2800 grammes of the mixed
acids are added to 350 grammes of glycerin, great care being necessary to
avoid any elevation of temperature, which would lead to a violent
reaction, resulting in the conversion of the glycerin into oxalic acid.
After standing 5 or 10 minutes, the mixture is poured into four or six
times its bulk of very cold water to which a rotatory motion has been
imparted. The nitro-glycerin falls to the bottom of the vessel as an
oily-looking liquid, which is washed by decantation. The manufacture of
nitro-glycerin is attended with considerable danger, since very slight
friction or pressure is sufficient to determine its explosion. Hence many
methods have been suggested for guarding against accidents from it during
storage. One of these consists in mixing it with finely powdered glass.
Wurtz advises the nitro-glycerin to be mixed with solutions of nitrate of
lime, zinc, or magnesia, the solutions to have a sp. gr. equal to the
nitro-glycerin. By this means a harmless emulsion would be formed, and the
nitro-glycerin would be recoverable when required for use by simply adding
water. Nobel’s plan consists in dissolving it in wood spirit.
_Prop._ Nitro-glycerin is a fluid of a yellow or brownish colour, having a
sp. gr. of 1·6. It dissolves in alcohol, ether, and wood naphtha, from all
of which it may be recovered by the addition of water. Dissolved in either
of these solutions it becomes converted into a crystalline mass when
exposed to a low temperature. If subjected to a blow it explodes with
fearful violence, a single drop placed upon paper, and struck upon an
anvil, giving rise to a report that is almost deafening. Neither a spark
nor the application of a lighted body is said to cause its ignition, which
takes place with difficulty even if it be applied to a thin layer of the
substance. 100 parts of nitro-glycerin yield on combustion:
Water 20 parts.
Carbonic acid 58 ”
Oxygen 3·5 ”
Nitrogen 18·5 ”
——————
100·0[48]
[Footnote 48: Wagner.]
As the specific gravity of nitro-glycerin is 1·6, one part by bulk will
yield by combustion:——
Aqueous vapour 554 volumes.
Carbonic acid 469 ”
Oxygen 39 ”
Nitrogen 236 ”
——————
1298[48] ”
Other experimenters affirm that, instead of free oxygen, nitrous oxide is
one of the products of the combustion of nitro-glycerin. According to
Nobel the heat liberated when nitro-glycerin is exploded, causes the
expansion of the gases to be eight times their original bulk; therefore,
one volume of the substance will yield 10,384 volumes of gas, whilst one
part by bulk of gunpowder only yields 800 volumes of gas. If these data be
correct the explosive force of nitro-glycerin is thirteen times greater
than that of powder, bulk for bulk, and eight times greater weight for
weight.
Böttger has devised a process for the preparation of nitro-glycerin, which
being, as he affirms, entirely free from danger, adapts it for lecture
experiments:——A few grains of pure glycerin, free from water, is poured
into a test-tube, which is surrounded by a freezing mixture, and
containing a mixture of one volume of the most concentrated nitric acid
(1·52 sp. gr.), and two volumes of the strongest sulphuric acid (1·83 sp.
gr.). Then, as quickly as possible, the whole is poured into a larger
quantity of cold water. The nitro-glycerin, which has formed like oil
drops, sinks rapidly to the bottom, being specifically the heavier liquid.
It is then washed several times by decantation with fresh water, and,
lastly, with a weak solution of soda.
Remove the water with a few pieces of fused chloride of calcium. Then the
nitro-glycerin is in such purity that it may, without danger, be kept any
length of time for lecture experiments.
=NITRO-HYDROCHLO′RIC ACID.= _Syn._ NITRO-MURIATIC ACID; AQUA REGIA, ACIDUM
NITRO-HYDROCHLORICUM (B. P.), A NITRO-MURIATICUM, L.; EAU RÉGALE, Fr.
_Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Nitric acid, 3; hydrochloric acid, 4; water, 25. Mix
the acids twenty-four hours before adding the water. (This precaution is
necessary to allow of the development of the chlorine, and the
chloronitrous and chloronitric gases which result from the mutual
decomposition of the two acids, and upon which the therapeutic activity of
the agent depends). Colourless. Keep the mixture in a cool and dark place.
2. (Ph. D. 1826). Nitric acid, 1 part; hydrochloric acid, 2 parts (both by
measure); mix in a refrigerated bottle, and keep the mixture in a cold and
dark place. Used to dissolve gold and platinum; and in medicine, in liver
complaints, syphilis, the exanthemata, &c., either externally, in doses of
5 to 15 drops in water, or externally, as a foot- or knee-bath. It is also
occasionally employed as a caustic.
3. (AQUA REGIA WITH SAL AMMONIAC.) Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·2), 16 fl. oz.;
sal ammoniac, 4 oz.; dissolve. Occasionally used by dyers; does not keep
well.
4. (DYERS’ AQUAFORTIS.) Colourless nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·17), 10 lbs.;
hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1·19), 1 lb.; mix. Used by dyers.
=NITRO-PRUS′SIDES.= A series of salts discovered by Dr Playfair, and
obtained by the action of nitric acid on the ferrocyanides and
ferridcyanides. The most important of these salts is the nitroprusside of
sodium (NA_{2} (NO) FeCy_{5}. 2Aq.). _Prep._ Dissolve 2 parts of powdered
ferrocyanide of sodium in 5 parts of common nitric acid, previously
diluted with its own volume of water. When the evolution of gas has
ceased, digest the solution on a water bath until it no longer yields a
blue but slate-coloured precipitate with ferrous sulphate. Cool the
liquid, filter, neutralise the filtrate with carbonate of sodium, and
again filter. This filtrate, on evaporation, yields crystals consisting of
a mixture of nitro-prusside of sodium and nitrate of potassium; the
former, which may be recognised by their rhombic shape and their fine
ruling colour, should be picked out and preserved.——_Use._ As a test for
soluble sulphides, with which nitro-prusside of sodium strikes a beautiful
violet tint. According to Playfair this is the most delicate test for
alkaline sulphides.
=NI′TROUS ACID.= HNO_{2} See NITROUS ANHYDRIDE, under NITROGEN, OXIDES OF.
=NITROUS OXIDE.= See NITROGEN, OXIDES OF.
=NODE.= _Syn._ NODUS, L. A hard tumour proceeding from a bone, and caused
by the swelling of its external membrane. The bones of the leg, forehead,
and forearm, are those most commonly attacked. Nodes are generally
accompanied with considerable pain, and often with caries and loss of
vitality.
=NOLI ME TANGERE.= See LUPUS.
=NOMENCLATURE (Chemical).= The following information will doubtless prove
useful to many of our readers, as serving to explain terms which are
necessarily of frequent occurrence in this work:
ACIDS.——_a._ When a substance produces only one acid compound, the name of
this acid is formed by adding the termination -IC to that of the radical,
or to the leading or characteristic portion of it; as sulphuric acid, an
acid of sulphur. This is Latinised by changing -IC into -ICUM; as,
_acidum, sulphur_ICUM.——_b._ When a body forms two acid compounds
containing oxygen, the name of the one containing the smaller proportion
of that substance ends in -OUS; as _nitr_OUS acid, which contains 1 atom
of nitrogen and 2 of oxygen; _nitr_IC acid, containing 1 atom of nitrogen
and 3 of oxygen. In this case the Latin name ends in -OSUM; as, _acidum
nitr_OSUM.——_c._ When a substance forms more than two acids with oxygen,
the Greek preposition HYPO- (below or under) is prefixed to the name of
the acid in -OUS or -IC next above it; as, HYPO_chlorous acid_.——_d._ When
a new acid compound of a substance is discovered, containing more oxygen
than another acid of the same substances already known, the name of which
ends in -IC, the prefix PER- or HYPER- is added; as, PER_iodic acid_. This
may be illustrated by the oxygen acids of chlorine:——
Hypochlorous acid (_acidum hypochlorosum_) HClO
Chlorous ” ( ” _chlorosum_) HClO_{2}
Chloric ” ( ” _chloricum_) HClO_{3}
Perchloric or}
Hyperchloric } ” ( ” _perchloricum_) HClO_{4}
=OXIDES.= The names of these have, in general, reference to the number of
atoms of oxygen which they contain. When a metal forms only one basic
compound with oxygen, this compound is simply called the oxide of such
base; but as most substances form more than one compound with oxygen,
certain prefixes are introduced to express the proportions. In such cases
it is generally found that one out of the number has a strongly marked
basic character, and contains 1 atom of each of its constituents. This is
called the oxide, protoxide, or monoxide, and forms the standard to which
those both above and below it are preferred. Thus, supposing M to be the
metal, we may have:——
Suboxide or dioxide (_suboxydum_, _dioxydum_) M_{2}O
Oxide, protoxide, or monoxide (_oxydum_, _protoxydum_) MO
Sesquioxide (_sesquioxydum_) M_{2}O_{3}
Binoxide, dioxide, or deutoxide (_binoxydum_,
_deutoxydum_) MO_{2}
Teroxide or trioxide (_teroxydum_, _tritoxydum_) MO_{3}
{That containing
{the _largest_
Peroxide (_peroxydum_) {proportion of
{oxygen.
SALTS.——_a._ Acids having names ending in -IC give rise to salts whose
names end in ATE; thus _nitr_IC acid yields _nitr_ATES, e.g. _nitrate of
silver_. -ATE is Latinised by -AS, e.g. _nitrate of silver_ becomes
_argenti nitr_AS.
_b._ Acids possessing names ending in -OUS form salts having names ending
in -ITE; thus _sulphur_OUS _acid_ produces _sulph_ITES, e.g. _sulphite of
sodium_. -ITE is Latinised by -IS; e.g. _sulphite of sodium_ becomes
_sulph_IS.
_c._ The preceding names are presumed to refer to neutral compounds. In
_acid_ salts the prefixes noticed above are added to express the
preponderance of the acid radical over the metal. KHSO_{4} is called _acid
sulphate of potassium_, BI_sulphate of potassium_, or BI_sulphate of
potash_, the neutral sulphate being K_{2}SO_{4}.
_d._ In _basic_ salts, or those in which the metal is in excess of the
acid radical, the prefixes -SUB and -DI are employed; _e.g._ the formula
of _neutral_ acetate of lead is PbĀ_{2}. This salt, when boiled with oxide
of lead (a base), furnishes [PbĀ_{2}PbO] and [PbĀ_{2}2PbO]. They are both,
therefore, _basic_ acetates; and to distinguish one from the other the
former is called DI_acetate_ and the latter TRI_acetate_ of lead; _-di_
referring to the presence of two atoms of lead and _-tri_ to three.
Formerly the salts of the metals of the alkalies and alkaline earths
received names which indicated the existence in them of the oxides of such
metals. Thus, the terms carbonate of soda, nitrate of potash, carbonate of
lime, sulphate of magnesia, names by which these fluids are still
designated by some chemists are now substituted by the more systematic and
less speculative names of carbonate of sodium, nitrate of potassium,
carbonate of calcium, and sulphate of magnesium. Another, and in the
opinion of the editor, a still better system of nomenclature is that in
which the metallic or basic radical is mentioned first; _e.g._ calcium
sulphate instead of sulphate of calcium, ammonium chloride for chloride of
ammonium. When the _same_ radicals form more than one series of salts,
each series is distinguished by appending the terminations -IC and -OUS to
that part of the name which refer to the basic radical; _e.g._ _mercur_OUS
_chloride_ (HgCl), _mercur_IC _chloride_(HgCl_{2}); _ferr_OUS _sulphate_
(FeSO_{4}), _ferr_IC _sulphate_(Fe_{2}(SO_{4})_{3}).
NON-METALLIC BODIES, &c. The names of the compounds formed by the union of
the non-metallic elements, and certain other bodies, with the metals and
with each other, either terminate in -IDE, Latinised by -IDUM, or in
-URET, Latinised by -URETUM; as, _arsen_IDE or _arseni_URET (_arsen_IDUM,
_arseni_URETUM), _brom_IDE, _carb_IDE or _carb_URET, _chlor_IDE, _cyan_IDE
_fluor_IDE, _hydr_IDE, _iod_IDE, _sulph_IDE or _sulph_URET, &c. The first
of these terminations now prevails among English scientific chemists. The
prefixes already noticed are also employed here.
METALS. The names of the metals (those of them, at least, that have been
given during the present century) end in -IUM or (less frequently) in -UM;
as _potass_IUM, _sod_IUM, _platin_UM. The Latin names of several of the
non-metallic elementary bodies also end in -IUM; as, _iodin_IUM,
_nitrogen_IUM, &c.
ALKALOIDS. The names of the organic bases which resemble the alkalies in
their properties end either in -IA, -NA, or -INE; as, _morph_IA, _qui_NA,
_strychn_INE. These terminations are now limited, as much as possible, to
substances exhibiting basic properties, but were formerly very loosely
applied.
Many chemists reject the first two terminations, and apply -INE to every
substance of this class; as, _morph_INE, _quin_INE, _anil_INE, &c.
OTHER ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. The names of organic radicles generally
terminate in -YL; as, _eth_YL, _meth_YL, _benz_OYL, &c.; they mostly
contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Compounds corresponding to the
electro-negative elements have the termination -OGEN, as _cyan_OGEN,
_amid_OGEN. Neutral compounds of carbon and hydrogen, mostly liquid, have
the termination -OL, or -OLE; as, _benz_OL, _pyr_OLE. Other neutral
substances, generally solid, have the termination -IN; as, _paraff_IN,
_naphthal_IN. Compounds resembling ammonia, and generally considered as
‘substitution compounds’ of that body, terminate in -AMINE; as,
_ethyl_AMINE, _propyl_AMINE.
The Latin genitive or possessive of the above compounds in——
-as is -atis
-is ” -itis
-icum ” -ici
-osum ” -osi
-idum ” -idi
-etum ” -eti
-ium ” -ii
-um ” -i
-ia }
-a } ” -æ
-na }
_Ex._ Acetas (acetate), acetatis of acetate; arsenis, arsenitis; citricum,
citrici; arseniosum, arseniosi; iodidum, iodidi; sulphuretum, sulphureti;
sodium, sodii; platinum, platini; morphia, morphiæ; quina, quinæ;
narcotina, narcotinæ. The genitives of common names vary with the
termination. Most of those ending in -a make æ, and most of those in -us
and -um make -i; but there are many exceptions, among which cornu (a horn)
and spiritus (spirit) which are unaltered in the genitive singular, may be
mentioned as examples.
=NORFOLK FLUID.= _Prep._ Take of linseed oil, 3 pints; black resin, 1/2
lb.; yellow wax, 12 oz.; melt, and add, of neat’s-foot oil, 1 quart; oil
of turpentine, 1 pint. Used to preserve and soften leather.
=NOR′IUM.= An unexamined metal, the oxide of which, according to Svanberg,
exists in certain varieties of ZIRCON.
=NOS′TRUMS.= See PATENT MEDICINES, &c.
=NOTICES.= The following sections of the Public Health Act refer to
serving and delivery of notices under that Statute:
(S. 266.) Notices, orders, and other such documents under the Public
Health Act may be in writing or print, or partly in writing and partly in
print; and if the same require authentication by the local authority, the
signature thereof by the clerk to the local authority or their surveyor or
inspector of nuisances shall be sufficient authentication.
(S. 267.) Notices, orders, or any other documents required or authorised
to be served under the said Act may be served by delivering the same to or
at the residence of the person to whom they are respectively addressed, or
where addressed to the owner or occupier of premises, by delivering the
same or a true copy thereof to some person on the premises, or if there is
no person on the premises who can be so served, by fixing the same on some
conspicuous part of the premises; they may also be served by post by a
prepaid letter, and if served by post shall be deemed to have been served
at the time when the letter containing the same would have been delivered
in the ordinary course of post, and in proving such service it shall be
sufficient to prove that the notice, order, or other document was properly
addressed and put into the post.
Any notice required to be given to the owner or occupier of any premises
may be addressed by the description of the ‘owner’ or ‘occupier’ of the
premises (naming them) in respect of which the notice is given, without
further name or description.
_Enforcing the Drainage of Houses._
(S. 23.) Notice is to be given to the owner or occupier, but in case of
the failure of either to comply, and the authority having to do the work,
the expenses fall on the owner.
_Insufficient Privy Accommodation._
(SS. 36 and 37.) The same procedure as under the above section.
_The Cleansing and Whitewashing of Houses._
(S. 46.) Notice to the owner or occupier.——
The person on whom the notice is served is liable to a penalty if it is
not complied with.
_The Removal of Manure or Filth, &c., in an
Urban District._
(S. 49.) Notice to be served on the person to whom the manure
belongs, or to the occupier of the premises whereon it exists.
If the urban authority have to remove it themselves, the expense
of removal falls upon the owner of the manure, &c., or the
occupier of the premises, or where there is no occupier, the
owner of the premises.
_In the case of Nuisances._
(S. 94.) Notice is to be served upon the person causing or
permitting the nuisance to remain, or, if he cannot be found, on
the owner or occupier of the premises on which the nuisance
arises; but if the nuisance arises from the want or defective
construction of any structural convenience, or where there is no
occupier, notice is to be served on the owner.
_In the case of Houses, &c., requiring Disinfection._
(S. 120.) Notice is to be given to the owner or occupier, and in
case of non-compliance, the person on whom the notice is served
is liable to penalties, and the expenses of the authority doing
the necessary works falls upon that person (with certain
exceptions, in case of poverty).
=NOVAR′GENT.= _Prep._ From recently precipitated chloride of silver by
dissolving it in a solution of either hyposulphite of sodium or of cyanide
of potassium. Used chiefly to restore old plated goods. The liquid is
rubbed over the metal to be coated with a little prepared chalk, and the
part is afterwards polished off with a piece of soft leather. A powder
recently sold under the same name is formed by mixing the preceding
article with chalk, and drying the mass. It is made into a paste with a
little water, spirit of wine, or gin, before applying it.
=NOVAUR′UM.= From a solution of neutral trichloride of gold, as the last.
=NOYAU.= _Syn._ CRÈME DE NOYAU. This is a pleasant nutty-tasted liqueur;
but from the large proportion of prussic acid which it contains, a small
quantity only should be taken at a time.
_Prep._ 1. Bitter almonds (bruised), 3 oz.; spirit (22 u. p.), 1 quart;
sugar, 1 lb.; (dissolved in) water, 3/4 pint; macerate for 10 days,
frequently shaking the vessel; then allow it to repose for a few days, and
decant the clear portion.
2. As the last, but substituting apricot or peach kernels (with the
shells, bruised), for the almonds.
3. To either of the above, add of coriander seed and ginger, of each,
bruised, 1 dr.; mace and cinnamon, of each 1/2 dr.
4. (Wholesale.) To plain cordial, at 54 to 60 u. p., containing 3 lbs. of
sugar per gallon, add, gradually, essence of bitter almonds, q. s. to
flavour.
5. (CRÊME DE NOYAU DE MARTINIQUE.) Loaf sugar, 24 lbs.; water, 2-1/2
galls.; dissolve, add, of proof spirit, 5 galls.; orange-flower water, 3
pints; bitter almonds (bruised), 1 lb.; essence of lemons, 2 dr.; as
above. See LIQUEURS.
=NUISANCE.= The following are the chief clauses of the Public Health Act
respecting nuisances:
_Definition of Nuisances._
1. Any premises in such a state as to be a nuisance or injurious to
health.
2. Any pool, ditch, gutter, water-course, privy, urinal, cesspool, drain,
or ashpit, so foul as to be a nuisance or injurious to health.
3. Any animal so kept as to be a nuisance or injurious to health.
4. Any accumulation or deposit which is a nuisance or injurious to health.
5. Any house, or part of a house, so overcrowded as to be dangerous or
injurious to the health of the inmates, whether or not members of the same
family.
6. Any factory, workshop, or workplace (not already under the operation of
any general Act for the regulation of factories or bakehouses) not kept in
a cleanly state, or not ventilated in such a manner as to render harmless
as far as practicable any gases, vapours, dust, or other impurities
generated in the course of the work carried on therein that are a nuisance
or injurious to health, or so overcrowded while work is carried on as to
be dangerous and injurious to the health of those employed therein.
7. Any fireplace or furnace which does not, as far as practicable, consume
the smoke arising from the combustible used in such fireplace or furnace,
and is used for working engines by steam, or in any mill, factory,
dye-house, brewery, bakehouse, or gaswork, or in any manufacturing or
trade process whatsoever; and——
Any chimney (not being the chimney of a private dwelling-house) sending
forth black smoke in such quantity as to be a nuisance;
Shall be deemed to be nuisances liable to be dealt with summarily under
the Public Health Act: Provided——
First. That a penalty shall not be imposed on any person in respect of any
accumulation or deposit necessary for the effectual carrying on any
business or manufacture, if it be proved to the satisfaction of the court
that the accumulation or deposit has not been kept longer than is
necessary for the purposes of the business or manufacture, and that the
best available means have been taken for preventing injury thereby to the
public health.
Secondly. That where a person is summoned before any court in respect of a
nuisance arising from a fireplace or furnace which does not consume the
smoke arising from the combustible used in such fireplace or furnace, the
court may hold that no nuisance is created within the meaning of this Act,
and dismiss the complaint, if it is satisfied that such fireplace or
furnace is constructed in such a manner as to consume as far as
practicable, having regard to the nature of the manufacture or trade, all
smoke arising therefrom, and that such fireplace or furnace has been
carefully attended to by the person having the charge thereof. (P. H., s.
91.)
The Act also defines and specifies:——1. The duty and powers of a local
authority to inspect a district with the view to an abatement of any
nuisance. 2. The process of information to be pursued in representing a
nuisance to any local authority. 3. Procedure on failing to comply with
notice. 4. The power of the court to make an order dealing with such
nuisance. 5. The penalty for neglecting to obey such order. 6. The power
of complaint by private individuals. 7. The power of the police to proceed
in certain cases. 8. The cost and expense of executing the provisions
relating to nuisances. 9. The power of sale of manure, &c. 10. The
supervision of nuisances caused by drains, privies &c. 11. The proceedings
to be taken in certain cases against nuisances in ships, &c.
=NUR′SING.= Milk is the natural food of the mammalia during the earlier
period of their existence. It contains all that is necessary for the
nourishment of their bodies, and on it they thrive and grow. Its secretion
only actively commences at the time when it is required for the sustenance
of the offspring, and it either materially lessens in quantity, or wholly
disappears, as soon as the necessity of its existence has passed away, and
the little being who depended on it has acquired sufficient age and
strength to exist on cruder aliment. The nursing mother, when in a state
of perfect health, and properly supplied with a sufficiency, without
excess, of nutritious food, elaborates this secretion in the fittest
condition to ensure the health and vigour of her offspring. Her bosom is
the fountain whence flows the beauty and stamina of the future adult, and
whilst giving strength and life to another, she increases and prolongs her
own.
The milk of woman varies with the food, health, age, &c., of the nurse.
That produced from a mixed animal and vegetable diet, neither acesces nor
coagulates spontaneously, like cows’ milk; and when gently evaporated in
an open vessel, “the last drop continues thin, sweet, and bland.” Acids
and rennet, however, coagulate it readily, and so does the gastric juice
of the infant, as shown by the condition in which it is often ejected by
the latter. The milk of a woman who lives wholly on vegetable food acesces
and coagulates with equal readiness and in a precisely similar manner to
cows’ milk. The quality of the milk also varies with the progress of the
digestion. Within the first hour or two after a meal it is thin and
serous, and then gradually improves in richness and flavour, until at
about the fourth or fifth hour it possesses these qualities in the highest
degree. This, then, is the period at which the infant should be applied to
the breast, which, according to the present habits of society, would be
during the hour immediately preceding each meal, except the breakfast.
After about the fifth or sixth hour the milk gradually loses its peculiar
colour and odour, until towards the tenth or twelfth hour after eating
food it becomes yellowish, bitter, and often nauseous; and in this
condition is frequently refused by the infant. This points out the
impropriety of a nurse fasting longer than 4 to 5 hours, except during the
night, when the period may be extended to 7 or 8 hours, but never longer.
The time after accouchement is another matter that influences the
character of human milk in respect of its wholesomeness for the infant.
The milk secreted soon after delivery is very thin and serous, but in the
course of a few days it becomes thicker, richer, and more nutritious; and
a gradual change in the same direction proceeds during the usual period of
suckling. When the mother suckles her own infant, or the “age of the
milk,” as the nurses say, corresponds to that of the child, all goes on
well; but when the former much exceeds the latter, the reverse is the
case. Thus, it is found that an infant is incapable of completely
digesting the milk of a nurse whose own child is much older than itself;
and that an infant of a few weeks old will often starve on the milk
intended by nature for one several times its age. It is, therefore,
necessary, in selecting a wet-nurse, to be certain that her condition, in
this respect, closely corresponds to that of the mother of the infant, or
that it does not differ, on this point, more than 3 or 4 weeks. In respect
of the use of high-flavoured or improper food and beverages, medicine,
&c., it appears that all these substances immediately affect the milk, and
impart to it more or less of their peculiar flavour and properties; and,
except with remedies administered under medical advice, in nearly all
cases prove injurious to the infant. The diet of a nurse should be
nutritious and succulent, and its healthy digestion should be promoted by
exercise and pure air. Strong liquors, more especially spirits, act like
slow poisons on the infant, and their habitual use by a nurse should,
therefore, be considered as a positive disqualification for the duties of
her office. The care of the mother or wet-nurse should be particularly
directed to the maintenance of her own health and equanimity, by which
both the health and good temper of the infant will be, as far as possible,
ensured. A grieving, irritable, or angry mother forces her bad qualities
on her offspring, in the shape of fits, convulsions, or hopeless marasmus.
See INFANCY, MILK, INFANTS, FOOD FOR, &c.
=NUT′MEG.= _Syn._ MYRISTICÆ NUCLEUS, NUCISTA, NUX MOSCHATA, N. MYRISTICA,
N. AROMATICA, MYRISTICA (B. P., Ph. L.), L. “The shelled seed of
_Myristica officinalis_ (Linn.; _M. moschata_——Thunberg),or nutmeg-tree.”
It is chiefly used as a spice and condiment, but it is also esteemed as an
aromatic in flatulency and diarrhœa.——_Dose_. Half a teaspoonful, or more,
grated. The distilled and expressed oils (OLEUM MYRISTICÆ) are also
officinal.
Of the different varieties of nutmegs met with in commerce, those known as
Penang are the most valuable. Next to these rank the Dutch or Batavian
kind, and after these the Singapore nutmegs. In the Dutch or Batavian
variety the exterior is composed of a number of white furrows, with brown
projections, which aspect is caused by their having been dusted over with
lime previous to their exportation. Besides the above, there is also a
very inferior description, known as the long or wild nutmeg, which are met
with either in the shell, out of the shell, or in the shell with the mace
attached.
Nutmegs are subject to the ravages of a worm which would seem to devour or
destroy their aromatic principle, since when attacked by this parasite
they lose both their odour and taste.
In 100 parts sound nutmegs contain——
Volatile oil 6·0
Liquid fat 7·6
Solid fat 24·0
Acid 0·8
Starch 2·4
Gum 1·2
Ligneous fibre 54·0
Loss 4·0
——————
100·0
(BONASTRE.)
=NUTRI′′TION.= The phenomena of life are accompanied by the constant and
unceasing waste of the materials of which the animal body is composed.
Every act of volition, every exertion of muscular power, every functional
action of the organism, whether perceptible or imperceptible and
involuntary, every play of chemical affinity and decomposition, even
thought itself, occasions the disorganisation and destruction, as living
matter, of a portion of ourselves. But the process of respiration, and the
various important changes with which it is connected, tends, more than all
the other vital functions, to waste the substance of the body, the
temperature of which it is its special office to support. This loss, this
change, which commences with life and terminates only with death, is
compensated for by the constant renewal of the whole frame by the
deposition and assimilation, or organisation, of matter from the blood,
which thus becomes gradually thinner and impoverished, unless, in its
turn, it receives a corresponding supply of its vital elements. This it
does from the food, which, by the functions of digestion, is converted
into a ‘chyle,’ and after being taken up by the ‘lacteals,’ passes into
the blood, of which it then becomes a part, and after being animalised and
rendered similar to the being it is destined to nourish, by the peculiar
action of the vital affinities, it attaches itself to those organs or
tissues, the loss of which it is intended to supply. This constitutes
nutrition.
The food of animals, or, rather, the nutritious portion of that food on
which we live, is wholly organic matter, and is either directly or
indirectly produced by the powers of vegetation from the inorganic world.
The plant elaborates food for the herbivora, and these, in their turn,
serve as food for the flesh-eating animals. In both cases the leading
alimentary principles are the same; the difference is in their
proportions. Flesh is identical in composition with blood, and with the
body of the animal that blood is destined to nourish. It abounds in
albumen, casein, and fibrin. The vegetable substances used as food also
contain nitrogenised principles of a precisely similar character and
chemical constitution to those found in flesh, and which we are,
therefore, bound to believe are absolutely the same. The gluten of wheat,
when purified from gliadin, presents all the characteristics of pure
fibrin. The albumen extracted from vegetable juices, when coagulated by
heat, cannot be distinguished from the boiled white of egg in a divided
condition. The legumen or vegetable casein of almonds, peas, beans, and
many of the oily seeds, bears the most striking resemblance to the casein
of milk. These facts clearly show that the leading nitrogenised principles
of animal bodies pre-exist in vegetables, and that the substances employed
as food must have the same, or nearly the same, chemical composition as
the body itself. The striking contrast of animal and vegetable food, as
far as this point is concerned, is more apparent than real. The actual
difference between the two is to be found in the existence of a large
quantity of non-nitrogenised matter (sugar, starch, &c.) in the last,
which is not contained in the other——matter which abounds in carbon, and
which, by its combustion in the system, serves to support the animal heat
at a less sacrifice of the organic fabric. In the flesh-eating animal the
waste of the organic tissues is very rapid, and the tax upon the vital
energies proportionate; for the temperature of its body is kept up, for
the most part, by the burning of the nitrogenised matter of which these
tissues are composed.
The process of digestion is that by which the available portions of the
food are reduced to a form adapted for absorption by the vessels by which
it is introduced into the system. In the flesh-eating animal this process
is extremely simple, and consists in the mere comminution of the food by
the teeth, and its reduction to the liquid state in the stomach, after
which, from the nature of its composition, it is nearly all taken up, and
at once conveyed into the blood. In the herbivora, however, the process of
digestion is much more complicated, and occupies a longer period. Besides
the ordinary principles of flesh, their food contains starch, sugar, gum,
&c., mixed with much inert vegetable fibre and other useless substances,
from which it must be separated. The first of these supply materials for
the waste and growth of the body, the second meet the requirements of
respiration, and the last pass unaltered through the alimentary canal.
The nature of the digestive process is not clearly established. The
principal objects effected appear to be the conversion of starch,
coagulated albumen, fibrin, casein, &c., into a liquid form. It is known
that the saliva contains a peculiar principle (ptyalin) resembling
diastase, capable of transmuting starch into sugar, and that when a little
starch is held in the mouth for a short time this change actually occurs.
It is also known that the gastric juice contains a peculiar organic
principle named ‘pepsin,’ and that this substance, in conjunction with
dilute hydrochloric acid, which is likewise present in the stomach,
possesses the property of dissolving the albuminous principles of food.
(See PEPSIN.) These changes occur whenever these conditions are
established out of the body, and hence it is inferred that the process of
digestion is effected by similar means. Of this, however, there is no
direct evidence.
The use of food, as already noticed, is twofold. It supplies the materials
of nutrition to balance the waste of the tissues continually taking place
in the body, and it conveys into the system those elements which, by their
chemical combinations, produce heat. To effect this purpose in the most
beneficial manner, the food should not only be sufficient in quantity, but
the proportions of its nitrogenised and carbonaceous principles should
bear such relations to each other as to amply meet the demands of the
system for each, without the existence, however, of an undue excess of
either.
When the muscular movements of a healthy animal are restrained, a genial
temperature kept up, and an ample supply of food containing much
amylaceous or oily matter given, an accumulation of fat in the system
rapidly takes place; this is well seen in the case of stall-fed cattle. On
the other hand, when food is deficient, and much exercise is taken,
emaciation results. These effects are ascribed to differences in the
activity of the respiratory function. In the first instance, the heat-food
is supplied faster than it is consumed, and hence accumulates in the form
of fat; in the second, the conditions are reversed, and the creature is
kept in a state of leanness by its rapid consumption. The fat of an
animal appears to be the provision of nature for the maintenance of life
during a certain period under circumstances of privation. Hence it is that
a lean animal suffers more from cold than a fat one, and is also sooner
starved.
“The origin of fat in the animal body has recently been made the subject
of much animated discussion; on the one hand, it was contended that
satisfactory evidence exists of the conversion of starch and saccharine
substances into fat, by separation of carbon and oxygen, the change
somewhat resembling that of the vinous fermentation; it was argued, on the
other side, that oily or fatty matter is invariably present in the food
supplied to the domestic animals, and that this fat is merely absorbed and
deposited in the body in a slightly modified state. The question has now
been decided in favour of the first of these views, which was enunciated
by Professor Liebig, by the very chemist who formerly advocated the second
opinion. By a series of very beautiful experiments, MM. Dumas and
Milne-Edwards proved that bees exclusively feeding upon sugar were still
capable of producing wax, which was pointed out as a veritable fact.”
Professor Liebig divided the principles found in food into two
classes:——plastic elements of nutrition, or flesh-and-blood-making
principles; and elements of respiration, or those which, by their
decomposition or combustion in the system, generate heat. They are as
follows:——
_Elements of Nutrition._ | _Elements of Respiration._
|
(Plastic or Nitrogenous.) | (Heat-producing.)
———————— | ————————
Animal flesh | Fat
Blood | Starch
Vegetable albumen | Gum
Vegetable casein | Cane sugar
Vegetable fibrin | Grape sugar
| Milk sugar
| Pectin sugar
| Alcohol
This division is in the main warranted by fact, but, no doubt, the
nitrogenous elements of food produce heat as well as the non-nitrogenous.
=NUX VOMICA.= _Syn._ KOOCHLA NUT, POISON N., VOMIT N.; NUCES VOMICÆ, NUX
VOMICA (B. P., Ph., L., E., & D.), L. “The seed of _Strychnos Nux vomica_,
Linn.” (Ph. L.), imported from the East Indies (B. P.). This drug is
chiefly known as a violent excitant of the cerebro-spinal system. In small
doses, frequently repeated, it is tonic, diuretic, and, occasionally,
laxative; in slightly larger ones, it is emetic; and, in large doses, it
is an energetic and fearful poison.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 gr.; in paralysis,
nervous affections, impotence, chronic dysentery, chronic diarrhœa, &c.
Its frequent use is said to render the system proof against the poison of
serpents. See STRYCHNINE, its active principle.
=OAK.= The British oak is the _Quercus Robur_ of Linnæus, of which there
are two varieties, _Q. peduncata_ and _Q. sessiflora_. The wood of the oak
is more durable than that of any other tree, and “for at once supporting a
weight, resisting a strain, and not splintering by a cannon shot, it is
superior to every other kind.” It, nevertheless, “warps and twists much in
drying; and, in seasoning, shrinks about 1-32nd of its width.” Foreign oak
is less durable, but more brittle and workable. The bark (OAK BARK;
QUERCÛS CORTEX, QUERCUS——B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.) is used as an astringent
and febrifuge, in doses of 30 to 120 gr., frequently; an astringent
decoction is also made of it, but its chief employment is in tanning
leather. The peculiar appearance of old oak or ‘wainscoting’ is given to
the new wood by exposing it, whilst very slightly damp, to the fumes of
ammonia.
=OAT.= _Syn._ AVENA, L. The common cultivated oat is the _Avena sativa_
(Linn.), a graminaceous plant, of which there are several varieties, as
the _Avena sativa alba_, or white oat; _A. s. nigra_, or black oat; the
potato oat, &c. Other species are also cultivated, as _Avena nuda_
(Linn.), pilcorn, or naked oat; _A. strigosa_, or Spanish oat, &c. The
seed (OATS; CARYOPSIDES, SEMINA AVENÆ CRUDA) form the common horse-corn of
this country, but in the northern parts of the country it is extensively
used as food for man. The husked grain constitutes GROATS, and its meal
OATMEAL. The latter does not form a dough with water, as wheaten meal or
flour does.
Oats consist of from 24% to 28% of husk, and 74% to 78% of grain.
According to M. Payen, they contain of starch, 60·59%; azotised matter,
14·39%; saccharine and gummy matter, 9·25%; fatty matter, 5·50%;
cellulose, 7·60%; silica and saline matter, 3·25%. The husks contain
between 6 and 7% of saline matter. (Prof. Norton.) The ash amounts to
2·18%, and consists of potassa and soda, 26·18%; lime, 5·95%; magnesia,
9·95%; oxide of iron, ·40%; phosphoric acid, 43·84%; sulphuric acid,
10·45%; chlorine,·26%; silica, 2·67%; alumina, ·06%. (Johnston.)
The yield of oats is from 20 bushels per acre in poor soils, up to 60, 70,
and even 80 bushels per acre in rich soils. The weight per bushel varies
from 35 to 45 lbs., and the product in meal is about one half the weight
of the oats.
[Illustration: White oat——Long, sect., 2nd and 3rd coats not separable.
_a._ Compound grains x 100; _b._ One do. x 500.]
A large proportion of the oats given to horses passes off undigested. It
has hence been proposed to prevent this loss, by either coarsely bruising
them in a mill, or by pouring boiling water over them, and allowing them
to macerate till cold, when they are to be given to the horses without
straining off the water. It is stated on good authority that oats thus
treated will not only fatten quicker, but go twice as far as without
preparation. Oat bruisers are now manufactured by most agricultural
implement makers.
Under the microscope the oat is seen to consist of two or three envelopes;
the outer being composed of longitudinal cells; the second obliquely
transverse and not very clearly seen; in this, the cells are wanting in
part or pass into the cells of the third coat; the third envelope consists
of a layer, usually single, of cells, like wheat. Before the envelopes are
searched for the husks must be removed. The starch-cells are small, many
sided, and cohere into round composite bodies, which are very
characteristic, and which, by pressure, may be divided into separate
grains. A high power is necessary for the examination of these latter. The
starch of the oat does not polarise light.
=OAT′MEAL.= _Syn._ AVENÆ FARINA, F. EX SEMINIBUS AVENÆ (Ph. D), L.
Oatmeal is the grain of the oat deprived of the skin, kiln-dried, and
afterwards ground. It is regarded as one of the most nutritious of our
cereals, being rich in nitrogenous matter, fat, starch, and sugar.
According to Letheby it contains in 100 parts:——
Nitrogenous matter 12·6
Carbo-hydrates 63·8
Fatty matter 5·6
Saline matter 3·0
Water 15·0
——————
100·0
Kreusler has shown that the nitrogenous principle of oatmeal contains
gluten-casein, a substance very similar to the legumin of peas and beans.
Letheby points out that, although it contains more nutrient material than
wheat, its higher price renders it less economical as an article of diet.
Oatmeal forms the staple of the food of the farm labourer both in Scotland
and in England, being consumed more largely by the Scotch than the English
peasant. Scotch oatmeal is superior to English in nutritive value.
Oatmeal, when mixed with water, does not possess sufficient tenacity to
enable it to be made into bread. It can, however, be baked into excellent
cakes, which, when made in Yorkshire, are leavened, and when in Scotland,
unleavened.
The qualities of indigestibility and a tendency to produce irritability of
the bowels and skin, have been ascribed to oatmeal; before it was so
prepared as to effectually remove from it the husk and hairs by efficient
screening, it was in Scotland a frequent source of intestinal concretion.
These concretions, the nature of which was unravelled by Dr Wollaston,
consisted principally of phosphate of lime mixed with the hairs and husks
of the oat.
Of thirty samples of oatmeal examined by the ‘Lancet Sanitary
Commissioner,’ no fewer than sixteen samples, or more than one half, were
adulterated. The substance generally used for this purpose is barley meal,
which is only half the price of oatmeal. Husks of barley, wheat, and of
the oat itself, are also frequently used. Rice and maize are also
sometimes added. That supplied to the army, navy, and the workhouses, was
very commonly adulterated with whiting, plaster of Paris, or ground bones.
The mineral sophisticant may be detected by the excess of ash, which
should not exceed 2·36 per cent. These frauds are readily detected by the
microscope.
_Grits_ or _Groats_ are the decorticated grain of the oat, which when
bruised or crushed constitute Embden groats. Flummery (known in Scotland
as _sowans_) is made by steeping the husks of the grain in water, until
they become slightly sour, the strained liquid being boiled down to the
consistence of gruel. Oatmeal soon becomes sour and rancid. It should be
purchased at such shops as have a quick sale for it. See ACARI,
STIR-ABOUT.
=OBE′′SITY.= _Syn._ OBESITAS, POLYSARCA, L. Unhealthy or troublesome
fatness or corpulency. Sometimes the secretion of fat, and its
accumulation in the adipose membrane, is almost as rapid as that of water
in anasarca; on which account some of the old writers have called obesity
a dropsy of fat. Persons in easy circumstances, of indolent habits, who
live freely, and who are of a cheerful and contented deposition, are those
most liable to obesity. The treatment consists in the very gradual
reduction of the diet, until it falls rather below the average quantity
required by a healthy adult; the very gradual disuse of fermented liquors,
more especially beer; the gradual abridgment of the time devoted to
repose, until it does not exceed 5 or 6 hours; the employment of several
hours daily in exercise in the open air, at first moderate, but increased
day by day in energy, until it becomes laborious; and, lastly, arousing
the mind from a state of lethargy to one of active or even harassing
employment.
In some cases the accumulation of fat has been enormous. Bright, of
Maldon, weighed 728 lbs.; Daniel Lambert, of Leicester, 739 lbs.; a girl,
4 years old, noticed in the ‘Phil. Trans.,’ 1813, weighed 256 lbs.
Persons affected with obesity are generally short-lived.
=OBSTRUCTION OF LOCAL AUTHORITY.= Various penalties are mentioned in
different sections of the Public Health Act for the offence of obstructing
officers, &c., representing the local authority, in carrying out the Act.
The following section, which we select, deals with the subject
generally:——
Sec. 306. “Any person who wilfully obstructs any member of the local
authority, or any person duly employed in the execution of this Act, or
who destroys, pulls down, injures, or defaces any board on which any
bye-law, notice, or other matter is inscribed, shall, if the same was put
up by authority of the Local Government Board or of the local authority,
be liable for every such offence to a penalty not exceeding £5.
“Where the occupier of any premises prevents the owner thereof from
obeying or carrying into effect any of the provisions of this Act, any
justice, to whom application is made in this behalf, shall by order in
writing require such occupier to permit the execution of any works
required to be executed, provided that the same appear to such justice to
be necessary for the purpose of obeying or carrying into effect the
provisions of this Act; and if within 24 hours after the making of the
order such occupier fails to comply therewith, he shall be liable to a
penalty not exceeding £5 for every day during the continuance of such
non-compliance.
“If the occupier of any premises, when requested by or on behalf of the
local authority to state the name of the owner of the premises occupied by
him, refuses or wilfully omits to disclose, or wilfully misstates the
same, he shall (unless he shows cause to the satisfaction of the court for
his refusal) be liable to a penalty not exceeding £5.”
=O′CHRES.= These are native earthy compounds of clay, coloured with oxide
of iron, with frequently a little chalk, or magnesia. The differences in
the colour arise partly from the quantity of iron present, and partly from
the state of oxidation in which the iron is found. Several varieties are
known in commerce——BROWN OCHRE, FRENCH O., OXFORD O., RED O., ROMAN O.,
YELLOW O. All these, with the exception of the first and fourth, have a
yellow colour. ARMENIAN BOLE, INDIAN RED, VENETIAN R., and SPANISH BROWN,
are also ochres.
All the ochres are darkened by calcination. The yellow ochres acquire a
red or reddish-brown colour by this treatment. The pigment called ‘light
red’ is thus prepared from yellow ochre.
=ODONTAL′GIA.= See TOOTHACHE.
=O′DORAMENTS.= _Syn._ ODORAMENTA, L. Substances employed in medicine on
account of their odour. They differ from disinfectants, in only
disguising, but not destroying, noxious vapours, &c. AMMONIA, STRONG
VINEGAR, and PASTILLES, furnish the most familiar examples of this class
of substances. See DISINFECTANTS, PERFUMES, &c.
=O′DOUR.= The emanation of an odoriferous or scent-giving body. See
PERFUMES.
=ŒNAN′THIC ETHER.= See ETHER (Œnanthic).
=OFFIC′INAL.= _Syn._ OFFICINALIS, L. A term applied to substances or
medicines ordered in the Pharmacopœia.
=OIL.= _Syn._ OLEUM, L.; HUILE, Fr. This name is given to numerous liquid
or semi-liquid substances, expressed or drawn from animal or vegetable
bodies; to various products of the distillation of bituminous minerals;
and to several unctuous mixtures in perfumery and pharmacy. To facilitate
reference, we have grouped the principal substances generally called
‘oils’ into classes, under the following heads:——OILS (Drying); OILS
(Empyreumatic): OILS (Fixed); OILS (Medicated); OILS (Mineral); OILS
(Mixed); OILS (Perfumed); OILS (Volatile). See these articles also
_below_:——
=Oil, Consol′idated.= _Syn._ CAMPTICON, FACTITIOUS CAOUTCHOUC. A substance
having most of the properties of india rubber, prepared by oxidising
boiled linseed oil, or any other oil that hardens on exposure to the
atmosphere. To obtain the solid oil, plates of glass are dipped into
linseed oil, the films are then allowed to dry, and the process is
repeated again and again until the plates are coated with many layers of
perfectly oxidised oil. Instead of plates of glass, extensive surfaces of
prepared cloth are employed when the manufacture is carried out on a large
scale. The solid oil, having been scraped or peeled off the surfaces, is
worked with a small proportion of shell-lac, by means of a mixing machine
with hot rollers, until a material singularly like caoutchouc is produced.
The consolidated oil can be rolled on to fabrics, so as to form a
waterproof cloth, having the finish and flexibility of rubber-cloth. By
the action of heat the consolidated oil may be converted into a hard
substance resembling vulcanite and ebonite. Its useful applications appear
to be very numerous, but its manufacture has not as yet made much
progress.
=OIL-GAS.= A mixture of several gaseous hydrocarbons, obtained by passing
common whale fat, resin, the heavy petroleum or shale oil, or the tarry
residues left after the distillation of these two latter substances, or
other cheap animal oil, through red-hot tubes, or by allowing it to fall
in drops on red-hot stones or bricks arranged in an iron retort, or other
suitable apparatus. The gas has great illuminating power, requires no
purification, and is quite free from the ammoniacal and sulphur compounds
which vitiate coal-gas. The sp. gr. of oil-gas varies with the heat
employed in its production. It averages from 0·76 to 0·90, but it may rise
as high as 1·1.
The composition of coal gas, as given by Payen, is as follows:——
+----------------------------+--------+-----------+
| | | Gas from |
| |Oil Gas.| Petroleum |
| | | residues. |
+----------------------------+--------+-----------|
| Olefiant gas and homologues| 22·5 | 17·4 |
| Marsh gas | 50·3 | 58·3 |
| Hydrogen | 7·7 | 24·3 |
| Carbonic oxide | 15·5 | —— |
| Nitrogen | 4·0 | —— |
+----------------------------+--------+-----------+
=OILS (Drying).= All the fixed oils have an attraction more or less
powerful for oxygen, and, by exposure to the air, they either become hard
and resinous, or they only thicken slightly, and become sour and rancid.
Those which exhibit the first property in a marked degree, as the oils of
linseed, poppy, rape, and walnut, are called ‘drying oils,’ and are used
as vehicles for colours in painting. The others are frequently termed
‘glutinous’ or ‘non-drying oils.’
The resinifying or drying property of oils is greatly increased by boiling
them, either alone or along with some litharge, sugar of lead, or white
vitriol, when the product forms the ‘boiled oil’ or ‘drying oil’ (oleum
desiccativum) of commerce. The efficacy of the process, according to
Liebig, depends on the elimination of substances which impede the
oxidation of the oil. The following formulæ are adopted for this
purpose:——
1. Linseed oil, 1 gall.; powdered litharge, 3/4 lb.; simmer, with frequent
stirring, until a pellicle begins to form; remove the scum, and when it
has become cold and has settled decant the clear portion. Dark coloured;
used by house-painters.
2. Linseed oil and water, of each 1 quart; white vitriol, in powder, 2
oz.; boil to dryness. Paler than the last.
3. Pale linseed or nut oil, 1 pint; litharge or dry sulphate of lead, in
fine powder, 2 oz.; mix, agitate frequently for 10 days, then set the
bottle in the sun or a warm place to settle, and decant the clear portion.
Very pale.
4. Linseed oil, 100 galls.; calcined white vitriol (‘sulphate of zinc’),
in fine powder, 7 lbs.; mix in a clean copper boiler, heat the whole to
285° Fahr., and keep it at that temperature, with constant stirring, for
at least one hour; then allow it to cool, in 24 hours decant the clear
portion, and in 3 or 4 weeks more rack it for use. Used for varnishes.
5. (Liebig.) Sugar of lead, 1 lb., is dissolved in rain water, 1/2 gall.;
litharge, in fine powder, 1 lb., is then added, and the mixture is gently
simmered until only a whitish sediment remains; levigated litharge, 1 lb.,
is next diffused through linseed oil, 2-1/2 galls., and the mixture is
gradually added to the lead solution, previously diluted with an equal
bulk of water; the whole is now stirred together for some hours, with
heat, and is, lastly, left to clear itself by exposure in a warm place.
The lead solution which subsides from the oil may be used again for the
same purpose, by dissolving in it another lb. of litharge, as before.
6. (Wilks.) Into linseed oil, 236 galls., pour oil of vitriol, 6 or 7
lbs., and stir the two together for 3 hours; then add a mixture of
fuller’s earth, 6 lbs., and hot lime, 14 lbs., and again stir for 3 hours;
next put the whole into a copper, with an equal quantity of water, and
boil for about 3 hours, lastly, withdraw the fire, and when the whole is
cold, draw off the water, run the oil into any suitable vessel, and let it
stand for a few weeks before using it. Patent.
7. (‘Allg. Polytech. Zeitung.’) Binoxide of manganese (in coarse powder,
but not dusty), 1 part; nut or linseed oil, 10 parts; mix, and keep the
whole gently heated and frequently stirred for 24 to 36 hours, or until
the oil begins to turn reddish. Recommended for zinc paint, but is equally
adapted for other purposes for which boiled oil is employed.
_Obs._ There is often a difficulty in obtaining the oils ‘bright’ after
boiling or heating them with the lead solutions; the best way, on the
small scale, is either to filter them through coarse woollen filtering
paper, or to expose the bottle for some time to the sun or in a warm
place. On the large scale, the finer oils of this kind are often filtered
through Canton-flannel bags. The litharge and sulphate of lead used in the
above processes may be again rendered available for the same purpose, by
washing them in hot water, to remove adhering mucilage.
=OILS (Empyreumat′ic.)= _Syn._ OLEA EMPYREUMATICA, L. The ’empyreumatic
oils’ of the old pharmaceutical writers were oily fluids obtained by the
dry distillation of various substances, animal, vegetable, and mineral.
But few of them are in use at the present day, though formulæ are given
for them in some of the foreign pharmacopœias. Two or three have useful
applications in the arts, and it is therefore necessary that we should
briefly describe their preparation. When the ingredients are of a liquid
or pasty nature, or become so when heated, they are usually mixed with
about twice their weight of sand, powdered glass, or other like substance,
to divide them, and thus expose them more effectually to the action of the
fire. Care must also be taken to provide a well-cooled receiver, which
must be furnished with a tube to carry off the non-condensable gases
liberated at the same time as the oil. The products of the first
distillation are generally purified by rectification, either alone or
along with water. In general, they require to be preserved from the light
and air.
The following are the principal substances belonging to this class:——
=Oil of Al′oes.= _Syn._ ALOETIC OIL; OLEUM ALOETICUM, L. 1. From Socotrine
or hepatic aloes distilled along with sand.
2. (Batavian——Cadet de Gassincourt.) Olive oil, 1 lb.; hepatic aloes and
myrrh, of each in powder, 2 oz.; olibanum, 1/2 oz.; distil in a sand bath,
from a stoneware retort. Used as an external vermifuge for children; a
portion is rubbed 2 or 3 times a day over the umbilical regions.
=Oil of Am′ber.= _Syn._ OLEUM SUCCINI, L. From coarse pieces of amber,
distilled in an iron retort, either alone or reduced to powder and mixed
with sand. The oil is separated from the fetid liquor and succinic acid
which passes over, and rectified along with about 6 times its volume of
water, by a gentle heat. It then forms ‘RECTIFIED OIL OF AMBER’ (OLEUM
SUCCINI——Ph. L. 1836, O. S. RECTIFICATUM——Ph. D. 1826, O. S.
PURISSIMUM——Ph. E. 1841). _Prod._ 20%.
_Prop., &c._ It has a pale yellow colour, a strong, ungrateful odour, and
a hot, acrid taste; heat and air blacken and thicken it; it boils at 186°
Fahr. Sp. gr. ·758 at 75° Fahr. It is antispasmodic, rubefacient, and
stimulant.——_Dose_, 5 to 12 drops, made into an emulsion with mucilage; in
hysteria, epilepsy, and convulsive affections. Externally, as a friction,
either alone or combined with laudanum or sweet oil, in rheumatism, tic
douloureux, hooping-cough, &c.
=Oil of Amber, Oxydated= (_Artificial Musk_). Pat into a cup 1 dr. of oil
of amber, and add to it, drop by drop, 3-1/2 fl. dr. of strong nitric
acid; let it stand for 36 hours, then separate and wash the resinous
matter. Antispasmodic and nervine.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr. For children, 1/2
gr. to 1 gr.
=Oil, An′imal.= 1. (Empyreumatic or Fetid; OIL OF HARTSHORN, DIPPEL’S O.;
OLEUM ANIMALE EMPYREUMATICUM, O. CORNU CERVI, O. DIPPELII, L.) Chiefly
obtained as a secondary product in the manufacture of bone-black. Fetid
and dark coloured. Used chiefly to make lampblack.
2. (Ethereal; RECTIFIED OIL OF HARTSHORN; OLEUM ANIMALE ÆSTHERIUM, O.
CORNU CERVI RECTIFICATUM, LOCO OLEI ANIMALIS DIPPELII, L.)——_a._ A finer
kind of animal oil, made by slowly distilling oil of hartshorn, and
collecting only the first portion that comes over. Pale and limpid.
Exposure to light discolours it.
_b._ (Ph. Bor.) Fetid animal oil distilled in a sand bath, and the product
rectified with four times its volume of water. White, limpid, fragrant.
Light discolours it.
_Prop._ The refined product is said to be antispasmodic, anodyne, and
diaphoretic.——_Dose_, 5 to 30 drops, in water; in large doses it acts as
an irritant poison.
=Oil of Birch.= _Syn._ OLEUM BETULÆ, L. From the inner bark of the birch,
by heating it in an earthen pot with a hole in the bottom, to allow the
oil to flow through into another jar sunk in the ground and luted to it.
Thick, balsamic, fragrant. Used chiefly to dress russia leather.
=Oil of Box-wood.= _Syn._ OLEUM BUXI, O. B. EMPYREUMATICUM (Ph. L. 1746),
L. From box-wood sawdust. Reputed resolvent; anodyne, antispasmodic, and
diaphoretic.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 drops; in convulsions, epilepsy, gonorrhœa,
&c. Externally, in toothache, &c.
=Oil of Bricks.= _Syn._ OLEUM LATERITIUM (Ph. L. 1746), L. From olive oil,
mixed with brickdust, and distilled; or, from hot bricks steeped in olive
oil, then broken to pieces, and distilled.
=Oil of Bricks (Factitious).= _Syn._ OLEUM LATERITIUM FACTITIUM, L. From
linseed oil, 1 lb.; oil of turpentine, 1/2 lb.; oil of bones or of
hartshorn and Barbadoes tar, of each 1 oz.; simply stirred well together.
This is generally substituted for the preceding in the shops.
=Oil of Cade.= _Syn._ OLEUM CADINUM, L.; HUILE DE CADE, Fr. From the
_Juniperus oxycedrus_ or Languedoc juniper. Used as oil of tar, which is
commonly sold for it.
=Oil of Coal.= _Syn._ COAL OIL. From the gas-works. See NAPHTHA.
=Oil of Gua′iacum.= _Syn._ OLEUM GUAIACI, O. G. EMPYREUMATICUM, L. From
guaiacum shavings or raspings. Reputed balsamic, pectoral, and resolvent.
=Oil of Harts′horn.= Bone oil and rectified bone oil are commonly sold for
it, but are inferior to it. See OIL, ANIMAL (_above_).
=Oil, Paper.= _Syn._ RAG OIL, PYROTHONIDÆ; OLEUM CHARTÆ, L. On the small
scale, by burning paper on a cold tin plate, and collecting the oil; on
the large scale, by the destructive distillation of paper or linen rags.
In baldness, toothache, ear-ache, &c.
=Oil, Par′affin.= See OILS, MINERAL.
=Oil, Petro′′leum.= See OILS, MINERAL, PETROLEUM.
=Oil, Rag.= See OIL, PAPER, _above_.
=Oil, Rock.= See NAPHTHA, OILS, MINERAL, PETROLEUM.
=Oil, Shale.= See OILS, MINERAL.
=Oil of Soot.= _Syn._ OLEUM FULIGINIS (Ph. L. 1746), L. From wood-soot.
Fetid; reputed antispasmodic and nervine.
=Oil of Tar.= _Syn._ SPIRIT OF T.; OLEUM PINI, O. P. RUBRUM, O. TÆDÆ, O.
PICIS LIQUIDÆ, L. By simple distillation from wood-tar. Reddish and strong
scented. By one or more rectifications it becomes colourless and limpid.
It soon gets thick. Used in ringworm and several other skin diseases, made
into an ointment with lard. It is poisonous if swallowed in large doses.
=Oil of Tobac′co (Empyreumatic).= _Syn._ OLEUM TABACI EMPYREUMATICUM (Ph.
U. S.), L. From tobacco, in coarse powder, gradually heated in a
green-glass retort to dull redness, and kept at that temperature as long
as any oil passes over; the oily portion is then separated from the water
in the receiver, and kept for use. Highly narcotic and poisonous.
=Oil of Wax.= _Syn._ OLEUM CERÆ, L. From beeswax and sand distilled
together; the product is rectified once or oftener. Reputed
diuretic.——_Dose_, 3 to 6 drops.
=OILS (Fixed).= _Syn._ FAT OILS, UNCTUOUS O.; OLEA FIXA, O. EXPRESSA, L.;
HUILES GRASSES, Fr. The fixed oils are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen (oxyhydro-carbons), obtained from the organic kingdom, and
characterised by their insipidity, unctuosity, insolubility in water, and
being lighter than that fluid. Olive oil, which is obtained from the
vegetable kingdom, and spermaceti oil, which is obtained from the animal
kingdom, may be taken as types of the rest.
The fixed oils are chiefly found in the fruit and seeds of plants, and in
thin membranous cells, forming what is called the adipose tissue, in the
bodies of animals. According to their consistence, they may be classed
into ‘OILS,’ ‘BUTTERS,’ and ‘TALLOWS,’
_Prop., &c._ Among the best-known properties of the fixed oils are——the
permanent stain they give to paper, which they render translucid; their
non-volatility at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, or at that
of boiling water, or, indeed, at any temperature insufficient for their
decomposition; their constantly floating on the surface of water when
added to it; and, lastly, their inability to mix with that fluid. Some of
them, as palm oil and cocoa-nut oil, are solid at ordinary temperatures;
but the majority are fluid, unless they have been considerably cooled,
when they separate into two portions——the one solid, consisting chiefly of
stearin, or some analogous substance, and the other liquid, consisting
chiefly of olein or elain. Nearly all of them, when exposed to the air,
absorb oxygen rapidly, and either gradually harden or become rancid and
nauseous. From the first are selected the ‘drying oil’ used by painters;
the last are used as food, in cookery, and for machinery, lamps, &c. The
whole of these oils, when heated to their boiling points (500° to 600°
Fahr.), suffer decomposition, yielding various hydrocarbons; and when
suddenly exposed to a red heat, they furnish a gaseous product (oil-gas),
which was formerly employed for illumination. It is owing to this property
of oil and liquid fats that candles and lamps give their light. The wick
is a gas-producing apparatus in miniature. With the caustic alkalies and
water the fixed oils unite to form soap. When some of these oils are
absorbed by porous bodies, and thus expose a vastly increased surface to
the air, they absorb oxygen with such rapidity as to generate a
considerable degree of heat. Paper, tow, cotton, wool, straw, shavings,
&c., slightly embued with oil, and left in a heap, freely exposed to the
air or sun, often spontaneously inflame. In this way many extensive fires
have arisen. The above is more particularly the case with linseed, rape,
nut, and olive oil. The first, made into a paste with manganese, rapidly
becomes hot, and ultimately inflames spontaneously.
The specific gravities of the fixed oils range between ·865 and ·970,
water being 1·000.
_Prep._ The fixed oils, except where otherwise directed, are obtained from
the bruised or ground fruit or seed, by means of powerful pressure, in
screw or hydraulic presses, and are then either allowed to clarify
themselves by subsidence or are filtered. Both methods are frequently
applied to the same oil. In some cases the impurities are removed by
ebullition with water, and subsequent separation of the pure oil. Heat is
frequently employed to increase the liquidity of the oil, and thus lessen
the difficulty of its expulsion from the mass. With this object the
bruised mass, placed in bags, is commonly exposed to the heat of steam,
and then pressed between heated plates of metal. This is always necessary
with the ‘butyraceous oils.’
Another method is by boiling the bruised seed in water, and skimming off
the oil as it rises to the surface. This is the plan adopted for castor
oil in the West Indies.
In a few cases, for medicinal purposes, the bruised mass is mixed with 1/2
its weight, or an equal weight, of alcohol or ether, and after 24 hours’
digestion the whole is submitted to pressure, and the alcohol or ether
removed by distillation at a gentle heat. The first menstruum is commonly
employed for croton oil on the Continent; the second, for that of ergot of
rye.
_Purif._ Several methods are adopted for refining or purifying the fixed
oils, among which are the following:——
1. The oil is violently agitated along with 1-1/2 to 2% of concentrated
sulphuric acid, when it assumes a greenish colour, and, after about a
fortnight’s repose, deposits much colouring matter, becomes paler, and
burns with greater brilliancy, particularly if well washed with steam or
hot water, and clarified by subsequent repose or by filtration. This
answers well for most of the recently expressed vegetable oils. It also
greatly improves most of the fish oils.
2. A modification of the last method is to well mix the acid with the oil,
then to blow steam through the mixture for some time, and afterwards to
otherwise proceed as before.
3. FISH OIL (WHALE, SEAL, &c.) is purified by——
_a._ Violently agitating it with boiling water or steam, by placing it in
a deep vessel with perforated bottom, through which high pressure steam is
forced for some time; it is afterwards clarified by repose, and filtered
through coarse charcoal.
_b._ The oil is violently agitated with a boiling hot and strong solution
of oak bark, to remove albumen and gelatin, and next with high-pressure
steam and hot water; it is, lastly, dried and filtered.
_c._ The oil, gently heated, is stirred for some time with about 1% of
good chloride of lime, previously made into a milk by trituration with
water; about 1-1/2% of oil of vitriol, diluted with 20 times its weight of
water, is then added, and the agitation renewed and maintained for at
least 2 hours; it is, lastly, well washed with steam or hot water.
_d._ Mr Davidson treats the oil first with a strong solution of tan, next
with water and chloride of lime, then with dilute sulphuric acid, and
lastly, with hot water.
_e._ Mr Dunn’s method, which is very effective, and admirable on account
of its simplicity, is to heat the oil by steam to from 180° to 200° Fahr.,
and then to force a current of air of corresponding temperature through
it, under a flue or chimney, until it is sufficiently bleached and
deodorised; it is, lastly, either at once filtered or is previously washed
with steam or hot water.
_f._ Another method, formerly very generally adopted and still in use, is
to violently agitate the oil for some time with very strong brine, or with
a mixed solution of blue vitriol and common salt, and then either to allow
it to clarify by repose or to filter it through freshly burnt charcoal.
4. ALMOND, CASTOR, LINSEED, NUT, OLIVE, RAPE, and some other vegetable
oils, are readily bleached by either of the following processes:——
_a._ Exposure in glass bottles to the sun’s rays, on the leads or roofs of
houses, or in any other suitable position, open to the south-east and
south. This is the method employed by druggists and oilmen to whiten their
castor and linseed oils. 14 to 21 days’ exposure to the sun in clear
weather during summer is usually sufficient for castor oil when contained
in 2 to 4-quart pale green glass bottles (preferably the former), and
covered with white gallipots inverted over them. The oil is filtered
before exposing it to the light, as, if only in a slight degree opaque, it
does not bleach well. Almond and olive oil are, when thus treated, apt to
acquire a slight sulphurous smell; but this may be removed by filtration
through a little animal charcoal, or, still better, by washing the oil
with hot water.
_b._ Another method employed to decolour these oils is to heat them in a
wooden, tinned, or well-glazed earthen vessel along with some dry
‘filtering powder’ (1 to 2 lbs. per gall.), with agitation for some time,
and lastly, to filter them in the usual manner through an oil-bag. In this
way the West-end perfumers prepare their ‘WHITE ALMOND OIL’ (OLEUM
AMYGDALÆ ALBUM), and their ‘WHITE OLIVE OIL’ (OLEUM OLIVÆ ALBUM).
Formerly, freshly burnt animal charcoal was used for this purpose, and is
still so employed by some houses.
5. Mr Bancroft refines OILS FOR MACHINERY AND LUBRICATING PURPOSES
generally, by agitating them with a lye of caustic soda of the sp. gr.
1·2. A sufficient quantity is known to have been added when, after repose,
a portion begins to settle down clear at the bottom. About 4% to 8% is
commonly required for lard oil and olive oil. After 24 hours’ repose the
clear supernatant oil is decanted from the soapy sediment, and filtered.
6. Not only the oils above referred to, but all other oils and fats, may
be rendered perfectly colourless by the use of a little chromic acid; or,
what is the same, by a mixture of a solution of bichromate of potassa and
sufficient sulphuric, hydrochloric, or nitric acid, to seize on all the
alkali, and thus liberate the chromic acid.
7. PALM OIL and COCOA-NUT OIL are generally refined and bleached by
either chromic acid or chlorine, or by heat:——
_a._ The ‘butyraceous oil’ is liquefied by heat in a wooden vessel, and 7%
to 9% of good chloride of lime, previously made into a smooth cream with
water, is added, and the whole assiduously stirred until the ingredients
appear united; the mixture is then allowed to cool, and is next cut up
into small lumps, which are exposed to a free current of air for 2, 3, or
even 4 weeks; these are melted in a wooden vessel heated by high-pressure
steam circulating through leaden pipes, or in a cast-iron boiler lined
with lead, and an equal weight of oil of vitriol (diluted with about 20
times its weight of water) is poured in, and the whole gently boiled until
the oil is discoloured and runs clear; the fire is then moderated, and the
whole allowed to settle; lastly, the fire is removed, and the oil is left
to cool very slowly.
_b._ The process with chromic acid has been already noticed, but is more
fully explained _below_.
_c._ The oil, heated to the temperature of about 250° Fahr., is exposed to
the action of high-pressure steam, which is continuously ‘blown’ through
it for 10 or 12 hours, or even longer. The process is greatly facilitated
by the introduction of some chromic acid.
8. Mr Watt’s methods of purifying fats and oils are very effective, more
especially for those intended for illumination. They are as follows:——
_a._ (For FISH OILS.) Each ton is boiled for 1/2 an hour with caustic
soda, 1/2 lb., previously made into a weak lye with water; or steam is
blown through the mixture for a like period; oil of vitriol, 1/2 lb.,
diluted with 6 times its weight of water, is next added, the whole again
boiled for 15 minutes, and allowed to settle for an hour or longer, when
the clear oil is run off from the water and sediment into the bleaching
tubs; here solution of bichromate of potash, 4 lbs., in oil of vitriol, 2
lbs., previously diluted with water, q. s., together with a little nitric
acid and some oxalic acid, are added, and after thorough admixture of the
whole, by blowing steam through it, strong nitric acid, 1 lb., diluted
with water, 1 quart, is poured in, and the boiling continued for 1/2 an
hour longer; a small quantity of naphtha or rectified spirit of turpentine
is then mixed in, and the oil is, finally, well washed with hot water, and
left to settle.
_b._ (For PALM OIL.) The oil is melted by the heat of steam, and, after it
has settled and cooled down to about 130° Fahr., is carefully decanted
from the water and sediment into the steaming tubs; here a mixture of a
saturated solution of bichromate of potash, 25 lbs., and oil of vitriol, 8
or 9 lbs., is added, and after thorough admixture, hydrochloric acid, 50
lbs., is poured in; the whole is then constantly stirred until it acquires
a uniform greenish colour, or is sufficiently decoloured, a little more
of the bleaching materials being added if the latter is not the case,
after which it is allowed to repose for half an hour to settle; it is next
run into a wooden vat, where it is washed, &c., as before.
_c._ (For VEGETABLE OILS.) These are treated with a solution of chromic
acid, or with a solution of bichromate of potassa, or some mineral acid,
as noticed at No. 6. For COLZA, LINSEED, MUSTARD, NUT, and RAPE OIL, a
little hydrochloric acid is added; but for ALMOND, CASTOR, OLIVE OIL, and
POPPY OIL, no such addition (at least in excess) is required.
9. RANCID OILS and FATS are recovered by boiling them for about 15 minutes
with a little water and calcined magnesia; or, by filtering them through
freshly burnt charcoal.
In reference to the above processes, it may be useful to remark, that
chlorine, the common bleacher and deodoriser of other substances, cannot
be well employed directly in the purification of oils, as certain chemical
reactions occur when these substances are brought together, which increase
the colour instead of removing it, and are often otherwise injurious. The
same remarks apply to the use of the ‘chlorides,’ which frequently fails
in unskilful hands, and is, indeed, of questionable utility, except,
perhaps, in the case of palm oil. Even charcoal exerts little of its usual
energy on the oils, and whilst it removes or lessens their offensive
odour, sometimes increases their colour. The addition of 1% or 2% of very
pure and recently rectified naphtha or oil of turpentine (camphine) to
lamp oil is a real improvement, since it increases its combustibility and
its illuminative power.
OILS FOR MEDICAL PURPOSES, as CASTOR OIL, COD-LIVER OIL &c., must not be
subjected to any process beyond mere clarification by subsidence,
filtration through Canton flannel or porous paper, or, at the utmost,
washing with warm water, as otherwise their active and valuable
properties, if not wholly removed, will be considerably lessened. See
FILTRATION.
_Purity._ The fixed oils vary greatly in their value, and hence the
constant inducement which leads the unprincipled dealer to adulterate the
more expensive ones with those of a similar character, but of an inferior
kind of grade. Various methods are adopted to detect these frauds, among
which the following are the most valuable of those capable of general
application. Others referring to individual oils will be found under the
respective heads.
1. (From the odour.) The method of applying this test is to heat a few
drops of the oil under examination in a small porcelain, platinum, or
silver spoon or capsule (a watch-glass answers well), and to carefully
compare the odour evolved with that arising from a known pure sample of
the same kind and quality of the oil similarly treated. The odour of the
two, when each is pure, is precisely alike, and immediately suggests the
plant or animal from which it has been obtained. The presence of LINSEED,
NUT, RAPE, SEAL, TRAIN, or WHALE OIL, is thus readily detected, and the
imperfections of the sample, even if pure, rendered much more perceptible.
2. (From the density.)——_a._ According to M. Penot, every oil supposed to
come from the same plant, or the same animal, has its own particular
density, which, at the same temperature, never deviates more than a few
thousandths. To apply this test, the relative density or specific gravity
of the sample must be determined. This may be done by means of a
thousand-grain bottle or an ordinary ‘AREOMETER,’ or, more conveniently,
by an ‘ELAÏOMETER’ or ‘OLEOMETER,’ constructed and graduated for the
purpose. ‘Fischer’s ELAÏOMETER’ or ‘OIL-BALANCE’ is much employed on the
Continent for this purpose, and is a very useful instrument. On the large
scale, the weight of an accurately measured imperial gallon of the oil may
be taken.
_b._ M. Lauret, an eminent Parisian chemist, a short time since observed
that the variations of the density of an oil from adulteration are
rendered much more apparent when it is examined in a heated state. To
render this discovery practically available, he plunges an ‘elaïometer,’
graduated for the given temperature, into a small tin cylinder nearly
filled with the oil, and then places this in a vessel containing boiling
water; as soon as the whole has acquired a uniform temperature, he
observes the point on the scale of the instrument at which it floats. This
point for——
Colza oil is 0°
Fish oil 83°
Poppy oil 124°
Hemp-seed oil 136°
Linseed oil 210°
_c._ By employing a specific gravity bottle or small glass globe, fitted
with a stopper in which is hermetically fixed a capillary tube of about 8
or 9 inches in length, we may apply the above principle of M. Lauret with
the greatest accuracy. This little apparatus is filled with the oil, and
then immersed in boiling water for a sufficient length of time for it to
acquire that temperature; it is then removed and weighed. The smallest
adulteration is, it is said, in this way immediately detected.
When the density of the given sample has been taken, and the name of the
oil used to adulterate it is known, the quantity of the latter present may
be approximately determined from the specific gravities by the common
method of alligation.[49]
[Footnote 49: See MIXTURES, Arithmetic of.]
3. (Sulphuric-acid test.)——_a._ Heidenreich was the first person who gave
a useful and general application to the reactions which occur when oil of
vitriol is mixed with the fatty oils. As soon as these substances are
placed together, very intense chemical action commences, the temperature
of the mixture rises, and the mass becomes coloured. These changes are
sufficiently varied in the case of the different oils to furnish us with
the means of identifying many of them, and of determining their purity.
The method of M. Heidenreich is to lay a plate of white glass over a sheet
of white paper; on the glass he places 10 or 15 drops of oil, and then
adds to it a small drop of concentrated sulphuric acid (‘oil of vitriol’).
The appearances which follow differ with the character of the fatty oil
examined, and whether the acid is allowed to act on the oil undisturbed
(without stirring) or the two are stirred together with a glass rod. In
many cases, as with tallow oil, a peculiar odour as well as a change of
colour is developed, and a further means of detection supplied. M.
Heidenreich has minutely described these reactions, which, for the most
part, closely resemble those given in the table, p. 1129. It is necessary,
however, in order to ensure great accuracy, to compare the effect of the
reagent on the sample with those which it produces on pure oil of the same
kind and character under precisely similar circumstances.
_b._ M. Penot, who has followed up the researches of M. Heidenreich with
considerable success, recommends the employment of 20 drops of oil,
instead of only 10 or 15; and the use of a small capsule of white
porcelain, instead of a plate of glass. He also employs a saturated
solution of bichromate of potash in sulphuric acid, which he uses in the
same proportion as before; but in this case the oil and the reagent are
always stirred together.
The observations of M. Penot have been repeated in many cases by Mr
Cooley, and the results, with additions, and rearranged, are given in the
table, p. 1129.
“By perusing this table,” writes M. Penot, “it will be observed that the
same oil does not, under all circumstances, yield precisely similar
results with the same reagent. This depends on the place of growth, the
age, and the manner of pressing. If, however, any oil be examined
comparatively with a perfectly pure one, the proof of adulteration may be
rendered, if not certain, at least probable, by noting the difference.
Thus I obtained, by adding 1 part of either whale-train, or linseed oil,
or oleic acid, or 10 parts of rapeseed oil, the following results:——
+-------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | REAGENTS. |
| +-----------------------------------+---------------------+
| NAME OF OIL. | Sulphuric Acid. | Solution of |
| | |Bichromate of Potash.|
| +--------------------+--------------+---------------------+
| | _Not stirred._ | _Stirred._ | _Stirred._ |
+-------------------+--------------------+--------------+---------------------+
|Rape oil with |More red ground |Brownish-olive|Small reddish lumps |
| whale-train oil | than with rape oil| coloured | on a grey ground. |
| | | | |
|Rape oil with |No perceptible |Olive coloured|Small and more |
| linseed oil | difference from | | numerous red lumps |
| | the rape oil | | on a very |
| | | | dark-green ground. |
| | | | |
|Rape oil with olein|No perceptible |Greenish brown|Small brownish |
| or oleic acid | difference from | | lumps on an |
| | the rape oil | | olive-coloured |
| | | | ground. |
+-------------------+--------------------+--------------+---------------------+
“The adulteration being ascertained as far as is possible, the oil is then
tested by endeavouring to discover the adulterating oil, either by
reagents or by its odour when gently heated, as before described. This
having been found out, small quantities of the suspected oil are added to
a perfectly pure oil of the kind under examination. Every mixture is then
tested by the reagents, until precisely similar results are obtained as
those yielded by the oil under examination. Thus, the proportions of the
two mixed oils will be discovered by approximation.” (M. Penot.) A simpler
method of finding the proportions of the so mixed oils is referred to
above.
4. (From increase of temperature.) M. Maumené proposed the increase of
temperature arising from the admixture of monohydrated sulphuric acid (oil
of vitriol, sp. gr. 1·845) with the fatty oils as a test of their purity,
but a sufficient number of observations have not yet been made to furnish
data for a general application of this method. According to MM. Faisst and
Knauss, who have re-examined the subject, the following are the results
when 15 grammes of oil are mixed with 5 grammes of the acid:
_Rise of Temperature._
Almond oil 72·5°
Olive oil 68·0°
Poppy oil 127·0°
Rape or colza oil 100·0°
Linseed oil (with Nordhausen
or fuming acid only) 133·0°
The above method is less liable to error when a larger quantity of the
substances are thrown together.
5. The presence of FISH OIL in the vegetable oils may be readily detected
by passing a stream of chlorine through them; the pure vegetable oils are
not materially altered, but a mixture of the two turns dark brown or
black.
6. Mr Coleman states that the presence of mineral oils in animal or
vegetable oils can be easily detected by two characteristic tests——(1) the
fluorescent properties they impart to all animal or vegetable oils. (2)
The strongly marked aromatic burning flavour they communicate to mixtures
containing them. The first-mentioned property is brought out by smearing a
metallic surface, such as tin plate or steel, with the oil, and then
viewing it at different angles in the open air or sunlight. Mr Coleman
suggests that, in examining a dark-coloured oil, it may first be necessary
to refine the sample by successive treatments with concentrated sulphuric
acid and weak soda solution or lime water, so small a quantity as 2-1/2
per cent. may then be detected by the bluish colour noticed on viewing the
oil at certain angles and by tasting it.
The absence of resin oil must also be proved. Nitric acid is said to be a
good test, as the colour developed is much greater than in pure oils.
Sometimes it may be detected by the smell. The presence of 10 per cent. of
resin or mineral oil in non-drying oils delays their solidification with
the nitrate of mercury test.[50]
[Footnote 50: ‘Journal of Applied Chemistry,’ Dec., 1874.]
7. Miss Kate Crane[51] states that the cohesion figures of oils may be
usefully employed as tests of the identity and purity of the oils. She
says, “A number of experiments on this subject have led her to the
conclusion that a little patient practice will teach the eye of the
observer in a short time to detect the characteristic differences of the
figures. To make these perfect it is necessary to observe the time in
forming, for _at different periods_ some varieties form figures very like;
but with this precaution each is entirely characteristic.
[Footnote 51: ‘American Journal of Pharmacy,’ iv, 406.]
“It is essential that the dish used, &c., be perfectly clean, so that when
filled with water no dust or lint floats upon the surface, as this
materially interferes with the perfect formation of the figure.
“A single drop is let fall from a burette or glass rod held steadily above
the water, upon the centre of the surface. The experiments made with fixed
oils are as follows:——_Poppy-seed oil_ spreads instantly to a large
figure, retaining an entire outline, and for a few seconds the surface is
unbroken, except the bare intimation of a beaded edge.
“In a few moments little holes appear round the edge, and soon the whole
surface is broken in like manner; these increase in size very slowly. In
fifteen minutes the edge begins to open, forming indentations, which
gradually work their way across the figure. As they increase in length
these begin to curve, and in three quarters of an hour have doubled
themselves two or three times.
“_Cod-liver oil_ spreads in a large film; a little way from the edge a row
of small holes appears, and in a minute or two the surface is covered with
them; these gradually enlarge, assuming irregular shapes, soon separated
by branching lines.
“_Cod-liver oil_ with _lard oil_ spreads very like the former, but in a
few moments the edge opens, and the film separates partly across; in a
moment one of the projecting points begins to curve itself towards the
centre, bending more and more until it forms a coil; meanwhile a few holes
have appeared, which spread irregularly, throwing out projecting points.
“_Castor oil_ spreads instantly, the edge remaining entire; openings
appear quickly in thirty seconds, and increase gradually, but unevenly,
those nearer the edge being larger, and lengthening out irregularly as
they spread. The figure lasts some time.
“_Castor_ with a little _lard oil_ makes a smaller figure, and not nearly
so much broken; in five minutes the holes open into each other, and the
figure breaks up from the edge.
“A mixture of _castor_ and _poppy-seed oils_ spreads to form a lacework
border, but smooths out to an entire edge soon, and within a few seconds
openings appear. The figure, in size and general appearance, is more like
castor oil alone, but the holes spread less uniformly in a given time, a
few being larger, but the greater portion much smaller. In fifteen minutes
there is a general tendency to break up.
“_Castor_ with a little _croton oil_ throws out a spray, which in a few
moments unites into a thin film. The spray, as it spreads, draws out the
inner portion into radiate points, which open into a beautiful network,
the centre cohering closely.
“_Croton oil_ throws out, in spreading, a fine spray in advance of the
more closely cohering portion, which follows quickly. The outer edge
breaks up unevenly into little indentations, the border of the inside
portion being quite broken, but gradually becomes nearly entire. The
surface, too, has openings, which increase quite rapidly in size, the
outer ones being much the larger. In the final breaking up, before the
holes open one into another, the outlines are beautifully fringed.
8. “Spontaneous combustion ensues when a handful of cotton waste is embued
with oil and placed in an air bath at 130° to 200° F. Boiled linseed oil
required 1-1/4 hour; raw linseed oil, 4 hours; lard oil, 4 hours; refined
rape about 9 hours.”[52]
[Footnote 52: J. J. Coleman, ‘Journal of Applied Chemistry,’ Dec., 1874.]
Mr Gellatly found that an admixture of 20 per cent. of mineral oil
retarded combustion, and 50 per cent. prevented it completely.
M. Burstyn,[53] believing that the value of a fatty oil as a lubricant
depends on the amount of acid it contains, has invented a method for
volumetrically determining the acidity. The process is as follows:——A tall
cylindrical vessel, provided with a ground-glass stopper, and having two
marks on it to indicate respectively 100 cubic centimètres, and 200 cubic
centimètres, is filled to the first mark with the oil to be tested, and to
the second mark with 88 to 90 per cent. alcohol. The cylinder is then
closed and well shaken. Equal quantities other than 100 cubic centimètres
can be employed without any other change in the process. After standing
two or three hours the oil settles, and the clear alcohol, which contains
in solution the free acids and a little of the oil, rises to the top
perfectly clear; 25 cubic centimètres of the clear alcohol is taken from
the top by means of a pipette. A few drops of alcohol extract of turmeric
is added, and the acid determined by means of a standard solution of
potash, as in acetometry. The change from yellow to brownish red takes
place with great sharpness when neutralisation is reached.
[Footnote 53: Ure’s ‘Dictionary of Arts,’ &c.]
The number of cubic centimètres of potash employed, multiplied by four,
gives the quantity of normal solution requisite to neutralise the free
acid in 100 cubic centimètres of oil. As it is not an individual acid, but
a variable mixture of acids, it is not possible to calculate the
percentage of acids present. These numbers, however, may be taken as
degrees of acidity. For instance, an oil of 3° of acidity is one which
contains enough free acid to neutralise 3 cubic centimètres of normal
alkali.
If we assume that oleic acid predominates, which in most cases is the
fact, 1° of acidity correspond to 0·28 per cent. by weight of oleic acid.
The olive oil of commerce has an acidity ranging from 0·4° to 12°. The
first passes as very fine, and is called free from acid or salad oil,
while the latter is known by smell and taste as very rancid. Oil that has
4° to 6° of acidity has been found to answer very well as a lubricator.
What relation there exists between the degree of acidity and any injurious
effect upon metals is shown by the following experiments:——Four shallow
vessels of sheet brass, having a surface of 40 square centimètres each, at
the bottom, were filled to the depth of 2 millimètres, with oils of
different acidity, and exposed to the air at the ordinary temperature. The
vessels were soon more or less covered with green fatty salts, and the oil
too acquired a green colour. Oil and vessel No. 1 were the only ones in
which no change could be perceived. At the end of 3 days the vessels were
cleaned with ether and weighed. The following table shows the amounts of
action:
Vessel No. 1, filled with oil of 0·8° lost 0·03 gr.
” No. 2, ” 4·6° ” 0·22 ”
” No. 3, ” 7·8° ” 0·36 ”
” No. 4, ” 8·8° ” 0·04 ”
The quantity of metal destroyed, in equal times and under equal
conditions, increases with the acidity of the oil.
The table on page 1128, by Mr Bottome, describes the most striking
physical properties of some of the principal fixed oils.
⁂ The following are the principal fixed oils met with in commerce, or
which are objects of interest or utility:
=Oil of Al′monds.= _Syn._ OLEUM AMYGDALÆ (B. P., Ph. L), O. AMYGDALARUM
(Ph. D.), O. AMYGDALI COMMUNIS (Ph. E.), L. “The oil expressed from the
kernels.” (Ph. L.) “Bruise the fresh almonds in a stone mortar, then put
them into a hempen sack, and express the oil, without heat.” (Ph. E.) The
oil of almonds B. P. and of commerce is obtained from either the bitter or
sweet almond, but chiefly from the first, on account of their less value,
and the marc being employed in the manufacture of essential oil.
_Prop., &c._ Oil of almonds is black, demulcent, emollient, and
nutritious; possesses a purely oleaginous taste, and is one of the most
agreeable of the fixed oils; when taken in quantity it is mildly laxative;
it is little affected by cold, and congeals with difficulty; is soluble in
35 parts of cold and 6 parts of boiling alcohol; ether dissolves it
freely. Sp. gr. ·915 to ·918. _Av. prod._ Sweet almonds, 46%; bitter a.,
41%.
_Pur._ It is extensively adulterated with poppy, nut, and teel oil, and
not unfrequently with refined rape or colza oil. (See _above_.)
=Oil of Bay.= 1. (EXPRESSED O. OF B.; OLEUM LAURI, O. LAURINUM, L.) By
expression from either fresh or dried bayberries, as castor oil. Limpid;
insipid.
2. (By decoction; BUTTER OF B.; OLEUM LAURI NOBILIS, O. L. VERUM, L.) From
the berries, by boiling them in water, and skimming off the oil. Green,
buttery; chiefly imported from Italy. Used by the vulgar in bruises,
sprains, rheumatism, deafness, &c. _Prod._ 20%.
=Oil of Beech.= _Syn._ OLEUM FAGI, L. From the nuts of _Fagus sylvatica_
(Linn.) or beech mast. Clear; keeps well; when washed with hot water, it
is used for salads, and burnt in lamps. Sp. gr. ·9225. _Prod._ 16%.
=Oil of Belladon′na.= _Syn._ OLEUM BELLADONNÆ SEMINUM, O. B. BACCÆ, L.
From the seeds or berries of _Atropa belladonna_ or deadly nightshade.
Yellow; insipid. Used for lamps in Swabia and Wurtemberg, and as an
application to bruises. The marc is poisonous. It freezes at 34° Fahr. Sp.
gr. ·9250.
=Oil of Ben.= _Syn._ OIL OF BEHEN; OLEUM BALATINUM. From the seeds of
_Moringa pterygosperma_ (ben nuts). Scentless, colourless; keeps long
without growing rank; by standing, it separates into two parts, one of
which freezes with difficulty, and is hence much used in perfumery.
=Oil of Benne Seed.= See OIL OF GINGELLY.
=Oil of Brazil-nuts.= _Syn._ OLEUM BERTHOLLETIÆ. From the kernels of the
fruit of _Bertholletia excelsa_, or Brazil-nuts. An oil of a bright amber
colour, congealing at 24° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·917. It has been used as a
substitute for olive oil in plasters and ointments.
=Oil of Caca′o.= _Syn._ BUTTER OF C.; OLEUM CACAO CONCRETUM, BUTYRUM
CACAO, L. From the seeds of _Theobroma Cacao_, or chocolate
nuts, gently heated over the fire, and then decorticated, and pressed
between hot iron plates. Sp. gr. ·892.
Column headings:
A. Name of Oil.
B. Specific Gravity at 15°C., Water = 1,000.
C. Combustibility. Grms. consumed per hour in a Lamp with Wick.
D. Freezing Point in degrees Centigrade.
E. Colour.
F. Taste.
G. Smell.
H. Limpidity. Time (in seconds) required to trickle a given distance.
I. Drying Power.
+-------------+------+----+------+-------------+-------------+------------+------+-------------+
| A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. | G. | H. | I. |
+-------------+------+----+------+-------------+-------------+------------+------+-------------+
|Plum kernel |0·9127|68 | -9 |Brownish |Amygdalaceous|Very slight | 93 |Non-drying. |
| | | | | yellow | | | | |
|Rape seed |0·9128|30 | -4 |Yellow |Nauseous |Nauseous | 159 |Non-drying. |
|Colza |0·9136|40 | -9·25|Yellow |Nauseous |Nauseous | 162 |Non-drying. |
|Cabbage seed |0·9139|48·5| -8 |Yellow |Nauseous |Nauseous | 148 |Non-drying. |
|White mustard|0·9142|29·8|-16·25|Light |Pleasant |Very slight | 157 |Non-drying. |
| | | | | yellow | | | | |
|Ground nut |0·9163| ? | -3 |Pale greenish|Like peas |Like peas |Not |Non-drying. |
| | | | | yellow | | |tested| |
|Black mustard|0·9170|25 |-17·5 |Yellow |Pleasant |Very slight | 141 |Non-drying. |
|Olive |0·9176|62 | -6[54]|Yellow |Sweet |Peculiar | 195 |Non-drying. |
|Sweet almond |0·9180|52·8|-21·5 |Amber |Agreeable |None | 150 |Non-drying. |
|Horse-radish | | | | | | | | |
| seed |0·9187|43 |-16·25|Yellowish |Pleasant |None | 143 |Non-drying. |
| | | | | brown | | | | |
|Grape seed |0·9202|37 |-16·25|Gold yellow |Sweet |None | 99 |Dries slowly.|
|Beech nut |0·9225|50 |-17·5 |Amber |Very sweet |None | 158 |Non-drying. |
|Pumpkin |0·9231|43 |-15 |Pale brown |Sweet |None | 185 |Dries slowly.|
| | | | | yellow | | | | |
|Land-cress |0·9240|42 |-15 |Brownish |Acrid |Disagreeable| 103 |Dries slowly.|
| | | | | yellow | | | | |
|Hazel nut |0·9242|53·4|-10 |Amber |Sweet |None | 166 |Non-drying. |
|Poppy |0·9243|31 |-18[55]|Pale yellow |Flat |None | 123 |Drying. |
|Camelina |0·9252|34 |-18 |Yellowish |Peculiar |Peculiar | 119 |Drying. |
|Walnut |0·9260|45 |-27·5 |Light yellow |Flat |None | 88 |Drying. |
|Sunflower |0·9262|51·8|-16 |Colourless |Sweet |None | 114 |Dries slowly.|
|Hemp seed |0·9276|46 |-27·5 |Dark greenish|Disagreeable |Disagreeable| 87 |Drying. |
| | | | | yellow | | | | |
|Cotton seed |0·9316| ? | -2·5 |Reddish brown|Strong |None |Not | |
| | | | | | | |tested|Drying. |
|Sesame |0·9320| ? | -5 |Bright yellow|Pleasant, |None |Not |Non-drying. |
| | | | | | slightly | |tested| |
| | | | | | piquant | | | |
|Linseed |0·9347|38 |-27 |Dark greenish|Strong |Disagreeable| 88 |Drying. |
| | | | | yellow | | | | |
|Wood |0·9358|44 |Not |Green |Unpleasant |None | 73 |Drying. |
| | | |noted | | | | | |
|Spindle |0·9360|61 |-20 |Reddish brown|Acrid |Slight | 143 |Non-drying. |
|Castor |0·9611|47 |-18 |Colourless |Sickly |Very slight |1,830 |Dries slowly.|
+-------------+------+----+------+-------------+-------------+------------+------+-------------+
[Footnote 54: Though these oils do not become quite solid till the point
indicated is reached, yet they begin to become grainy at +4° C.]
[Footnote 55: Once solidified, this oil does not liquify until the
temperature reaches 2°C.]
TABLE _giving the reactions of various_ OILS _with_
SULPHURIC ACID _and with a saturated solution of_
BICHROMATE OF POTASH _in sulphuric acid_.
Re-arranged from M. PENOT’s table, with additions,
by Mr COOLEY.
⁂ _The result indicated is obtained in each case by the action of_ one
drop _of the_ REAGENT _on_ twenty drops of OIL.
---------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
| REAGENTS |
+--------------------------------------------------------+
| | Saturated Solution of |
NAME OF OIL | Sulphuric Acid | Bichromate of Potassa |
| | in Sulphuric Acid |
+------------------+-------------+-----------------------+
| _Not stirred_ | _Stirred_ | _Stirred_ |
---------------------+------------------+-------------+-----------------------+
Almond oil |Greenfinch yellow,| Dirty green |Yellowish, small lumps |
|with orange spots | | |
| | | |
Castor oil |Yellow, with |Little |Slightly green |
|slight spots |reaction | |
| | | |
Cod-liver oil |Deep purple in |Deep purple, |Reddish-brown clots, |
(_fine sample |the centre, |passing into |changing to a clear |
of pale oil_) |rapidly turning |purple brown,|bright green |
|brown, whilst |reddish | |
|violet or purple |brown, and | |
|clouds or streaks |gradually | |
|spread out towards|deepening to | |
|the circumference,|an intense | |
|the colour of |brown, | |
|which remains |approaching | |
|minutes after the |black | |
|central portion | | |
|turned nearly | | |
|black | | |
| | | |
Hemp-seed oil |Small brown lumps |Greenish |Small yellow lumps or |
|or clots on a |brown |clots on a green |
|yellow ground | |ground |
| | | |
Linseed oil | | | |
(_from the | | | |
Upper Rhine_) |Dark reddish brown|Brown small |Brown small lumps on |
| |lumps on a |an almost colourless |
| |grey ground |ground |
| | | |
| | | |
(_from Paris_) |Reddish brown, |Brown clots |Brown small lumps on a |
|less dark coloured|on a green |green ground |
| |ground | |
| | | |
(_English_) |Chestnut brown |Brown clots |Brown lumps on a |
| |on a |greenish-grey ground |
| |greenish-grey| |
| |ground | |
| | | |
Liver-train oil |Dark red |Dark red |Dark red |
| | | |
Madia-sativa oil |Slightly reddish |Olive green |Light brown small lumps|
|brown underneath | |on an olive-coloured |
|a thin greyish | |ground |
|film | | |
| | | |
Black-mustard oil |Bluish green |Olive green |Olive brown |
| | | |
Neat’s-foot oil |Yellow slight |Dirty brown |Brown spots on a |
|spots | |brownish ground |
| | | |
Nut oil | | | |
(_recent_) |Yellowish brown |Clotted, dark|Small brown lumps or |
| |brown |clots |
| | | |
(_one year old_) | Yellow |Dirty brown, |Small brown lumps |
| |less dark | |
| |coloured | |
| | | |
(_still older_) |Orange yellow |Dirty brown |Small brownish lumps |
| | | |
Olein, oleic acid, | | | |
lard, or tallow oil |Reddish spots, |Reddish brown|Bright chestnut colour |
|with reddish | | |
|circles | | |
| | | |
Olive oil |Yellow |Dirty brown |Olive brown |
| | | |
(_another | | | |
sample_) |Orange yellow |Brownish grey|Brown |
| | | |
(_from fermented | | | |
olives_) |Orange yellow |Brownish grey|Brown |
| | | |
Poppy oil | | | |
(_recent cold | | | |
drawn_) |Yellow spots |Olive brown |Small yellow lumps on a|
| | |white ground |
| | | |
(_recent_ | | | |
expressed with slight| | | |
heat) |Greenish-yellow |Olive brown, |Small yellow lumps on a|
|spots |turning more |greenish-grey ground |
| |on the green | |
(_one year old, | | | |
expressed with | | | |
heat_) |Greenish spots |Olive green |Small yellow lumps on a|
| | |green ground |
| | | |
Rape or colza oil | | | |
(_trade_) |Yellowish-brown |Brownish, |Yellow small lumps on a|
|streaks surrounded|turning on |green ground |
|by a bluish-green |the olive | |
|ring |green | |
| | | |
(_recent_) |Green |Bluish green |Yellow small lumps on a|
| | |green ground |
| | | |
(_one year old_) |Green |Bluish green |Yellow lumps on a |
| | |brighter green ground |
| | | |
(_one year old, | | | |
rough | | | |
hot-pressed_) |Green |Olive green |Small yellow lumps, |
| | |more numerous, on an |
| | |olive-green ground |
| | | |
Whale-train oil |Small reddish |Resembles |Small, bright, |
|lumps on a |wine lees |chestnut-coloured lumps|
|brownish ground | |on a brown ground |
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
=Oil, Cas′tor.= _Syn._ RICINI OLEUM (B. P.), OLEUM CASTOREI, O. RICINI
(Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The oil prepared by heat, or by pressure, from the
seed” of “_Ricinis communis_, Linn.” (Ph. L.), the _Palma Christi_, or
Mexican oil-bush.
The best castor oil (COLD-DRAWN CASTOR OIL; OLEUM RICINI SINE IGNE)is
prepared by pressing the shelled and crushed fruit (seed) in hemp bags, in
an hydraulic press, and heating the oil thus obtained along with water in
well tinned vessels, until the water boils and the albumen and gum
separate as a scum; this is carefully removed, and the oil as soon as it
has become cold is filtered through Canton flannel, and put into
canisters. The commoner kinds are prepared by gently heating the crushed
seeds, and pressing them whilst hot. Another method, sometimes adopted, is
to put the crushed seed into loose bags, to boil these in water, and to
skim off the floating oil.
_Prop._ It is the most viscid of all the fixed oils; when pure it mixes in
all proportions with alcohol and ether, and also dissolves, to a certain
extent, in rectified spirit, but a portion of the oil separates on
standing. Camphor and benzoic acid increase its solubility in spirit. By
long exposure to the air it becomes rancid, thick, and is ultimately
transformed into a transparent yellow mass; light hastens these changes.
Exposed to cold, a solid, white crystalline fat separates from the liquid
portion, and when cooled to 0° it congeals into a yellow transparent mass,
which does not again liquefy until the temperature rises to about 18°
Fahr. Sp. gr. ·9611 to ·9612, at 60°; ·9690, at 55° (Saussure); ·9575, at
77° (Saussure). _Prod._ 38% to 40% (62%——Ure).
_Pur._ Castor oil is sometimes adulterated with rape oil or with lard oil,
a fraud which may be detected by its diminished density; and, when the
added oil exceeds 33%, by its insolubility in its own weight of alcohol of
·820. In many cases croton oil is added to increase the purgative quality
of the mixture. A compound of this kind is vended in gelatine capsules
under the name of ‘CONCENTRATED CASTOR OIL,’ the use of which is fraught
with danger. “I have heard of several cases in which very violent and
dangerous effects were produced by these capsules.” (Pereira.) The best is
imported from the East Indies in tin canisters. The oil obtained from the
seeds of _Ricinus viridis_ (Willd.), or lamp-oil seeds, is often mixed
with or sold for castor oil.
_Uses, &c._ Castor oil is an exceedingly useful mild purgative,
particularly when abdominal irritation should be avoided, as in
inflammations of the stomach and bowels, pregnancy, surgical operations,
&c.——_Dose_, 2 fl. dr. to 1 fl. oz.
=Oil, Cocoa-nut.= _Syn._ COCOA-NUT BUTTER; OLEUM COCOIS NUCIFERÆ, L. By
expression from the kernels of the cocoa nut, or fruit of the _Cocos
nucifera_.
=Oil, Cod-liver.= _Syn._ MORRHUÆ OLEUM (B. P.), COD-FISH OIL; OLEUM
JECORIS ASELLI, O. GADI, O. G. MORRHUÆ, OLEUM MORRHUÆ (Ph. L.), L. “The
oil extracted from the fresh liver of the _Gadus morrhua_ by a steam heat
or water bath not exceeding 180° Fahr. Yellow.” “The oil prepared from the
liver of _Gadus morrhua_, Linn.” (Ph. L.)
The common cod-liver oil of commerce drains from the livers of the
cod-fish when freely exposed to the sun, and just beginning to putrefy. It
is dark coloured, strong, and nauseous, and is now chiefly employed in
this country by the curriers, for dressing leather. It is the ‘OLEUM
JECORIS ASELLI FUSCUM’ of Continental writers. Formerly, the less fetid
varieties of this crude oil, after the impurities were removed, either by
subsidence or filtration, constituted the only cod-liver oil used in
medicine. As its employment as a remedy increased, its revolting flavour,
and its great tendency to permanently disorder the stomach and bowels, was
found, however, to be a serious obstacle to its general use. It was
observed that the oil as it exists in the liver of the cod is bland and
nearly colourless, and has only a slight fishy, but not a disagreeable
flavour. The attention of persons interested was therefore immediately
directed to the subject, and improved methods of obtaining the oil were
suggested, and ere long adopted on the large scale.
The methods of preparing cod-liver oil are noticed in another part of this
work, but we think it advisable to add to these a description of the plan
adopted by Messrs Charles Fox and Co., of Newfoundland, Scarborough, and
London, the well-known manufacturers and importers of cod-liver oil:——
“The Newfoundland fisheries are entirely carried on in small boats,
principally by the hand-line system, and quite close to the shore. The
boats go out early in the morning, and return about four o’clock in the
afternoon. The fish, on landing, are handed over to a ‘fish-room keeper,’
whose duty it is to split and open the fish, and to deposit the livers in
small tubs holding 17 or 18 gallons each. The tubs are soon afterwards
collected from the different ‘fish-rooms,’ and conveyed to the
manufactory. The livers are here thrown into tubs filled with clean cold
water, and, after being well washed and jerked over, are placed on
galvanised iron-wire sieves to drain. They are next put into covered
steam-jacket-pans, and submitted to a gentle heat for about three quarters
of an hour, after which the steam is turned off, cold air again admitted,
and the whole allowed to repose for a short time, during which the livers
subside, and the oil separates and floats on the top. The oil is then
skimmed off into tin vessels, and passed through flannel strainers into
tubs, where it is left to subside for about 24 hours. From these the purer
upper portion of oil is run into a very deep, galvanized-iron cistern, and
again left to clarify itself by defecation for a few days. It is now
further refined by carefully passing it through clean and very stout
mole-skin filters, under pressure. The transparent filtered oil is
received in a clean, galvanised-iron cistern containing a pump, from which
the casks are filled for exportation. The latter, before being filled, are
carefully seasoned and cleaned, to prevent their imparting either flavour
or colour to the pure oil.”
The superiority of the oil prepared as above consists essentially in every
part of the process of extraction being performed whilst the livers are
fresh, and in no chemical means being adopted to give the oil a factitious
appearance. Its natural pale colour is thus preserved from contamination,
and its medicinal virtues maintained intact.
Much of the light brown oil of commerce is obtained from _Gadus callarius_
(the dorse). _G. carbonarius_ (the coal-fish), and _G. pollachius_ (the
pollack).
_Pur., &c._ “The finest oil,” remarks Dr Pereira, “is that which is most
devoid of colour, odour, and flavour. The oil, as contained in the cells
of the fresh liver, is nearly colourless, and the brownish colour
possessed by ordinary cod-liver oil is due to colouring matters derived
from the decomposition (putrefying) of hepatic tissues and fluids, or from
the action of the air on the oil (age). Chemical analysis lends no support
to the opinion, at one time entertained, that the brown oil was superior,
as a therapeutic agent, to the pale oil. Chemistry has not discovered any
substance in the brown oil that would confer on it superior activity as a
medicine. On the other hand, the disgusting odour and flavour and
nauseating qualities of the brown oil preclude its repeated use. Moreover,
there is reason to suspect that, if patients could conquer their aversion
to it, its free use, like that of other rancid and empyreumatic fats,
would disturb the digestive functions, and be attended with injurious
effects.”[56]
[Footnote 56: ‘Elem. Mat. Med.,’ &c., 3rd edit., iii, 2339.]
Among the tests of purity, that generally relied on is known as the
‘sulphuric acid test.’ See OILS (Fixed): _Purity_.
DORSE OIL, and other FISH OIL, sold as ‘LIGHT-BROWN COD-LIVER OIL,’
exhibit with this test much lighter reactions, which closely resemble
those of LIVER-TRAIN and WHALE-TRAIN OIL.
To detect the presence of combined iodine, upon which, by some, the
therapeutic value of cod-liver oil is thought to depend, the sample is
saponified by trituration with a little caustic potassa and hot water, the
resulting soap cautiously incinerated, the ashes digested with water, and
the whole thrown on a filter. The usual tests for iodine may be then
applied to the filtered liquid.
The presence of iodine artificially added is best detected by agitating
the oil with a little rectified spirit, and then testing this last for
iodine. Or, a little solution of starch and a few drops of sulphuric or
nitric acid may be at once added to the oil, when a blue colour will be
developed if iodine, or an iodide, has been mixed with the sample.
The sp. gr. of the pale oil is ·9230 to ·9238; of the light-brown oil,
·9240 to ·9245; of the dark-brown oil, ·9290 to ·9315. The density is,
however, apt to vary a little with the quantity of moisture present.
_Uses, &c._ Cod-liver oil is a most valuable medicine in a great variety
of diseases, more especially in glandular indurations and enlargements,
scrofula, phthisis, rheumatism, gout, certain cutaneous diseases,
amenorrhœa, chlorosis, caries, rickets, &c. To be of service, however, its
use must be continued for several weeks, and the oil must be
recent.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, 3 or 4 times daily, or oftener.
=Oil, Col′za.= From the seeds of _Brassica campestris_, var. _oleifera_,
or _colza de printemps_, a variety of _Brassica campestris_ (Linn.). It
may be regarded as a superior sort of rape oil. Burns well in lamps,
especially after being refined. Sp. gr. ·9136. _Prod._ 39%. The term
‘colza oil’ is commonly applied to ordinary refined rape.
=Oil, Cottonseed.= _Syn._ OLEUM GOSSIPII SEMINUM, L. From the seeds of
_Gossypium Barbadense_. Drying.
=Oil, Croton.= _Syn._ CROTONIS OLEUM (B. P.), OLEUM CROTONIS (Ph. E.), O.
TIGLII (Ph. L.), L. From the shelled seeds of _Croton tiglium_ or Molucca
grains. Imported chiefly from the East Indies. It is one of the most
powerful cathartics known, and acts when either swallowed or merely placed
in the mouth. Externally, it is a rubefacient and counter-irritant, often
causing a crop of painful pustules, like tartar emetic.——_Dose_, 1 to 2
drops, on sugar; in apoplexy, &c. It is poisonous in larger doses. Sp. gr.
·947 to ·953. _Prod._ Unshelled seeds, 22% to 25%; shelled do., 32% to
35%.
Pure croton oil is soluble in an equal volume of alcohol of ·796, but in 2
or 3 days about 96% of the oil separates. In France the marc is exhausted
with alcohol, and the oil thus obtained is added to that previously
obtained from the same seeds by expression. The East Indian oil (OLEUM
CROTONIS EXOTICUM) is usually of a pale yellow; that pressed in England
(O. CROTONIS ANGLICANUM) is much darker.
=Oil of Cu′cumber.= _Syn._ OLEUM CUCURBITÆ, L. From the seeds of
_Cucurbita pepo_ or squash, and the _C. melopepo_ or pumpkin. Pale; used
in lamps; and, sometimes, as a soothing application to piles. Sp. gr.
·9231. _Prod._ 24%.
=Oil of Eggs.= _Syn._ OLEUM OVI, O. O. VITELLI, O. OVORUM, L. From the
yolks of eggs, gently heated until they coagulate and the moisture has
evaporated, and then pressed or broken up, digested in boiling rectified
spirit, the tincture filtered whilst hot, and the spirit distilled off.
Bland; emollient. The common plan is to fry the yolks hard; but the oil is
then darker coloured and stronger. The P. Cod. orders them to be exhausted
with ether, by displacement. Formerly commonly used to ‘kill’ quicksilver,
and still held in great esteem in some parts of England for sore nipples
and excoriations. _Prod._ 10 to 12 eggs yield 1 oz. See MIXED OILS.
=Oil of Garden Cress.= _Syn._ OLEUM LEPIDII SATIVI, L. From the seed.
Drying. Sp. gr. ·9240. _Prod._ 54%.
=Oil of Gar′den Spurge.= _Syn._ OLEUM LATHYRIS, O. EUPHORBIÆ L., L. From
the seeds of _Euphorbia lathyris_ or garden spurge. Cathartic.——_Dose_, 3
to 8 drops. Sp. gr. ·9281. _Prod._ 30% to 41%. Croton oil mixed with 6
times its weight of nut or rape oil is usually sold for it.
=Oil of Gingel′ly.= _Syn._ OIL OF SESAMUM, BENNE OIL, TEEL O., TEL O.;
OLEUM SESAMI, L. From the seeds of _Sesamum orientale_ (Willd.), or
gingelly. Pale; bland. Used in salads, paints, &c.; also to adulterate oil
of almonds. _Prod._ 46%.
=Oil, Gourd.= See OIL OF CUCUMBER.
=Oil of Ground Nuts.= From the nuts of _Arachis hypogæa_. Glutinous.
=Oil of Gurgun.= See BALSAM, GURGUN.
=Oil of Hemp.= _Syn._ OLEUM CANNABIS, L. From the seed of _Cannabis
sativa_ (Linn.), or common hemp. Mawkish. Sometimes used for frying, but
chiefly for paints, soaps, &c. Freely soluble in boiling alcohol; does not
thicken until cooled to 5° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·9276. _Prod._ 18% to 24%.
=Oil of Jatro′pha.= _Syn._ OIL OF WILD CASTOR SEEDS; OLEUM JATROPHÆ, L.
From the seeds of _Jatropha purgans_. Somewhat resembles CROTON OIL. Used
for lamps in the East Indies.
=Oil, Kundah.= _Syn._ TALLICOONAH O.; OLEUM TOULOUCOUNÆ, L. From the fruit
of _Carapa Touloucouna_. Rancid, nauseous, vermifuge, rubefacient, emetic,
and purgative. Chiefly used in lamps.
=Oil, Lard.= _Syn._ TALLOW O., CRUDE OLEIN, C. OLEIC ACID; OLEUM ADIPIS,
L. By separating the olein of lard from the stearin by means of boiling
alcohol. Only applicable where spirit is cheap. The product is, however,
excellent. The crude oleic acid, or lard oil of commerce, is chiefly
obtained as a secondary product in the manufacture of stearin. It is
purified by agitation with sulphuric acid, and subsequently by steaming
it, or washing it with hot water. Burns well in lamps, if the wick-tube is
kept cool. Sp. gr. ·9003.
=Oil, Linseed.= _Syn._ OLEUM LINI (B. P., Ph. L., E. & D.), L. 1.
(COLD-DRAWN LINSEED OIL; OLEUM LINI SINE IGNE.) From the seed of _Linum
usitatissimum_ (Linn.), or common flax, bruised or crushed, and then
ground and expressed without heat. Pale, insipid, viscous; does not keep
so well as the next. _Prod._ 17% to 20%.
2. As the last, but employing a steam heat of about 200° Fahr. Amber
coloured; less viscous than the last; congeals at 2°; soluble in 5 parts
of boiling and 40 parts of cold alcohol. Both are drying and
cathartic.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz.; in piles, &c. Chiefly used in paints,
varnishes, &c. Sp. gr. ·9347. _Prod._ 22% to 27%.
3. (BOILED LINSEED OIL.) See OILS (Drying).
=Oil of Mace (Expressed).= See OIL OF NUTMEG (Expressed).
=Oil of Male Fern.= See EXTRACT OF MALE FERN.
=Oil of Mustard.= _Syn._ OLEUM SINAPIS, L. 1. (OIL OF WHITE MUSTARD.) From
_Sinapis alba_, or white mustard, but chiefly from _Sinapis arvensis_, _S.
chinensis_, _S. dichotoma_, _S. glauca_, _S. ramosa_, and _S. tori_.
Sweet. Used for the table. Sp. gr. ·9142 (·2160——Ure). _Prod._ 36%.
2. (OIL OF BLACK MUSTARD; OLEUM SINAPIS NIGRI, L.) From the ‘hulls’ of
black-mustard seed. Viscid, stimulant. Used in rheumatism, Sp. gr. ·9168
to ·9170. See OILS (Volatile).
3. (OIL OF WHITE MUSTARD; OLEUM RAPHANI, L.) From the seed of _Raphanus
raphanistrum_ (Linn.), or jointed charlock or wild mustard. _Prod._ 30%.
=Oil, Neat’s-foot.= _Syn._ NERVE OIL, TROTTER O.; OLEUM BUBULUM, O.
NERVINUM, AXUNGIA PEDUM TAURI, L. From neat’s-feet and tripe, by boiling
them in water, and skimming off the oil. Does not thicken by age. Used to
soften leather, to clean fire-arms, and for other purposes.
OIL, NUT. _Syn._ HAZEL-NUT O.; OLEUM NUCIS, O. CORYLI, L. From the kernels
of _Corylus Avellana_ (Linn.), or hazel-nut tree. Pale, mild tasted,
drying; superior to linseed oil for paints and varnishes. It is commonly
sold for oil of almonds and oil of ben, and is extensively employed to
adulterate both. Walnut oil is also frequently sold for nut oil. Sp. gr.
·9260. _Prod._ 63%(Ure).
=Oil of Nut′meg (Expressed).= _Syn._ EXPRESSED OIL OF MACE, BUTTER OF M.;
OLEUM MYRISTICÆ (CONCRETUM) (Ph. L.), MYRISTICÆ ADEPS (Ph. E.), M.
BUTYRUM, O. MYRISTICÆ EXPRESSUM (B. P.), O. MOSCHATÆ, O. NUCISTÆ, L. “The
concrete oil expressed from the seed of _Myristica officinalis_,” Linn.
(Ph. L.), or common nutmeg. The nutmegs are beaten to a paste, enclosed in
a bag, exposed to the vapour of hot water, and then pressed between heated
iron plates. Orange coloured, fragrant, spicy; butyraceous, or solid. It
is a mixture of the fixed and volatile oils of the nutmeg. When
discoloured and hardened by age, it is called ‘BANDA SOAP’ (OL. MACIS IN
MASSIS). When pure, it is soluble in 4 parts of boiling alcohol and in 2
parts of ether. It has been used in rheumatism and palsy, but is now
chiefly employed for its odour and aromatic qualities. From the East
Indies. _Prod._ 17% to 20%.
=Oil, Ol′ive.= _Syn._ SALAD OIL, SWEET O.; OLIVÆ OLEUM (B. P.), OLEUM
OLIVARUM, O. OLIVÆ (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The “oil expressed from the
fruit” of “_Olea europœa_, Linn.” (Ph. L.), or common olive. Five
different methods are employed to obtain the oil, from the fruit:
1. (VIRGIN OIL; O. O. VIRGINEUM, L.); (HUILE VIERGE, Fr.) From olives,
carefully garbled, either spontaneously or only by slight pressure, in the
cold. That yielded by the pericarp of the fruit is the finest.
2. (Ordinary ‘FINE OIL,’) This is obtained by either pressing the olives,
previously crushed and mixed with boiling water, or by pressing, at a
gentle heat, the olives from which the virgin oil has been obtained. The
above processes furnish the finer salad oils of commerce. The cake which
is left is called ‘GRIGNON,’
3. (SECOND QUALITY.) By allowing the bruised fruit to ferment before
pressing it. Yellow; darker than the preceding; but mild and sweet tasted.
Much used for the table.
4. (‘GORGON.’) By fermenting and boiling the pressed cake or marc in
water, and skimming off the oil. Inferior.
5. (OIL OF THE INFERNAL REGIONS; OLEUM OMPHACINUM) is a very inferior
quality of oil, which is skimmed off the surface of the water in the
reservoirs into which the waste water which has been used in the above
operations is received, and allowed to settle. The last two are chiefly
used for lamps, and in soap-making, &c.
Of the principal varieties of olive oil known in commerce, and
distinguished by the place of their production, ‘PROVENCE OIL’ is the most
esteemed; ‘FLORENCE OIL’ and ‘LUCCA OIL’ are also of very fine quality;
‘GENOA OIL’ comes next, and then ‘GALLIPOLI OIL,’ which forms the mass of
what is used in England; ‘SICILY OIL,’ which has a slightly resinous
flavour, is very inferior; and ‘SPANISH OIL’ is the worst imported.
_Prop., &c._ Olive oil is a nearly inodorous, pale greenish-yellow,
unctuous fluid, with a purely oleaginous taste, peculiarly grateful to the
palate of those who relish oil. It does not suffer active decomposition at
a heat not exceeding 600° Fahr.; and when cooled to 36°it congeals into a
granular solid mass. It is very slightly soluble in alcohol, but its
solubility is increased by admixture with castor oil. It is soluble in
1-1/2 part of ether. When pure it has little tendency to become rancid.
Sp. gr. ·9170 to ·9173; ·9192, at 53-1/2° (Saussure); ·9176, at 59°
(Heidenreich); and ·9109, at 77° Fahr. (Saussure). _Prod._ 32%, of which
21% is furnished by the pericarp, and the remainder, which is inferior,
by the seed and woody matter of the fruit.
_Pur._ Olive oil, with the exception of that of almonds, being the most
costly of the ordinary fixed oils of commerce, is, consequently, the one
most subject to adulteration. Nut, poppy, rape, and lard oil, are those
most commonly used for this purpose. Refined tallow olein, including that
obtained from the ‘knackers’ yards’ of Paris, is said to have been used in
the same way. The addition of any other oil to olive oil renders it far
less agreeable to the palate, and, by increasing its tendency to
rancidity, much more likely to offend and derange the stomach and bowels
of those who consume it. Parties who indulge themselves in the use of this
luxury would, therefore, do well to ascertain that what they purchase is
pure. When pure, and also fresh, olive oil is most wholesome as an article
of food or us a condiment.
The detection of the sophistication of salad oil is a matter of no great
difficulty. The palate of the connoisseur will readily perceive the
slightest variation in the quality of his favourite condiment. Other
methods, however, of a more accurate and certain description, and of more
general application, are adopted. Amongst these, in addition to those
mentioned above, are the following:——
_a._ When pure olive oil is shaken in a phial, only half filled, the
‘bead’ or bubbles rapidly disappear; but if the sample has been mixed with
poppy or other oil, the bubbles continue longer before they burst.
_b._ Olive oil congeals at 36° Fahr., and is completely solidified when a
small bottle containing it is surrounded by ice, or a freezing mixture;
but when mixed with poppy oil, it remains partly liquid, even when the
latter forms only 1-4th of the mass; if more than 1-3rd of poppy oil is
present, it does not solidify at all, unless cooled much below the
freezing point of water.
_c._ (Ph. E.) When olive oil is “carefully mixed with 1/12th part of its
volume of a solution of 4 oz. of mercury in 8 fl. oz. 6 dr. of nitric acid
(sp. gr. 1·500), it becomes in 3 or 4 hours like a firm fat, without any
separation of liquid oil.”
_d._ M. Pontet recommends the mercurial solution to be made by dissolving
6 parts of mercury in 7-1/2 parts of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·35), without
heat; of this solution he adds 1 part to every 48 parts of the oil, and
well shakes the mixture every 30 minutes, until it begins to solidify.
This it does after about 7 hours in summer and 4 or 5 hours in winter, and
when the oil is pure it will have formed, in 24 hours, a mass so hard that
some little force must be employed to thrust a glass rod into it. The
other edible oils do not furnish a hard mass with nitrate of mercury. The
solidity of the mass is exactly in proportion to the quantity of foreign
oil present. When the sophistication is equal to 1-8th of the whole, a
distinct liquid layer separates; when the mixture contains half its volume
of an inferior oil, one half only of the mixture becomes solid, and the
other half continues liquid. A temperature of about 90° Fahr. is the best
to cause the oil and coagulum to separate perfectly from each other. When
the oil has been adulterated with animal oil, the mixture solidifies in
about five hours; but in this case the coagulum consists of the animal
oil, whilst the olive oil floats on the surface, and may be decanted for
further examination. This coagulum, on being heated, exhales the
well-known odour of rancid fat or melted tallow.
_e._ Dr Ramon Cordina Langlies states that the best reagent for the
examination of olive oil is that of Hauchecorne.
This reagent is composed of three parts of pure nitric acid at 40° with
one part of distilled water. The following is Dr Langlies’ process for
proving that olive oil does not contain seed oil, and more especially
cotton oil:——
He mixes three grammes of the oil to be tested with one gramme of the
reagent in a test tube, or a small stoppered flask, and heats the liquid
in a water bath. If the oil is pure the mixture becomes clearer, and takes
a yellow colour, like purified oil; if it is adulterated with seed oil, it
acquires the same transparency as the pure oil, but becomes red. With 5
per cent. of seed oil the reddish colouring is characteristic; with 10 per
cent. it is decided. The reaction does not require more than from 15 to 20
minutes.
The colouring of the oils lasts for three days.
_Uses, &c._ The dietetical uses of olive oil are well known. In Spain and
Italy it is commonly employed as a substitute for butter. It is highly
nutritious, but is digested with difficulty by some persons, and hence
should be avoided by the dyspeptic. Like almond oil, it is occasionally
employed as a laxative and vermifuge, and is, perhaps, one of the mildest
known. In _pharmacy_ it is extensively employed in the preparation of
cerates, liniments, ointments, and plasters.——_Dose._ For an adult, 1/2 to
1 wine-glassful as a mild aperient; for an infant, 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful,
mixed up with an equal quantity of honey, syrup of roses, or syrup of
violets. The white fibrous sediment which forms in the recently expressed
oil is the ‘AMURCA’ of Pliny, and was formerly highly esteemed in
medicine.
=Oil, Olive, Droppings.= _Syn._ SWEET-OIL D. The ‘foots’ or ‘deposits,’
and the ‘drippings’ of the casks, cisterns, and utensils. Used for
machinery, making soap, &c.
=Oil, Olive (Oxygenated).= _Syn._ OLEUM OLIVÆ OXYGENATUM (Ph. Batav.), L.
Olive oil, 16 oz., is placed in a receiver surrounded with ice or very
cold water, and chlorine is slowly transmitted through it for several
days, or until it becomes thick and viscid, after which it is well washed
with warm warm.
=Oil, Palm.= _Syn._ PALM BUTTER; OLEUM PALMÆ;, L. From the fruit of _Elais
Guineensis_, and _E. melanococca_, the Guinea oil palms. Orange or red
coloured; butyraceous or solid; smells of violets; unchanged by alkalies;
bleached by sunlight, age, exposure, chlorine, chromic acid, and oil of
vitriol; melts at 117-1/2° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·968. Demulcent. Used to colour
and scent ointments, pomades, &c.; but chiefly to make soap and candles.
From Africa.
=Oil, Pi′′ney.= _Syn._ PINEY TALLOW, P. DAMMAR, P. RESIN. From _Vateria
Indica_ (Linn.) or pænoe tree. Resinous flavoured, fragrant, made into
candles. Sp. gr. ·926.
=Oil, Pop′py.= _Syn._ OLEUM PAPAVERIS, L.; OLIETE, HUILE BLANCHE, Fr. From
the seeds of _Papaver somniferum_ (Linn.), or white poppy. Sweet; pale;
dries and keeps well. Used for salads, paints, and soaps; also
(extensively) to adulterate almond oil, for the inferior qualities of
which it is frequently sold. It does not freeze until cooled to 0° Fahr.
Sp. gr. ·9243 to ·9245. _Prod._ 48% to 54%.
=Oil of Pumpkin.= _Syn._ OLEUM CUCURBITÆ. Expressed from the seeds of the
pumpkin; a soothing application to piles.
=Oil, Rape.= _Syn._ COLZA OIL, BROWN O.; OLEUM RAPÆ, L. From the seed of
_Brassica napus_ (Linn.; cole or rape), and from _Brassica campestris_
(Linn.; wild navew or rape). Glutinous; buttery at 25° Fahr. Dries slowly;
makes soft soaps and good ointments, but bad plasters; smokes much in
burning, unless well refined. Sp. gr. ·9135 to ·9136. _Prod._ 32%.
OIL, REFINED or PALE RAPE (OLEUM RAPÆ REFINUM, OL. R. ALBUM) is prepared
from crude rape oil, by agitating it with about 2% of oil of vitriol,
previously diluted with about twice its weight of water, and, after 10 or
12 days’ repose, decanting the clear oil, and filtering it through Canton
flannel or felt. The quality is improved by washing it with hot water or
steam before filtration. Used for lamps, blacking, and machinery; also
extensively employed to adulterate both almond and olive oil. It forms the
common ‘SWEET OIL’ of the oilmen and druggists. Sp. gr. ·9136 to ·9140.
=Oil, Seal.= _Syn._ OLEUM PHOCÆ, L. From the hood seal, and harp seal, and
other species of _Phocidæ_. PALE SEAL OIL is that which drains from the
blubber before putrefaction commences, and forms about 60% of the whole
quantity of oil obtained. It is very clear, free from smell, and, when
recently prepared, not unpleasant in its taste. REFINED SEAL OIL is the
last, washed and filtered. Ranks close after sperm oil. BROWN or DARK SEAL
OIL is that which subsequently drains from the putrid mass. It is very
strong-scented and nauseous, and smokes in burning. Both are used for
lamps and dressing leather. A full-grown seal yields 8 to 12 galls. of
oil; a small one, 4 to 5 galls.
=Oil of Ses′amum.= _Syn._ OIL OF GINGELLY (_above_).
=Oil, Shark-liver.= The lightest of the fixed oils. Sp. gr. ·865 to ·867.
=Oil, Skate.= _Syn._ OLEUM RALÆ, L. From the livers of _Raia batis_
(Linn.), or common skate, as cod-liver oil; also from _Raia rhinobatus_,
or white skate, and _Raia clavata_, or thornback. Often sold and mixed
with cod-liver oil.
=Oil, Spermace′ti.= _Syn._ SPERM OIL; OLEUM CETACEI, L. From the ‘head
matter’ of _Physeter macrocephalus_, or spermaceti whale; a species once
common in all the principal seas, but now chiefly confined to the Southern
Ocean. It is very limpid, smells little, and burns well; and has long been
reputed the best oil for lamps and machinery, as it does not thicken by
age or friction. It is frequently adulterated with refined seal oil. Sp.
gr. ·875.
=Oil, Sun′flower.= _Syn._ OLEUM HELIANTHI, L. From the seeds of
_Helianthus annuus_ and _H. perennis_. Clear, pale yellow, tasteless;
thickens at 60° Fahr. Used for salads and lamps. Sp. gr. ·9261. _Prod._
15%.
=Oil, Teel.= See OIL, GINGELLY.
=Oil, Tobac′co-seed.= _Syn._ OLEUM TABACI (EXPRESSUM), L. From the seeds
of _Nicotiana tabacum_ (Linn.), or true tobacco plant. Pale; dries well;
equal to nut oil. Its production has recently been carried on with
considerable success in some parts of Russia. Sp. gr. ·9232.
=Oil of Touloucou′na.= See OIL, KUNDAH.
=Oil, Train.= See OIL, WHALE.
=Oil, Wal′nut.= _Syn._ OLEUM JUGLANDIS, O. NUCIS J., L. From the kernels
of the nuts of _Juglans regia_ (Linn.), or common walnut tree. Soon gets
rank; dries well. Used in paints, and occasionally in plasters. When ‘cold
drawn’ and washed it is sometimes eaten with salad. Sp. gr. ·9260 to
·9262. _Prod._ 48% to 52%.
=Oil of Wax.= _Syn._ BUTTER OF WAX; OLEUM CERÆ, L. From beeswax, by quick
distillation in a close vessel. Butyraceous. By rectification along with
quicklime it yields a liquid oil.
=Oil, Whale.= _Syn._ TRAIN OIL, WHALE-TRAIN O.; OLEUM BALÆNÆ, O. CETI, L.
From the blubber of the _Balæna mysticetus_ (Linn.), or the common or
Greenland whale, by heat. Coarse; stinking. SOUTHERN WHALE OIL is the
best. Used for lamps, machinery, &c. Sp. gr. ·9231. _Prod._ per fish,
about 1-1/2 ton for each foot of bone.
=Oil of Wheat.= _Syn._ OLEUM TRITICI, L. From bruised Colne wheat, with
heat. In chilblains, ringworm, and several other skin diseases.
=Oil of Wine-stones.= _Syn._ GRAPE-STONE OIL; OLEUM VITIS VINIFERÆ
LAPIDUM, L. From the seeds of grapes, separated from the marc. Pale
yellow, bland, emollient. Used for salads and lamps. Sp. gr. ·9202.
_Prod._ 14% to 18%.
⁂ The numbers given above, under ‘products,’ unless when otherwise stated,
refer to the respective fruits, kernels, nuts, seeds, &c., deprived of
their husks, pods, shells, and every other portion destitute of oil.
=OILS (Medicated).= _Syn._ OLEA COCTA, O. INFUSA, O. MEDICATA, L. These
are prepared by infusion or decoction. The bruised ingredients are either
simply digested in 2 to 4 times their weight of olive oil for some days,
or they are gently boiled in it until they become dry and crisp, great
care being taken that the heat towards the end of the process is not
greater than that of boiling water. As soon as the process is complete,
the oil is allowed to drain from the ingredients, which are then (if
necessary) submitted to the action of the press. The product is commonly
run through flannel or a hair sieve whilst still warm, after which it is
allowed to repose for a week or ten days, when the clear portion is
decanted from the dregs. The green or recent plants are usually employed
for this purpose, but, in many cases, the dried plants, reduced to powder,
and digested for 6 or 8 hours in the oil, at the heat of hot water, with
frequent agitation, yield a much more valuable product. They are nearly
all employed as external applications only.
⁂ The following are the most important preparations of this class:——
=Oil of Adder’s Tongue.= _Syn._ OLEUM OPHIO GLOSSI, L. From the herb, as
OIL OF BELLADONNA. A popular vulnerary.
=Oil of Ants.= _Syn._ OLEUM FORMICARUM. Digest 4 oz. of ants in 16 oz. (by
weight) of olive oil with a gentle heat, and strain.
=Oil of Bal′sam Apple.= _Syn._ OLEUM BALSAMINÆ. _Prep._ Balsam apple
(deprived of seeds), 1 oz.; oil of almonds, 4 oz.; digest and strain.
=Oil of Belladon′na.= _Syn._ OLEUM BELLADONNÆ (P. Cod.), L. _Prep._ From
the fresh leaves, bruised, 1 part; olive oil, 4 parts; digested together
at a gentle heat until the moisture is evaporated; the oil is then
strained off with pressure, and filtered.
=Oil of Cantha′rides.= _Syn._ OLEUM CANTHARIDIS, O. CANTHARIDIBUS, L.
_Prep._ (P. Cod. 1839). From Spanish flies (powdered), 1 part; olive oil,
8 parts; as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Stimulant and rubefacient. Used as a
dressing to indolent sores, blisters, &c.; and in dropsy, rheumatism,
gout, &c., OIL OF THE OIL-BEETLE (_Meloe proscarabæus_——Linn.) is prepared
in a similar manner.
=Oil of Cap′sicum.= _Syn._ OLEUM CAPSICI, L. _Prep._ (Dr Turnbull.) From
powdered capsicum or Cayenne pepper, 4 oz., olive oil, 1 pint; digested
together for 6 hours, with heat, and strained. Stimulant; rubefacient in
colic, cholera, &c.
=Oil of Cham′omile.= _Syn._ OLEUM ANTHEMIDIS, OL. CHAMÆMELI, L. From the
dried flowers (rubbed to pieces), 1 part, olive oil, 8 parts; digested
together, with heat, for 6 hours. Stimulant, emollient, and vermifuge.
=Oil of Col′ocynth.= _Syn._ OLEUM COLOCYNTHIDIS, L. From the pulp, as OIL
OF CHAMOMILE. Diuretic. In dropsy, neuralgia, rheumatism, worms, &c.
=Oil of Earth′worms.= _Syn._ OLEUM LUMBRICORUM. (E. Ph. 1744.) Washed
earthworms, 1/2 lb.; olive oil, 1-1/2 pint; white wine, 1/2 pint. Boil
gently till the wine is consumed, and press and strain.
=Oil of Elder-flowers.= _Syn._ WHITE OIL OF ELDER; OLEUM SAMBUCI ALBUM, O.
SAMBUCINUM (P. Cod.), L. _Prep._ From the flowers, as OIL OF CHAMOMILE.
Emollient and discussive.
=Oil of Elder-leaves.= _Syn._ GREEN OIL, GREEN OIL OF ELDER, OIL OF
SWALLOWS; OLEUM VIRIDE, O. SAMBUCI VIRIDE, L. _Prep._ 1. Green elder
leaves, 1 lb.; olive oil, 1 quart; boil gently until the leaves are crisp,
press out the oil, and again heat it till it turns green.
2. As before, but by maceration, at a heat under 212° Fahr. More odorous
than the last.
3. Elder leaves, 1 cwt.; linseed oil, 3 cwt.; as No. 1.
_Obs._ The last form is the one usually employed on the large scale. It is
generally coloured with verdigris, 1/2 lb. to the cwt., just before
putting it into the casks, and whilst still warm; as, without great skill
and a very large quantity of leaves, the deep-green colour so much admired
by the ignorant cannot be given to it. The oil is got from the leaves by
allowing them to drain in the pan or boiler (with a cock at the bottom),
kept well heated. Emollient; in great repute among the vulgar as a
liniment, in a variety of affections.
=Oil of Fen′ugreek.= _Syn._ OLEUM FŒNUGRÆCI, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) From the
seeds, as OIL OF CANTHARIDES or of CHAMOMILE. Emollient and resolvent.
=Oil of Fox′glove.= _Syn._ OLEUM DIGITALIS, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) From the
fresh leaves, as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Used as an application to chronic
ulcers and indurations, painful swellings &c. As usually met with, it is
nearly inert.
=Oil of Garden Night′shade.= _Syn._ OLEUM SOLANI, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.)
From the leaves, as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Anodyne and discussive.
=Oil of Gar′lic.= _Syn._ OLEUM ALLII INFUSUM, L. From garlic, as OIL OF
BELLADONNA. Used as a liniment in deafness, diarrhœa, infantile
convulsions, palsy, rheumatism, &c.
=Oil, Green.= _Syn._ OLEUM VIRIDI, L. From bay leaves, origanum, rue, sea
wormwood, and elder leaves, of each 2-1/2 oz.; olive oil, 1 quart; as OIL
OF ELDER. Detergent, stimulant, and resolvent. Green oil of elder is now
usually sold for it.
=Oil of Hem′lock.= _Syn._ OLEUM CONII, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) As OIL OF
BELLADONNA. Anodyne and emollient; in painful ulcers, glandular tumours,
&c.
=Oil of Hen′bane.= _Syn._ OLEUM HYOSCYAMI, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) As OIL OF
BELLADONNA. Used as the last, in various painful local affections.
=Oil Iodizeo, Marshall’s.= _Syn._ OLEUM IODATUM. _Prep._ Oil of almonds,
15 parts; iodine, 1 part. Triturate and digest till dissolved.
=Oil of Ju′′niper (by Infusion).= _Syn._ OLEUM JUNIPERI INFUSUM, L. From
the crushed berries, as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Diuretic and vulnerary; in
frictions, &c.
=Oil of Lil′ies.= _Syn._ OLEUM LILIORUM, L. From white lilies, 1 lb.;
olive oil, 3 lbs.; as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Emollient; used to soften and
ripen tumours, indurations, &c.
=Oil of Mel′ilot.= _Syn._ OLEUM MELILOTI, L. As the last, avoiding much
heat. Emollient and resolvent.
=Oil of Mu′cilages.= _Syn._ OLEUM MUCILAGINUM, O. CUM MUCILAGINIBUS, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. 1746.) Marshmallow root, 1/2 lb.; linseed and fenugreek
seed, of each, bruised, 3 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil 1 hour, add of olive
oil, 2 quarts, and boil until the water is consumed.
2. Fenugreek seeds, 8 oz.; linseed oil, 1 quart; infuse a week, and
strain. Once a highly popular emollient application in various local
affections.
=Oil of Mu′dar.= _Syn._ OLEUM MUDARIS, L. From mudar bark (in coarse
powder), 1 dr.; warm olive oil, 1/4 pint; digest 24 hours and strain. Used
as an application to cutaneous ulcers, the bites of venomous animals, &c.,
and as a friction in worms.
=Oil of O′′pium.= _Syn._ ANODYNE OIL, OPIATED O.; OLEUM OPIATUM, L.
_Prep._ From opium (in powder), 1 dr.; olive oil, 2-1/2 fl. oz.; digest at
a gentle heat, with frequent agitation, for 5 or 6 hours. The powder
should be rubbed in a mortar with a few drops of the oil before adding the
remainder. As a local anodyne. The above is the only reliable formula for
this preparation. Others are extant, but whilst the products of several
are much stronger, those from others have only 1-5th or 1-6th the
strength.
=Oils, Ozonised.= (Dr Thompson.) _Syn._ OLEO OZONATA. _Prep._ Pass oxygen
gas into the oil (cocoa nut, sunflower, cod-liver oil, &c.) until it will
dissolve no more. Then expose for a considerable time in the direct rays
of the sun. Used in phthisis.
=Oil of Pel′litory.= _Syn._ OLEUM PYRETHRI, L. From bruised pellitory
root, as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Used as the last.
=Oil of Black Pep′per (by Infusion).= _Syn._ OLEUM PIPERIS INFUSUM, L.
From black pepper, in coarse powder, as OIL OF CAPSICUM. Stimulant and
rubefacient; in frictions.
=Oil of Poison Oak.= _Syn._ OLEUM RHOIS TOXICODENDRI, L. From the leaves,
as OIL OF BELLADONNA Externally; in paralysis, &c.
=Oil of Rhu′barb.= _Syn._ OLEUM RHEI, L. From rhubarb (in powder), 1 part;
oil of almonds, 8 parts; digested together in a gentle heat for 4 hours,
and strained, with expression. As an application to indolent ulcers, and
as a friction over the abdomen in diarrhœa, English cholera, &c., or as a
laxative when the stomach will not bear medicine.
=Oil of Ro′′ses.= _Syn._ OLEUM ROSÆ, O. ROSACEUM, O. R. INFUSUM, O.
ROSATUM, L. _Prep._ From the fresh petals, pulled to pieces, crushed, and
digested for 2 or 3 days in the sun, or a warm situation, in 4 times their
weight of olive oil, and then pressed; the process being repeated with
fresh roses. Ph. E. 1744 and P. Cod. are nearly similar. ALMOND, BEN, or
OLIVE OIL, coloured with ALKANET, and scented with attar of roses, is now
almost universally sold for it. Used for the hair.
=Oil of Rue.= _Syn._ OLEUM RUTÆ (INFUSUM), L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) From fresh
rue, bruised, as OIL OF CHAMOMILE. Reputed antispasmodic, emmenagogue,
stimulant, and vermifuge. In frictions.
=Oil of St John’s Wort.= _Syn._ OLEUM HYPERICI (Ph. L. 1746), O. H.
SIMPLEX, BALSAMUM H., L. From the flowers, 1 part; olive oil, 6 parts;
digested together until the oil is well coloured. Antispasmodic,
stimulant, and resolvent. A mixture of equal parts of RAPE OIL and GREEN
ELDER OIL is usually sold for it.
=Oil of Scam′mony.= _Syn._ OLEUM SCAMMONII, O. PURGANS, L. _Prep._ (Van
Mons.) From scammony (in powder), 1 dr.; hot oil of almonds, 3 fl. oz.;
triturate together until cold, and the next day decant the clear
portion.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 table-spoonful.
=Oil of Stramo′′nium.= _Syn._ OLEUM STRAMONII, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) From
the leaves of thorn apple or stramonium, as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Anodyne and
discussive; as an application to painful tumours, joints, &c.
=Oil of Tobac′co (by Infusion).= _Syn._ OLEUM TABACI, O. T. INFUSUM, L.
From fresh tobacco leaves (bruised), like OIL OF CHAMOMILE. As an
application in ringworm, irritable ulcers, pediculi, &c.; and as a
friction in itch, neuralgia, painful indurations, &c. It must be used with
extreme caution, as it is poisonous.
=Oil of Tooth′wort.= _Syn._ OLEUM SQUAMARIÆ, L. From the herb of _Lathræa
squamaria_ (Linn.), as OIL OF ST JOHN’S WORT. Astringent and vulnerary.
This must not be confounded with another preparation sometimes called ‘OIL
OF TOOTHWORT’ (OLEUM PLUMBAGINIS EUROPÆÆ),and which has been occasionally
used in itch, as the latter is acrid and apt to cause much irritation.
=Oil of Worm′wood.= _Syn._ OLEUM ABSINTHII, L. From the fresh herb, as
OIL OF LILIES. The P. Cod. and Ph. Wurtem. order only part of the herb to
8 parts of oil. Applied to the abdomen in dyspepsia, diarrhœa, heartburn,
worms, &c. It is seldom used in this country.
=OILS (Mineral).= _Syn._ HYDROCARBON OILS. An important class of liquids,
consisting solely of carbon and hydrogen——the elements of ordinary
coal-gas, and obtained by the distillation of coal, lignite, petroleum,
and other bituminous substances. For the purposes of illumination, many of
these oils are in most respects superior to the fixed or fat oils
containing oxygen. They give a whiter and more brilliant light, and are
produced at a much lower cost. The lamps in which they are burnt, when
properly constructed, are less liable to get out of order than those
adapted for the combustion of fat oils, and require less attention when in
use. The experiments of Dr Frankland on the relative value of the ordinary
illuminating agents[57] prove that the mineral oils are cheaper than all
other portable illuminating agents in common use, and that they give,
while burning, the largest amount of light with the least development of
heat, and the smallest production of carbonic acid. With the oils adapted
for burning in lamps other oils are produced. Some are very volatile and
highly inflammable, and the safety of the burning oils depends on their
proper extraction. These volatile liquids, when isolated, are used in the
arts as substitutes for spirits of turpentine, as solvents for various
substances, and to increase the illuminating power of coal-gas. Others are
of a greasy nature, and are too heavy to be conveniently used in lamps.
These, however, are well adapted for lubricating fine machinery, and are
extensively employed instead of sperm oil by the cotton manufacturers of
Lancashire. When the more volatile ingredients are separated from the
burning oils, the latter are perfectly safe. Most of the mineral burning
oils now in use are, we believe, free from danger in this respect. (See
_Tests_, _below_.)
[Footnote 57: See article ILLUMINATION.]
_Hist._ For many years the manufacture of burning oils by the distillation
of bituminous schists has been extensively carried out on the Continent,
but the discovery which formed the foundation of the modern manufacture
was made nearly thirty years ago by our countryman, Mr James Young. This
gentleman took the lease of a spring of petroleum in 1847, and after
numerous experiments succeeded in obtaining two useful oils from the crude
liquid; the one being adapted for lubricating machinery, and the other for
burning in lamps. The almost total cessation of the flow of petroleum
terminated the business after two years’ working, and led Mr Young to
institute a series of experiments to try if petroleum could be produced
artificially by the destructive distillation of coal. These experiments
resulted in the discovery of an oil which Mr Young named ‘Paraffin oil,’
as it had many of the chemical properties of the solid body of paraffin,
discovered twenty years before by Reichenbach in beech-wood tar. Young’s
patent (dated Oct. 7, 1850) involved the slower distillation of coals, at
a lower temperature than had hitherto been employed for the purpose, and
this novelty in practice was followed by the novel result of a copious
production of liquid hydrocarbons. The gas or cannel coals were found to
yield the liquids in largest quantities, that variety known as Boghead
coal or Torbane Hill[58] mineral being specially adapted for the patented
process. (See PARAFFIN OIL, _below_.) Soon after Young’s discovery native
petroleum was brought from Rangoon, and purified by distillation, so as to
produce oils very similar to the coal products. During the last few years,
however, rich sources of petroleum have been discovered in North America,
and from whence are imported the greater part of the vast quantities of
petroleum oil (both for burning and lubricating purposes), together with
the paraffin spirit, or naphtha, which are consumed in this country.
[Footnote 58: This species of coal is now exhausted.——ED.]
In the following table are given the quantities of these substances sent
into England and Scotland during the year 1875:——
+---------+---------------+----------------+---------+-----------------+
| |Refined burning|Lubricating Oil.|Residuum.|Petroleum Spirit.|
| | Oil. | | | |
+---------+--------+------+----------------+---------+-------+---------+
| |Barrels.|Cases.|Barls. & Casks. |Barrels. |Cases. |Barrels. |
|London | 169,762| 3,250| 2,511 | 1,000 | ... | 53,173 |
|Liverpool| 95,853| 2,830| 300 | 29,358 | ... | 30,913 |
|Hull | 20,226| 8| ... | ... | ... | ... |
|Bristol | 36,889| 1,392| ... | ... | ... | 17,203 |
|Clyde and| | | | | | |
| Leith | 4,233| 4| 535 | 9,387 | ... | ... |
+---------+--------+------+----------------+---------+-------+---------+
| Total | 326,963| 7,484| 3,346 | 39,745 | ... |101,289 |
+---------+--------+------+----------------+---------+-------+---------+
This amounts to about 17 millions of gallons. In 1874 it exceeded 20
millions of gallons, but the stock in hand at the end of 1874 was about 5
millions of gallons, and the end of 1875 was only 1-1/2 million. The
difference was mainly due to overtrading in 1874, which brought refined
petroleum to the lowest price yet known in England, viz. 7-3/4d. per
gallon in December, 1874, and checked its subsequent importation.[59]
[Footnote 59: W. Matthieu Williams.]
_Tests, Precautions._ The Sanitary Commission of the ‘Lancet’ took as the
limit of safety an oil that gave off inflammable vapour when heated to
130° Fahr., and this has been generally accepted by dealers. If an oil
gives off inflammable vapours before being heated up to 130°, it is
considered unsafe for domestic use.
1. The plan for testing this, recommended in the ‘Lancet,’ is to heat a
portion of the suspected oil in a gallipot placed in boiling water,
ascertaining by a thermometer suspended in the oil the temperature at
which it will take fire on the surface when a lighted wax vesta is applied
to it. This is a troublesome and dangerous process, and has little
practical value.
2. A rough-and-ready method of testing the inflammability of a sample is
to pour a little out on a dry flat board, and try whether it can be
ignited readily by a lighted paper. If it catches fire like turpentine or
brandy, the oil is dangerous.
3. The following plan, proposed by Mr Tegetmeier, requires no scientific
knowledge and no apparatus but what is to be found in every house, while
it is sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes:——
“Take an earthenware dish, holding about half a pint (a breakfast cup will
do), fill the cup full from a kettle of boiling water, pour this into an
earthenware quart jug, then fill the same cup again with boiling water
from the kettle, and pour it also into the quart jug, then fill the cup
with cold water, put it into the jug, shake the jug to mix the hot and
cold water, then pour the tepid water from the jug into the cup till the
cup is half full, then pour about a table-spoonful of the oil to be tested
on the tepid water in the cup, take the oil-can with the oil out of the
room, then touch the surface of the oil in the cup with a lighted splinter
of wood, or a match without sulphur. If the match causes a flash of flame
to appear on the surface of the oil, the oil is below the standard of
safety, and should not be used; if no flame appears, the oil is up to the
standard. We may mention that in this trial no time should be lost after
pouring the boiling water from the kettle, as the water may get too cold,
but the whole may be gone through in from two to three minutes. It is well
to have a saucer at hand, and if the oil should be a bad oil, and ignite
with the match, place the saucer on the mouth of the cup, and the flame is
extinguished. This trial should be done by daylight, and at a distance
from a fire, and the directions must be followed exactly in the order as
given above.”
4. Provided that the oils to be examined have been produced by careful
fractional distillation, their relative volatility, as indicated by their
specific gravity, shows to a great extent the facility with which they
ignite. The lightest oils are more volatile and more easily inflamed than
those which are heavier. Oils much under ·800 inflame directly a lighted
match is thrown into them, whereas oils at about ·815 to ·823 (if unmixed
products) cannot be set on fire in this manner. The specific gravity test
cannot, however, be depended on to determine the inflaming point of any
commercial oil. A heavy oil, badly rectified, may contain a proportion of
very volatile vapour, and have a low inflaming point; whereas a much
lighter oil may be perfectly safe, from its having the more volatile
portions carefully removed.
5. (Van der Weyde.) The oil to be tested is placed in a graduated tube
closed at one end; the open end is then closed with the finger, and is
then placed mouth downwards in a vessel of water that is heated from
43°——44° C. The vapour from the portion volatilised at this temperature
then collects in the upper part of this tube, and expels a corresponding
quantity of oil. See PETROLEUM.
In Great Britain petroleum is defined by Act of Parliament as being any
oil which gives off all inflammable vapour at a temperature less than 100°
F.
To prevent accidents with paraffin or petroleum lamps, the following
precautions ought to be observed:——
The lamps should be filled and trimmed by daylight.
They should never be overfilled; the oil should not be allowed to come
into contact with the metal work of the burner.
Any portion of oil spilled on the outside of the lamp should be carefully
wiped away.
When not in use the wick should be turned down into the wick-holder.
⁂ The principal products noticed below rank high among the numerous
varieties of mineral oil now in the market, but there are doubtless many
others equally good and safe. Their properties are described in accordance
with the results obtained by Mr W. B. Tegetmeier, who has devoted much
time to the examination of the mineral oils:——
=Oil, Al′bertite.= From ‘Albertite,’ a lustrous black mineral found in New
Brunswick. A sample was shown in the Colonial Department of the
International Exhibition of 1862, but the oil has not yet appeared in the
English market.
_Prop._ Odour very slight; illuminating power high; boiling point 338°
Fahr., or 126° above that of water.
=Oil, American.= See PETROLEUM OIL (_below_).
=Oil, Apyroec′tic.= _Syn._ NON-EXPLOSIVE OIL. A burning oil, introduced by
F. Tall, of Hull, and prepared, we believe, from American petroleum.
_Prop._ Slightly coloured; perfectly limpid; odour slight, but not
perceivable during combustion. The most remarkable property of this oil is
that, in spite of its limpidity, the point at which it gives off
inflammable vapour is 180° Fahr., or 80° above the requirements of the
Petroleum Act.
=Oil, Bel′montine.= From Rangoon tar, or Burmese petroleum, by
distillation; superheated steam being employed as the heating agent.
_Prop._ Colourless; odour not unpleasant; sp. gr. ·847; but although so
heavy, the oil is altogether free from viscosity, and will rise rapidly in
a comparatively long wick; inflaming point 134° Fahr.; burns with an
exceedingly white light, and possesses a very high illuminating power.
_Obs._ The distillation of the Rangoon tar is carried on by Price’s Patent
Candle Company under a patent. Besides the above lamp oil, several
beautiful and useful products are obtained. At first there comes over a
very volatile liquid, termed SHERWOOD OIL, used as a detergent for
removing grease from fabrics, cleaning gloves, &c.; then comes the
BELMONTINE OIL, already noticed; then two lubricating oils, the one light
and the other heavy; and, last of all, when the temperature is
considerably elevated, the beautiful white, translucent solid known as
BELMONTINE, distils over. This last is a kind of paraffin, and is used for
making ornamental candles.
=Oil, Caz′eline.= An excellent burning oil, probably prepared from
American petroleum, introduced by Cassell, Smith, and Co., of London.
_Prop._ Bright, limpid, with scarcely a trace of colour; odour very
slight, and quite free from any objectionable character; sp. gr. ·805;
lowest point of ignition 144° Fahr.; burns with a pure white light, free
from smoke and smell.
=Oil, Col′zarine.= A heavy hydrocarbon oil, adapted for burning in lamps
constructed from the old ‘Moderators’ and ‘Carcels,’ formerly so much used
for the fat oils.
_Prop._ Limpid; quite inodorous; of a pale amber colour; sp. gr. about
·838; temperature at which the vapour can be permanently ignited, 250°
Fahr. Tested in the altered moderator, it gives an intense white light,
without smoke or smell. Compared with vegetable colza oil, its
illuminating power is in the proportion of 3 to 2.
_Obs._ This oil is manufactured by Cassell, Smith, and Co., under Martin’s
patent for the modification of mineral oils, to fit them for burning in
lamps where ‘colza’ and other vegetable and animal oils have been usually
consumed. Similar oils are prepared by other firms.
=Oil, Machin′ery.= _Syn._ LUBRICATING OIL, SHAFTING O., SPINDLE O. The
heavier hydrocarbon, oils obtained in distilling coal, shale, and
petroleum, have almost superseded the fat oils for lubricating purposes.
They have no chemical action on the ordinary metals, and are not affected
by cold. The lightest of these comparatively heavy oils are used for
spindles, or other kinds of rapid machinery; the heaviest for the bearing
parts of heavy machinery; and those of an intermediate character for such
things as printing-presses, agricultural steam-engines, &c. In America and
on the Continent this oil is also used for making gas. The firm of
Whitmore and Craddock is favorably known for the manufacture and
purification of these machinery oils. See OIL, BELMONTINE (_above_), and
OIL, PARAFFIN (_below_).
=Oil, Pa′raffin.= _Syn._ PARAFFINE OIL. This name was given by Mr Young to
the oil produced by the distillation of cannel coal, Boghead coal, &c., at
a temperature considerably lower than that employed in the manufacture of
illuminating gas. The following is a brief outline of Mr Young’s
process:——
_Manuf._ (Young’s patent.) Boghead coal, broken into small fragments, is
introduced into perpendicular tubes or retorts, about eleven feet in
height, by conical hoppers at their upper extremities. Four of these tubes
constitute a set, being built into one furnace, and charged by a single
workman. They pass completely through the furnace, and are closed below by
dipping into shallow pools of water, while the openings into the hoppers
above may be shut by spherical valves. The coal in each tube is gradually
heated as it descends to that part which passes through the furnace, and
when it reaches the bottom of the tube it has parted with its volatile
constituents, and is raked away as refuse, the coal from above descending
as it is removed. Thus, the action of these perpendicular retorts is
continuous, and the distillation goes on uninterruptedly both day and
night. The vapours produced are conducted by iron tubes to the main
condensers, which consist of a series of syphon pipes freely exposed to
the air. The quantity of incondensible gas formed is inconsiderable; and
it is this result, so different from that obtained in the ordinary
gasworks, that marks the great value of Young’s process. The crude oil, a
dark-coloured, thick liquid, is then distilled to dryness in large iron
cylindrical stills, and is thus freed from the excess of carbon which is
left behind as coke. The oil, after distillation, is further purified by
being acted upon by strong sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), which chars
the principal impurities, and causes them to subside in the form of a
dense black, heavy acid tar. To separate the remaining impurities, and
that portion of the sulphuric acid which remains in the oil, it is next
subjected to the action of caustic soda. As thus purified, the paraffin
oil contains four distinct commercial products. To effect their
separation, the process of fractional distillation is first employed. The
first elevation of temperature drives over the lighter and more volatile
portions, which, when purified by a subsequent distillation, yields the
fluid known as ‘paraffin naphtha,’ ‘petroleum spirit,’ ‘benzoline.’ This
product is used as a substitute for ‘turps,’ as a solvent for india rubber
for cleaning gloves, and for burning in those naphtha lamps so much
employed by costermongers, and workmen in railway tunnels and similar
situations. On the perfect separation of this naphtha the safety of the
burning oil depends. This burning oil, the ‘paraffin oil’ of commerce,
comes over at a much higher temperature than the naphtha. It is a
perfectly safe lamp oil, and has a greater illuminating value than any
other oil in the market. Its properties are noticed _below_. The third
product in point of volatility is a comparatively heavy liquid (machinery
oil), largely used for lubricating purposes in the Lancashire factories.
From this oil, and others which come over at a very high temperature, the
fourth commercial product is separated by the action of artificial cold.
This last product is the beautiful translucent solid, paraffin, now much
used as a candle material.[60] (See OIL, PARAFFIN, PETROLEUM.)
[Footnote 60: For a detailed account of the processes carried on
at the Bathgate works, see Mr Tegetmeier’s paper in ‘England’s
Workshops,’——Groombridge and Sons.]
In the preparation of paraffin oil, from native petroleum, the oil is
obtained by direct distillation from the petroleum, and subsequently
separated from the more or less volatile hydrocarbons (the paraffin
naphtha, the lubricating oils and the solid paraffin) that are associated
with it by fractional distillation as in Young’s process; whereas, when
procured from bituminous minerals, it is derived from the _tar_ or _crude
oil_, which has to be previously extracted from the bituminous matters by
destructive distillation. There are various methods for obtaining this tar
or crude oil, which, although differing in detail, are in general
principles very similar to that described in Young’s patent. Thus, whilst
in many works _closed_ horizontal retorts are employed, in other
establishments vertical ones, to the bottoms of which are attached
receptacles for the receipt of the exhausted coal or other material as it
falls from the retort, the same as in Young’s apparatus, are extensively
adopted. When horizontal retorts are employed they are made of cast iron,
and vary in length from 8 to 10 feet, being from 28 to 34 inches wide and
from 9 to 14 inches deep. The charge is introduced by an opening in the
end of the retort, by which aperture the exhausted residue is removed when
necessary. This aperture is closed by a tightly fitting cast iron cover
while the distillation is going on. At the other end of the retort is a
pipe for carrying off the products of distillation. This communicates with
a larger pipe, and this latter with the condensing apparatus. A number of
these retorts are set together in a row, with a furnace at one end, and
flues extending beneath the retorts, while the upper parts of the retorts
are covered with brickwork, to prevent the oil vapours from being
decomposed by the heat of the waste furnace gas passing to the chimney
through the flues above the retorts.
The gaseous products of the distillation of the tar, leaving the retort by
the exit tube already described, are cooled by being made to pass through
a number of iron pipes exposed to the air, or surrounded by water, and
thus becoming condensed pass into a reservoir in the form of the oil,
which forms the material from which the various hydrocarbons are separated
by fractional distillation. Accompanying the oil vapours are certain
uncondensable gases; these escape through a properly contrived outlet
which is made in the condensing pipes; in some works these escaping gases
are utilised as fuel, and in others for purposes of illumination.
In other works superheated steam is driven into the retorts during the
process of distillation; but although this has the effect of sweeping the
oil vapour more quickly out of the retort into the condenser, it is
questionable whether this advantage covers the extra cost of the
production of the steam.[61]
[Footnote 61: Payne’s ‘Industrial Chemistry.’ Edited by Dr Paul.]
In many parts of Germany the extraction of the crude oil or tar from
bituminous substances is effected in ovens. In these ovens the bituminous
body is thrown upon a layer of burning fuel which covers the bottom of the
oven, the result being that the bituminous matter is resolved into gaseous
bodies which are lost, and tar which flows downwards toward the burning
fuel, which being covered with a layer of clay is prevented from entering
into violent combustion. This method, however, is only had recourse to on
a small scale, since it is found that in most cases the tar obtained by
means of it is not of a kind suited for yielding paraffin and paraffin
oils.
The preparation of the tar or crude oil from fossil fuel, of the character
already specified, constitutes one of the most delicate and difficult
branches in the manufacture of paraffin oils, and paraffin, &c. The chief
sources of failure to be avoided are the overheating of the oil vapour,
and its consequent decomposition (varying in amount) into useless gaseous
products; and its inefficient condensation.
It has been shown by Vohl that even when the construction of the retorts
is not of the best, an average yield of tar may be obtained by the proper
condensation of the vapours. “The complete condensation of the vapours of
the tar is one of the most difficult problems the mineral oil and paraffin
manufacturer has to deal with, while the means usually adopted for
condensation, such as large condensing surfaces, injection of cold water,
and the like, have proved ineffectual. It has often been attempted to
condense the vapours of tar in the same manner as those of alcohol, but
there exist essential differences between the distillation of fluids and
dry distillation. In the former case the vapours soon expel all the air
completely from the still and from the condenser, and provided, therefore,
that, in reference to the size of the still and bulk of the boiling
liquid, the latter be large and cool enough, every part of the vapour must
come into contact with the condensing surfaces. In the process of dry
distillation the process is entirely different, because with the vapours,
say of tar, permanent gases are always generated. On coming into contact
with the condensing surfaces a portion of the vapours is liquefied,
leaving a layer of gas as a coating, as it were, on the condensing
surface. The gas being a bad conductor of heat prevents to such an extent
the further action of the condensing apparatus, that a large proportion of
the vapours are carried on, and may be altogether lost. A sufficient
condensation of the vapours of tar can be obtained only by bringing all
the particles of matter which are carried off from the retorts into
contact with the condensing surface, which need neither be very large nor
exceedingly cold, because the latent heat of the vapours of tar is small,
and consequently a moderately low temperature will be sufficient to
condense those vapours to the liquid state. The mixture of gases and
vapours maybe compared to an emulsion such as milk, and as the particles
of butter may be separated from milk by churning, so the separation of the
vapours of tar from the gases can be greatly assisted by the use of
exhausters acting in the manner of blowing fans. It is of the utmost
importance in condensing the vapours of tar that the molecules of the
vapours be kept in continuous motion, and thus made to touch the sides of
the condenser. The condenser should not be constructed so that the vapours
and gases can flow uninterruptedly in one and the same direction.”[62]
[Footnote 62: B. Wagner.]
An important condition for the safe and quiet distillation of the tar or
crude oil when obtained is that it should be free from water. Unless the
removal of the water is effectually accomplished, during its distillation,
the tar may boil over, and coming into contact with the fire under the
still may give rise to an alarming conflagration. The dehydration of the
tar is effected in an apparatus constructed for the purpose, consisting of
an iron tank placed within a larger tank, a space of about two inches
intervening between the two tanks is filled with water, which is heated
to, and kept at a temperature of between 60° and 80° C., for 10 hours, by
the end of which time the ammoniacal water having separated from the
lighter tar is drawn off by a stop-cock placed at the bottom of the tank,
whilst the tar is decanted through a valve at the top.
In America the distillation of the natural petroleum oils is carried out
in cylindrical stills capable of holding as much as 1600 gallons each. The
retorts employed in the distillation of the tar or crude oils obtained
from shale and other bituminous compounds are often constructed of large
cast-iron flanged pans, each capable of containing from 1-1/2 to 3 tons of
the oil, “and forming the body of the retort. The pan is set in brickwork
with flues running round the upper portion, and beneath it is a perforated
dome of brickwork, through which the flame and hot gas from the furnace
pass up round the bottom of the pan before entering the flues by which the
upper portion of the pan is heated. To the flange of the pan is fitted a
flanged cover having on one side a discharge pipe through which the vapour
is passed to the worm of the condenser. In the centre of the cover is a
manhole. The oil condensed in the worm is discharged through a pipe into a
receiver, and the uncondensable gas escapes through an ascending
pipe.”[63]
[Footnote 63: Palen.]
The processes to which the crude oil or tar and the natural petroleum are
next submitted differ only in the degree of treatment with certain agents
to which these products are subjected when, after similar methods of
fractional distillation, they have been isolated from each other. The
benzoline and paraffin oils (both for burning and lubricating purposes)
separately yielded by the natural oils seldom require purification, or if
so in a minor degree only, whilst the same bodies as obtained from the
crude shale oil or tar must be submitted to various processes of
depuration before they are fit for the market. Thus, the crude petroleum
or burning oil derived from tar is characterised by a more or less dark
colour and disagreeable smell——properties which are partly due to the
presence of carbolic acid and its homologues. By agitating the paraffin
oil with a solution of caustic soda these objectionable substances are
removed.
The oil, being next separated from the alkali by subsidence, and any
remains of the soda being removed from it by washing with water, is next
mixed with an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid in the proportion of 5
per cent. of acid of sp. gr. 1·70. The acid removes from the oil certain
basic substances derived from the tar, which, like the carbolic acid, give
to it a bad odour and a dark colour. In this operation thorough admixture
of the acid with the oil is important, and this is generally effected by
mixing the two in vessels furnished with puddles. After a time, and when
the mixture has separated into two layers, the upper one or the paraffin
oil is drawn off from the lower or acid one, and well washed with water;
in some instances lime water is used for the washing, in others the water
is impregnated with caustic alkali. With some samples of crude paraffin
oil the above operations have to be repeated two or three times, and even
redistilled before the oil becomes sufficiently pure and colourless for
sale. When redistilled, the last portions which come over are often found
to yield some solid paraffin in addition to that furnished by the first
fractional distillation. The ‘paraffin,’ ‘naphtha,’ ‘petroleum,’ ‘spirit,’
or ‘benzoline’ (by all of which names it is known), which forms the more
volatile portion of the tar, and which is the first to pass over from the
retort, is subjected to the same treatment as that used for burning oil;
as for the denser lubricating oil, which passes over after the burning
portion, this being freed from any of the latter, is set aside in a cool
place, in order that any solid paraffin it contains may crystallise out,
and be separated from it.
The waste carbolate of soda resulting from the treatment of the oil with
the caustic alkali, being decomposed by sulphuric acid, the liberated
carbolic acid is utilised either as a disinfectant, or for saturating
railway sleepers; and sometimes as a source of certain tar colours; or it
may be used in the manufacture of gas, the soda which remains in the coke
being extracted by lixiviation. The waste sulphuric acid combined with the
ammoniacal liquors that always accompany the first stages of the
distillation of the tar is made into sulphate of ammonia.
_Prop._ The paraffin oil of commerce is of a very pale amber colour; is
bright, perfectly transparent, and remarkably limpid. Its sp. gr. is ·823.
Its point of temporary ignition is 150° Fahr., that of permanent ignition
being a few degrees higher. Its odour is very slight. Its rate of
combustion is slow, as may be inferred from the absence of the lighter
oils, as indicated by its high sp. gr. and inflaming point. At the same
time its limpidity proves the absence of the heavier oils, and accounts
for its rising through a long wick with freedom, and burning without
charring the cotton.
=Oil, Petro′leum.= _Syn._ KEROSENE OIL, REFINED PETROLEUM, PARAFFIN OIL.
Most of the burning oils now in the market are derived from American
petroleum. That obtained from natural petroleum is now manufactured solely
in America. The native petroleums vary greatly in properties, and numerous
methods of refining are employed by the manufacturers. The Canadian
petroleum contains sulphuretted hydrogen, which imparts to it a very
disagreeable smell, and is difficult of removal. Some make use of both
acids and alkalies, others employ alkalies alone, and steam is applied at
various degrees of heat. Some of the oils produced are of excellent
quality, but others are inferior, and do not ascend the wick in sufficient
quantity to afford a constant light. None of the native petroleums contain
carbolic acid and other impurities which exist in the oils distilled from
coals and shales; hence their purification is simple and comparatively
cheap. “The oil prepared from petroleum is almost colourless; it has a
specific gravity of about ·810, and when of good quality only a slight and
rather aromatic odour.” (Payen.) See PETROLEUM, and _above_.
=Oil, Shale.= As we have stated, products analogous to those derived from
cannel coal are obtained by the destructive distillation of bituminous
shales and schists, and lignites or brown coals. On the Continent the
production of shale oils has of late years declined considerably, owing to
their unsuccessful competition, in point of price, with the American
petroleum oils. The oil obtained from bituminous shale or from coal is
generally of higher specific gravity than that procured from petroleum; it
is deeper in colour, and not so pleasant in smell.
=OILS (Mixed).= _Syn._ COMPOUND OILS; OLEA COMPOSITA, OLEA MIXTA, L. Under
these names are commonly included various mixtures of oils and other
substances that possess an unctuous appearance. When not otherwise stated,
they are prepared by simply agitating the ingredients together, and, after
a sufficient time, decanting the clear portion, which, in some cases, is
then filtered. A few of them only possess any importance. Some of them are
highly esteemed as remedies among the vulgar, and the use of others is
confined to veterinary medicine.
The following include the principal mixed oils of the shops, to which the
names of a few other compounds, which are frequently called ‘_oils_’ by
the ignorant, are added, for the purpose of facilitating a reference to
them:——
=Oil of Turpentine, Sulphurated.= _Syn._ OLEUM TEREBINTHINÆ SULPHURATUM.
_Prep._ Sulphurated linseed oil, 1 part; oil of turpentine, 3 parts.
=Oil of Turpentine (for acoustic use).= _Syn._ OLEUM TEREBINTHINÆ
ACOUSTICUM. (Mr Manle.) Oil of almonds, 4 drams; oil of turpentine, 40
minims.
=Oil, Acou′stic.= _Syn._ EAR OIL; OLEUM ACOUSTICUM, O. TEREBINTHINÆ
ACOUSTICUM, L. _Prep._ From oil of turpentine, 1 part; oil of almonds, 6
parts; mix. In atonic deafness, accompanied with induration of the wax. 1
or 2 drops are poured into the ear, or on a piece of cotton wool, which is
then gently placed in it.
=Oil, Black.= _Syn._ OLEUM NIGRUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Oil of turpentine, 1
pint; rape oil, 3 pints; oil of vitriol, 1/4 lb.; agitate well together
with care; then add of Barbadoes tar, 3 oz.; again agitate well, and in 10
days decant the clear portion. Linseed oil is preferred for the above by
many persons.
2. (Percivall.) Sweet oil, 1 pint; oil of turpentine, 2 oz.; mix, add
gradually of oil of vitriol; 1-1/4 oz.; again mix, and leave the bottle
open until the next day. Detersive, stimulant. Used by farriers for mange,
&c.
=Oil, British.= _Syn._ COMMON OIL OF PETRE; OLEUM BRITANNICUM, O. PETRÆ
VULGARE, L. _Prep._ From oil of turpentine, 1 quart; Barbadoes tar, 1
lb.; oils of rosemary and origanum, of each 1 oz. Stimulant. Formerly
reputed to possess the most astonishing virtues.
=Oil, Camphora′ted.= Liniment of camphor.
=Oil, Car′ron.= Liniment of lime.
=Oil, Chabert’s.= _Syn._ CHABERT’S EMPYREUMATIC OIL; OLEUM CHABERTI, O.
CONTRA TÆNIAM CHABERTI, L. Oil of turpentine, 3 parts; Dippel’s animal
oil, 1 part; mix, and distil 3 parts. It must be preserved from the air
and light. Used in tapeworm.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls, in water, night
and morning, until 5 or 6 fl. oz., or more, have been taken; a cathartic
being given every third day.
=Oil, Exeter.= _Syn._ OLEUM EXCESTRENSE. (Gray.) Green oil, 16 lbs.;
euphorbium, mustard seed, castor, pellitory, of each 1 oz.; digest and
strain. The original form is more complex. The following is also
used:——Rape oil, 1-1/2 pint; green oil, 1/2 pint; oils of wormwood,
rosemary, and origanum, of each half a dram.
=Oil, Fur′niture.= _Syn._ MAHOGANY OIL, OIL STAIN. _Prep._ 1. From refined
linseed oil, 1 pint; alkanet root, 1/4 oz.; digested together in a warm
place until the former is sufficiently coloured, when it is poured off and
strained.
2. Pale boiled oil, 1 pint; beeswax, 1/4 lb.; melted together, and
coloured as before. Gives a superior polish, which becomes very tough by
age.
3. Linseed or boiled oil, 1 pint; Venice turpentine (pure), 6 oz.; as
before. The above are used for mahogany and other dark-coloured woods.
4. Linseed oil, 8 oz.; vinegar, 4 oz.; oil of turpentine, mucilage,
rectified spirit, of each 1/2 oz.; butter of antimony, 1/4 oz.;
hydrochloric acid, 1 oz. Mix.
5. Linseed oil, 16 oz.; black resin, 4 oz.; vinegar, 4 oz.; rectified
spirit, 3 oz.; butter of antimony, 1 oz.; spirit of salts, 2 oz.; melt the
resin, add the oil, take it off the fire, and stir in the vinegar; let it
boil for a few minutes, stirring it; when cool put it into a bottle, and
add the other ingredients, shaking all together. The last two are
specially used for reviving French polish.
6. (Pale.)——_a._ As the preceding, omitting the alkanet.
_b._ From nut oil, 3/4 pint; beeswax (finest), 3 oz.; melted together.
_c._ To the last add of copal varnish, 3 or 4 oz.
The last three are employed for pale woods. They are all applied by means
of a rag, and are ‘polished off’ with a ‘woollen rubber’ or ‘furniture
brush.’ A little strong vinegar, or a few drops of hydrochloric acid, are
sometimes added. See POLISH.
=Oil, Hair.= See OIL (Perfumed).
=Oil and Hartshorn.= Liniment of ammonia.
=Oil, I′ron.= _Syn._ OLEUM FERRI, O. MARTIS, L. The old name for the
liquid formed when perchloride of iron is allowed to deliquesce by free
exposure to the air. It is excessively caustic and corrosive.
=Oil, Lime.= See CALCIUM (Chloride).
=Oil, Macas′sar.= See OILS (Perfumed).
=Oil, Mar′row.= _Prep._ From clarified beef marrow, 1 part; oil of
almonds, 3 parts; melted together, and strained through muslin. It is
usually scented with ambergris, cassia, or mace, and slightly tinged with
palm oil or annotta. Used for the hair.
=Oils, Marshall’s.= _Prep._ From linseed oil and rape oil, of each 1 lb.;
green oil and oil of turpentine, of each 1/2 lb.; oil of origanum, 1/2 fl.
oz.; oil of vitriol, 1/4 oz.; well shaken together.
=Oils, Mixed.= _Syn._ OLEUM MIXTUM COMMUNE, L. _Prep._ From linseed oil
and green oil, of each 1 lb.; oil of turpentine, 1/2 lb.; Barbadoes tar
and balsam of sulphur, of each 2 oz.; oils of spike and origanum, of each
1 oz. Stimulant and rubefacient. Used by farriers for sprains, &c. See
OILS, STAMFORD’S (_below_).
=Oils, Newmarket.= _Prep._ From oils of linseed, turpentine, and St John’s
wort, of each 3 lbs.; oil of vitriol, 1-1/2 oz.; well shaken together, and
the clear portion decanted in a few days. A favourite remedy for sprains
in horses.
=Oils, Nine.= _Syn._ OLD MIXED OILS; OLEUM EX OMNIBUS, L. _Prep._ From
train oil, 1 gall.; oil of turpentine, 1 quart; oil of amber and oil of
bricks, of each 5 oz.; oil of spike and oil of origanum, of each 2 oz.;
Barbadoes tar, 2-1/2 lbs.; oil of vitriol, 2 oz.; camphorated spirit, 1/2
pint, mixed together as the last. A favourite remedy with provincial
farriers.
=Oil of Petre.= See OIL, BRITISH (_above_).
=Oil, Phos′phorated.= _Syn._ OLEUM PHOSPHORATUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. Bor.)
Phosphorus (dried and sliced small), 6 gr.; oil of almonds, 1 oz.; mix,
place the phial in hot water, agitate for some time, and, when cold,
decant the clear oil from the undissolved phosphorus.
2. (Magendie.) Phosphorus (sliced), 1/2 dr.; almond oil, 1 oz.; macerate
in the dark, with frequent agitation, for 14 days, then, after repose,
decant the clear portion, and aromatise it with a little essence of
bergamotte.
3. (B. Ph.) _Prep._ Take of phosphorus and oil of almonds, of each q. s.
Heat the oil in a porcelain dish to 300° F., and keep it at this
temperature for about 15 minutes, then let it cool and filter it through
paper. Put 4 fluid ounces of this oil into a stoppered bottle capable of
holding four and a half fluid ounces; then add to it 12 grains of
phosphorus. Immerse the bottle in hot water until the oil has acquired the
temperature of 180° F., removing the stopper two or three times to allow
the escape of expanded air, then shake the oil and phosphorus together,
until the latter is entirely dissolved.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 minims.
_Obs._ A fl. oz. of oil dissolves rather less than 5 gr. of pure
phosphorus. The large excess ordered in the second formula must be merely
for the purpose of increasing the extent of surface acted on. It is,
however, with the other precautions given, quite unnecessary. The products
of both formulæ have the same strength.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 or 12 drops, in
milk, barley water, or gruel, or made into an emulsion; in chronic
rheumatism, gout, &c., and as a powerful, diffusible stimulant in various
diseases with debility and general prostration of the vital powers, &c.
Externally, as a friction. It is chiefly to the presence of phosphorus
that cod-liver owes its wonderful remedial power in these affections.
=Oil, Quit′ter.= _Prep._ 1. Red precipitate, 2 dr.; aquafortis, 1 oz.;
dissolve, add of olive oil, oil of turpentine, and rectified spirit, of
each 2 oz.; and agitate well and frequently for 3 or 4 hours.
2. Ointment of nitrate of mercury (Ph. L.), 1 part; nut oil, 3 parts; melt
together, and stir until the mixture is cold. Used by farriers for
quitters, &c.
=Oils, Radley’s.= From Barbadoes tar, 1/2 lb.; linseed oil and oil of
turpentine, of each 1/4 pint; gently warmed, and shaken together.
=Oil, Shav′ing.= See ESSENCE OF SOAP.
=Oil, Sheldrake’s.= _Prep._ From pale boiled nut oil and copal varnish,
equal parts, melted together by the heat of hot water, and, when perfectly
mixed, placed aside in a bottle for a week to settle, after which the
clear portion is decanted. Used by artists to grind their colours in to
brighten them.
=Oil of Spike.= 1. (FARRIER’S). From oil of turpentine, 1 quart; Barbadoes
tar, 1-1/2 oz.; alkanet root, 1/2 oz.; digested together for a week. Used
as a stimulating liniment by farriers.
2. (PAINTER’S.)——_a._ From rectified oil of turpentine, 3 pints; oil of
lavender, 1 pint; mix.
_b._ Oil of turpentine (warm), 5 parts; lavender oil bottoms (genuine), 3
parts; agitate well together, and in a fortnight decant the clear away.
Used by artists and enamellers.
=Oils, Stamford’s.= _Syn._ LORD STAMFORD’S MIXED OILS. _Prep._ Dissolve
camphor, 1 oz., in rectified spirit of wine, 1/4 pint; add oil of
origanum, 2 oz.; oil of turpentine, 1/2 pint; green elder oil, 2 lbs.; and
agitate until mixed. The rectified spirit is now generally omitted, the
camphor being dissolved in the green oil by aid of heat before adding the
other ingredients. Stimulant. Used by farriers.
=Oil, Sul′phurated.= _Syn._ BALSAM OF SULPHUR; OLEUM SULPHURATUM, BALSAMUM
SULPHURIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. 1746.) Flowers of sulphur, 1 part; olive
oil, 4 parts; boil together in a vessel lightly covered, until they assume
the consistence of a thick balsam.
2. (Ph. L. 1824.) Olive oil, 16 fl. oz.; heat it in a sand bath, and
gradually add of washed sulphur, 2 oz.; stirring until they combine.
_Prop., &c._ Balsam of sulphur is a dark, reddish-brown, viscid fluid,
having an extremely disagreeable and penetrating odour, and a strong,
nauseous taste. The local action of balsam of sulphur is that of an acrid
and irritant; its remote effects those of a stimulant, expectorant, and
diaphoretic. Externally, it is occasionally used as an application to foul
ulcers; and was formerly commonly employed internally in chronic pulmonary
affections, in doses of 20 to 50 drops. It is now seldom given internally
except in veterinary practice.
=Oils, Three.= _Syn._ OLEUM DE TRIBUS (Van Mons), L. Oils of brick,
lavender, and turpentine, equal parts. As a stimulant liniment.
=Oil of Vit′riol.= Sulphuric acid.
=Oils, Ward’s.= _Syn._ WARD’S WHITE OILS. From powdered camphor, rape oil,
oil of turpentine, rectified spirit, and liquor of potassa, equal parts,
agitated together for some time, and again before use. Beef brine was
formerly used instead of liquor of potassa.
=Oil, Watchmaker’s.= Prepared by placing a clean strip or coil of lead in
a small white-glass bottle filled with pure almond or olive oil, and
exposing it to the sun’s rays at a window for some time till a curdy
matter ceases to be deposited, and the oil has become quite limpid and
colourless. Used for fine work; does not become thick by age.
=Oil, Wedell’s.= _Syn._ BEZOAR OIL; OLEUM BEZOARDICUM, L. From nut oil,
1/4 pint; camphor, 1/2 oz.; dissolve by a gentle heat, and, when cold, add
of essence of bergamot, 1 dr., and let it stand over a little alkanet root
until sufficiently coloured.
=Oils, White.= _Syn._ WHITE EGG-OILS. _Prep._ 1. Yolks of eggs, 4 in
number; oil of turpentine, 1/4 pint; mix, add of liquor of ammonia, 3 fl.
oz.; oil of origanum, 1/2 oz.; soaper’s lye, 1/4 pint; water, 3/4 pint;
agitate well, and strain through a coarse hair sieve.
2. Rape oil, 3/4 pint; liquor of ammonia and oil of turpentine, of each 3
oz.; agitate until they form a milk.
3. (Redwood.) Whites and yolks of 2 eggs; oil of turpentine, 1-1/2 oz.;
triturate together, add of Goulard’s extract, 1/2 oz; mix, next add of
distilled vinegar, 1-1/2 pint, and, lastly, of rectified spirit, 1-1/2 fl.
oz. Stimulant and detergent. Used by farriers.
=Oil, Worm (Canine).= _Syn._ OLEUM VERMIFUGUM CANINUM. _Prep._ From oil of
turpentine and castor oil, equal parts; tinged yellow with a little palm
oil or annotta.——_Dose._ For a middle-sized dog, 1/2 oz., repeated in 2 or
3 hours if it does not operate.
=OILS (in Perfumery).= _Syn._ SCENTED OILS; OLEA FIXA ODORATA, L. The oils
which usually form the basis of these articles are those of almonds, ben,
or olives; but others are occasionally used. The methods adopted for their
preparation vary with the nature of the substances whose fragrance it is
intended to convey to the oil. The Continental perfumers employ three
different processes for this purpose, which they technically distinguish
by terms indicative of their nature. These are as under:——
1. A sufficient quantity of the essential oil of the plant, or of the
concentrated essence of the substance, if it does not furnish an oil, is
added to the fixed oil which it is desired to perfume, until the latter
becomes agreeably fragrant; the whole is then allowed to repose for a few
days, and, if any sediment falls (which should not be the case when the
ingredients are pure), the clear portion is decanted into another bottle.
When alcoholic essences are thus employed, the fixed oil should be gently
warmed, and the admixture made in a strong bottle, so as to permit of it
being corked and well agitated with safety; and in this case the agitation
should be prolonged until the whole has become quite cold. In this way all
the ordinary aromatised and perfumed oils of the English druggists and
perfumers, as those of bergamotte, cassia, cloves, lavender, lemon,
mille-fleurs, neroli, nutmeg, oranges, roses, &c., are made, but those of
a few of the more delicate flowers, and of certain other substances, can
only be prepared of the first quality by one or other of the processes
described below.
In general, 1 to 1-1/2 dr. of the pure essential oil, or 3 to 4 fl. dr. of
the alcoholic essences, are found sufficient to render 1 pint of oil
agreeably fragrant, 1/2 dr. of pure attar of roses is, however, enough for
this purpose, owing to the very powerful character of its perfume; but
even a less quantity than this is commonly employed, on account of its
costliness, the deficiency being made up by a mixture of the oils of
rhodium, rosemary, and bergamotte. Most of the oils of this class are
intended for hair cosmetics.
2. (By INFUSION.) Dry substances, after being reduced to powder, or sliced
very small——flowers or petals, after being carefully selected, and picked
from the stems and other scentless portions——and soft or unctuous matters,
as ambergris, civet, or musk, after being rubbed to a paste with a little
oil, either with or without the addition of about twice their weight of
clean sand or powdered glass, to facilitate the reduction, are digested in
the fixed oil for about 1 hour, at a gentle heat obtained by means of a
water bath, continual stirring being employed all the time; the mixture is
then removed from the heat, covered up, and left to settle until the next
day, when the clear portion is decanted into clean bottles. When flowers
are employed, the free oil is drained off, and the remainder obtained by
the action of a press. The process is then repeated with fresh flowers, 5
or 6 times, or even oftener, until the oil is sufficiently perfumed. For
ambergris, musk, or civet, the digestion is generally continued for 15 to
20 days, during which time the vessel is either freely exposed to the
sunshine, or kept in an equally warm situation.
The first quality of the oils of ambergris, balsam of Peru, benzoin,
cassia, cinnamon, civet, orange flowers, orris, roses, styrax, and
vanilla, are made by infusion.
3. (BY THE FLOWERS.)——_a._ Upon an iron frame a piece of white, spongy,
cotton cloth is stretched, and then moistened with almond or olive oil,
usually the latter; on the cloth is placed a thin layer of the
fresh-plucked flowers; another frame is similarly treated, and in this way
a pile of them is made. In 24 or 30 hours the flowers are replaced by
fresh ones, and this is repeated every day or every other day, until 7 or
8 different lots of flowers have been consumed, or the oil is sufficiently
loaded with their odour. The oil is then obtained from the cotton cloth by
powerful pressure, and is placed aside in bottles to settle, ready to be
decanted into others for sale. Sometimes thin layers of cotton wool,
slightly moistened with oil, are employed instead of cotton cloth.
The oils of honeysuckle, jasmin, or jessamine, jonquil, may-blossom,
myrtle-blossom, narcissus, tuberose, violet, and, in general, of all the
more delicate flowers, are prepared in the above manner.
_b._ The native perfumers of India prepare their scented oils of bela,
chumbul, jasmin, &c., in the following manner:——A layer of the scented
flowers, about 4 inches thick and 2 feet square, is formed on the ground;
over this is placed a layer of moistened tel or sesamum seeds, 2 inches
thick, and on this another 4-inch layer of flowers. Over the whole a sheet
is thrown, which is kept pressed down by weights attached round the edges.
The flowers are replaced with fresh ones after the lapse of 24 hours, and
the process is repeated a third and even a fourth time, when a very highly
scented oil is desired. The swollen sesamum seeds, rendered fragrant by
contact with the flowers, are then submitted to the action of the press,
by which their bland oil is obtained strongly impregnated with the aroma
of the flowers. The expressed oil is then set aside in dubbers (bottles
made of untanned hides) to settle. We have employed poppy seed in this
country, in a similar manner, with great success.
_c._ The flowers are crushed in a mortar or mill, with one half their
weight of blanched sweet almonds, and the next day the mass is gently
heated and submitted to the action of a powerful press; the liquid thus
obtained is allowed to repose for a week, when the upper portion of oil is
decanted and filtered. This plan is occasionally adopted in this country
for the oils of roses and of a few other flowers. (See _below_.)
The solution of a few grains of benzoic acid, or of gum benzoin
(preferably the first), in any of the above oils, will materially retard
the accession of rancidity, if it does not prevent it altogether.
The oils of the last two classes (2 and 3) are chiefly used to impart
their respective odours to the simple oils, pomades, &c.; and in the
manufacture of scented spirits or esprits. The following formulæ are given
as examples of both classes of preparations:——
=Oil of Am′bergris.= From ambergris, 2 dr.; oil, 1 pint; by infusion.
=Oil of Ben′zoin.= From gum benzoin, 7 dr.; oil, 1 pint; by infusion.
=Oils for the Hair.= _Syn._ HUILES ANTIQUES, Fr. These are numerous. All
those scented with the simple perfumes are prepared in the way explained
under class 1 (_above_). The selection depends entirely upon the judgment
of the operator or the fancy of the purchaser. In general, a mixture of
two or three perfumes is preferred in these countries to the pure
fragrance of any single flower, and a grossness of taste is exhibited in
these matters which surprises our Continental neighbours, and the
inhabitants of Italy more particularly. Some of these oils are coloured. A
red tinge is given to them by allowing the oil to stand for a few hours
over a little alkanet root (2 dr. to the pint) before scenting it. The
application of a gentle heat facilitates the process. Yellow and orange
are given by a little annotta or palm oil; and green, by steeping a little
green parsley or lavender in them for a few days; or by dissolving 2 or 3
dr. of gum guaiacum in each pint by the aid of heat, and, when cold,
decanting the clear portion. Huile antique au jasmin, Huile antique à la
fleurs d’oranges, Huile antique à la rose, Huile antique à la tuberose,
Huile antique à la violette, &c., are simple oils flavoured with the
respective perfumes or their preparations.——Huile antique rouge à la rose
is the ordinary oil of roses coloured with alkanet root.——Huile antique
verte is simple oil coloured green, as above, and scented.——Huile antique
aux millefleurs is so scented with several perfumes that none predominate.
A mixture of bergamotte, lemons, lavender, neroli, pimento, and ambergris
or musk, is commonly employed for the purpose.
=Oil, Macas′sar.= _Syn._ HUILE DE MACASSAR. _Prep._ 1. (Rowland’s.) Oil of
ben or almonds (reddened by alkanet root), 1 pint; oils of rosemary and
origanum (white), of each 1 dr.; oil of nutmeg and attar of roses, of each
15 drops; neroli, 6 drops; essence of musk, 3 or 4 drops.
2. (De Naquet.) Oil of ben, 1 quart; nut oil, 1 pint; rectified spirit,
1/4 pint; essence of bergamotte, 3-1/2 dr.; tincture of musk and esprit de
Portugal, of each 2 dr.; attar of roses, 1/2 dr.; alkanet root, q. s. to
colour.
=Oil, Mar′row (Perfumed).= 1. Simple marrow oil, scented at will.
2. (FLUIDE DE JAVA.) Marrow oil, coloured with a little palm oil and
scented.
3. (HUILE COMOGENE.) Marrow oil, 4 oz.; spirit of rosemary, 1-1/2 oz.; oil
of nutmeg, 12 drops.
4. (HUILE PHILOCOME D’AUBRIL.) Cold-drawn nut oil and marrow oil, equal
parts; scent at will, q. s.
5. (HUILE DE PHÉNIX.) Clarified beef marrow, lard, pale nut oil, and
expressed oil of mace, of each 4 oz.; melt together by the heat of hot
water, strain through linen into a warm stone mortar, add, of oils of
cloves, lavender, mint, rosemary, sage, and thyme, of each 1/2 dr.;
rectified spirit, 1 oz., in which has been dissolved by a gentle heat
balsam of tolu, 4 dr.; camphor, 1 dr.; triturate until the whole is cold,
and then put it into bottles. All the above are used to make the hair
grow, and to prevent it falling off.
=Oil of Musk.= From grain musk, 1 dr.; ambergris, 1/2 dr.; oil of
lavender, 20 drops; oil, 1 pint, by infusion. A second quality is made by
working the same ingredients, after the oil is poured from them, with 3/4
pint of fresh oil. This also applies to OIL OF AMBERGRIS and HUILE ROYALE.
=Oil of Musk and Am′bergris.= _Syn._ HUILE ROYALE. From ambergris, 2 dr.;
grain musk, 1/2 dr.; oils of cassia, lavender, neroli, and nutmeg, of each
10 drops; oil, 1 pint; by infusion. (See _above_.)
=Oil of Sty′rax.= From liquid styrax (pure), 5 dr.; oil of nutmeg, 10
drops; ambergris, 6 gr.; oil, 1 pint; by infusion.
=Oil of Vanil′la.= _Syn._ HUILE À LA VANILLE. From purest olive or almond
oil, 1-1/2 pint; vanilla (finest, in powder), 2 oz.; oil of bergamotte, 1
dr.; attar of roses (finest), 15 drops; by infusion.
=OILS (Volatile).=[64] _Syn._ OLEA DESTILLATA, OLEA DISTILLATA, OLEA
ESSENTIALIA, OLEA VOLATILIA, L.; HUILES VOLATILES, Fr. The volatile oils
are an extensive and important class of bodies, derived from the vegetable
kingdom, and found in almost every part of the majority of the plants
which produce them, except the cotyledons of the seeds, in which, in
general, the fixed oils are exclusively stored up. Their presence confers
upon flowers, leaves, fruit, seeds, roots, bark, and woods their peculiar
and characteristic odours; but among these they are not equally
distributed in the same individual, and are often altogether absent from
some of them. To them we are indebted for our most delightful perfumes,
and our choicest spices and aromatics. Some of them are found to possess
valuable medicinal properties, and others are invested with the highest
possible interest on account of their peculiar chemical constitution, and
the reactions which occur when they are brought into contact with other
bodies.
[Footnote 64: Although essential oils are volatile oils, volatile oils are
not always essential ones as the term is understood. This is the case with
the petroleum and paraffin oils obtained by the distillation of native
petroleum and bituminous bodies. To describe the two as synonymous is
therefore incorrect.——ED.]
The volatile oils are often called ‘essences,’ and the same loose and
unmeaning term is also commonly applied to their alcoholic solutions.
_Prop._ The volatile or essential oils are usually more limpid and less
unctuous than the fixed oils; but some of them are butyraceous or
crystalline. Nearly all of them consist of two or more oils, differing in
their sp. gr. and boiling points, one of which is generally liquid, the
other, in some cases, crystalline. All of them, when perfectly pure, are
colourless, though before rectification nearly the whole of them have a
pale yellow tint, and some of them are brown, blue, or green. Their odour
is that of the plants which yield them, and is usually powerful; their
taste is pungent and burning. They mix in all proportions with the fixed
oils, dissolve freely in both alcohol and ether, and are sparingly soluble
in water, forming ‘perfumed’ or ‘medicated waters.’ Their boiling point
usually ranges between 310° and 325° Fahr., and is always considerably
higher than that of water. They resist saponification, and (excepting oil
of cloves) do not combine with the salifiable bases. Their density
fluctuates a little on either side of water. The lightest oil is that of
citrons (sp. gr. ·847), and the heaviest that of sassafras (sp. gr.
1·096). When cooled sufficiently, they all solidify. The common
temperature of the atmosphere is sufficient for this with some of them, as
the oils of roses and aniseed; whilst others require to be cooled below
the freezing point of water before they assume the solid form. In this
state they appear to consist of a crystalline or semi-crystalline
substance (stearopten, stearessence), and a fluid portion (eleopten,
oleiessence). The two may be separated by pressing the concrete oil
between the folds of bibulous paper, in the cold. By exposure to the air
the volatile oils rapidly absorb oxygen, and become partially converted
into resin. This is the cause of the deposit that usually forms in them
(especially in the expressed oil of orange) when kept in an ill-corked
vessel. The solid crystalline matter which separates from them when kept
in closed vessels is stearoptene.
_Class._ Chemically considered, the essential oils may be divided into
three great classes:——
1. Oils composed of carbon and hydrogen only (binary volatile oils,
carbo-hydrogens, hydro-carbons, terebenes, camphenes), of which oil of
turpentine may be regarded as the type. These are characterised by being,
as a class, less soluble in rectified spirit and in water than the other
essential oils. The oils of bergamot, capivi, cubebs, elemi, hops,
juniper, lemons, orange peel, pepper, the grass oil of India, the laurel
oil of Guiana, and some others, belong to this class.
2. Oils containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (oxygenated oils),
including most of those used in medicine and perfumery. These, as a class,
are more soluble in rectified spirit and in water than those containing
carbon and hydrogen only. To this class belong the oils of almonds,
aniseed, cassia, cedar-wood, cinnamon, cumin, jasmin, lavender,
meadow-sweet (_Spirœa ulmaria_), orange flowers, pennyroyal, peppermint,
spearmint, rosemary, rose-petals, valerian, winter green (_Gaultheria
procumbens_), and others too numerous to mention. A few of these
oxygenated oils contain nitrogen.
3. Oils containing sulphur (sulphuretted oils). These are characterised by
their extreme pungency, suffocating odour, vesicating power, property of
blacking silver, and being decomposed by contact with most other metallic
bodies. The oils of assafœtida, black mustard seed, garlic, horseradish,
and onions, are of this kind. Some sulphuretted oils contain nitrogen.
_Prep._ The volatile oils are generally procured by distilling the
odoriferous substances along with water; but in a few instances they are
obtained by expression, and still more rarely by the action of alcohol.
According to the common method of proceeding, substances which part freely
with their oil are put into the still along with about an equal weight of
water, and are at once submitted to distillation. Those substances which
give out their oil with difficulty are first soaked for 24 hours, or
longer, in about twice their weight of water, to each gallon of which 1
lb. of common salt has been added, in order to raise its boiling point.
The distillation is conducted as quickly as possible, and, when one half
the water has come over, it is returned into the still, and this
cohobation is repeated, when necessary, until the distilled water ceases
to be mixed with oil. The heat of steam or a salt-water bath should be
preferably employed. When a naked fire is used, the still should be deep
and narrow, by which means the bottom will be better protected by the
gradually decreasing quantity of water towards the end of the process, and
empyreuma prevented. When the distilled water is to be repeatedly
cohobated on the ingredients, a convenient and economical plan is to so
arrange the apparatus that, after the water has separated from the oil in
the receiver, it shall flow back again into the still. An ordinary
worm-tub, or other like condensing apparatus, may be employed; but in the
case of those oils which readily solidify, the temperature of the water in
the condenser must not fall below about 55° Fahr.
The mixed vapours which pass over condense and fall as a milky-looking
liquid into the receiver. This separates after a time into two portions,
one of which is a solution of a part of the newly eliminated oil in water,
and the other is the oil itself. The latter either occupies the upper or
the lower portion of the receiver, according as its specific gravity is
less or greater than that of distilled water. The separation of the oil
and water is effected by allowing the mixed liquids to drop into a
‘Florentine receiver’ (see _engr._) when the oil is the lighter of the
two, by which means the latter accumulates at _a_, and the water flows
over by the spout _b_.
[Illustration]
The same receiver may be employed for oils heavier than water, by
reversing the arrangement; but a glass ‘separator’ (see _engr._) is, in
general, found more convenient. In this case the oil accumulates at the
bottom of the vessel, and may be drawn off by the stop-cock provided for
the purpose.
[Illustration]
The essential oils of lemons and oranges of commerce, and of some other
fruits, are chiefly obtained by submitting the yellow rind to powerful
pressure; but in this way they are not so white, nor do they keep so well,
as when distilled, although in the case of the fruits referred to the oils
are more fragrant than when prepared by any other method.
The London College excluded the usual directions for the preparation of
the essential oils from their Pharmacopœia of 1851, on the ground that
these substances are seldom prepared by the druggist or apothecary, or at
all on the small scale.
“The fruit of anise, caraway, and juniper, the flowers of chamomile,
lavender, and elder, the berries of allspice, the tops of rosemary, and
the entire recent plants of the other herbs, are to be employed.” “Put any
one of these into an alembic, then pour in as much water as will cover it,
and distil the oil into a large vessel, kept cool.” (Ph. L. 1836.)
The Edinburgh College directs——“As much water only is to be employed as
will prevent empyreuma during the distillation. The distillation may be
immediately commenced after a proper maceration, and the oil afterwards
separated from the water,” in the manner already noticed.
“It is also necessary to observe, in preparing these oils, as well as the
distilled waters, that the quality of the substances, their texture, the
season of the year, and similar circumstances, must occasion so many
differences, that it is scarcely possible to give any certain and general
rules which shall strictly apply to every example. Many things, therefore,
must be regulated by the judgment of the operator.”
The Dublin College directs the vegetable substances to be macerated in the
still with about 5 times their weight of water, for 24 hours, when one
half of the water is to be drawn over. The oil having been separated from
this in the usual manner, it is to be returned to the still, and the same
quantity drawn over, as before, from which the oil must again be
separated.
Chevallier gives the following rules for the distillation of essential
oils:——
1. Operate upon as large quantities as possible, in order to obtain a
greater product, and one of finer quality.
2. Conduct the distillation rapidly.
3. Divide the substances minutely, in order to facilitate the extrication
of the oil.
4. Employ only sufficient water to prevent the matter operated on from
burning, and the product from being contaminated with empyreuma.
5. For substances whose oil is heavier than water, saturate or nearly
saturate the water in the still with common salt, to raise the boiling
point, and thus to enable the vapour to carry over more oil.
6. Employ, when possible, water which has been already distilled from off
the same substances, and has thus become saturated with oil.
7. For oils naturally fluid, keep the water in the refrigerator cool; but
for those oils which easily become solid, preserve it at 80° to 90°
Fahr.(?)
To the above may be added——
8. Collect the oil as soon as possible after it separates from the water
with which it passes over, and in its subsequent treatment keep it, as
much as possible, from free contact with the air.
Dr Ure remarks, “The narrower and taller the alembic is, within certain
limits, the greater will be the proportion of oil, relative to that of the
aromatic water, from like proportions of aqueous and vegetable matter
employed.” “Some place the plants in baskets, and suspend these
immediately over the bottom of the still, under the water, or above its
surface in the steam; but the best mode, in my opinion, is to stuff an
upright cylinder full of the plants and drive down through them steam of
any desired force, its tension and its temperature being further regulated
by the size of the outlet-orifice leading to the condenser. The cylinder
should be made of strong copper, tinned inside, and encased in the worst
conducting species of wood, such as soft deal or sycamore.”
The newly distilled oils may be separated from adhering water, which
frequently renders them partially opaque or ‘cloudy,’ by repose in a
temperature between 60° and 70° Fahr., and subsequent decantation; but to
render them quite dry (anhydrous), it is necessary to let them stand over
some fragments of fused chloride of calcium. This is not, however,
required with the commercial oils.
The rectification of the volatile oils is commonly performed without
water, by the careful application of a heat just sufficient to make them
flow over pretty rapidly, so that they may be kept heated for as short a
time as possible. One half, or at most two thirds only, is drawn off, that
left in the retort being usually mixed with raw oil intended to be sold in
that state. This method often leads to much loss and disappointment, and
we have known more than one rather dangerous explosion result from its
use. A better plan is to rectify the oil from strong brine, and then to
separate any adhering water, either by repose or chloride of calcium.
_Pres._ Volatile oils should be preserved in well-closed and nearly full
bottles, in the shade, and should be opened as seldom as possible. By age
they darken, lose much of their odour, increase in density, and become
thick and clammy. It is then necessary to distil them, by which the
undecomposed portion is separated from the resin. Agitation along with
animal charcoal will restore their clearness and original colour, but
nothing more.
_Pur., Tests._ The essential or volatile oils of commerce are very
frequently adulterated with the fatty oils, resins, spermaceti, or
alcohol, or with other essential oils of a cheaper kind or lower grade.
The presence of the first three of these may be readily detected by
placing a drop of the suspected oil on a piece of white paper, and
exposing it for a short time to heat. If the oil is pure, it will entirely
evaporate; but if adulterated with one of these substances, a greasy or
translucent stain will be left on the paper. These substances also remain
undissolved when the oil is agitated with thrice its volume of rectified
spirit.
The presence of alcohol may be detected by agitating the oil with a few
small pieces of dried chloride of calcium. These remain unaltered in a
pure essential oil, but dissolve in one containing alcohol, and the
resulting solution separates, forming a distinct stratum at the bottom of
the vessel. When only a very little alcohol is present, the pieces merely
change their form, and exhibit the action of the solvent on their angles
or edges, which become more or less obtuse or rounded.
Another test for alcohol in the essential oils is the milkiness occasioned
by agitating them with a little water, as well as the loss of volume of
the oil when it separates after repose for a short time.
A more delicate test of alcohol in the essential oils than either of the
preceding is potassium, as employed by M. Beral:——12 drops of the oil are
placed on a perfectly dry watch-glass, and a piece of potassium, about the
size of an ordinary pin’s head, set in the middle of it. If the small
fragment of metal retains its integrity for 12 or 15 minutes, no alcohol
is present; but if it disappears after the lapse of 5 minutes, the oil
contains at least 4% of alcohol; and if it disappears in less than 1
minute, it contains not less than 25% of alcohol.
Boettger states that anhydrous glycerin possesses the property of
dissolving in alcohol, without mixing with the volatile oils. The mode of
applying the glycerin is as follows:——The oil to be examined is well
shaken in a graduated tube, with its own volume of glycerin (sp. gr.
1·25). Upon being allowed to settle, the mixture separates into two
layers. The denser glycerin separates rapidly, and if the essence has been
mixed with alcohol, this is dissolved in the glycerin, the augmentation in
the volume of glycerin showing the proportion of alcohol present.
This species of adulteration is very common, as it is a general practice
of the druggists to add a little of the strongest rectified spirit to
their oils, to render them transparent, especially in cold weather. Oil of
cassia is nearly always treated in this way.
The admixture of an inferior essential oil with one more costly may be
best detected by pouring a drop or two on a piece of porous paper or
cloth, and shaking it in the air, when, if occasionally smelled, the
difference of the odour at the beginning and the end of the evaporation
will show the adulteration, especially if the added substance is
turpentine. The presence of the latter may also be detected by agitating
the oil with rectified spirit, when it will remain undissolved.
The following method, which may also be used as a test for the presence of
turpentine, is based upon its power of dissolving fats:——Take about 50 gr.
of oil of poppy in a graduated glass tube, and add an equal quantity of
the sample of essential oil. Shake the mixture up thoroughly and then
allow it to stand; if the essential oil be pure, the mixture becomes
milky, and does not clear until after several days have passed, whereas it
will remain transparent if even so little as 5 per cent. of essence of
turpentine be present.
The purity of essential oils may likewise, in many cases, be determined by
taking their sp. gr.; or, with still greater accuracy and convenience, by
measuring their index of refraction, as suggested by Dr Wollaston. A
single drop of oil is sufficient for the application of the last method.
The adulteration of a heavy oil with a light one, or the reverse, may be
detected by agitating the suspected oil with water, when, in most cases,
the two will separate and form distinct strata.
Miss Crane believes that the cohesion figures afforded by the volatile
oils, like those of the fixed ones, will be found useful indications of
their purity. The application of her method is precisely similar to that
followed in her examination of the fixed oils as already described. She
finds that——
_Oil of Turpentine_, by itself, spreads instantly to the whole size of the
plate (a common soup plate), and almost immediately the edge begins to
break into irregular shapes, when a rapid motion takes place over the
surface of the film, and there seems to be a contest between the cohesion
of the oil particles and the adhesion between them and the water. The oil
makes repeated efforts to gather itself closer together, when the water
instantly reacts, giving a wavy appearance to the whole figure.
The play of colours at this point is beautiful, and serves to bring out
the lines more perfectly. In a few seconds innumerable little holes appear
over the surface, which soon are separated only by threaded lines, and the
figure is like the most exquisitely fine lace.
_Oil of Cinnamon_ forms a figure not more than half the size of the
last-named. In a few seconds small portions are detached, and shortly
separate into distinct drops, four or five larger, and a number of smaller
ones, scattered about. With mixtures in different proportions of _oil of
turpentine_, the figures formed differently, taking more of the
characteristics of the adulterant as it predominated.
_Oil of Nutmeg_ forms a large figure instantly, the edge showing a beaded
line. It gathers itself together and spreads again, very like oil of
turpentine, but the surface presents more the appearance of watered silk.
Within sixty seconds some holes appear, and in eighty more the surface is
covered with them; these scarcely spread to more than a sixteenth of an
inch in diameter, but from the first each is bordered with a dotted edge.
The figure lasts some time without changing materially, except the
openings lengthen out into an oblong shape, remaining entirely distinct.
The play of colours is very fine. With the addition of one third of the
_oil of turpentine_, the first spreading is little different, but openings
appear in half the time, and the dotted border does not come as soon; in
about four minutes the figure is most characteristically marked, and soon
breaks up entirely, this being the distinctive difference between the pure
oil and the mixture.
_Oil of Peppermint_ spreads instantly to a large figure, and in ten or
fifteen seconds openings appear, which increase rapidly in size. At first
they look somewhat like the last-named, but are not nearly so numerous,
and the border soon is more like tiny drops. In one and a half or two
minutes they begin to run together, and the figure breaks up.
With the addition of _turpentine oil_ the figure forms more slowly, and
the breaking up is less rapid, but in five minutes the outlines only
remain.
_Oil of Bergamot_ spreads instantly; in thirty seconds tiny openings
appear, not very abundant, and increase in size slowly; in five minutes
they are not larger than _oil of nutmeg_ at one and a half minute. At
first they have a dotted border, but as they increase in size this changes
to a scalloped film, which spreads, until, in eight or ten minutes, they
are joined together over the whole surface. This, with the _turpentine
oil_, gives a watered surface in spreading, much more marked, and with a
fine play of colours.
_Uses, &c._ The volatile oils are chiefly used by perfumers and
rectifiers, and in medicine. Some of the cheaper kinds are largely
employed as vehicles for colours, and in the manufacture of varnishes. The
dose of the aromatic and carminative oils is from 1 to 10 drops, on sugar,
or dissolved in a little weak spirit. This does not apply to oil of bitter
almonds, the dose of which is 1/4 to 1/2 a drop.
⁂ The following list includes short notices of nearly all the volatile
oils which have been examined, as well as of some other substances of a
similar character, which commonly pass under the name.
=Oil of Allia′ria.= From the roots of _Alliaria officinalis_, or
sauce-alone. Identical with the oil of black mustard.
=Oil of All′spice.= See OIL OF PIMENTO.
=Oil of Al′monds.= See OIL OF BITTER ALMONDS.
=Oil of American Arbor Vitæ.= _Syn._ HUILE CEDRE BLANC, Fr. From the fresh
tops of _Thuja occidentalis_, or American arbor-vitæ tree. Yellow;
fragrant; stimulant. Used in frictions for rheumatism. _Prod._ 1-1/2 to 2%
(nearly).
=Oil of Angel′ica.= From the dried root of _Angelica Archangelica_.
_Prod._ 25% (fully).
=Oil of An′iseed.= _Syn._ OLEUM ANISI (Ph. L., E., & D.), O. ESSENTIALE
ANISI, L. From the fruit (seeds) of _Pimpinella anisum_, or anise. Nearly
colourless. It is very frequently adulterated with one or other of the
cheaper oils, in which case spermaceti or camphor is added to it, to make
it ‘candy.’
_Prop., &c._ When pure it congeals into a solid crystalline mass on being
cooled to 50° Fahr., and does not melt again until heated to about 63°.
Treated with iodine, it quickly congeals into a solid hard mass, with a
perceptible increase of temperature, and the development of
orange-coloured and grey fumes. Sulphuric acid, with heat, turns it of a
rich purple-red colour, and the compound soon afterwards becomes
inspissated and hard (resinified). In alcohol of ·806 it is soluble in
all proportions, but rectified spirit (·838) dissolves only 42% of this
oil. Sp. gr. (recent) ·9768; (one year old) ·9853 to ·9855; (old) ·9856 to
·9900. The foreign oil is generally the heaviest.
Oil of aniseed is carminative and pectoral; and both itself and
preparations have long been in favour with the masses in coughs, colds,
&c. In preparing it care must be taken that the temperature of the water
in the receiver and refrigerator does not fall lower than about 68° Fahr.
_Prod._ (From the dried fruit of commerce) avoir. 2% (nearly). See OIL OF
STAR-ANISE.
=Oil, Ap′ple.= See AMYL (Valerianate of), and ESSENCE OF APPLE.
=Oil of Ar′nica.= _Syn._ OLEUM ARNICÆ, O. A. RADICUM, L. From the roots of
_Arnica montana_. Yellowish brown. Sp gr. ·940. Prod. 16 lbs. yielded 1
oz. of oil. The oil from the flowers of arnica is blue.
=Oil of Asarabac′ca.= _Syn._ OLEUM ASABI, O. ASARI LIQUIDUM, L. From the
roots of _Asarum Europæum_. Yellow; glutinous. Two butyraceous oils pass
over at the same time.
=Oil of Assafœt′ida.= _Syn._ OLEUM ASAFŒTIDA, L. From the gum resin.
Contains sulphur. Very fetid and volatile.
=Oil of Balm.= _Syn._ OLEUM MELISSÆ, L. From the herb (_Melissa
officinalis_). Pale yellow; fragrant. Sp. gr. ·970 to ·975. _Prod._ 100
lbs. of the fresh flowering herb yielding 1/4 oz. of oil (M. Raybaud). A
mixture of oil of lemons and rosemary is commonly sold for it.
=Oil of Balsam of Peru.= See CINNAMEINE.
=Oil of Ber′gamot.= _Syn._ BERGAMOT, ESSENCE OF B.; OLEUM BERGAMII, O.
BERGAMOTÆ, L. By expression from the yellow portion of the rind of the
fruit of _Citrus Bergamia_, or bergamot orange. Pale greenish yellow;
highly fragrant. It is obtained purer by distillation, but its perfume is
then slightly less delicate. Sp. gr. ·875 to ·885. _Prod._ The rind of 100
bergamot oranges yielded by distillation nearly 3 oz. of oil. (M.
Raybaud.)
Oil of bergamot is frequently adulterated with rectified spirit, or with
the oils of lemons, oranges, or turpentine. The presence of these
substances may be detected in the manner explained under OILS (Volatile),
_Purity and Tests_ (_anté_), as well as by the altered density of the oil.
Pure bergamot oil is much more soluble in rectified spirit than either of
the others, and is further distinguished from them by its free solubility
in solution of potassa, forming a clear solution.
=Oil of Bit′ter Almonds.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF B. A.; OLEUM AMYGDALÆ AMARÆ,
O. A. ESSENTIALE, L. From the ground cake of bitter almonds from which the
fixed oil has been expressed. The common plan is to soak the cake
(crumbled to fragments) for about 24 hours in twice its weight of water,
to which 1/3rd or 1/4th of its weight of common salt has been added, and
then to submit the whole to distillation, allowing the first half of the
water that passes over to deposit its oil, and to run back again into the
still. Pale golden yellow; colourless when rectified; tastes and smells
strongly nutty, like peach-kernels. It consists of 85% to 90% of hydride
of benzoyl and 8% to 12% of hydrocyanic acid, with a variable quantity of
benzoic acid and benzoin. The density varies a little with the age of the
oil, and the temperature and rapidity with which it has been distilled.
Sp. gr. (recent) 1·0525; (trade crude oil) 1·079 (G. Wippel); (old) 1·081
(1·0836——Pereira). “Essential oil of almonds, free from adulteration,
should have a sp. gr. at most of 1·052.” (Ure.) According to Prof.
Redwood, the density may vary from 1·0524 to 1·0822. The light oil
contains the most hydride of benzoyl, and the heavy oil the most benzoin.
_Prod._ From less than ·2 to ·5%.
_Pur._ This oil is generally adulterated with cheaper oils, and in nearly
every case with alcohol. When it is pure——Mixed with oil of vitriol, it
strikes a clear crimson-red colour, without visible decomposition,——Mixed
with an alcoholic solution of potassa, crystals are eliminated.——Iodine
dissolves only partially and slowly in it, without further visible
results.——Chromate of potassa does not affect it.——Nitric acid (sp. gr.
1·42) causes no immediate reaction, and in the course of 3 or 4 days
crystals of benzoic acid begin to appear; but if only 8% or 10% of alcohol
or rectified spirit is present, a violent effervescence speedily
commences, and nitrous fumes are evolved. By using nitric acid, sp. gr.
1·5, the smallest quantity of alcohol may be detected.
_Obs._ This oil does not pre-exist in the almond, but is formed by the
action of water on a peculiar crystallisable substance, called amygdalin.
It is essentially the hydride of benzoyl, but it always contains a portion
of hydrocyanic or prussic acid, to which it owes its very poisonous
properties. It is occasionally employed as a substitute for hydrocyanic
acid in medicine; but its principal consumption is as a flavouring
ingredient and a perfume by cooks, confectioners, liquoristes, and
perfumers. For this purpose it is dissolved in rectified spirits. See
ESSENCE.——_Dose_, 1/4 to 1 drop.
An oil closely resembling that from bitter almonds is obtained by
distillation from the leaves of the peach and cherry-laurel, the bark of
the plum-tree, the bruised kernels of cherries, plums, and peaches, the
pips of apples, and from several other vegetable substances that possess a
nutty odour and flavour.
A NON-POISONOUS OIL OF ALMONDS has been introduced. This is simply the
ordinary oil of commerce freed from hydrocyanic acid, and is intended to
be substituted for the crude, poisonous oil for domestic purposes.
Unfortunately, the purified essence does not keep well, and is often
converted after a few months into little else than a solution of benzoic
acid, almost devoid of the usual odour and flavour of the bitter almond.
“No wonder, then, under such circumstances, that the public preferred the
preparations they had been accustomed to, which were not so liable to
change.” (Redwood.) The following methods have been adopted for this
purpose:——
1. (Liebig.) Agitate the crude distilled oil with red oxide of mercury, in
slight excess, and after a few days’ contact, rectify the oil from a
little fresh oxide of mercury. The product is quite pure, when the process
is properly managed. The cyanide of mercury thus formed may be either
employed as such, or reconverted into mercury and hydrocyanic acid.
2. (Mackay.) Commercial oil of almonds, 1 lb.; fresh-slaked lime, q. s. to
form a milk-like liquid; afterwards add, of solution of potassa, 1-1/2
lb.; water, 3 pints; agitate occasionally for 48 hours, then distil over
the oil, and rectify it from a fresh mixture of lime and potassa.
3. (Redwood.) The oil is mixed with an equal quantity of water, and the
mixture is digested in a water bath with red oxide of mercury, and small
quantities of fresh-slaked lime and protochloride of iron, with as little
access of air as possible; as soon as decomposition of the acid has taken
place, the whole is introduced into a copper retort, and submitted to
distillation. The product is perfectly free from hydrocyanic acid. The
first process is, however, the simplest, cheapest, and best.
The sp. gr. of this non-poisonous oil is 1·051. (G. Whippell.) That of
pure colourless hydride of benzoyl is 1·043; it boils at 356° Fahr., is
soluble in 35 parts of water, and in all proportions in alcohol and ether.
Exposed to the air, it greedily absorbs oxygen, and becomes converted into
a mass of crystallised benzoic acid. The purified oil of almonds does the
same, only less rapidly.
=Oil of Almonds (Facti′′tious).= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF MIRBANE, NITROBENZOL.
The preparation of this article on the small scale is explained under
NITROBENZOL. It is now extensively prepared as a substitute for the oil of
almonds obtained by distillation. The following is Mansfield’s
process:——The apparatus consists of a large glass worm, the upper end of
which is divided into two branches, gradually dilating so as to form two
funnel-shaped tubes. Into one of these concentrated nitric acid is poured,
and into the other benzol, which need not, for this purpose, be chemically
pure. These bodies meet at the point of junction of the two tubes, and the
rate of their flow is regulated by any appropriate means. Chemical
reaction instantly takes place, and the new compound is cooled by its
passage through the worm, which is refrigerated for the purpose. It has
then only to be washed with water or a very weak solution of carbonate of
soda for the process to be complete. The product has the sp. gr. 1·209,
boils at 415° Fahr., has an intensely sweet taste, and an odour closely
resembling, but not actually identical with, that of oil of bitter
almonds. Unlike genuine oil of almonds or hydride of benzoyl, it is
insoluble in water, and does not distil without suffering partial
decomposition. It is chiefly used to scent soaps, and to adulterate the
genuine oil. The benzol for this purpose is obtained from coal-tar. See
BENZOL and NITROBENZOL.
=Oil of Boxwood.= (Ph. L. 1746.) _Syn._ OLEUM BUXI EMPYREUMATICUM.
Distilled from fragments of boxwood in a retort, with a sand bath
gradually increased in heat. Anodyne, antispasmodic, and
diaphoretic.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 drops. (Jourdan says 4 to 5 drops in
gonorrhœa.) It relieves toothache.
=Oil, Brandy.= See OIL OF GRAPE.
=Oil of Bu′chu.= _Syn._ OLEUM BAROSMÆ, O. DIOSMÆ, L. From the leaves of
_Diosma crenata_. Yellow; lighter than water; smells of the leaves.
=Oil of Caj′eput.= _Syn._ CAJEPUTI OIL, KYAPOOTIE O.; CAJEPUTI OLEUM (B.
P.), OLEUM CAJEPUTI (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. From the dried leaves of the
_Melaleuca Cajeputi_ (_Melaleuca minor_, B. P.). Colourless, when pure
(that of commerce is usually green); odorous; aromatic; taste hot and
penetrating. Its odour has been compared to a mixture of those of camphor
and cardamoms. It boils at 343° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·925 to ·927. When
rectified, about 3/4ths of the quantity passes over colourless, and has
the density ·897; the remaining portion is green, and has the density ·920
to ·925. Its green colour is derived from chloride of copper, the presence
of which may be recognised by the red precipitate occasioned by agitating
the oil with a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium. (Guibourt.) From the
East Indies.
Pure oil of cajeput is slightly soluble in water; entirely and freely
soluble in alcohol; dissolves iodine; and when dropped on water, rapidly
diffuses itself over the surface, and soon completely evaporates. A
spurious kind (FACTITIOUS OIL OF CAJEPUT), made of oil of rosemary,
flavoured with camphor and the oils of peppermint and cardamoms, and
coloured with verdigris, is occasionally met with in the shops.
Oil of cajeput is a powerful antispasmodic and diffusible
stimulant.——_Dose_, 3 to 6 drops, on sugar; in cholera, colic, epilepsy,
hysteria, rheumatism, spasms, toothache, &c.
=Oil of Cam′phor.= _Syn._ LIQUID CAMPHOR; OLEUM CAMPHORÆ, O. C. VOLATILE,
L. Obtained from incisions in the wood of the camphor tree of Borneo and
Sumatra (_Dryobalanops aromatica_), in which it exists in cavities in the
trunk; also by distillation from the branches of the _Camphora
officinarum_, or laurel camphor tree. Colourless when rectified. Sp. gr.
·910. _Prod._ 60 lbs. of the crude brown oil yields 40 lbs. of pure white
oil and 20 lbs. of camphor. It rapidly oxidises in the air. Used to scent
soap. See CAMPHOR (Liquid).
=Oil of Car′away.= _Syn._ OLEUM CARUI (B. P. Ph. L. E. & D.), O. C.
ESSENTIALE, L. From the fruit of _Carum Carui_ (caraway seeds). Nearly
colourless; aromatic; carminative. Sp. gr. ·940; (old) ·946 to ·950.
_Prod._ Av. 5% (nearly). It is frequently adulterated with oil of cumin.
Added to purgative medicines to prevent griping.
=Oil of Car′damoms.= _Syn._ OLEUM CARDAMOMI, O. C. ESSENTIALE, L. From the
seed of _Elettaria cardamomum_, or true cardamom. Colourless; fragrant;
carminative. Sp. gr. ·943. _Prod._ 5% (nearly). The capsules (‘lesser
cardamoms’) yield only about 1% of oil. (M. Raybaud.)
=Oil of Cascaril′la.= _Syn._ OLEUM CASCARILLÆ, L. From the bark of _Croton
eleuteria_ (Swartz.), or cascarilla tree. Very fragrant. _Prod._ ·4% to
·75%.
=Oil of Cas′sia.= _Syn._ OIL OF CHINA CINNAMON; OLEUM CASSIÆ (Ph. E.), L.
From cassia buds, or from cassia bark, Golden yellow; aromatic; fragrant.
It is generally adulterated with rectified spirit. Nitric acid converts
the pure oil into a crystalline mass. Sp. gr. 1·071 to 1·073; (old) 1·078
to 1·090 _Prod._ From the buds of 1% (barely); from the bark of commerce,
·75%. It is frequently sold for oil of cinnamon.
=Oil of Cebadil′la.= _Syn._ OIL OF SABADILLA; OLEUM CEBADILLÆ, L. A green
butyraceous matter, obtained from _Asagræa officinalis_.
=Oil of Ce′dar-wood.= From the wood of a species of _Cedrus_. It consists
of two hydrocarbons. One, a volatile liquid (cedrene), and the other a
solid, crystalline compound containing oxygen. _Prod._ ·2% to 25%.
=Oil of Ce′drat.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF CEDRA; OLEUM CEDRI, O. CITRI FINUM, L.
From the exterior yellow rind of the fruit of _Citrus medica_ (Risso), or
citrons, either by expression or distillation, as oil of bergamot. The
first portion of oil that comes over is colourless; the latter portion
greenish. Very fragrant. Sp. gr. ·847. _Prod._ 100 citrons yield nearly 1
fl. oz. of pale, and 1/2 fl. oz. of green oil. See OIL OF CITRON
(_below_).
=Oil of Cel′ery Seed.= _Syn._ OLEUM APII. L. From the fruit (seed) of
_Apium graveolens_. Diuretic; stimulant. _Prod._ 3/4% to 1% (nearly).
=Oil of Cham′omile.= _Syn._ OIL OF ROMAN CHAMOMILE; OLEUM ANTHEMIDIS (Ph.
L. E. & D.), O. CHAMÆMELI, O. C. FLORUM, O. ESSENTIALE EX FLORIBUS C., L.
From the flowers of _Anthemis nobilis_. In the Ph. L., English oil of
chamomile (ANTHEMIDIS OLEUM ANGLICUM) is ordered. Blue; turns yellow and
brown by exposure and age; odour characteristic. Sp. gr., English (from
the flowers), ·9083; foreign, ·9289. _Prod._ Fresh flowers, ·1% (barely);
recently dried (finest commercial), 5%; av. of 6 dried samples, ·25%
(nearly). If much water is employed, even the above small quantities of
oil will not be obtained.
Oil of chamomile is reputed antispasmodic, tonic, and stomachic. 1 to 3
drops on a lump of sugar, taken just before retiring to rest, is an
excellent preventive of nightmare, and will frequently induce quiet sleep
where more active substances have failed. Unfortunately, the oil of the
shops is generally either adulterated or old, and commonly both, in which
case the oil acts as an irritant. A common plan is to mix it with old oil
of lemons, a fraud which may be detected by the lessened density of the
oil, and by its diminished solubility in rectified spirit.
=Oil of Cher′ry-laurel.= _Syn._ OLEUM LAURO-CERASI, L. From the leaves of
_Cerasus Laurocerasus_, or common laurel. Closely resembles oil of
almonds, but is said to be weaker. Like that substance, it is powerfully
poisonous. _Prod._ 100 lbs. fresh leaves (undeveloped, June), 10·13 oz.;
do. (half grown, June), 7·2 oz.; do. (full-grown, 8 weeks on tree, July),
4·96 oz.; do. (do., 3 months on tree, Sept.), 7·04 oz.; do. (15 months on
tree), 2·24. (Christison.)
=Oil of Cher′vil.= _Syn._ OLEUM CHÆROPHYLLI, L. From the bruised fresh
herb, macerated for 2 or 3 days in salt and water, and then distilled.
=Oil of Cincho′na.= _Syn._ OLEUM CINCHONÆ, L. From cinchona bark.
Butyraceous; smells of the bark. 20 lbs. yield only 2 gr. (Trommsdorff.)
The odour of bark is imitated by a solution of turmeric in potash, and by
chloride of iron.
=Oil of Cin′namon.= _Syn._ HYDRIDE OF CINNAMYL; OLEUM CINNAMOMI (B. P.,
Ph. L. E. & D.), O. C. VERI, L. From the bark of _Cinnamomum zeylanicum_,
macerated for several days in salt and water, and then distilled.
Yellowish or red; very aromatic; both odour and taste resemble that of the
bark. Sp. gr. 1·035. _Prod._ 11 lbs. yielded 1 oz.; 100 lbs. yielded 1·56
oz. (M. Raybaud.)
_Pur._ Oil of cinnamon, owing to its high price, and the consequent
premium for its adulteration, can scarcely be obtained pure from the shops
of this country. Oil of cassia and highly rectified spirit are the
substances usually employed for this purpose. The increased sp. gr.
resulting from the first, and the diminished sp. gr. from the second,
afford ready means of detecting these frauds. The presence of oil of
cassia may also be detected by an experienced person by the odour, which
differs a little from that of pure oil of cinnamon. Oil of cassia is less
limpid than oil of cinnamon, and it stands a greater degree of cold
without becoming turbid or congealing. “Wine-yellow, when recent;
cherry-red, when old; odour purely cinnamonic; nitric acid converts it
nearly into a uniform crystalline mass.” (Ph. E.) During this reaction the
odour of bitter almonds is perceptible. Both oil of cassia and oil of
cinnamon are thus converted into a brown balsam; with oil of cassia,
however, a brisk decomposition occurs sooner, and at a slighter heat. It
also forms a crystalline compound with ammonia. These reactions,
unfortunately, are not characteristic. “The most distinguishing
characteristic of the cinnamon oils is, perhaps, their relation to the
alcoholic solution of caustic potash. Both dissolve in it readily and
clear, with a reddish, yellowish-brown colour; after some time, however,
the solution becomes very turbid, and a rather heavy undissolved oil
precipitates, when the solution gradually becomes clear again. (Ure.) The
palest oil is considered the best.
_Obs._ Oil of cinnamon is chiefly imported from Ceylon, where it is
distilled from bark that is unfit for exportation. The dark coloured oil
is usually rectified, when two pale oils are obtained, one lighter, and
the other heavier, than water; but 10% of oil is lost by the process. The
oil distilled from the root of the tree (O. CINNAMOMI RADICIS) is much
weaker than that from the bark. The oil from the leaves (O. C. FOLIORUM),
also imported from Ceylon, smells of cloves, but has a less density than
oil of cloves.
Oil of cinnamon consists essentially of hydride of cinnamyl, but, unless
when very recently prepared, it also contains a variable proportion of
cinnamic acid formed by the oxidation of the hydride.
=Oil of Cit′ron.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF CITRON; OLEUM CITRI, L. From the lees
of citron juice; or, from the peels, as oil of lemons or bergamot. The
last generally goes by the name of oil of cedrat. Both are fragrant. (See
_above_.)
=Oil of Citron-flowers.= _Syn._ OLEUM CITRI FLORUM, L. Amber-coloured;
highly fragrant. _Prod._ 60 lbs. yield 1 oz.
=Oil of Cloves.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF CLOVES; OLEUM CARYOPHYLLORUM, O.
CARYOPHYLLI (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), O. EUGENIÆ C. (Ph. D. 1826), L. From
the unexpanded flowers (cloves) of the _Caryophylus aromaticus_, or
Molucca clove-tree, soaked for some time in salt and water, and then
submitted to distillation; the distilled water, after having deposited its
oil, being returned 3 or 4 times into the still, and again ‘worked off’
from the same materials. Nearly colourless, when recent, gradually
becoming pale yellow and ultimately light brown, by age; highly aromatic,
with the characteristic odour and flavour of cloves. It is the least
volatile of all the essential oils. Sp. gr. 1·055 to 1·061 (1·034 to
1·061, B. P.). _Prod._ 16% to 22%.
_Pur._ Oil of cloves is frequently adulterated with inferior essential
oils, especially with those of pimento, pinks, and clove-gilly flowers,
and, occasionally, with castor oil.——1. Pure oil of cloves forms a
butyraceous coagulum when shaken with pure liquor of ammonia, which
crystallises after fusion by a gentle heat.——2. Treated with an alcoholic
solution of potassa, it entirely congeals into a crystalline mass, with
total loss of its characteristic odour.——3. Shaken with an equal volume of
strong caustic soda lye, it forms, on repose a mass of delicate lamellar
crystals——4. Solution of chromate of potassa converts it into brown
flakes, whilst the salt loses its yellow colour.——5. Chlorine turns it
first green, and then brown and resinous.——6. Nitric acid turns it red,
and a reddish-brown solid mass is formed; with heat, it converts it into
oxalic acid.——7. It dissolves freely in sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol),
yielding a transparent, deep reddish-brown solution, without any visible
decomposition.——8. Mixed, gradually, with about 1/3rd of its weight of oil
of vitriol, an acid liquor is formed, together with a resin of a rich
purple colour, which, after being washed, is hard and brittle, and forms a
red tincture with rectified spirit, which is precipitated of a blood-red
colour by water.——9. It dissolves iodine freely, without any marked
reaction.——10. It dissolves santaline freely.——11. Mix one drop of the oil
with a small trace of solution of aniline by means of a glass rod, and
then shake with 5 or 6 c.c. of distilled water. By the addition of a few
drops of sodium hypochlorite to the mixture the characteristic blue
coloration due to phenol will be developed in a few minutes, if the
adulterant be present; whereas with the pure oil nothing but the
purplish-violet colour of aniline will be perceived. Stirring or shaking
must be avoided after the addition of the hypochlorite. The presence of 1
per cent. of phenol can thus be demonstrated in one drop of the oil.
_Obs._ Clove oil contains a heavy oil, sp. gr. 1·079 (caryophyllic acid),
and a light oil, sp. gr. ·918 (clove hydrocarbon); by rectification, much
of the light oil is lost, and the product becomes denser.
(1·361——Bonastre.)
=Oil, Cog′nac.= See OIL, GRAPE (_below_).
=Oil of Copai′ba.= _Syn._ OIL OF CAPIVI; OLEUM COPAIBÆ (B. P., Ph., L. &
E.), L. 1. (Ph. E.) Balsam of capivi, 1 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; distil,
returning the water into the still, until oil ceases to pass over.
2. (Wholesale.) From the crude oil which separates during the manufacture
of ‘specific solution of copaiba’ and ‘soluble capivi,’ by distillation
along with a little salt and water.
_Pur., &c._ Colourless when pure; that of commerce has frequently a
greenish tinge, derived from the copper utensils; odour, not disagreeable
when recent. Sp. gr. ·876 to ·878. _Prod._ 50% to 55%. When adulterated
with oil of turpentine, its solubility in rectified spirit is greatly
diminished, and the solution is turbid.——_Dose_, 10 to 15 drops, in sugar;
in the usual cases in which copaiba is ordered. 20 to 60 minims, three
times a day (B. P.).
=Oil of Corian′der.= _Syn._ OLEUM CORIANDRI, L. From the fruit (seeds) of
_Coriandrum sativum_. Yellowish; aromatic; carminative. _Prod._ (Dried
fruit) 5-1/2 to 6%.
=Oil, Corn.= The name given by Mulder to a peculiar fatty compound found
in the fusel oil of the distilleries of Holland. It has a very powerful
odour, resembling that of some of the umbelliferous plants, and is
unaffected by caustic potassa. See OIL, FUSEL (page 772).
=Oil of Cu′bebs.= _Syn._ OLEUM CUBEBARAM, O. CUBEBÆ (B. P., Ph. E. & D.),
L. From the fruit of _Cubeba officinalis_, or cubebs, coarsely ground.
Aromatic, hot, and bitter tasted; odour, that of the fruit; faintly green,
colourless when pure. Sp. gr. ·129. _Prod._ 9% to 11%.
_Pur., &c._ When pure, iodine has little action on this oil, and
immediately gives it a violet colour, without any very marked reaction;
nitric acid turns it opaque, and the mixture changes to a pale red when
heated; sulphuric acid turns it of a crimson red. When adulterated with
oil of turpentine, both its viscidity, solubility in rectified spirit, and
its density, are lessened; when mixed with castor oil it leaves a greasy
stain on paper.——_Dose_, 10 to 15 drops, in the usual cases in which
cubebs in substance is given. 5 to 20 minims (B. P.), suspended in water
by mucilage and sugar.
=Oil of Cumin.= _Syn._ OLEUM CUMINI, O. CYMINI, L. From the fresh fruit
(seed) of _Cuminum Cyminum_, or cumin. Pale yellow; smells and tastes
strongly of the seeds. Sp. gr. ·975. _Prod._ 2-1/2% to 3%.
_Obs._ Oil of cumin is a mixture of two oils differing in volatility, and
which may be separated by careful distillation. The more volatile one has
been named cymol; the other, cuminol.
=Oil of Dill.= _Syn._ OLEUM ANETHI (Ph. L. & E.), L. From the bruised
fruit (seed) of _Antheum graveolens_. Pale yellow; odour, that of the
fruit; taste, hot and pungent; carminative. Sp. gr. ·188 to ·882. _Prod._
4% (nearly).
=Oil of El′der.= _Syn._ ATTAR OF ELDER FLOWERS; OLEUM SAMBUCI, L. From
elder flowers (_Sambucus nigra_). Butyraceous; odour not very marked.
=Oil of El′emi.= _Syn._ OLEUM ELEMI, L. From the resin. Isomeric with oil
of turpentine.
=Oil of Er′got.= _Syn._ ETHEREAL O. OF E.; OLEUM ERGOTÆ, O. E. ÆTHEREUM,
O. SECALIS CORNUTI, L. Prepared by evaporating the ethereal tincture at a
very gentle heat, and, preferably, allowing the last portion of the ether
to escape by spontaneous evaporation. Brownish-yellow; lighter than water;
soluble in ether and solution of potassa; only partly soluble in alcohol.
It appears to be a mixture of volatile and fixed oil, with some resinous
matter.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 drops, in hæmorrhages; 10 or 12 drops every 3 or
4 hours, in diarrhœa; 20 to 50 drops, as a parturifacient, &c. Externally,
in rheumatism, toothache, &c.
_Obs._ The above is the oil of ergot now employed in medicine. It must not
be confounded with other preparations occasionally called by the same
name, but which differ from it in character. Among the latter are the
following:
_a._ A fixed oil obtained by distilling off the spirit from the alcoholic
tincture. It has the odour of rancid fish oil, and the distilled spirit
has also a putrid odour.
_b._ A fixed oil, obtained from coarsely powdered ergot by strong pressure
between iron plates, at a heat of about 212° Fahr. It is fluid, coloured,
smells strongly of the drug, but is nearly destitute of its leading
qualities. Both the preceding contain some volatile oil and resinous
matter.
_c._ An empyreumatic oil obtained by distilling ergot _per se_. It is
light brown, viscid, acrid, and nauseous.
_d._ A volatile oil obtained by digesting powdered ergot in solution of
potassa at 125° Fahr., diluting the saponaceous mass thus formed with one
half to an equal weight of water, neutralising the alkali with dilute
sulphuric acid, and then submitting the whole to distillation in a
chloride of sodium or oil bath. It is white, adhesive, butyraceous, and
tasteless. It appears a product, rather than a simple educt.
_e._ This is the ethereal oil, first described, in its purest form. It is
colourless, translucent, oily, and acrid-tasted, with the odour of ergot;
it has a high boiling-point, at which it suffers partial decomposition,
but may be volatilised at a lower temperature, like the other oils. By
long exposure to heat, it thickens and partly solidifies; light and air
darken it; it is lighter than water, very slightly soluble in water, but
sufficiently so to impart to it its peculiar odour; it is soluble in pure
alcohol, in ether, the volatile and fixed oils, alkaline lyes, liquor of
ammonia, creasote, and naphtha. The dilute mineral acids clear it but do
not produce any marked reaction.
=Oil, Ethe′′real.= See OIL OF WINE (_below_).
=Oil of Eucalyptus.= _Syn._ OLEUM EUCALYPTI GLOBULI. See EUCALYPTUS.
=Oil of Fen′nel.= _Syn._ OLEUM FŒNICULI (Ph. L.), O. F. OFFICINALIS (Ph.
E. & D.), O. F. DULCIS, L. From the fruit or seed of _Fœniculum dulce_, or
sweet fennel (Ph. L.), Colourless; odour that of the plant; tastes hot and
sweetish; congeals at 50° Fahr.; carminative and stomachic. It consists of
two oils; the one solid and identical with that of oil of aniseed. When
treated with nitric acid, it affords benzoin, Sp. gr. ·997. _Prod._ Dried
fruit (of commerce), 3% to 3·5%. The flowering herb yields ·35% of a
similar oil.
_Obs._ The oil of fennel of the shops is the product of the fruit of
_Fœniculum vulgare_, or common, wild, or bitter fennel. It closely
resembles that of sweet fennel, but is scarcely so agreeable either in
taste or smell. It is chiefly used to scent soaps.
=Oil of Firwood.= _Syn._ OLEUM PINI SYLVESTRIS. An essential oil,
distilled from the leaves of _Pinus sylvestris_.
=Oil of Fleabane.= (Ph. U. S.) _Syn._ OLEUM ERIGERONIS CANADENSIS. An
essential oil, distilled from _Canada erigeron_.——_Dose_, 5 minims in
hæmorrhage.
=Oil, Fu′sel.= Noticed at page 772.
=Oil of Gal′banum.= _Syn._ OLEUM GALBANI (Ph. Bor.), L. From galbanum, 2
lb.; water, 16 fl. oz.; distilled together. Yellow; resembles oil of
asafœtida, but milder.
=Oil of Gar′lic.= _Syn._ SULPHIDE OF ALLYL. From the bruised bulbs or
‘cloves’ of _Allium sativum_, or garlic. It possesses the peculiar odour,
taste, and other properties of the bulbs, in a highly exalted degree.
_Obs._ When a mixture of oil of black mustard and sulphide of potassium is
exposed in a sealed glass tube to a temperature above that of 212° Fahr.,
sulphocyanide of potassium and garlic oil are formed. On the other hand,
when the compound of garlic oil and chloride of mercury (formed by adding
to an alcoholic solution of the oil a like solution of the chloride) is
gently heated with sulpho-cyanide of potassium, mustard oil, with all its
characteristic properties, is called into existence.
=Oil of Gaulthe′′ria.= See OIL OF PARTRIDGE BERRY (_below_).
=Oil of Gen′tian.= _Syn._ OLEUM GENTIANÆ, L. From the root. Butyraceous;
smells strongly of gentian. 3 cwt. yield 1 dr. (barely).
=Oil of Gera′′nium.= _Syn._ OIL OF GINGER GRASS, O. OF SPIKENARD. The oil
of commerce which passes under this name and which was formerly imported
from the East Indies, was not obtained from any species of _Geranium_ or
_Pelargonium_, but probably from a species of _Andropogon_. Of recent
years, however, genuine geranium oil, obtained from the rose geranium
(_Pelargonium roseum_) has been and continues to be met with in our
markets. This essential oil is manufactured in immense quantities, at La
Trappe de Staonelli not far from the Bay of Sidi Ferruch, in Algiers,
where about forty acres of the plant are in cultivation. “Three harvests
are gathered every year, and each yields from 170 to 200 kilograms of oil,
or equal to 500 to 600 kilograms per annum. The value of this product
never falls below forty francs the kilogram, the average gross value being
therefore from 20,000 to 25,000 francs or at least £20 per acre. Seven
distillatory apparatus are employed in this manufactory.”[65] A finer oil
is yielded by the rose geranium, when grown in France, but it is much
dearer. It is often employed to adulterate otto of roses. See OIL, GRASS
(_below_).
[Footnote 65: “The Paris Exhibition,” ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ 3rd
series, No. 433.]
=Oil of Gin′ger.= _Syn._ OLEUM ZINGIBERIS, L. From the dried root
(rhizome) of _Zingiber officinale_, or ginger of commerce. Bluish-green;
possesses a less agreeable odour than that of good ginger, without any
pungency. _Prod._ 11/16 of 1% (M. Raybaud).
=Oil of Goosefoot.= (Ph. U. S.) _Syn._ OLEUM CHENOPODII. Distilled from
the seeds of _Chenopodium anthelminticum_.——_Dose._ From 4 to 8 drops,
with treacle or milk, for 3 nights in succession, for children. For adult,
1/2 dr. Vermifuge.
=Oil of Grain-spirit.= _Syn._ GRAIN OIL. Two distinct substances are found
in spirit distilled from fermented grain; one of which is butyraceous and
highly offensive (corn oil of Mulder————?), the other liquid (crude fusel
oil). The relative proportions of these substances to each other, and to
the spirits which they contaminate, vary with the materials and the
management of the process. The ‘GRAIN OIL’ of the London rectifiers
consists chiefly of fusel or potato oil, mixed with alcohol and water, and
with small and variable proportions of solid ethyl and amyl-compounds of
certain fatty acids (œnanthic and margaric). The latter are said to be
similar to the butyraceous matter before referred to, as well as the solid
fat of the whisky distilleries conducted on the old plan. According to Mr.
Rowney, the fusel oil of the Scotch distilleries contains capric acid. See
OIL OF CORN (_above_), and FUSEL OIL.
=Oil, Grape.= _Syn._ BRANDY OIL, COGNAC O. This is essentially the
sulphate of amyl. It is prepared by dissolving the fusel oil of
marc-brandy in strong rectified spirit, and then adding concentrated
sulphuric acid; alcohol and excess of acid is removed by washing the newly
formed compound with water. Dissolved in rectified spirit, it forms
‘BRANDY ESSENCE,’ which is used to impart the Cognac flavour to plain
spirit. See SULPHATE OF AMYL and AMYL-ETHER, also OIL OF MARC-BRANDY
(_below_).
=Oil, Grass.= Several of the grasses (_Graminaceæ_) yield fragrant
volatile oils. See OIL OF GERANIUM, GRASS OIL (of Namur), OIL OF
LEMON-GRASS, OIL OF SPRING-GRASS, &c.
=Oil, Grass (of Namur).= _Syn._ INDIA GRASS OIL. From _Andropogon Calamus
aromaticus_ (Royle), supposed to have been the “sweet cane” and “rich
aromatic reed from a far country” of Scripture; formerly supposed to be
obtained from _Andropogon Iwarancusa_. Stimulant and highly fragrant. See
OIL OF SPIKENARD.
=Oil of Hops.= _Syn._ OLEUM LUPULI, L. From commercial hops, by
distillation along with water. It may also be collected during the brewing
of beer. Odorous; acrid; narcotic; soluble in water; becomes resinous by
exposure and age. Sp. gr. ·910. Chiefly used to increase the aroma and
flavour of old or damaged hops.
=Oil of Horse-mint.= _Syn._ OLEUM MONARDÆ (Ph. U. S.), L. From the fresh
herb of _Monarda punctata_, a plant indigenous in the U.S. of America.
Dark amber-coloured; fragrant; pungent; carminative; rubefacient; and
vesicant.
=Oil of Horse-rad′ish.= _Syn._ OLEUM ARMORACIÆ, L. From the fresh roots of
_Cochlearia armoracia_ (Linn.), or common horse-radish. Pale yellow;
heavier than water; acrid; vesicant; identical with that from black
mustard. _Prod._ ·5% (nearly).
=Oil of Hyssop.= _Syn._ OLEUM HYSSOPI, L. From the flowering herb of
_Hyssopus officinalis_. Aromatic; stimulant. _Prod._ ·25% to ·33%.
=Oil of Jargonelle Pear.= See AMYL (Acetate).
=Oil of Jas′min.= _Syn._ OIL OF JESSAMINE; OLEUM JASMINI, O. J. VOLATILE,
L. From the flowers of _Jasminum grandiflorum_ and _J. Fragrans_,
carefully picked, by placing them in alternate layers with cotton wadding
imbued with olive oil, in any suitable vessel, and renewing the flowers
till the fixed oil becomes strongly odorous, and then distilling the
wadding along with a little water. The volatile oils of hyacinths,
jonquil, tuberose, violets, and most of the more delicate flowers, are
obtained in the same way. Used in perfumery. From the East Indies.
=Oil of Ju′niper.= _Syn._ JUNIPERI OLEUM (B. P.), OLEUM JUNIPERI (Ph. L.
E. & D.), O. È. BACCIS J., O. ESSENTIALE È. B. J., L. From either the
wood, tops, or berries, preferably the last. The berries should be chosen
fully grown, but still slightly green, and should be bruised before being
placed in the still. In the Ph. L., English oil of juniper (O. JUNIPERI
ANGLICUM) is ordered. Colourless, or very pale greenish-yellow; odour and
taste, sweet and terebinthinate; rather viscid; soluble in rectified
spirit; rendered opaque and resinous by exposure and age. It is reputed
carminative and diaphoretic, and possesses powerful diuretic properties,
Sp. gr. ·911 (English, ·8688; foreign, ·8834——Brande). _Prod._ Green
berries, ·25%; ripe do. (one year old), 3/4 to 1% (fully).
_Pur._ It is frequently adulterated with oil of turpentine, a fraud
readily discovered by the lessened density, viscidity, and solubility, in
rectified spirit, of the oil.
_Obs._ Oil of juniper consists of two oils——one, white and most volatile,
sp. gr. ·8393; the other, dark-coloured and less volatile, sp. gr. ·8784;
together with some resin left in the retort.
=Oil, Krumholz.= _Syn._ OLEUM TEMPLINUM, L. From Hungarian balsam, a
terebinthinate exudation from the _Pinus pumilio_, or mountain pine of
Southern Europe. Fragrant; golden yellow; tastes oily, acidulous, and
resinous.
=Oil of Lau′rel.= _Syn._ OIL OF SWEET BAY; OLEUM LAURI VOLATILE, O. L.
ESSENTIALE L. From either the berries or leaves of _Laurus nobilis_
(Linn.), or sweet bay-tree. Pale yellow, clear, odorous, aromatic,
stimulant, and narcotic. Sp. gr. ·871. _Prod._ From the leaves, 3/4 to 1%
(fully).
=Oil of Lavender.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF L.; LAVANDULÆ OLEUM (B. P.), OLEUM
LAVANDULÆ (Ph. L.), O. L. VERÆ (Ph. E. & D.), O. L. SPICÆ, O. L.
ESSENTIALE, O. L. FLORUM, L. The oil (OLEUM LAVANDULÆ ANGLICUM) distilled
from the flowers of ‘_Lavandula vera_’ (Ph. L.). Very pale lemon-yellow;
highly fragrant; taste, warm and not disagreeable; carminative,
antispasmodic, and stimulant. Sp. gr. ·877 to ·905. According to Brande,
the sp. gr. of the oil obtained from the flowers only is ·8960; that from
the whole plant, ·9206. The lightest is esteemed the best. _Prod._
Flowers, 1-1/2 to 2% (nearly). The whole of the flowering herb is commonly
distilled. According to Raybaud, the herb, after flowering (Sept.), yields
the most oil.
_Pur._ Alcohol is the substance commonly used to adulterate this oil; but,
occasionally, oil of bergamot is used for the same purpose. If the density
is below ·87, there is reason to suspect adulteration. When pure——1.
Sulphuric acid turns it reddish-brown, and the reaction is accompanied by
strong inspissation.——2. It fulminates quickly and violently with iodine,
and the thick syrupy residue possesses a pungent, acid, balsamic odour.
The oils of the other labiate plants fulminate much less powerfully with
iodine. The presence of alcohol weakens, but does not destroy, the action
of this test, unless it is added in an equal volume, when only a lively
effervescence and a disengagement of orange-coloured vapours are produced
by the iodine, without fulmination.——3. Santaline is nearly insoluble in
pure oil of lavender, and exerts no marked action on it, but is freely
soluble in oil of lavender adulterated with alcohol or rectified spirit.
_Obs._ English oil of lavender possesses the purest fragrance; and of
this, the variety known as “MITCHAM OIL OF LAVENDER,” from the place of
its preparation, is esteemed the best. The foreign oil of lavender is
inferior. This last is improved by rectification. See OIL OF SPIKE.
=Oil of Lem′ons.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF L.; OLEUM LIMONIS (B. P.), OLEUM
LIMONIS, O. LIMONUM (Ph. L. E. & D.). From the yellow portion of the rind,
grated, placed in hair bags, and exposed to powerful pressure; also by
distillation, but the product is then less agreeably fragrant and sweet,
but keeps better. Nearly colourless; odour that of the fruit. Sp. gr.
·8752 to ·8785. Expressed oil, ·8517, distilled do., ·845, at 72° Fahr.
(Ure.) _Prod._ 100 lemons yield, by expression, 1-3/4 to 2 oz. (nearly);
by distillation 1-1/4 to 1-1/2.
_Pur._ Commonly adulterated with oil of turpentine, and occasionally with
nut or poppy oil. These may be detected in the manner already explained.
When pure, it is soluble in all proportions in absolute alcohol, but
rectified spirit only dissolves 16% of it. It also boils at 148° Fahr.,
whereas oil of turpentine boils at 312°, and mixtures of the two at
intermediate temperatures, depending on the proportions.
=Oil of Le′mon Grass.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF L. G., INDIAN GRASS-OIL, OIL OF
VERBENA. Probably from _Andropogon citratum_, the Indian lemon-grass. Pale
yellow; powerfully fragrant. CITRONELLE OIL is also the product of this or
of an allied species of _Andropogon_.
=Oil of Lemon Thyme.= _Syn._ OLEUM SERPYLLI, L.; HUILE DE TAIN, Fr. From
the fresh flowering herb of _Thymus serpyllum_, the lemon or wild thyme of
our hills and pastures. Very fragrant, used to scent soaps &c. Sp. gr.
·867. _Prod._ 100 lbs. yield 2-1/2 to 5-1/2 oz. of oil. When pure, it is
scarcely affected by iodine, but solution of chromate of potassa acts on
it with energy.
=Oil of Let′tuce.= _Syn._ OLEUM LACTUCÆ VIROSÆ, L. From _Lactusa virosa_
(Linn.), or strong-scented wild lettuce. Closely resembles the odorous
matter of opium.
=Oil of Limes.= _Syn._ OLEUM LIMETTÆ, L. From the rind of the fruit of
_Citrus limetta_, or lime, as oil of lemons, which it somewhat resembles.
_Prod._ 100 limes yield 2-1/4 to 2-1/2 oz. of oil.
=Oil of Lov′age.= _Syn._ OLEUM LEVISTICI, L. From the leaves of fruit of
_Levisticum officinale_, Lovage. Pale yellow, aromatic, carminative.
_Prod._ Fresh herb, ·1% to ·15%.
=Oil of Mace.= _Syn._ OLEUM MACIDIS, O. M. ESSENTIALE, O. M. STILLATITIUM,
L. From the arillus of _Myristica officinale_ (commercial mace). Nearly
colourless; fragrant; lighter than water; closely resembles oil of nutmeg.
Sp. gr. ·945. _Prod._ 4-1/2 to 9%.
=Oil of Marc-brandy.= _Syn._ FUSEL OIL OF M.-B., O. OF GRAPE SPIRIT.
Obtained after the spirit (marc-brandy) has passed over during the
distillation of the fermented residuum of expressed grapes. Limpid;
odorous; acrid; offensive; soon turns yellow in the air; soluble in 1000
parts of water, and in all proportions in rectified spirit; 6 or 7 drops
will spoil a hogshead of brandy. According to M. Balard, this oil is a
mixture of potato oil and œnanthic ether.
=Oil of Mar′joram.= _Syn._ OIL OF SWEET M.; OLEUM MARJORANÆ, O. ORIQANI M.
(Ph. E.), L. From the fresh flowering herb of _Origanum marjorana_, or
sweet or knotted marjoram. Pale yellow; odorous; tonic; stimulant. Sp. gr.
·925 (·940——Baumé). _Prod._ ·33 to ·35%. See OIL OF ORIGANUM.
=Oil of Mea′dow-sweet.= _Syn._ OLEUM SPIRÆÆ ULMARIÆ, L. From the flowers
or flowering tops of _Spiræa ulmaria_ (Linn.), or common meadow-sweet.
This oil is a native hydride of salicyl. It is yellow, sweet-scented, and
slightly soluble in water, which then strikes a deep violet colour with
the persalts of iron. It boils at 385° Fahr. Sp. gr. 1·172. (See _below_.)
=Oil of Mea′dow-sweet (Facti′′tious).= This is prepared as
follows:——Salicin, 1 part, is dissolved in distilled water, 10 parts, and
being placed in a glass retort, bichromate of potassa (in powder), 1 part,
is added, followed by oil of vitriol, 2-1/2 parts, previously diluted
with 4 times its weight of water; a gentle heat is next applied to the
retort, and after the first effervescence resulting from the mutual
reaction of the ingredients is over, the heat is increased, and the
mixture is distilled for the oil in the usual manner. The product is
absolutely identical with the natural oil of meadow-sweet. (See _above_.)
=Oil of Mil′foil.= _Syn._ OLEUM MILLEFOLII, L. From the flowers of
_Achillæa millefolium_ (Linn.), or yarrow. Blue. Sp. gr. ·852. _Prod._ 14
lbs. of the dried flowers yield 3 dr. of oil.
=Oils, Mixed (Essential).= _Syn._ OLEA MIXTA ESSENTIALIA. From the oils of
bergamot and lemons, of each 1 oz.; oils of lavender and pimento, of each
1/2 oz. Used to scent ‘sal volatile drops,’ smelling-bottles, &c.
=Oil of Mus′tard (Volatile).= _Syn._ SULPHO-CYANIDE OF ALLYL; OLEUM
SINAPIS NIGRÆ, O. S. ESSENTIALE, L. From the seeds of _Sinapis
nigra_(Linn.), or black mustard, as oil of bitter almonds. Nearly
colourless; intensely acrid, pungent, rubefacient, and vesicant; slightly
soluble in water; boils at 289° Fahr. It contains sulphur. Sp. gr. 1·035
to 1·038; 1·015, at 68° Fahr. _Prod._ Av. ·6% (fully).
_Obs._ This oil, like that of bitter almonds, does not pre-exist in the
seed, but is the result of the action of myronic acid on a peculiar
substance, myrosin, in the presence of water. Oil of black mustard has
been used as a stimulant or counter-irritant in palsy, &c.; and the
distilled water, or a solution of the oil in water, is said to be an
excellent and cleanly remedy for the itch.
=Oil of Myrrh.= _Syn._ OLEUM MYRRHÆ, O. M. ESSENTIALE, L. Colourless;
thin; heavier than water; stimulant; smells strongly of the drug.
=Oil of Myr′tle (Volatile).= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF M.; OLEUM MYRTÆ ESSENTIALE,
L. From the flowers and leaves of _Myrtus communis_. 100 lbs. of the fresh
leaves yield 2-1/2 to 5 oz.
=Oil of Namur Grass.= See OIL OF GRASS (NAMUR).
=Oil of Narcis′sus.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF JONQUIL; OLEUM NARCISSI, L. As OIL
OF JASMINE. Delightfully odorous.
=Oil of Nero′li.= See OIL OF ORANGE FLOWERS.
=Oil of Nut′meg (Volatile).= _Syn._ OLEUM MYRISTICÆ (B. P., Ph. E.), O. M.
MOSCHATÆ (Ph. D.), L. From the officinal nutmeg or kernel of the fruit of
_Myristica moschata_. Nearly colourless; odour and flavour that of the
fruit, but more powerful. By agitation with water, it is separated into
two oils——one lighter, the other heavier, than water; the last is
butyraceous. Sp. gr. ·948. _Prod._ 4-1/2 to 7%. It is reputed to make the
hair grow, and to prevent baldness.
OIL OF ON’IONS. From the bulbs of _Allium cepa_, or common onion.
Contains sulphur, and smells strongly of the herb.
=Oil of Or′ange.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF O.; OLEUM AURANTII, O. AURANTIORUM, O.
A. CORTICIS, L. From the yellow portion of the rind of either the Seville
or sweet orange, preferably of the last; as oil of bergamot or lemons.
Closely resembles oil of lemons, but is more agreeably fragrant. The
expressed oil is very apt to become opaque, and deposit a stearopten,
especially in cold weather, unless well kept from the air. Sp. gr. ·875.
_Prod._ 100 fruits yield 4 to 5 oz. (See _below_.)
=Oil of Orange Berries.= _Syn._ OLEUM AURANTII BACCÆ, L. From the small
unripe fruit of the orange-tree. Does not keep well. (See _below_.)
=Oil of Orange Flowers.= _Syn._ NEROLI, OIL OF N., ESSENCE OF N.; OLEUM
NAPHÆ, O. AURANTII FLORUM, AURANTII OLEUM (Ph. E. and D.), L. From the
flowers of either the bitter (Seville)or sweet orange (_Citrus vulgaris_
or _C. aurantium_), by distillation with water. That from the fruit is
said to be preferred, but there does not appear any actual difference
between the two. Very fluid; lighter than water, in which it is slightly
soluble; it is delightfully aromatic and fragrant, but the odour differs
slightly from that of the flowers. _Prod._ 100 lbs. of flowers gathered in
May or December yield 3 to 6 oz. of oil; 6 cwt. of the fresh flowers yield
1 lb. of oil.
_Pur._ Neroli is commonly adulterated with alcohol or essence de petit
grain, and generally with both of them. The presence of the first is
easily determined (see _above_): that of the second can only be discovered
by comparing the odour evolved during the evaporation of a drop of the
suspected oil, placed on a piece of white paper, with a like drop of pure
neroli similarly treated. (See _above_ and _below_.)
=Oil of Orange-leaf.= _Syn._ OLEUM AURANTII FOLII, L.; ESSENCE DE PETIT
GRAIN, Fr. From the leaves of either the bitter or sweet orange; that from
the first being preferred. Delightfully fragrant. Extensively used to
adulterate oil of neroli, and is itself commonly sophisticated with both
alcohol and oil of orange-berries. (See _above_.)
=Oil of Orig′anum.= _Syn._ OLEUM ORIGANI, O. O. ESSENTIALE, L. From the
flowering herb of _Origanum vulgare_, or common or winter marjoram. Pale
yellow colour; fragrant; acrid, pungent, and rubefacient. Sp. gr. ·927
(·940——Baumé). _Prod._ ·5% to ·75%. The dark-coloured oil of origanum of
the shops is obtained from _Thymus vulgare_. The oil of origanum (Ph. E.)
is oil of _Origanum marjorana_. See OILS OF MARJORAM, THYME, and LEMON
THYME.
=Oil of Or′ris.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF VIOLET; OLEUM IRIDIS, L. From the dried
rhizomes of _Iris Florentina_, or Florentine orris-root. Fragrant. Sold
for oil and essence of violets.
=Oil of Par′sley.= _Syn._ OLEUM PETROSELINI, L. From the fresh herb or
dried fruit (seed) of _Apium petroselinum_, or garden parsley. Yellowish;
smells strongly of the plant. It consists of two oils, separable by
agitation with water, one of which is concrete, and melts at 80° Fahr.;
the other, liquid. _Prod._ Herb, ·50 to 1% (nearly).
=Oil of Par′tridge-berry.= _Syn._ OIL OF WINTER-GREEN, METHYLO-SALYCILIC
ETHER, SALICYLATE OF OXIDE OF METHYL; OLEUM GAUL-THERIÆ (Ph. U. S.), L.
From the leaves or the whole plant of _Gaultheria procumbens_, a herb
common in North America, and otherwise known by the names——Box-berry,
chequer-berry, partridge-berry, mountain tea, winter-green, &c. Pale
yellow, growing brown by exposure and age; aromatic; sweet; highly
pungent; when diluted, agreeably fragrant; mixed with a dilute solution of
potassa, it solidifies to a crystalline mass (salicylate of methyl and
potassa), from which the oil may be again separated by the addition of an
acid. It is the heaviest of all the essential oils. Sp. gr. 1·173. Boils
at 412°, and, when purified, at 435° Fahr.
Oil of partridge-berry, dissolved in rectified spirit, is in common use in
the United States of America as an antispasmodic, carminative, diuretic,
emmenagogue, and stimulant; chiefly as an adjunct to mixtures, &c.; and
also with the view of increasing the flow of milk during lactation. It is
likewise extensively used in perfumery, and is an object of great interest
to the organic chemist, on account of its peculiar constitution and
reaction.
=Oil of Partridge-berry (Facti′′tious).= See SALICYLIC ACID.
=Oil, Pearl.= See AMYLE (Acetate of), and ESSENCE OF JARGONELLE PEAR.
=Oil of Pennyroy′al.= _Syn._ OLEUM PULEGII (Ph. L.), O. MENTHÆ P. (B. P.,
Ph. E. & D.), O. P. ESSENTIALE, L. From the flowering herb of _Mentha
Pulegium_, or the common pennyroyal of our gardens. Pale yellow, growing
reddish yellow by age and exposure; antispasmodic, carminative, and
emmenagogue. Boils at 395° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·925 to ·931. _Prod._ 3/4 to 1%.
(See _below_.)
=Oil of Pennyroyal (American).= _Syn._ OLEUM HEDEOMÆ (Ph. U. S.), L. From
_Hedeoma pulegioides_, as the last. Light yellow; closely resembles oil of
pennyroyal, for which it passes in the U. S. Sp. gr. ·945 to ·948.
=Oil of Pepper.= _Syn._ OIL OF BLACK P.; OLEUM PIPERIS, O. P. NIGRI, L.
From bruised black pepper (_Piper nigrum_). Colourless, turning yellow;
odorous; pungent; not so hot as the spice. Sp. gr. ·9932. _Prod._ 1·25% to
1·5%. White pepper (of commerce), 1% (barely).
=Oil of Pep′permint.= _Syn._ OLEUM MENTHÆ PIPERITÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., &
D.), O. ESSENTIALÆ M. PIPERITIDIS, L. From the fresh flowering herb of
_Mentha piperita_, or garden peppermint. Nearly colourless, or at most a
very pale greenish yellow; powerfully odorous; tastes pungent, at the
same time imparting a sensation of coldness to the tongue and palate.
Boils at 365° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·902 to ·905. _Prod._ Fresh flowering herb,
·25% to ·4%; dried do., 1% to 1·25% (fully). In a warm dry season, 5 lbs.
of the fresh flowering herb yield 1 oz. of oil; in a wet and unfavorable
one, 11 lb. yield barely the same quality.
_Pur._ The oil of commerce usually contains fully a third part of
rectified spirit, and is also frequently adulterated with the oils of
rosemary, spearmint, and turpentine. When pure——1. It is soluble in its
own weight of rectified spirit.——2. Mixed with 1-4th its volume of nitric
acid, a rich purple-red colour is developed.——3. Chromate of potash, in
solution, turns it of a deep reddish-brown colour, and converts it into a
soft coagulum, which assumes a flaky form when divided with a glass rod,
whilst the solution of the salt loses its yellow colour or becomes
greenish yellow.——4. With iodine it forms a homogeneous mass, without
fulmination. If it explodes with iodine, it contains turpentine. The
yellowish, resinous oil, sold under the name of ‘American’ or ‘crude oil
of peppermint,’ consists chiefly of oil of turpentine, and on evaporation
leaves a residuum of pine resin.
_Obs._ English oil of peppermint is the best, a fact clearly shown by its
price in the market being so greatly above that of the imported oil. The
oil distilled at Mitcham, in Surrey (Mitcham oil of peppermint), is the
most esteemed. It has usually a very pale greenish colour, which is often
imitated by steeping a leaf or two of green mint or parsley in the oil.
Old dark-coloured oils are commonly bleached by exposure to the light, to
the destruction of a portion of their other properties.
According to a recent and valuable report upon those articles in the Paris
Exhibition of 1878, more particularly interesting to the pharmacist, the
chemical manufacturer, the perfumer, &c., which lately appeared in the
‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ the above statement is open to question. Of late
years it seems that a considerable industry has sprung up at Arzin in the
Department du Nord, in France, where large quantities of libiate plants
are cultivated, and subsequently submitted to distillation.
An acre of land generally yields every year from 3 to 4 tons of the
peppermint plant; and from 500 parts of this, one part of essential oil is
usually obtained, which it is alleged by M. Hanart, the distiller of the
oil in question, after being carefully bottled and kept for some years,
successfully rivals the English oil both in quality and price.
Of late years an essential oil of peppermint manufactured by Messrs
Holchkiss, of New York, has lately come into considerable demand.
This, which is said to be a very pure article, differs from the other
peppermint oils in becoming thick when first mixed with spirit of wine.
After a short time, however, the mixture clears and becomes perfectly
bright.
Oil of peppermint is stimulant, antispasmodic, and carminative, and has
always been a favourite remedy in flatulence, nausea, vomiting, loss of
appetite, cramp of the stomach, colic, griping pains, diarrhœa, the early
stage of cholera, &c.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 drops, on sugar.
=Oil of Petro′leum.= See NAPHTHA, OILS (Mineral), PETROLEUM, &c.
=Oil of Pim′ento.= _Syn._ OIL OF ALLSPICE; OLEUM PIMENTÆ (B. P., Ph. L.,
E., & D.), L. From the bruised fruit of _Eugenia pimenta_, allspice, or
Jamaica pepper. Pale yellow, growing reddish brown by age; odour, a
combination of cloves and cassia; taste pungent. Sp. gr. 1·021. _Prod._ 5%
to 8%.
_Obs._ Oil of pimento contains two oils similar to those found in clove
oil. When pure, nitric acid turns it red, with active effervescence and
the assumption of a rusty brown colour. It combines with the salifiable
bases in a nearly similar manner to oil of cloves. It is much used in
perfumery, especially in hair cosmetics.
=Oil of Pim′pernel.= _Syn._ OLEUM PIMPINELLÆ, L. From the root of
_Sanguisorba officinalis_, or pimpernel. Blue; carminative.
=Oil, Pine-ap′ple.= This artificial essential oil dates its commercial
importance from the Great Exhibition of 1851. It is essentially butyric
ether, and may be regarded as simply the crude form of that substance. On
the large scale it is prepared by saponifying butter or crude butyric acid
with a strong lye of caustic potassa, and dissolving the resulting soap in
the smallest possible quantity of hot alcohol; to the solution is added a
mixture of alcohol and oil of vitriol in excess, and the whole is then
submitted to distillation as long as the product has an aromatic fruity
odour; the product is rectified from dried chloride of calcium and a
little litharge. Dissolved in rectified spirit it is much used as a
flavouring substance by confectioners and liquoristes. See ETHER (Butyric)
and ESSENCE OF PINE-APPLE, &c.
=Oil of Pota′to Spirit.= See FUSEL OIL.
=Oil of Ravensa′ra.= _Syn._ OLEUM RAVENSARÆ, L. From the roots of
_Ravensara aromatica_. Chiefly used to adulterate oil of cloves, which it
somewhat resembles.
=Oil of Rho′dium.= _Syn._ OLEUM RHODII, L. Said to be derived from the
wood of a species of _Rhodoriza_. Very fluid and limpid; pale yellow; soon
darkens by age and exposure; tastes bitter and aromatic; has a modified
odour of roses. Chiefly used as a substitute for otto of roses in cheap
perfumery, and to adulterate it. Oil of sandal-wood is frequently sold for
it. _Prod._ 1% to 16%. See OIL OF ROSES (_below_).
=Oil of Ro′′ses.= _Syn._ OLEUM ROSÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From the petals of
_Rosa sempervirens_ (Linn.), or the musk rose, as oil of cloves, observing
to keep the water in the worm-tub at 85° Fahr., and afterwards subjecting
the water in the receiver to refrigeration. Resembles otto of roses, of
which it is merely a variety. _Prod._ 1/20 to 1/16 of 1%.
2. (ATTAR OF ROSES, OTTO OF R.; OLEUM ROSÆ——Ph. E.) From the petals of
_Rosa centifolia_ and _Rosa sempervirens_ (damask and musk rose),
principally the first, by saturating the water, by returning it repeatedly
on fresh flowers, and then exposing it to a low temperature. In the East
Indies it is obtained by stratifying gingelly seeds in alternate layers
with rose petals, for some days, and repeating the arrangement with fresh
roses till the seeds are saturated, when the oil is expressed and
distilled along with water. In the neighbourhood of Mecca the rose leaves
are macerated in salt-and-water for 2 or 3 days, and then distilled, the
water being received in separate receivers at different parts of the
process. The water is afterwards exposed in porous earthenware vessels,
tied over with linen, in trenches dug in the earth, and over which
moistened straw is thrown, when in a short time the otto separates and
floats on the surface.
_Prop., &c._ Colourless, or nearly so; odour intense, penetrating, and
diffusive, and in a concentrated state far from pleasant, but when dilute
very agreeable; taste, bland and sweetish; when pure, it congeals at 80°,
and does not remelt until heated to fully 85° Fahr.; 1000 parts of alcohol
of ·806 dissolve only 7 parts of otto at 57° Fahr., and only 33 parts at
72°. Sp. gr. ·832 at 90°, to water 1·000 at 60° Fahr. _Prod._ 100 lbs. of
roses yield 2 to 3 dr.
_Pur._ Otto of roses is frequently adulterated with the oils of rhodium,
sandal-wood, and geranium, and with camphor; and occasionally with
spermaceti, to give the spurious compound the usual crystalline
appearance. The following are reliable tests:——1. Pure otto has a bland,
sweet taste; if it is bitter, it contains oil of rhodium or sandal-wood;
if it is pungent, or ‘bites,’ the palate, it contains either oil of
geranium or camphor, and probably both; if it imparts an unctuous
sensation, it contains spermaceti.——2. Exposed for some hours to the fumes
of a small quantity of iodide under a bell-glass in the cold, pure otto
remains white, and continues so when exposed to the air; an adulterated
sample, on the contrary, becomes yellow or brown, and afterwards, on
exposure to the air, continues to darken in colour, until it becomes of a
deep brown, or even perfectly black, according to the quantity of foreign
oil present. A single drop may be thus tested.——3. (Guibourt.) One or two
drops of the suspected oil are put into a watch-glass; the same number of
drops of concentrated sulphuric acid are added, and the two fluids are
mixed with a glass-rod. All the oils are rendered more or less brown by
this proceeding; but, otto of roses retains the purity of its odour——oil
of geranium acquires a strong and disagreeable odour, which is perfectly
characteristic——the odour of the oil of rhodium is increased, and becomes
somewhat unctuous, and, in general, it acquires an odour distinctly like
that of cubebs.
=Oil of Rose′mary.= _Syn._ ROSMARINI OLEUM (B. P.), OLEUM ANTHOS, O.
RORISMARINI, O. ROSMARINI (Ph. L. E. & D.), O. RORISMARINI ESSENTIALÆ, L.
From the flowering tops of _Rosmarinus officinalis_. In the Ph. L. English
oil of rosemary (O. ROSMARINI, ANGLICUM) is ordered, as it is superior to
that from abroad. Colourless; strongly fragrant, but scarcely agreeable
unless compounded; carminative and stimulant. Boils at 365° Fahr. Sp. gr.
·910; recent,·897; rectified, ·8887. _Prod._ 3/4 to 1% (nearly).
_Pur., &c._ It is frequently adulterated with oil of turpentine. When pure
it dissolves in all proportions in spirit of ·830. By age it deposits a
crystalline stearoptene, and acquires a terebinthinate odour. It is
chiefly used as a stimulant in liniments, hair oil, pomatums, &c.
=Oil of Rose′wort.= _Syn._ OIL OF ROSE-ROOT; OLEUM RHODIOLÆ, L. From the
roots of _Rhodiola rosea_. Yellowish; odour resembles that of oil of
rhodium, for which it is often sold, as well as the distilled water for
rose water. 1-1/2 lb. yields about 1 dr.
=Oil of Rue.= _Syn._ RUTÆ OLEUM (B. P.), OLEUM RUTÆ (Ph. L. & E.), L. The
“oil distilled from the fresh herb of _Ruta graveolens_” (B. P.), or
common rue. Pale yellow, turning brown by age, and depositing a brownish,
resinous sediment; congeals at about 40° Fahr.; acrid, bitter; odour that
of the plant; stimulant, antispasmodic, and emmenagogue. Sp. gr. ·909 to
·911. _Prod._ 1/4 to 1%(nearly). According to Raybaud, the recent dried
seeds yield fully four times as much oil as the flowering herb.
_Pur._ Nearly always adulterated. When pure——1. It forms a clear solution
with rectified spirit.——2. It does not form a camphor with gaseous
hydrochloric acid.——3. Iodine dissolves in it slowly, without any apparent
reaction, beyond a darkening and a slight increase of viscidity.——4. It is
unaffected by a solution of chromate of potassa.——5. Nitric acid very
slowly changes it into a greenish-yellow liquid balsam.——6. If it forms a
reddish-brown solution with liquor of potassa and a still darker one with
oil of vitriol, or if it fulminates with iodine, it is adulterated with
the oil of some labiate plant.——7. It is more soluble in both rectified
spirit and water than any of the oils used to adulterate it.
=Oil of Saf′fron.= _Syn._ OLEUM CROCI, L. From the pistils of _Crocus
sativus_ (saffron). Yellow; heavier than water; acrid, pungent, and
narcotic; decomposed by exposure to light and age, with the formation of a
white solid matter, which is lighter than water.
=Oil of Sage.= _Syn._ OLEUM SALVIÆ, L. From the herbaceous portion of
_Salvia officinalis_, or common sage.
=Oil of San′dal-wood.= _Syn._ OLEUM SANTALI, O. S. ALBI, L. From the wood
of _Santalum album_, or sandal-tree, and preferably from that of Malabar.
It has an odour somewhat resembling that of oil of rhodium, for which it
is commonly used; also used to adulterate otto of roses. _Prod._ 9 lbs.
yield 1 oz.; 100 lbs. yield 5 oz. (Raybaud).
=Oil of Sarsaparil′la.= _Syn._ OLEUM SARZÆ, L. From the root bark,
distilled along with salt-and-water. Acrid; odour and flavour same as the
root.
=Oil of Sas′safras.= _Syn._ VOLATILE OIL OF S.; OLEUM SASSAFRAS (Ph. E.),
O. LAURI S., O. S. OFFICINALIS, L. From bruised sassafras chips, the
sliced root of _Sassafras officinale_, as oil of cloves. Pale yellow;
highly odorous; hot, pungent, rubefacient, and stimulant; reputed
alterative, sudorific, and diuretic, and, as such, occasionally given in
rheumatism, cutaneous affections, &c. Sp. gr. 1·094 to 1·096. _Prod._
1-1/2 to 2% (fully).
_Pur., &c._——1. If the density is lower than 1·094, it is adulterated.——2.
Nitric acid acts on this oil, at first slowly, merely turning it of an
orange-red, but afterwards with violence, and a reddish-brown resin is
formed.——3. Mixed with about one half its weight of sulphuric acid, a
green colour is at first developed, which, by heat, is changed to a blood
red. A large quantity of sulphuric acid acts at once violently, white
fumes are given off, and mere charcoal is left.——4. With iodine it forms a
permanently clear solution, or at least one that remains so for some
time.——5. By agitation with water, it separates into two oils——one
lighter, the other heavier, than that fluid.
=Oil of Sav′ine.= _Syn._ OLEUM SABINÆ (B. P.), OLEUM JUNIPERI SABINÆ, O.
SABINÆ (Ph. E. & D.), L. From the fresh tops or leaves of _Juniperus
sabina_, or common savin. Pale yellow; limpid; acrid, pungent, and
stimulant. It possesses the general properties of the plant in a highly
exalted degree. Sp. gr. ·915. _Prod._ Fresh herb, 1·25% to 1·5%; dried do.
(recent), 2-1/2% to 3%. _Dose_, 2 to 6 drops; as an anthelmintic,
diaphoretic, and emmenagogue. Its use must be carefully avoided during
pregnancy or disease of the abdominal viscera.
_Pur., &c._ It is less frequently adulterated than the other volatile
oils. Its high sp. gr. and free solubility in rectified spirit offer the
means of detecting the presence of either oil of turpentine or alcohol,
the substances occasionally added to it. A mixture of equal parts of oil
of savin and oil of vitriol, by distillation from milk of lime, furnishes
an oil apparently identical with oil of thyme. (Winckler.)
=Oil of Sen′na.= _Syn._ OLEUM SENNÆ VOLATILE, L. Possesses the nauseous
odour and flavour of the leaves, and, as well as the distilled water, is
purgative.
=Oil of Spear′mint.= _Syn._ ENGLISH OIL OF SPEARMINT (B. P.), OIL OF MINT,
OIL OF GREEN M.; MENTHÆ VIRIDIS OLEUM (B. P.); OLEUM MENTHÆ VIRIDIS (Ph.
L., E., & D.), O. M. SATIVÆ, O. ESSENTIALE MENTHÆ S., L. From the fresh
flowering herb of _Mentha viridis_ (Linn.) or garden spearmint. Pale
yellow; reddened by age; odour and general properties resemble those of
oil of peppermint, but it is less grateful. It boils at 320° Fahr. Sp. gr.
·915 (·9394, Brande). _Prod._ ·2% to ·25%. Its common adulterants are
alcohol and oil of turpentine.
=Oil of Spike (True).= _Syn._ FOREIGN OIL OF LAVENDER; OLEUM SPICÆ, O. S.
VERUM, O. STÆCHADIS, O. LAVANDULÆ S., L.: HUILE D’ASPIC, Fr. Chiefly from
_Lavandula spica_ and _L. stæchas_, or French and Alpine lavenders. It
differs from English oil of lavender by its darker green colour and
inferior odour. From France. Used by artists to mix their colours in, and
to make varnishes. Oil of turpentine scented with lavender is commonly
sold for it. _Prod._ From _L. spica_ (fresh), 3/4 to 1-1/2%; _L. stæchas_
(dried), 3/4 to 1% (fully).
=Oil of Spike′nard.= _Syn._ OLEUM NARDI, L. The precious oil mentioned
under this name in Scripture is supposed to have been derived from
_Andropogon Iwaracusa_. The commercial oil of geranium (see _above_) is
also called by this name.
=Oil of Spring Grass.= _Syn._ OLEUM ANTHOXANTHI ODORATI, L. From
_Anthoxanthum odoratum_, or sweet-scented vernal grass. It is this oil
that gives the very agreeable odour to new hay.
=Oil of Star-an′ise.= _Syn._ BADIAN OIL; OLEUM BADIANI, O. ANISI STELLATI,
L. From the capsules of _Illicium anisatum_, or star-anise. It continues
liquid at 35-1/2° Fahr. This, and its weaker reaction with iodine,
distinguish it from the preceding compound, which it is commonly used to
adulterate. _Prod._ 2% (fully).
=Oil of Sweet Fen′nel.= See OIL OF FENNEL.
=Oil of Sweet Flag.= _Syn._ OLEUM ACORI, O. A. AROMATICA, L. From the
rhizomes or roots of _Acorus calamus_ (Linn.), or sweet flag. Yellow;
agreeably fragrant. Used to scent snuff, aromatic vinegar, &c. _Prod._
Fresh rhizomes, 3/4 to 1%; dried (recent), 1 to 1·25%.
=Oil of Tan′sy.= _Syn._ OLEUM TANACETI, L. From the flowering herb of
_Tanacetum vulgare_ (Linn.), or tansy. Pale greenish yellow; very odorous;
bitter; aromatic. Sp. gr. ·946 to ·950. _Prod._ Fresh, ·25% to ·5%; dried
(recent), 3/4 to 1%(fully).
=Oil of Thyme.= _Syn._ OLEUM THYMI; OIL OF ORIGANUM; OLEUM ORIGANI (of the
shops). From the flowering herb of _Thymus vulgaris_ (Linn.), or garden
thyme. Nearly colourless; the imparted oil has a reddish colour, which it
loses by rectification; very fragrant; acrid; hot tasted, stimulant, and
rubefacient; boils at 354° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·867 to ·875. _Prod._ ·5% to
·75%.
_Obs._ This is the dark-coloured ‘OIL OF ORIGANUM’ of the shops. It is
frequently adulterated with oil of turpentine. It is occasionally used in
toothache and in stimulating liniments; but its chief consumption is in
perfumery, more particularly for hair oils, pomatums, and hair-washes, as
it is reputed to make the hair grow and to prevent baldness.
=Oil of Tobac′co (Volatile).= From the leaves of _Nicotiana tabacum_
(Linn.), or the tobacco plant. Concrete.
=Oil of Turpentine.= _Syn._ SPIRIT OF T., ESSENCE OF T., TURPS, CAMPHENE,
CAMPHINE; TEREBINTHINÆ OLEUM (B. P.), SPIRITUS TEREBINTHINÆ, ESSENTIA T.,
OLEUM TEREBINTHINÆ (Ph. L. & D.), O. T. PURIFICATUM (Ph. E.), L. The oil
of turpentine of commerce is obtained by distilling strained American
turpentine along with water. The residuum in the still is ‘resin’ or
‘rosin.’ The product in oil varies from 14% to 16%. The colleges order it
to be rectified before being employed for medicinal purposes. This is
effected by redistilling it along with 3 or 4 times its volume of water,
observing not to draw over quite the whole. The portion remaining in the
retort (balsam of turpentine) is viscid and resinous. A better plan is to
well agitate it with an equal measure of solution of potassa or milk of
lime before rectifying it. This is the plan adopted for the camphine used
for lamps. By agitating crude oil of turpentine with about 5% of sulphuric
acid, diluted with twice its weight of water, and after repose and
decantation rectifying it from 5 or 6 times its volume of the strongest
lime water, a very pure and nearly scentless oil may be obtained. Dr Nimmo
recommends oil of turpentine to be purified by agitation with 1/8th part
of rectified spirit, after repose to decant the spirit, and to repeat the
process 3 or 4 times. The product retains, however, fully 1/5th part of
spirit in solution, and hence this method is objectionable, except for
medicinal purposes, for which, according to Dr Garrod, it is better than
the oil purified by rectification. The sweet spirits of turpentine
(SPIRITUS TEREBINTHINÆ DULCIS), vended of late years in the shops, is
simply the common oil which has been agitated with, and rectified from,
somewhat dilute sulphuric acid.
_Prop._ Pure oil of turpentine is colourless; limpid; very mobile; neutral
to test-paper; has an odour neither powerful nor disagreeable when
recently prepared, but becoming so by exposure to the air; dissolves 1/5th
part of alcohol of ·830; is soluble in 6 parts of ether and in 7-1/2 parts
of rectified spirit; hot strong alcohol dissolves it freely, but the
greater part separates in globules as the liquid cools. Oil of vitriol
chars it, and strong nitric acid attacks it violently, even with flame. It
congeals at 14°, and boils at 312° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·867; that of the oil of
the shops varies from ·872 to ·878. It possesses a very high refractive
power. At 72° it absorbs 163 times its volume of hydrochloric-acid gas (if
kept cool), and in 24 hours from 26% to 47% of crystals (KIND’S CAMPHOR)
separate. These have a camphoraceous odour, and, after being washed with
water, and sublimed along with some dry chalk, lime, or charcoal, assume
the form of a white, translucent, flexible, crystalline mass, which is
volatile, soluble in alcohol, and possesses a considerable resemblance to
camphor. A nearly similar substance is produced by the action of oxygen
gas on oil of turpentine.
_Uses, &c._ Oil of turpentine is extensively used in the manufacture of
varnishes and paints. Under the name of ‘camphine’ it is occasionally
employed for burning in lamps. For the last purpose it must be newly
rectified and preserved from the air. By exposure it rapidly absorbs
oxygen, resin is formed, its density increases, and it gives a dull
fuliginous flame. In medicine it is employed as a diaphoretic, stimulant,
vermifuge, &c.——_Dose_, 6 to 30 or 40 drops; in rheumatism, hemicrania,
&c., 1 fl. dr. every four hours, in combination with bark or capsicum; in
tapeworm, 3 fl. dr. to 1 fl. oz., either alone or combined with a little
syrup of orange peel, every 8 hours, until the worm is expelled. The
common symptoms of large doses of this oil are dizziness and a species of
temporary intoxication, and occasionally nausea and sickness, which
subside after two or three alvine evacuations, leaving no other effect,
when the oil is pure, than a certain degree of languor for a few hours. In
tapeworm a little castor-oil may be advantageously combined with the
second and subsequent doses. Oil of turpentine imparts a violent odour to
the urine. To prevent loss by evaporation and resinification, this oil
should be kept in tin cans or glass bottles. For store vessels, closely
covered tin cisterns are the best. To _prevent accidents_ it is proper to
caution the operator of the extremely penetrating and inflammable nature
of the vapour of this oil, even in the cold. During the process of its
distillation, without the greatest precautions are taken, an explosion is
almost inevitable.
=Oil of Vale′′rian.= _Syn._ OLEUM VALERIANÆ (Ph. Bor.), L. From the root
of _Valeriana officinalis_ (Linn.), or wild valerian. Yellowish; viscid;
lighter than water; smells strongly of the plant. By exposure to the air
it is partly converted into valerianic acid, and more readily so under the
influence of an alkali. In its usual form it consists of valerol, a
neutral oily body; borneene, a volatile liquid hydrocarbon; and valerianic
acid. It is powerfully antispasmodic, emmenagogue, tonic, and stimulant,
and, in large doses, narcotic.——_Dose_, 2 to 6 drops; in epilepsy,
hysteria, hemicrania, hypochondriasis, low fevers, &c. _Prod._ 1-1/4% to
2% (nearly).
=Oil of Ver′bena.= _Syn_. OLEUM VERBENÆ, L. From the fresh flowering herb
of _Verbena odorata_. _Prod._ 2% to 5%. The ‘OIL OF VERBENA’ of the shops
is imported from India, and is obtained from _Andropogon citratum_. See
OIL OF LEMON GRASS.
=Oil of Wine.= SYN. HEAVY OIL OF WINE, ETHEREAL OIL, OILY ETHEREAL
LIQUOR, SULPHATE OF ETHER AND ETHEROLE; OLEUM ÆTHEREUM (Ph. L.), OLEUM
VINI, LIQUOR ÆTHEREUS OLEOSUS, L. This is an artificial production which,
for convenience, may be included under this head.
1. (Ph. L.) Rectified spirit, 2 pints, and sulphuric acid, 36 fl. oz., are
cautiously mixed together in a glass retort, and submitted to distillation
until a black froth appears, when the retort is immediately removed from
the fire (sand heat); the lighter, supernatant, liquor is next separated
from the fluid in the receiver, and exposed to the air for 24 hours; it is
then agitated with a mixture of solution of potassa and water, of each 1
fl. oz., or q. s., and, when, sufficiently washed, is, lastly, separated
from the aqueous liquid from which it has subsided. The formula of the Ph.
L. 1836 is nearly similar.
2. (Ph. D.) Rectified spirit and oil of vitriol (commercial), of each
1-1/2 pint; as the last, employing a Liebig’s condenser, and a capsule for
the exposure to the air; the oil is then transferred to a moistened paper
filter, and washed with a little cold water, to remove any adhering acid.
3. (Ph. D. 1826.) From the residuum in the retort after the process of
preparing ether, distilled to one half, by a moderate heat, and the oil
treated as before.
4. From rectified spirit (sp. gr. ·833), 2 parts; oil of vitriol, 5 parts;
mix and distil, as before; wash the product with distilled water, and free
it from adhering water and undecomposed alcohol by exposure in the vacuum
of an air-pump, between two open capsules, the one containing fragments of
solid potassa, and the other concentrated sulphuric acid. Pure.
5. By distilling a mixture of ether and oil of vitriol, and treating the
product as before.
6. By the destructive distillation of dry sulphovinate of calcium; the
product is freed from alcohol, &c., by washing it. This process yields the
largest product.
_Prop., &c._ An oily liquid, nearly colourless, neutral, with an aromatic
taste, and an odour resembling that of oil of peppermint. It is insoluble
in water, but freely soluble in both alcohol and ether; boiling water
converts it into sulphovinic acid, and a volatile liquid called light or
sweet oil of wine; with an alkaline solution, this effect is produced with
even greater facility. Sp. gr. 1·05 (Hennel & Ph. L.); 1·13 (Serullas).
Boils at 540° Fahr. “Dropped into water, it sinks, the form of the globule
being preserved.” (Ph. L.) _Prod._ 1·25 to 1·5%; 33 lbs. of rectified
spirit, and 64 lbs. of oil of vitriol, yield 17 oz. of this oil (Hennel).
_Uses._ Oil of wine is reputed anodyne, but is only used in the
preparation of other compounds. See SPIRIT OF ETHER (Compound), &c.
=Oil of Wine (Light).= _Syn._ SWEET OIL OF WINE. See ETHERIN, ETHEROLE,
and _above_.
=Oil, Wood (of India).= From the _Chloroxylon Swietenia_ (De Cand.), the
tree which yields the satin-wood of the cabinet-makers. Another wood oil
(GŪRJUN BALSAM) is obtained by incision from various species of
_Dipterocarpus_. This balsam yields about 38% of a volatile oil by
distillation, which in its general properties closely resembles OIL OF
COPAIBA. (O’Shaughnessey.)
=Oil of Worm′seed.= _Syn._ OLEUM CHENOPODII (Ph. U. S.), L. From the seeds
of _Chenopodium anthelminticum_, or Jerusalem oak (American wormseed).
Light yellow, or greenish; powerfully anthelmintic. Sp. gr. ·908.——_Dose._
For an adult, 25 to 30 drops, in sugar, honey, or milk, night and morning,
for 3 or 4 days, followed by a good dose of castor oil, or some other
suitable purgative.
=Oil of Worm′wood.= _Syn._ OLEUM ABSINTHII, L. From the herbaceous portion
of _Artemisia absinthium_, or common wormwood; green or brownish-green;
odorous; acrid; bitter; stomachic. Sp. gr. ·9703 (Brisson); ·9720
(Pereira); ·9725 (Brande). _Prod._ Fresh herb (picked), 1/4 to 1/3%, dry
herb (a year old), 1/2% (fully); do. (recent), 3/4 to 1% (fully).
_Pur._ That of the shops is nearly always either adulterated or partly
spoiled by age; hence the discrepancies in the densities given for this
oil by different authorities. A specimen of this oil distilled by Mr
Cooley from the green plant had the sp. gr. ·9712; but after being kept
for 12 months, it had increased to ·9718. Nitric acid of 1·25 colours the
pure oil first green, then blue, and, lastly, brown. The positive
character of these reactions is in direct proportion to the purity and
freshness of the sample.
=OILY EMUL′SION.= See LINCTUS (Emollient).
=OILY ETHE′′REAL LIQ′UOR.= See OIL OF WINE (_above_).
=OINT′MENT.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM, L. Any soft, fatty substance applied to the
skin by inunction. The term is now commonly restricted to those which are
employed in medicine.
Ointments (unguenta) differ from ‘cerates’ chiefly in their consistence,
and in wax not being a constant or essential constituent; and they are
made and used in a nearly similar manner to that class of preparations.
Their proper degree of solidity is that of good butter, at the ordinary
temperature of the atmosphere. When the active ingredients are pulverulent
substances, nothing can be more suitable to form the body of the ointment
than good fresh lard, free from salt; but when they are fluid or
semi-fluid, prepared suet, or a mixture of suet and lard, will be
necessary to give a due consistence to the compound. In some instances wax
is ordered for this purpose. Another excellent ‘vehicle’ for the more
active ingredients is a simple ointment, formed by melting together 1 part
of pure white wax with about 4 parts of olive oil. The use of the last
excludes the possibility of the irritation sometimes occasioned by the
accession of rancidity, when inferior lard is employed. In a few cases
butter is employed to form the body of the ointment.
Some ointments are made from recent vegetable substances by infusion or
coction, in the manner adopted for medicated oils. See OILS, MEDICATED.
The precautions to be used in the choice of lard are noticed in the
article devoted to this substance. Lard is included in the Materia Medica
of the London College. In the last Ph. D. lard for medicinal use (ADEPS
SUILLUS PRÆPARATUS——Ph. D.) is ordered to be prepared by melting it in
twice its weight of boiling water, stirring it constantly for some time,
then setting the mixture aside to cool; and, lastly, separating the fat
when it has solidified.
Ointments are best preserved by keeping them in salt-glazed earthen or
stoneware jars, covered with tin foil, in a cool situation.
The accession of rancidity in ointments and other unctuous preparations
may be greatly retarded, if not wholly prevented, by previously dissolving
in the fat about 2% of gum-benzoin, in fine powder, or rather less
quantity of benzoic acid by the aid of heat. This addition renders the
ointment peculiarly soothing to irritable or highly sensitive skins.
Poplar buds act in a similar manner.
⁂ The formulæ for all the more useful and generally employed ointments are
given below. Those not included in the list may be prepared of the proper
strength for all ordinary purposes, by combining about 12 to 15 times the
medium dose of the particular medicinal with 1 oz. of lard or simple
ointment. For substances which possess little activity, 1/2 to 1 dr. per
oz., or even more, may be taken. See CERATE, FAT, &c.
=Ointment of Ac′etate of Lead.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM PLUMBI ACETATIS (B. P.,
Ph. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Acetate of lead, in fine powder, 1
oz.; simple ointment, 20 oz.; mix them thoroughly (by trituration).
2. (Ph. D.) Ointment of white wax, 1 lb.; melt by a gentle heat, then add,
gradually, of acetate of lead, in very fine powder, 1 oz., and stir the
mixture until it concretes.
3. (B. P.) Acetate of lead, in fine powder, 12 gr.; benzoated lard, 1 oz.;
mix.
_Obs._ A useful, cooling, astringent, and desiccative ointment. For the
formula of Ph. L., see CERATE.
=Ointment, Ace′tic.= See OINTMENT, VINEGAR.
=Ointment of Ac′onite.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ACONITI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr
Turnbull.) Alcoholic extract of aconite, 1 part; lard, 2 parts; carefully
triturated together. In neuralgia, &c.
2. (Ammoniated; UNGUENTUM ACONITI AMMONIATUM——Turnbull.) Ammoniated
extract of aconite, 1 part; lard, 3 parts. In neuralgia, paralysis, old
rheumatic affections, &c. The use of the above preparations of aconite
requires the greatest caution. They are intended as substitutes for
OINTMENT OF ACONITINE, a still more dangerous preparation.
=Ointment of Acon′itine.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ACONITINÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr
Garrod.) Pure aconitine, 1 gr.; lard, 1 dr.; mix by careful trituration.
2. (Dr Turnbull.) Aconitine, 2 gr.; rectified spirit, 6 or 7 drops;
triturate together, then add of lard, 1 dr., and mix well.
3. (B. P.) Aconitia (aconitine), 8 gr.; rectified spirit, 1/2 dr.;
dissolve and add lard, 1 oz.; mix.
_Use, &c._ As a topical benumber in neuralgic affections, rheumatic pains,
&c. Its application generally occasions considerable tingling, and
sometimes redness of the part to which it is applied, followed by
temporary loss of sensation in the skin and the cessation of the pain. For
slight cases Dr Paris formerly employed only 1 gr. to the oz. Owing to the
intensely poisonous nature of aconitine, this ointment must be both
prepared and used with great caution, and must never be applied to an
abraded surface. It is seldom employed, owing to its extreme costliness.
See ACONITIA, and _above_.
=Ointment, Ague.= See OINTMENT, ANTIPERIODIC.
=Ointment, Albinolo’s.= See PATENT MEDICINES.
=Ointment, Alkaline.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ALKALINUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Biett.)
Carbonate of soda, 2 dr.; fresh-slaked lime, 1 dr.; powdered opium, 2 gr.;
lard, 2 oz.; mix by trituration. In prurigo, ringworm, and some other
cutaneous affections.
2. (Cazenave.) Carbonate of potassa, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. In psoriasis,
lepra, and scorbutic eruptions.
3. (Devergie.)——_a._ From carbonate (not sesquicarbonate) of soda, 10 to
15 gr.; lard, 1 oz. In lichen.
_b._ From carbonate of soda, 20 to 30 gr.; lard, 1 oz. In ichthyosis,
lepra, psoriasis, and some other scaly skin diseases.
_c._ From carbonate of soda, 1/2 to 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. In porrigo favosa,
especially when occurring in adults.
4. (Soubeiran.) Carbonate of soda, 1 to 2 dr.; wine of opium, 1 fl. dr.;
lard, 1 oz. In any of the above affections, when there is much pain or
irritation.
_Obs._ Carbonate of potassa is thought to be preferable to carbonate of
soda, when the above affections occur in scorbutic habits. A little
camphor is also occasionally added.
=Ointment of Aloes.= See OINTMENT FOR WORMS.
=Ointment of Aloes, Compound.= See OINTMENT FOR WORMS.
=Ointment of Al′um.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ALUMINIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Alum, in
very fine powder, 1 dr.; lard, 1-1/2 oz. In piles.
2. To the last add of powdered opium, 7 gr. In piles, when there is much
pain. See OINTMENT, BANYER’S.
=Ointment, Ammoni′acal.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM AMMONIACALE, U. AMMONIÆ, L.;
LIPAROLE D’AMMONIAQUE, POMMADE DE GONDRET, Fr. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.) Suet
and lard, of each 1 oz.; melt in a strong wide-mouthed bottle, add of
liquor of ammonia (sp. gr. ·923), 2 oz., at once close the bottle, and
agitate it until its contents concrete. As little heat as possible should
be employed, to prevent unnecessary loss of ammonia.
2. (Gondret.) Lard, 3 parts; suet, 2 parts; almond oil, 1 part; strong
solution of ammonia, 6 parts; mix, as before. Rubefacient, vesicant, and
counter-irritant. Smeared over the skin and covered so as to prevent
evaporation, it raises a blister in 5 or 6 minutes. Its general effects
and uses are similar to those of compound liniment of ammonia.
=Ointment of Car′bonate of Ammo′′nia.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM AMMONIÆ
CARBONATIS, U. A. SESQUICARBONATIS, L. _Prep._ From carbonate of ammonia,
1 dr.; lard, 9 dr. An excellent application to painful joints, indolent
tumours, scrofulous sores, &c.
=Ointment of Ammo′niated Mercury.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI AMMONIATI
(B. P.). Ammoniated mercury, 62 gr.; simple ointment, 1 oz.; mix. See next
preparation.
=Ointment of Ammo′′nio-chloride of Mercury.= _Syn._ WHITE PRECIPITATE
OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI AMMONIO-CHLORIDI (Ph. L.), U. H.
PRECIPITATI ALBI, U. PRECIP. A. (Ph. E.), U. H SUBMURIATIS AMMONIATI (Ph.
D. 1826), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Ammonio-chloride of mercury, 2 dr.; lard,
3 oz.; triturate together.
2. (Ph. E.) As the last, but employing heat.
_Uses, &c._ Alterative; detergent; stimulant. In itch, scald-head, and
various other skin diseases; in inflammation of the eyes; as an
application to scrofulous and cancerous tumours; to destroy vermin on the
body, &c. It “may be safely used” (in small quantities) “on infants.” (A.
T. Thomson.)
=Ointment, An′′glo-Saxon.= _Prep._ Heat olive oil, 1 pint, and beeswax,
1/4 lb., until the mixture acquires a reddish-brown colour; then add red
lead (levigated), 1/4 lb., and continue the heat, with constant stirring;
when the union appears complete, add of amber and burnt alum, of each, in
fine powder, 1/2 oz.; lastly, when considerably cooled, add of powdered
camphor, 3 dr. As a dressing to foul ulcers.
=Ointment, An′odyne.= See OINTMENT OF OPIUM, HEMLOCK, &c.
=Ointment of An′thracoka′li.= _Syn._ POMADE DE ANTHRACOKALI, Fr. _Prep._
(Dr Polya.) Anthracokali, in very fine powder, 1 part; lard, 30 parts. See
ANTHRACOKALI.
=Ointment, Antiherpet′ic.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ANTIHERPETICUM, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Alibert.) Red sulphide of mercury, 3 dr.; powdered camphor, 1 dr.; lard,
3 oz.
2. (Chevallier.) ‘Subsulphate of mercury’ (Turpeth mineral), 2 dr.;
chloride of lime, 3 dr.; almond oil, 6 dr.; lard, 2 oz. In herpes or
tetters.
=Ointment, Antimo′nial.= See OINTMENT OF POTASSIO TARTRATE OF ANTIMONY.
=Ointment, Antiperiod′ic.= _Syn._ AGUE OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM ANTIPERIODICUM,
U. FEBRIFUGUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Disulphate of quinine, 1-1/2 dr.; saccharine
carbonate of iron, 1 dr.; oil of cajeput, 30 drops; fresh butter, 1 oz.
2. (Antonini.) Sulphate of quinine, 1 oz.; rectified spirit and sulphuric
acid, of each q. s.; lard, 1 oz.
_Uses, &c._ About 1/4 oz. of either of the above to be rubbed on the
vertebral regions once every 2 or 3 hours for 3 or 4 days, in intermittent
fevers, more especially in those accompanied by vomiting; or, into the
epigastrium, in cholera, diarrhœa, or dysentery.
=Ointment of Araroba.= See ARAROBA.
=Ointment, Aromat′ic.= _Syn._ BALSAMUM STOMACHALE WACKERI, UNGUENTUM
AROMATICUM, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Austr. 1836.) Simple ointment, 2-1/2 lbs.;
yellow wax and oil of laurel, of each 3 oz.; melt together, and, when
considerably cooled, add of oils of juniper, mint, lavender, and rosemary,
of each 2 dr. Anodyne, balsamic, and stimulant.
=Ointment, Arsen′ical.= _Syn._ OINTMENT OF WHITE ARSENIC; UNGUENTUM
ARSENICALE, U. ARSENICI, U. ACIDI ARSENIOSI, L. _Prep._ 1. Arsenious acid
(levigated), 3 gr.; lard or simple ointment, 1 oz. In lepra, psoriasis,
malignant whitlows, &c.
2. (Hosp. F.) Levigated white arsenic, 15 to 20 gr.; lard, 1 oz. As a
dressing for cancerous sores.
2. (Soubeiran.) White arsenic, 1 dr.; lard, and spermaceti ointment, of
each 6 dr. In malignant cancer. The above must be carefully prepared, and
used with great caution. See CERATE.
=Ointment of Arse′′niate of I′ron.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM FERRI ARSENIATIS, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Carmichael.) Arseniate of iron, 1/2 dr.; phosphate of iron, 2
dr.; spermaceti ointment, 6 dr.
2. (Dr Pereira.) Arseniate of iron, 1/2 dr.; lard, 1-1/2 oz. In cancer.
=Ointment of Arseniate of Soda.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM SODÆ ARSENIATIS. _Prep._
Arseniate of soda, 1 dr.; lard, 2 oz. Mix.
=Ointment, Astrin′gent.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ASTRINGENS, L. _Prep._ Triturate
powdered catechu, 1-1/2 dr., with boiling water, 2 fl. dr., add,
gradually, of spermaceti ointment (melted), 1-1/4 oz., and continue the
trituration until the mass concretes. An excellent dressing for
ill-disposed sores and ulcers, especially during hot weather. See the
several LEAD OINTMENTS, OINTMENT OF GALLS, &c.
=Ointment of Atro′′pia.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ATROPIÆ (B. P.), L. _Prep._ 1.
Atropia, 1-1/2 gr; simple ointment, 1 dr.; mix by careful trituration.
2. (Dr Brookes.) Atropia, 5 gr.; lard, 3 dr.; otto of roses, 1 drop. In
neuralgia, rheumatic pains, &c., when the affection is not deeply seated.
3. (B. P.) Atropia, 8 gr.; rectified spirit, 1/2 dr.; lard, 1 oz.;
dissolve the atropia in the spirit and mix with the lard.
=Ointment, Bailey’s.= See OINTMENT, ITCH.
=Ointment of Bal′sam of Peru.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM BALSAMI PERUVIANI, L.
_Prep._ 1. Lard or spermaceti ointment, 1 oz.; balsam of Peru, 1 dr.; melt
together by the heat of boiling water, stir for 5 or 6 minutes, allow it
to settle, and pour off the clear portion. In chaps and abrasions.
2. (Compound; UNG. B. P. COMPOSITUM——Copland.) Lard, 1 oz.; white wax, 1/4
oz.; balsam of Peru, 1 dr,; melt as before, and when nearly cold, add of
oil of lavender, 10 or 12 drops. As the last, and to restore the hair.
=Ointment, Banyer’s.= _Syn._ COMPOUND ALUM OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM ALUMINIS
COMPOSITUM, U. CALOMELANOS, U. BANYERI, L. _Prep._ From burnt alum and
calomel, of each 1-1/2 oz.; carbonate of lead, or litharge (levigated), 2
oz.; Venice turpentine, 1/2 lb.; lard, 2 lbs.; carefully triturated
together. In milk-scald, porrigo, &c.
=Ointment of Bark.= See OINTMENT OF CINCHONA.
=Ointment, Basil′icon.= _Syn._ BASILICON, YELLOW B.; UNGUENTUM BASILICUM;
U. B. FLAVUM, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1746.) Olive oil, 16 fl. oz.; yellow wax,
yellow resin, and Burgundy pitch, of each 1 lb.; melt, remove the vessel
from the fire, and stir in of common turpentine, 3 oz. This form is still
occasionally employed in some shops, but is generally superseded by the
resin cerate and resin ointment of the Pharmacopœias. A nearly similar
preparation under the name of ‘basilicon ointment,’ is contained in the
Ph. Bor. 1847. (See _below_.)
=Ointment, Basilicon (Black).= See OINTMENT OF PITCH.
=Ointment, Basilicon (Green).= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM BASILICUM VIRIDE, L.
_Prep._ (Ph. L. 1746). Prepared verdigris, 1 oz.; yellow basilicon, 8 oz.;
olive oil, 3 fl. oz. Detergent. Used to keep down fungous growths, to
dress syphilitic ulcers, &c. See CERATE and OINTMENT OF VERDIGRIS.
=Ointment, Bateman’s.= See OINTMENT, ITCH.
=Ointment of Bay-leaves.= See OINTMENT, LAUREL.
=Ointment of Belladon′na.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM BELLADONNÆ (B. P., Ph. L.).
_Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Extract of belladonna (deadly nightshade), 1 dr.;
lard, 1 oz.; mix by trituration.
2. (Soubeiran.) Fresh belladonna leaves (bruised), 1 part; lard, 2 parts;
simmer together until the leaves become crisp, and, after digestion, for
a short time longer, drain with pressure.
3. (B. P.) Extract of belladonna, 1; rubbed with a few drops of water and
mix with lard, 5-1/2.
_Uses, &c._ As a local anodyne, in painful and indolent tumours, nervous
irritations, &c. Also as an application to the neck of the uterus in cases
of rigidity. (Chaussier.)
4. Compound; UNGUENTUM BELLADONNÆ COMPOSITUM, L.——_a._ (W. Cooley.)
Compound iodine ointment, 7 dr.; extract of belladonna, 1 dr. Powerfully
discutient. A most excellent application to all glandular tumours and
indurations, buboes, &c., which it is desirable to disperse instead of
mature, more especially where there is much pain. It is particularly
suitable to cases occurring on shipboard, and when its application (at
least twice a day) is accompanied with the internal use of the mixture of
iodine and gold (See ANTISCROFULOUS MIXTURE), this treatment has seldom
failed, even when the parties were dieted chiefly on salt food.
_b._ (Debreyne.) Extract of belladonna and lard, of each 3 dr.; powdered
opium, 1/2 dr. As an external anodyne and benumber, more especially in
neuralgia, painful cancerous tumours, &c. A small piece is to be applied
to the part, and the friction continued for 6 or 8 minutes. The above
preparations are useless unless the extract employed is recent, and of
good quality.
=Ointment of Benzoin.= (Ph. U. S.) _Syn._ OINTMENT OF BENZOIN. _Prep._
Tincture of benzoin, 2 oz.; lard, 16 oz.; melt the lard over a water bath
and add the tincture, stirring constantly, and when the spirit has
evaporated, remove from the water bath, and stir whilst cooling.
=Ointment of Bismuth.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM BISMUTHI, L. _Prep._ 1. Nitrate of
bismuth (‘white bismuth’), 1 dr.; simple ointment, 1 oz.
2. (Fuller.) Nitrate of bismuth, 1 dr.; spermaceti ointment, 19 dr. In
itch, and some chronic cutaneous diseases.
=Ointment, Blist′ering.= See OINTMENT OF CANTHARIDES, and VESICANTS.
=Ointment, Blue.= This is the vulgar name in England of mercurial
ointment. On the Continent, an ointment made of smalts and Goulard water
is commonly so called.
=Ointment of Bo′′rax.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM BORACIS, L. _Prep._ From borax (in
very fine powder), 1 dr.; simple ointment or lard, 7 dr. In excoriations,
chaps, &c.
=Ointment of Bromide of Potas′sium.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM POTASSII BROMIDI, U.
POTASSÆ HYDROBROMATIS, L. _Prep._ (Magendie.) Bromide of potassium, 1/2
dr.; lard, 1 oz. Resolvent; in bronchocele, scrofula, &c.
=Ointment of Bro′mine.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM BROMINII, U. B. COMPOSITUM, L.
_Prep._ (Magendie.) Bromide of potassium, 20 gr.; bromine, 6 to 12 drops;
lard, 1 oz. As the last, but more active.
=Ointment, Brown.= _Syn._ FRENCH POOR-MAN’S FRIEND; UNGUENTUM FUSCUM, U.
HYDRARGYRI, F., L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Nitric oxide of mercury (levigated),
1/2 dr.; resin ointment, 1 oz. In ophthalmia (cautiously), after the
inflammatory stage is over; as an application to sore legs, &c.
=Ointment of Cad′mium.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CADMII, U. C. SULPHATIS, L.
_Prep._ (Radius.) Sulphate of cadmium, 1 to 2 gr.; pure lard, 1 dr.;
carefully triturated together. In specks on the cornea.
=Ointment of Cadmium, Iodide of.= (B. Ph.) _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CADMII IODIDI.
_Prep._ Mix thoroughly iodide of cadmium in fine powder, 62 gr., with
simple ointment, 1 oz.
=Ointment of Caffeine.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CAFFEINÆ. _Prep._ Citrate of
caffeine, 8 gr.; lard, 10 oz. Mix.
=Ointment of Cala′mine.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CALAMINÆ, U. LAPIS CALAMINARIS,
U. ZINCI CARBONATIS IMPURI, L. _Prep._ (Ph. D. 1826.) Prepared calamine, 1
lb.; ointment of yellow wax, 5 lbs. Desiccative and healing. This is the
old Dublin form for Turner’s cerate.
=Ointment of Cal′omel.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI SUBCHLORIDI (B. P.),
UNGUENTUM CALOMELANOS, U. HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDI, L. _Prep._ 1. From calomel,
1 dr.; lard, or simple ointment, 1 oz.
_Obs._ “Were I required to name a local agent pre-eminently useful in skin
diseases generally, I should fix on this. It is well deserving a place in
the Pharmacopœia.” (Pereira.) Dr Underwood uses elder-flower ointment as
the vehicle.
2. (Compound; UNGUENTUM CALOMELANOS COMPOSITUM——Dr A. T. Thomson.)
Calomel, 1 dr.; tar ointment, 4 dr.; spermaceti ointment, 1 oz.
3. (B. P.) Calomel, 1; prepared lard, 5-1/2; mix. In lepra.
=Ointment of Cam′phor.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CAMPHORÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Camphor,
1 to 2 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; dissolve by a gentle heat and stir until the mass
is nearly cold. Stimulant and anodyne; in prurigo, psoriasis, &c.
2. (Compound.) From powdered opium, 1/2 dr.; powdered camphor, 1-1/2 dr.;
lard, 1-1/4 oz.; mix by trituration. As an anodyne friction in rheumatic
pains, swelled joints, colic, &c.
=Ointment of Canthar′ides.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CANTHARIDIS (B. P., Ph. L.,
D., & U. S.), U. LYTTÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Cantharides (in very fine
powder), 3 oz.; distilled water, 12 fl. oz.; mix, boil to one half, to the
strained liquid add of resin cerate, 1 lb., and evaporate to a proper
consistence.
2. (Ph. D.) Liniment of Spanish flies, 8 fl. oz.; white wax, 3 oz.;
spermaceti, 1 oz.; melt together with a gentle heat, and stir until it
concretes.
3. (Ph. E.)——_a._ UNGUENTUM INFUSUI CANTHARIDIS——Ph. E. Powdered
Cantharides 1 oz.; boiling water, 1/4 pint; infuse one night (12 hours),
strain with expression, add of lard 2 oz., and boil until the water is
expelled; then add beeswax and resin, of each 1 oz., and when these are
liquefied, remove the vessel from the fire, and further add of Venice
turpentine, 2 oz.
_b._ (UNGUENTUM PULVERIS CANTHARIDIS——Ph. E.) Resin ointment, 7 oz.; melt,
add of cantharides (in fine powder), 1 oz., and stir until the whole is
nearly cold.
4. (B. P.) Cantharides, in fine powder, 1; olive oil, 6; yellow wax, 1;
digest the cantharides in the oil for 12 hours, and for 1/4 hour at 212°;
strain, add the melted wax, and stir till cold.
_Obs._ The above preparations are frequently called ‘blister ointment’ or
‘epispastic ointment.’ They are used to keep blisters open after they have
been produced by stronger compounds. The first three compounds are
regarded as milder than the last (3, _b_), which contains the flies in
substance. The P. Cod. contains an ointment (UNG. EPISPASTICUM FLAVUM)
which is weaker than the above, prepared by digesting the bruised flies in
lard, for 3 hours, over a warm bath; about 1/6th part of wax is next added
to the strained fat, which is then coloured with turmeric, and scented
with oil of lemon. See CERATE, POMMADE, VESICANTS, and _below_.
=Ointment of Cantharides, Extract of.= (M. Cap.) _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CUM
EXTRACTO CANTHARIDIS. _Prep._ Alcoholic extract of cantharides, 8 gr.; oil
of roses, 1 dr.; beef marrow, 2 oz.; oil of lemon, 40 minims. To promote
the growth of the hair.
=Ointment of Cantharides with Mercury.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CANTHARIDIS CUM
HYDRARGYRO. _Prep._ Lard, 65 parts; Spanish flies, 29 parts; strong
mercurial ointment, 6 parts. Mix. Used in Normandy to indolent tumours.
=Ointment of Canthar′idine.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CANTHARIDINÆ, L. _Prep._
(Soubeiran.) Cantharidine, 1 gr.; white wax, 1 dr.; lard, 7 dr.; mix
thoroughly. (See _above_.)
=Ointment of Cap′sicum.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CAPSICI, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Turnbull.) Tincture of capsicum (pure), q. s.; gently evaporate it until
it begins to gelatinise, then mix the extract with twice its weight of
lard. As a powerful stimulant and rubefacient. When very freely used, it
vesicates.
=Ointment of Car′bonate of Am′′monia.= See OINTMENT, AMMONIACAL.
=Ointment of Carbolic Acid.= (Ph. U. S.) _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ACIDI CARBOLICI.
_Prep._ Carbolic acid, 60 gr.; simple ointment, 480 gr.
=Ointment of Car′bonate of Lead.= _Syn._ WHITE LEAD OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM
PLUMBI CARBONATIS (P. B., Ph. E. & D.), U. CERUSSÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.)
Carbonate of lead, 1 oz.; simple ointment, 5 oz.; mix thoroughly.
2. (Ph. D.) Carbonate of lead, 3 oz.; ointment of white wax, 1 lb.; mix
with heat.
3. (B. P.) Carbonate of lead, in fine powder, 1; simple ointment, 7. Mix.
4. UNGUENTUM PLUMBI CAMPHORATUM——(E., 1744). Add to the last 2 scruples of
camphor ground with a little oil.
_Uses, &c._ Cooling; desiccative. Useful to promote the healing of
excoriated parts and slight ulcerations. The camphorated white ointment of
old pharmacy (UNG. ALBUM CAMPHORATUM——Ph. L. 1744) was made by adding 40
gr. of camphor to the first of the above.
=Ointment of Cat′echu.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CATECHU, L. _Prep._ From alum, 1
oz.; catechu, 3 oz.; (both in very fine powder;) added to olive oil, 1/2
pint, and yellow resin, 4 oz., previously melted together. Used to dress
ulcers in hot climates, where the ordinary fat ointments are
objectionable; also in this country during hot weather. See OINTMENT,
ASTRINGENT.
=Ointment of Chalk.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CRETÆ. _Prep._ Prepared chalk, 1
oz.; lard, 4 oz. Mix.
=Ointment of Chamomile.= (M. Bazin.) _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ANTHEMIDIS. _Prep._
Freshly powdered chamomile flowers, olive oil, and lard, in equal
quantities. For the cure of itch.
=Ointment of Char′coal.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CARBONIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Resin
ointment, 10 dr.; recently burnt charcoal (levigated), 3 dr. As a dressing
to foul ulcers, especially those of the legs.
2. (Caspar.) Lime tree charcoal and dried carbonate of soda, of each 2
dr,; rose ointment, 1 oz., or q. s. In scald-head.
3. (Radius.) Animal charcoal (recent), 1 part; mallow ointment, 2 parts.
As a friction in glandular enlargements and indurations, as a dressing to
fetid ulcers, &c.
=Ointment of Cher′ry-Laurel.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM LAURO-CERASI, L. _Prep._
(Soubeiran.) Essential oil of cherry-laurel, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. To
alleviate the pain in cancer, neuralgia, and other local affections.
=Ointment, Chil′blain.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM AD PERNIONES, L. _Prep._ 1. From
made mustard (very thick), 2 parts; almond oil and glycerine, of each 1
part; triturated together. To be applied night and morning.
2. (Cottereau.) Acetate of lead, camphor, and cherry-laurel water, of each
1 dr.; tar, 1-1/2 dr.; lard, 1 oz.
3. (Devergie.) Creasote and Goulard’s extract, of each 12 drops; extract
of opium, 1-1/2 gr.; lard, 1 oz. Twice or thrice daily.
4. (Giacomini.) Sugar of lead, 2 dr.; cherry-laurel water (distilled), 2
fl. dr.; lard, 1 oz.
5. (Linnæus.) Balsam of Peru, 1 dr.; hydrochloric acid, 2 dr.; spermaceti
ointment, 2-1/2 oz.
_Obs._ For Swediaur’s, Vance’s, and Wahler’s ointments, see article
CHILBLAIN.
=Ointment of Chloral Hydrate.= (Dowault.) _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CHLORALIS
HYDRAS. _Prep._ Chloral hydrate, 2 parts; lard, 20 parts. Stimulant;
stronger if required as a rubefacient.
=Ointment of Chlo′′ride of Cal′cium.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CALCII CHLORIDI, U.
CALCIS MURIATIS†, L. _Prep._ (Sundelin.) Chloride of calcium (dry), 1 dr.;
strong vinegar, 40 gr.; foxglove (recent, in fine powder), 2 dr.; lard, 1
oz. In bronchocele, scrofulous tumours, &c.
=Ointment of Chloride of Lead.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM PLUMBI CHLORIDI, L.
_Prep._ (Tuson). Chloride of lead, 1 part; simple cerate, 8 parts;
carefully triturated together. In painful cancerous ulcerations and
neuralgic tumours. See LEAD (Chloride).
=Ointment of Chloride of Lime.= See OINTMENT OF HYPOCHLORITE OF LIME.
=Ointment of Chloride of Mercury.= See OINTMENTS OF CALOMEL and CORROSIVE
SUBLIMATE.
=Ointment of Chlo′′rine.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CHLORINII, L. _Prep._
(Augustin.) Chlorine water, 1 part; lard, 8 parts; well triturated
together. In itch, lepra, ringworm, fetid ulcers, &c.
=Ointment of Chlor-i′odide of Mercury.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI
CHLORIODIDI, L. _Prep._ (M. Recamier.) Chloriodide (iodo-chloride) of
mercury, 3 gr.; lard, 5 dr. Recommended as a powerful discutient or
resolvent. See OINTMENT OF IODO-CHLORIDE OF MERCURY.
=Ointment of Chlo′′roform.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CHLOROFORMI, L. _Prep._ (M.
Louis.) Chloroform, 1 dr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. In neuralgia and
rheumatic pains, &c. It must be kept in a stoppered, wide-mouthed phial.
=Ointment of Cin′chona.= _Syn._ OINTMENT OF BARK; UNGUENTUM CINCHONÆ, L.
_Prep._ (Biett.) Red cinchona bark (in very fine powder) and almond oil,
of each 1 part; beef marrow (prepared), 3 parts. In the variety of
scald-head termed porrigo decalvans. A little oil of mace or tar is a
useful addition.
=Ointment, Cit′rine.= See OINTMENT OF NITRATE OF MERCURY.
=Ointment of Cobalt, Oxide of.= (Amst. Ph.) _Syn._ UNGUENTUM OXIDI
COBALTI. _Prep._ Simple cerate, 16 oz.; liquid subacetate of lead, 4 oz.;
powdered smalt, 4 oz.
=Ointment of Coc′culus In′dicus.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM COCCULI (Ph. E.), L.
_Prep._ (Ph. E.) Kernels of _Cocculus indicus_, 1 part; beat them to a
smooth paste in a mortar, first alone, and next with a little lard; then
further add of lard, q. s., so that it may be equal to 5 times the weight
of the kernels. Used to destroy pediculi, and in scald-head, &c.
=Ointment of Cod-liver Oil.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM OLEI MORRHUÆ, U. O. JECORIS
ASELLI, L. _Prep._ Cod-liver oil (pale and recent), 7 parts; white wax and
spermaceti, of each 1 part; melted together. In ophthalmia and opacity of
the cornea, either alone or combined with a little citrine ointment; as a
friction or dressing for scrofulous indurations and sores; in rheumatism,
stiff joints, and in several skin diseases. It often succeeds in porrigo
or scald-head when all other remedies have failed. Scented with oil of
nutmeg and balsam of Peru, it forms an excellent pomade for strengthening
and restoring the hair.
=Ointment of Col′ocynth.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS, L. _Prep._
(Chrestien.) Colocynth pulp (in very fine powder), 1 part; lard, 8 parts.
Used in frictions on the abdomen as a hydragogue purgative, in mania,
dropsy, &c.
=Ointment of Corrosive Sub′limate.= _Syn._ OINTMENT OF CHLORIDE OF
MERCURY; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDI, L. _Prep._ 1. From corrosive
sublimate, 2 to 5 gr.; rub it to powder in a glass or wedgwood-ware
mortar; add of rectified spirit, 6 or 7 drops, or q. s.; again triturate;
lastly add, gradually, of spermaceti ointment (reduced to a cream-like
state by heat), 1 oz., and continue the trituration until the whole
concretes. Used as a stimulant, detergent, and discutient application in
various local affections; in lepra, porrigo, acne, &c., and as a dressing
to syphilitic and some other ulcers.
2. (Ph. Chirur.) Corrosive sublimate, 10 gr.; yolk of 1 egg; lard, 1 oz.
As a dressing.
3. (POMMADE DE CIRILLO——P. Cod.) Corrosive sublimate, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz.
Caustic; must not be confounded with the preceding.
=Ointment, Cosmet′ic.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM COSMETICUM, L.; POMMADE DE LA
JEUNESSE, Fr. _Prep._ (Quincey.) Spermaceti, 3 dr. (better, 4-1/2 dr.);
oil of almonds, 2 oz.; melt together, and, when cooled a little, stir in
of nitrate of bismuth (‘white bismuth’), 1 dr.; and, lastly, of oil of
rhodium, 6 drops. In itch and some other cutaneous eruptions; but chiefly
as a pomade for the hair. Its frequent use is said to turn the latter
black.
=Ointment of Cre′asote.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CREASOTI (B. P., Ph. L. E. D. &
U. S.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Creasote, 1/2 fl. dr.; lard, 1 oz.;
triturate together.
2. (Ph. E.) Lard, 3 oz.; melt it by a gentle heat; add of creasote, 1 dr.,
and stir the mixture until it is nearly cold.
3. (Ph. D.) Creasote, 1 fl. dr.; ointment of white wax, 7 dr.; as the
last.
4. (B. P.) Creasote, 1; simple ointment, 8. Mix.
_Uses, &c._ In several skin diseases, especially ringworm; as a friction
in tic-douloureux; a dressing for scalds and burns; an application to
chilblains, &c.
=Ointment of Cro′ton Oil.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CROTONIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Croton
oil, 15 to 30 drops; lard (softened by heat), 1 oz.; mix well. This is the
usual and most useful strength to prepare the ointment. Rubefacient and
counter-irritant; in rheumatism and various other diseases. When rubbed
repeatedly on the skin, it produces redness and a pustular eruption. It
also often affects the bowels by absorption. The only advantage it
possesses over other preparations of the class is the rapidity of its
action.
2. (RUBEFACIENT POMADE——Caventou.) White wax, 1 part; lard, 5 parts; melt
together, and, when quite cold, mince it small, add of croton oil, 2
parts, and mix by trituration. Stronger than the last.
=Ointment of Cy′anide of Mer′cury.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI CYANIDI,
L. _Prep._ 1. (Cazenave.) Cyanide of mercury, 8 gr.; lard, 1 oz.;
carefully triturated together.
2. (Pereira.) Cyanide of mercury, 10 to 12 gr.; lard, 1 oz. As a dressing
for scrofulous and syphilitic ulcers, &c.; as an application in psoriasis,
moist tetters, and some other skin diseases, &c. Biett orders the addition
of a few drops of essence of lemon.
=Ointment of Cyanide of Potas′sium.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM POTASSII CYANIDI, L.
_Prep._ (Cazenave.) Cyanide of potassium, 12 gr.; oil of almonds, 2 dr.;
triturate, add of cold cream (dry), 2 oz., and mix by careful trituration.
As an anodyne in neuralgia, rheumatism, swelled joints, &c.; also as a
friction over the spine in hysteria, and over the epigastrium in
gastrodynia, &c.
=Ointment of Delphin′ine.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM DELPHINIÆ, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Turnbull.) Delphinine or delphinia, 10 to 30 gr.; olive oil, 1 dr.; lard,
1 oz.; mix as the last. Used as a friction in rheumatism, and the other
cases in which veratrine is employed.
=Ointment, Depil′atory.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM DEPILATORIUM, L. See DEPILATORY
(Cazenave’s).
=Ointment, Desic′cative.= _Syn._ DRYING OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM DESICCATIVUM,
U. EXSICCANS, L. See the OINTMENTS OF CALAMINE, LEAD, ZINC, &c.
=Ointment, Deter′gent.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM DETERGENS, L. The OINTMENTS OF
NITRATE OF MERCURY, NITRIC OXIDE OF MERCURY, TAR, VERDIGRIS, &c., when not
too strong, come under this head.
=Ointment, Diges′tive.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM DIGESTIVUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (P.
Cod.) Venice turpentine, 2 oz.; yolks of 2 eggs; mix, and add of oil of St
John’s wort, 1/2 oz.
2. (DIGESTIF ANIMÉ——P. Cod.) As the last, with an equal weight of liquid
styrax.
3. (DIGESTIF MERCURIEL——P. Cod.) As No. 1, with an equal weight of
mercurial ointment.
4. (UNG. D. VIRIDE——Dr Kirkland.) Beeswax, gum elemi, and yellow resin, of
each 1 oz.; green oil, 6 oz.; melt them together, and, when considerably
cooled, add of oil of turpentine 2 dr.
=Ointment, Edinburgh.= Two compounds are known under this name:——1.
(BROWN.) From black basilicon, 6 parts; milk of sulphur, 2 parts; sal
ammoniac, 1 part.
2. (WHITE.) From white hellebore, 3 oz.; sal ammoniac, 2 oz.; lard, 1 lb.
Both are used in itch.
=Ointment of Eggs.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM OVORUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Yolk of 1 egg;
honey and fresh linseed oil, of each 1 oz.; balsam of Peru, 1/2 dr.; mix
well.
2. (Soubeiran.) Beeswax, 4 dr.; oil of almonds, 1-1/2 oz.; yolk of 1 egg.
As an emollient and soothing dressing to excoriations, irritable ulcers,
&c.
=Ointment, Egyp′tian.= _Prep._ (Giordano.) Burnt alum, 1 part; verdigris,
10 parts; strong vinegar, 14 parts; purified honey (thick), 32 parts; mix
by heat and agitation. As a detergent application to foul ulcers. It is a
modification of the ‘UNGUENTUM ÆGYPTIACUM’ of old pharmacy.
=Ointment of Elder-flowers.= _Syn._ WHITE ELDER-OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM
SAMBUCI FLORUM, U. SAMBUCI (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Elder flowers
and lard, of each 1 lb.; boil them together until the flowers become
crisp, then strain, with pressure, through a linen cloth. The same
precautions must be observed as are necessary in the preparation of the
medicated oils, by infusion. Emollient; less white and odorous than the
following:——
2. (Wholesale.) Take of lard (hard, white, and sweet), 25 lbs.; prepared
mutton suet, 5 lbs.; melt them in a well-tinned copper or earthen vessel,
add of elder-flower water 3 galls., agitate briskly for about 1/2 an hour,
and set it aside; the next day gently pour off the water, remelt the
ointment, and add of benzoic acid, 5 dr.; otto of roses, 20 drops; oil of
bergamot and oil of rosemary, of each 1 dr.; again agitate well, let it
settle for 10 minutes, and then pour off the clear portion into pots for
sale. Very agreeable, and keeps well.
_Obs._ The last formula is the one now generally adopted by the large
wholesale houses.
=Ointment of Elder-leaf.= _Syn._ ELDER OINTMENT, GREEN E. O.; UNGUENTUM
VIRIDE, U. SAMBUCI VIRIDE, U. SAMBUCI (Ph. D. 1826), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. D.
1826.) Fresh elder leaves (bruised), 3 lbs.; suet, 4 lbs.; lard, 2 lbs.;
boil together, as above.
2. (Wholesale.) Good fresh lard, 1 cwt.; fresh elder leaves, 56 lbs.; boil
till crisp, strain off the oil, put it over a slow fire, add hard prepared
mutton suet, 14 lbs., and gently stir it until it acquires a bright green
colour.
_Obs._ The above ointment is reputed to be emollient and cooling, and has
always been a great favourite with the common people. Both elder-flower
and elder-leaf ointment are, however, unnecessary preparations. “They are
vestiges of the redundant practice of former times.” (A. T. Thomson.) The
above formulæ are those now almost exclusively employed in trade. The
ointment should be allowed to cool very slowly, and after its temperature
has fallen a little, and it begins to thicken, it should not be stirred,
in order that it may ‘grain’ well, as a granular appearance is much
admired. It is a common practice to add powdered verdigris to deepen the
colour, but then the ointment does not keep well. This dangerous fraud may
be detected in the manner noticed under CERATE, SAVINE.
=Ointment of Elecampane.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM INULÆ. _Prep._ Fresh elecampane
root (boiled till soft and pulped), 1-1/2 oz.; lard, 1 oz. Mix.
=Ointment of El′emi.= _Syn._ BALSAM OF ARCÆUS†, UNGUENTUM ELEMI (B. P.,
Ph. L. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Elemi, 3 oz.; suet, 6 oz.; melt them
together, remove the vessel from the fire, and stir in of common
turpentine, 2-1/2 oz.; olive oil, 1/2 fl. oz.; lastly, strain the whole
through a linen cloth.
2. (Ph. D.) Resin of elemi, 4 oz.; ointment of white wax, 1 lb; melt them
together, strain through flannel, and stir the mixture constantly until it
concretes.
3. (B. P.) Elemi, 1; simple ointment, 4; melt and strain.
_Uses, &c._ Stimulant and digestive. It is frequently employed to keep
open issues and setons, and as a dressing for old and ill-conditioned
sores. The ‘UNG. ELEMI CUM ÆRURINE’ of St George’s Hospital is made by
adding 1 dr. of finely powdered verdigris to every 6 oz. of the ointment.
=Ointment of Emetina.= (Dr Turnbull.) _Syn._ UNGUENTUM EMETINÆ. _Prep._
Emetine, 15 gr.; rectified spirit, q. s.; lard, 1/2 oz. Used as a
rubefacient.
=Ointment Escharot′ic.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ESCHAROTICUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Sir
B. Brodie.) Corrosive sublimate, 1 dr.; nitric oxide of mercury, sulphate
of copper, and verdigris, of each 2 dr. (all in very fine powder); lard,
q. s. See OINTMENT, and CERATE, ARSENICAL.
=Ointment of Euphorbium.= (Dr Neligan.) _Syn._ UNGUENTUM EUPHORBII.
_Prep._ Powdered euphorbium, 25 to 30 gr.; lard, 1 oz.; mix. To keep up a
discharge from issues.
=Ointment of Glycerin.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM GLYCERINI. _Prep._ Glycerin, 4
fl. oz.; oil of almonds, 8 fl. oz.; wax and spermaceti, of each 1/2 oz.
=Ointment, Eye.= _Syn._ EYE SALVE; UNGUENTUM OPHTHALMICUM, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Dr Collier.) Burnt alum, 1/2 dr.; powdered opium, 20 gr.; olive oil, 1
fl. dr.; spermaceti ointment, 2 dr. In inflammation of the eyelids,
purulent ophthalmia, &c.
2. (W. Cooley.) Chloride of barium, 6 gr.; calomel, 10 gr.; simple
ointment, 1 oz.; otto of roses, 1 or 2 drops. In scrofulous ophthalmia.
3. (Dessault.) Nitric oxide of mercury, carbonate of zinc, acetate of
lead, and dried alum, of each 1 dr.; corrosive sublimate, 10 gr.; rose
ointment, 1 oz. In chronic ophthalmia, profuse discharges, &c.; in
general, diluted.
4. (Dupuytren.) Red oxide of mercury, 10 gr.; sulphate of zinc, 20 gr.;
lard, 2 oz. For chronic inflammation of the eyelids, chronic ulcers, &c.
5. (Fricke). Nitrate of silver, 10 gr.; zinc ointment, 2 dr.; balsam of
Peru, 1/2 dr. In ulceration of the cornea, and in acute, purulent, and
chronic ophthalmia, &c., employing great caution in its use.
6. (Guthrie.) Spermaceti ointment, 1 dr.; solution of diacetate of lead,
15 drops; nitrate of silver, 2 to 10 gr. As the last, and in cases wherein
a direct caustic action is desired. The stronger ointment often occasions
intense pain.
7. (Hufeland.) Black oxide of mercury, 2 gr.; spermaceti cerate and walnut
oil, of each 1 dr. In chronic affections of the eyes or eyelids,
particularly in those of a syphilitic character.
8. (Janin.) Ammonio-chloride of mercury, 1 dr.; tutty and bole, of each 2
dr.; lard, 1 oz. In debility of the conjunctiva, in chronic inflammation
with excessive secretion, &c.
9. (Marshall.) See CERATE (Marshall’s).
10. (Parker.) Iodine, 1 gr.; iodide of potassium, 5 gr.; simple ointment,
3 dr. In scrofulous ophthalmia, thickening of the conjunctiva, opacity of
the cornea, &c.
11. (Pellier.) Nitric oxide of mercury and carbonate of zinc, of each
1-1/2 dr.; tutty, 1/2 dr.; red sulphuret of mercury, 20 gr.; lard, 2 oz;
balsam of Peru, 15 drops. In specks in the eye arising from small ulcers
which have healed up; in excessive defluxions, &c.
12. (Ratier.) Liquor of diacetate of lead, 1/2 dr.; wine of opium, 1 dr.;
lard, ·5 dr. In excoriations, and the variety of chronic ophthalmia
popularly termed ‘blear eye.’
13. (Regent). Acetate of lead and red precipitate, of each 1 dr.; camphor,
6 gr.; washed fresh butter, 2-1/2 oz. As the last, and in chronic
ulcerations.
14. (Singleton’s GOLDEN OINTMENT.) According to Dr Paris, this compound
consists of lard medicated with orpiment (native yellow sulphuret of
arsenic). There appears, however, to be some mistake in this, as that sold
us under the name had nearly the same composition as the OINTMENT OF
NITRIC OXIDE OF MERCURY of the Pharmacopœia. It did not contain even a
trace of either arsenic or sulphur. The action of this nostrum, and the
reputation which it has acquired, fully justify this conclusion.
15. (Smellome.) From verdigris (levigated), 1/2 dr.; olive oil, 1 fl. dr.;
triturate together; add of yellow basilicon, 1 oz, and again triturate
until it begins to concrete. A popular nostrum, sometimes useful in
chronic inflammation and ulcerations of the eyelids, &c., especially in
those of a scrofulous character.
16. (Spielmann.) Acetate of lead, 20 gr.; spermaceti cerate, 5 dr.;
compound tincture of benzoin, 40 gr. Cooling; desiccative. In inflamed
eyelids, excoriations, &c.
17. (St Yve.) Fresh butter (washed), 1 oz.; white wax, 1 dr.; camphor, 15
gr.; melt by a gentle heat, and, when cooled a little, add of red
precipitate (levigated), 1/2 dr.; oxide of zinc, 20 gr. In chronic
inflammation of the coats of the eye, or of the eyelids, specks on the
cornea, &c.
18. (Thomson.) Levigated oxide of zinc, 1 dr.; lard, 9 dr.; wine of opium,
20 drops. In chronic ophthalmia depending on want of tone in the vessels
and integuments of the eye.
19. (Velpeau.) Precipitated sesquioxide of iron (recent, but dry), 1/2
dr.; lard, 5 dr.; oil of almonds, 1 fl. dr.; balsam of Peru, 15 drops. As
the last, especially in ‘blear eye.’
20. (Ware.) Wine of opium, 1 fl. dr.; simple ointment, 3 dr. In
ophthalmia, after the inflammatory symptoms have subsided, and the vessels
remain red and turgid.
_Obs._ The ingredients entering into the composition of all the above
ointments must be reduced to the state of impalpable powder before mixing
them; and the incorporation should be made by long trituration in a
wedgwood-ware mortar, or, preferably, for those that contain substances
that are very gritty, by levigation on a porphyry slab, with a muller. The
most serious consequences, even blindness, have resulted from the neglect
of these precautions. They should all be employed in exceedingly small
quantities at a time, and they should be very carefully applied by means
of a camel-hair pencil or a feather; and, in general, not until acute
inflammation has subsided. The stronger ones, in most cases, require
dilution with an equal weight to twice their weight of lard or simple
ointment, and should only be used of their full strength under proper
medical advice. Various other formulæ for OPHTHALMIC OINTMENTS will be
found under the names of their leading ingredients.
=Ointment of Fig′wort.= See OINTMENT OF SCROPHULARIA.
=Ointment of Fox′glove.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM DIGITALIS, L. _Prep._ 1. From
fresh foxglove as ointment of hemlock——Ph. L. As an application to chronic
ulcers, glandular swellings, &c.
2. (Rademacher.) Extract of foxglove, 2 dr.; lard, 1 oz. In croup; spread
on lint, and applied as a plaster to the throat.
=Ointment of Fu′ligokali.= See FULIGOKALI.
=Ointment of Galls.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM GALLÆ (B. P., Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1.
(Ph. D.). Gall-nuts (in very fine powder), 1 dr.; ointment of white wax, 7
dr.; rub them together until a uniform mixture is obtained.
2. (B. P.) Galls, in very fine powder, 80 gr.; benzoated lard, 1 oz. Mix.
An excellent application to piles, either alone or mixed with an equal
quantity of zinc ointment; also highly useful in ringworm of the scalp.
=Ointment of Galls and Opium.= UNGUENTUM GALLÆ CUM OPIO (B. P.); UNGUENTUM
GALLÆ OPIATUM, U. GALLÆ COMPOSITUM——Ph. L., U. GALLÆ ET OPII——(Ph.
E.)——_Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Gall-nuts (very finely powdered), 6 dr.;
powdered opium, 1-1/4 dr.; lard, 6 oz.; rub them together.
2. (Ph. E.) Galls, 2 dr.; opium, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; as the last.
3. (B. P.) Ointment of galls, 1 oz.; opium (in powder), 32 gr. Mix.
_Uses, &c._ A most valuable astringent and anodyne in blind piles, slight
cases of prolapsus ani, &c. Some practitioners add 1 dr. of camphor. The
ointment of the Ph. E. is much the strongest.
OINTMENT OF GALLS WITH MORPHIA. UNGUENTUM GALLÆ ET MORPHIÆ——(Dr Paris.)
Morphia, 2 gr.; olive oil (hot), 2 fl. dr.; triturate, add of zinc
ointment (Ph. L.), 1 oz.; powdered galls, 1 dr.; and mix thoroughly. In
piles. The quantity of galls should be doubled.
=Ointment of Galls with Camphor.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM GALLÆ CUM CAMPHORÂ.
_Prep._ Galls, 2 dr.; camphor, 1/2 dr.; lard, 1 oz. Mix them.
=Ointment of Garlic.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ALLII, L. _Prep._ 1. Fresh garlic
(bruised), 2 parts; lard, 3 parts; simmer together for 1/2 an hour, and
then strain with expression. Rubbed on the abdomen in chronic diarrhœa and
colic, and over the chest and spine in hooping-cough.
2. (Beasley.) Fresh garlic and lard, equal parts; beaten together. Applied
to the feet in hooping-cough.
=Ointment, Giacomini’s.= See OINTMENT, CHILBLAIN.
=Ointment of Gold.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM AURI, L.; POMMADE D’OR, Fr. _Prep._
1. (Legrand.) Gold (in powder), 12 gr.; lard, 1 oz. As a dressing for
syphilitic ulcers; and as a friction in glandular indurations, &c.; also
endermically.
2. (Magendie.) Amalgam of gold, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. For endermic use,
chiefly. When the surface becomes dry, the ointment of terchloride of gold
is to be substituted as a dressing. In rheumatic pains, neuralgia, &c.
=Ointment, Gold′en.= See OINTMENT, EYE, CITRINE O., &c.
=Ointment, Gondret’s.= See OINTMENT, AMMONIACAL.
=Ointment, Goulard’s.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM GOULARDI, U. LITHARGYRI ACETATIS,
L. _Prep._ (Ph. Chirur.) Goulard’s extract, 1 dr.; simple ointment, 2 oz.
See CERATE (Lead).
=Ointment, Green.= See OINTMENT, ELDER.
=Ointment of Guarana.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM GUARANÆ. _Prep._ One part of
extract of guarana to eight parts of lard.
=Ointment of Hel′lebore.= _Syn._ OINTMENT OF WHITE HELLEBORE; UNGUENTUM
VERATRI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) White hellebore (in very fine
powder), 2 oz.; lard, 8 oz.; oil of lemons, 20 drops. In itch, lepra,
ringworm, &c.; and to destroy insects in the hair of children. It should
be used with caution, and, preferably, diluted with an equal weight of
lard.
2. (Compound; UNGUENTUM VERATRI COMPOSITUM.)——_a._ (Rayer.) White
hellebore, 1 oz.; sal ammoniac, 1/2 oz.; lard, 8 oz. Used as the last.
_b._ See SULFUR OINTMENT (Compound)——Ph. L.
=Ointment of Hem′lock.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CONII (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1.
(Ph. L.) Fresh hemlock leaves and lard, of each 1 lb.; boil them together
(very gently) until the leaves become crisp, then strain through linen,
with pressure. See OILS (Medicated).
2. Extract of hemlock, 1 dr.; lard, 9 dr.; triturate together.
_Uses, &c._ As a local anodyne in neuralgic and rheumatic pains, glandular
enlargements, painful piles, &c.; and as a dressing to painful and
irritable ulcers, cancerous sores, &c.
=Ointment of Hen′bane.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM HYOSCYAMI, L. _Prep._ 1. Fresh
henbane leaves, 1 lb.; lard, 2 lbs.; boil until nearly crisp.
2. (Taddei.) Extract of henbane, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. Anodyne; in painful
piles, sores, &c., as the last.
=Ointment, Holloway’s.= See PATENT MEDICINES.
=Ointment of Hops.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM LUPULI, L. _Prep._ (Swediaur.) Hops
(commercial), 2 oz.; lard, 10 oz.; as extract of hemlock, Ph. L. In
painful piles and cancerous sores.
=Ointment of Hydri′odate of Ammo′′nia.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM AMMONIÆ
HYDRIODATIS, L. _Prep._ From hydriodate of ammonia (iodide of ammonium),
1/2 dr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. Used chiefly as an application to
scrofulous tumour and ulcers, in irritable subjects.
=Ointment of Hydrochlo′′ric Acid.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ACIDI HYDROCHLORICI,
L. _Prep._ (Dr Corrigan.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 dr.; simple ointment, 1 oz.
As a dressing for scald-head, after the scabs have been removed by
emollient liniments or poultices.
=Ointment of Hypochlo′′rite of Lime.= _Syn._ OINTMENT OF CHLORIDE OF LIME;
UNGUENTUM CALCIS HYPOCHLORITIS, U. C. CHLORINATÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From
chlorinated lime (chloride of lime), 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; carefully
triturated together. In scrofulous swellings, goitre, chilblains, indolent
glandular tumours, &c.
2. Chlorinated lime, 1 dr.; powdered foxglove, 2 dr.; simple ointment, 2
oz. As an application to fetid and malignant ulcers, &c.
=Ointment of Hypochlo′′rite of Sul′phur.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM SULPHURIS
HYPOCHLORITIS, L. _Prep._ (Dr Copland.) Hypochlorite of sulphur, 1 dr.;
simple ointment, 1 oz. It is generally scented with oil of almonds. Used
in psoriasis inveterata, and some other skin diseases.
=Ointment of I′odide of Ar′senic.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ARSENICI IODIDI, L.
_Prep._ (Biett.) Iodide of arsenic, 2 to 3 gr.; lard, 1 oz.; carefully
triturated together. In lepra, psoriasis, &c.; and in corroding
tubercular diseases. It should be used with caution, and not more than 1/2
dr. applied at once.
=Ointment of Iodide of Ba′′rium.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM BARII IODIDE, L.
_Prep._ (Magendie.) Iodide of barium, 3 to 4 gr.; lard, 1 oz. As a
friction to scrofulous swellings and indurations. The usual proportions
are now 5 gr. to the oz.
=Ointment of Iodide of Iron.= (Pierquin.) _Syn._ UNGUENTUM FERRI IODIDI.
_Prep._ Iodide of iron, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. Mix them.
=Ointment of Iodide of Lead.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM PLUMBI IODIDI (B. P., Ph.
L., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Iodide of lead, 1 oz.; lard, 8 oz.; rub
them together.
2. (Ph. D.) Iodide of lead (in fine powder), 1 dr.; ointment of white wax,
7 dr.
3. (B. P.) Iodide of lead, in fine powder, 62 gr.; simple ointment, 1 oz.
Mix. An excellent application to scrofulous tumours and swelled glands,
especially when accompanied with pain.
=Ointment of Green Iodide of Mer′cury.= _Prep._ 1. (OINTMENT OF SUBIODIDE
OF MERCURY, O. OF PROTIODIDE OF M.*; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI IODIDI——Ph. L.)
_a._ (Ph. L.) White wax, 2 oz.; lard, 6 oz.; melt them together, add of
iodide (green iodide) of mercury, 1 oz., and rub them well together.
2. (Magendie.) Green iodide of mercury, 23 gr.; lard, 1-1/2 oz.
_Uses, &c._ In tubercular skin diseases, as a friction in scrofulous
swellings and indolent granular tumours, and as a dressing for
ill-conditioned ulcers, especially those of a scrofulous character.
=Ointment of Red Iodide of Mercury.= UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI IODIDI RUBRI, B.
P., O. OF BINIODIDE OF M.*; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI BINIODIDI,* U. H. IODIDI
RUBRI——(Ph. D.)——1. (Ph. D.) Red iodide of mercury, 1 dr.; ointment of
white wax, 7 dr.; mix by careful trituration.
2. (Soubeiran.) Red iodide of mercury, 20 gr.; lard, 1-1/2 oz.
3. (B. P.) Red iodide of mercury (in very fine powder), 16 gr.; simple
ointment, 1 oz. Mix.
_Uses, &c._ Similar to those of the preceding, but it is much more
stimulant, and is regarded as better adapted for obstinate syphilitic
sores. Largely diluted with lard or almond oil, it is applied to the eyes
in like cases.
=Ointment of Iodide of Potas′sium.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM POTASSII IODIDI (B.
P., Ph. L. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Iodide of potassium, 2 dr.,
dissolved in boiling distilled water, 2 fl. dr.; lard (softened by heat),
2 oz.; triturate together until united.
2. (Ph. D.) Iodide of potassium, 1 dr.; distilled water, 1/2 fl. dr.;
ointment of white wax, 7 dr.; as before.
3. (Magendie.) Iodide of potassium, 1 dr.; lard, 12 dr.
4. (Le Gros.) Iodide, 1-1/2 dr.; lard, 1 oz.
5. (B. P.) Iodide of potassium, 64 gr.; carbonate of potash, 4 gr.;
distilled water, 1 dr.; prepared lard, 1 oz.; dissolve the carbonate and
the iodide in the water, and mix thoroughly with the lard.
_Uses, &c._ As a friction in scrofula, bronchocele, glandular
enlargements, indurations, &c.; as a dressing to scrofulous ulcers, as an
application in scrofulous ophthalmia, and in most of the other
applications in which the employment of iodine is indicated. The last
formula has been successfully employed by M. Le Gros in itch.
_Obs._ The strength of this ointment, as prescribed by different parties
varies greatly, the proportions of the iodide ranging from 1/32 to 1/8 of
the whole, to adapt it to particular cases. When other ingredients are
added, the iodide must be used in a perfectly dry state, and in fine
powder, instead of being dissolved in water. This is particularly
necessary when it is to be mixed with mercurial ointment.
=Ointment of Iodide of Sulphur.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM SULPHURIS IODIDI (B. P.,
Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Iodide of sulphur (in fine powder), 1/2
dr.; lard, 1 oz.; mix by trituration.
2. (Cazenave.) Iodide of sulphur, 12 to 15 gr.; lard, 1 oz.
3. (B. P.) Iodide of sulphur, 1; lard, 16. Mix.
_Uses, &c._ As a local stimulant and alterative in the chronic forms of
lepra, lupus, porrigo, psoriasis, itch, &c.; also a remedy for acne
punctata. A few drops of oil of cloves or nutmeg are commonly added.
=Ointment of Iodide of Zinc.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ZINCI IODIDI, L. _Prep._ 1.
From iodide of zinc, 12 gr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. In scrofulous
excoriations, and in the chronic ophthalmia of scrofulous subjects,
arising from a relaxed state of the tissues and vessels.
2. (Dr Ure.) Iodide of zinc, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. As a friction to glandular
tumours and indurations, and as a dressing to flabby and obstinate
scrofulous ulcers.
=Ointment of I′odine.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM IODI (B. P.), UNGUENTUM IODINII
(Ph. U. S.). _Prep._ 1.——(B. P.) Iodine, 32 gr.; iodide of potassium, 32
gr.; proof spirit, 1 dr.; rub together and add prepared lard, 2 oz. See
OINTMENT OF IODINE (Compound).
2. (Ph. U. S.) Iodine, 20 gr.; rectified spirit, 20 drops; rub them
together, then add of lard, 1 oz.
=Ointment of Iodine (Compound).= _Syn._ OINTMENT OF IODURETTED IODIDE OF
POTASSIUM; UNGUENTUM POTASSI IODIDI IODURETUM U. IODINII COMPOSITUM——Ph.
L. & D., U. IODINII——Ph. E.——_a._ (Ph. L.) Iodine of potassium (in very
fine powder), 1 dr.; lard, 2 oz.; mix, then add of iodine, 1/2 dr.,
dissolved in rectified spirit, 1 fl. dr., and mix all together. See
OINTMENT OF IODINE (B. P.)
_b._ (Ph. E.) Iodine, 1 dr.; iodide of potassium, 2 dr.; rub them
together, then gradually add of lard, 4 oz.
_c._ (Ph. D.) Pure iodine, 1/2 dr.; iodide of potassium, 1 dr.; rub them
well together in a glass or porcelain mortar, then gradually add of
ointment of white wax, 14-1/2 dr., and continue the trituration until a
uniform ointment is obtained.
_Uses, &c._ The compound ointment is an excellent friction in goitre, and
in enlarged or indurated glands or tumours, more especially those of a
scrofulous character; in the quantity of 1/2 to 1 dr., night and morning.
It may be advantageously combined with extract of belladonna in the
incipient bubo of scrofulous subjects, and in the early stages of cancer;
and, with an equal weight of mercurial ointment, as a friction in cases of
enlarged liver and spleen, and ovarian dropsy. The simple ointment of the
Ph. U. S. is generally regarded as weaker and less efficacious than the
compound.
=Ointment of Iodo-chlo′′ride of Mercury.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI
IODO-BICHLORIDI*, L. _Prep._ From iodo-chloride of Mercury, 16 gr.; simple
ointment, 1 oz. Discutient; probably one of the most powerful known in
syphilitic cases complicated with scrofula. See OINTMENT OF CHLORIODIDE OF
MERCURY.
=Ointment of Iodoform= (Dr Glover). _Syn._ UNGUENTUM IODOFORMI. _Prep._
Iodoform 1/2 to 1 dram, simple cerate 8 drams. Mix.
=Ointment, Iodo-hydrar′gyrate of Potassa.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM POTASSE
IODO-HYDRARGYRATIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Lamothe.) Iodo-hydrargyrate of potassa,
20 gr.; lard, 1 oz.
2. (Puche.) Red iodide of mercury and iodide of potassium, of each 8 gr.;
lard, 1 oz. As a powerful stimulant discutient; in tumours, inflammatory
sore throat, &c.
=Ointment, Iodo-narcot′ic.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM IODO-NARCOTICUM, L. _Prep._
(Purvis.) Iodine, 20 gr.; iodide of potassium, 2 dr.; oil of tobacco (by
infusion), 1-1/2 dr.; lard, 3 dr. To relax rigid muscles.
=Ointment of Ipecacuan′ha.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM IPECACUANHÆ, L. _Prep._ (Dr.
Turnbull.) Ipecacuanha (in fine powder), 2 dr.; olive oil, 2 fl. dr.; lard
or simple ointment, 4 dr. Counter-irritant; when frequently employed as a
friction, it occasions an eruption, but one of a milder character than
that from either croton oil or tartar emetic.
=Ointment, Is′sue.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ADFONTICULOS, L. _Prep._ (Golding
Bird.) Ointment of cantharides (Ph. L.), 1-1/2 oz.; tartar emetic (in
impalpaple powder), 8 gr.; spermaceti ointment, 2 oz. As a stimulating
application to issues, to promote the discharge. See ELEMI OINTMENT,
CERATE, PLASTER, &c.
=Ointment, Itch.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ANTIPSORICUM, L. Several excellent
formulæ for itch ointments will be found under the names of their leading
ingredients. The following are additional ones, including some nostrums:——
1. (Bailey.) From alum, nitre, and sulphate of zinc, of each, in very
fine powder, 1-1/4 oz.; vermilion, 1/2 oz.; mix, add gradually of sweet
oil, 1/4 pint; triturate together until perfectly mixed, then further add
of lard (softened by heat), 1 lb., with oils of aniseed, lavender, and
origanum, q. s. to perfume.
2. (Bateman.) Carbonate of potassa, 1/2 oz.; rose water, 1 fl. oz.; red
sulphuret of mercury, 1 dr.; oil of bergamot, 1/2 fl. dr.; sublimed
sulphur, and hog’s lard, of each 11 oz.; mix them. (Bateman, ‘Cutaneous
Diseases.’) The nostrum vended under the name is made as
follows:——Carbonate of potash, 1 oz.; vermilion, 3 dr.; sulphur, 1 lb.;
lard, 1-1/2 lb.; rose water, 3 fl. oz.; oil of bergamot, 1-1/2 dr.
3. (French Hosp.) Chloride of lime, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. dr.;
sweet oil, 1/2 fl. oz.; common salt and sulphur, of each 1 oz.; soft soap,
2 oz.; oil of lemon, 20 drops. Cheap, effectual, and inoffensive.
4. (De la Harpe.) Sulphur, 2 oz.; powdered white hellebore, 1/2 oz.;
sulphate of zinc, 1/4 do.; soft soap, 4 oz.; lard, 8 oz.
5. (Jackson.) From palm oil, flowers of sulphur, and white hellebore of
each 1 part; lard, 2 parts.
6. (Nugent.) From white lead, 2 oz.; orris root, 1 oz.; corrosive
sublimate, in very fine powder, 1/2 oz.; palm oil, 4 oz.; lard, 1-1/2 lb.
7. (Ph. E., 1744.) Elecampane root and sharp-pointed dock (_Rumex
acutus_——Linn.), of each bruised, 3 oz.; water, 1 quart; vinegar, 3/4
pint; boil to one half, add of water-cress, 10 oz.; lard, 4 lb.; boil to
dryness, and stain with expression; to the strained liquid add of beeswax
and oil of bays, of each 4 oz.; and stir the mixture until nearly cold.
8. (UNG. A. COMP.——Ph. E. 1744.) To each lb. of the last add of strong
mercurial ointment, 2 oz.
9. (Robertson.) Soft soap, 1 oz.; rum, 1 table-spoonful; chloride of lime
(dry and good), 1/4 oz.; mix, and add of lard, 2 oz.
10. (Swediaur.) Stavesacre (in powder), 1 oz.; lard, 3 oz.; digest with
heat for 3 hours, and then strain. The formula of the Ph. Bruns. is nearly
similar. Very useful in itch; also to destroy pediculi.
11. (Thomson.) Chloride of lime and common salt, of each, in fine powder,
1 dr.; soft soap, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. dr.; mix, add of lard, 1
oz.; and, lastly, of strong vinegar, 3 fl. dr. Very cleanly and effective;
but should not be made in quantity, as it does not keep well.
12. (Vogt.) Chloride of lime (dry), 2 dr.; burnt alum, 3 dr.; lard, 9 dr.
To be mixed with an equal quantity of soft soap at the time of fusing it.
_Obs._ The products of the preceding formulæ are used by well rubbing them
into the part affected, night and morning, as long as necessary, the
number of applications required depending greatly on the manner in which
this is done.
=Ointment of I′vy.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM HEDERÆ, L. _Prep._ From the leaves of
common ivy, by infusion, as ointment of henbane. Used as an application to
soft corns, in itch, and as a dressing to indolent ulcers and tissues.
=Ointment of Jatropha= (PHYSIC-NUT). The milky juice of the English Physic
nut (_Jatropha curcas_) mixed with half its weight of lard. In piles.
=Ointment of Juniper.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM JUNIPERI. _Prep._ Juniper leaves,
1 part, resin ointment, 6 parts; boil gently and strain.
=Ointment of Ju′′niper-tar.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM OLEI PYROLIGNI JUNIPERI, U.
CADINUM, L. _Prep._ (Eras. Wilson.) Lard and suet, of each 6 parts;
beeswax, 4 parts; liquefy by heat, and add of pyroligneous oil of juniper
(‘huile de cade’) 16 parts; with a few drops of any fragrant essential
oil, to conceal the smell. In ringworm, and as a stimulant ointment in
some other skin diseases.
=Ointment, Kirkland’s.= See LEAD OINTMENT (Compound).
=Ointment of Labdanum.= (Quincy.) _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CRINISCUM. _Prep._
Labdanum, 6 dr.; bears’ grease, 2 oz.; powdered southernwood, 3 dr.; oil
of mace, 1 dr.; balsam of Peru, 2 dr.
=Ointment of Lard.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ADIPIS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1788.)
Prepared lard, 2 lbs.; melt, add of rose water, 3 fl. oz.; beat the two
well together, then set the vessel aside, and when the whole is cold,
separate the congealed fat. A simple emollient. See OINTMENT, ELDER.
=Ointment of Lau′rel.= _Syn._ LAURINE OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM LAURINUM, U.
LAURI NOBILIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. Lusit.) Suet (softened by heat), 8 oz.;
laurel oil (expressed oil of bay), 1 lb.; oil of turpentine, 1-1/2 oz.
This is the ‘nervine balsam’ and ‘nervine ointment’ of the shops in the
Peninsula, and in some other parts of Southern Europe. The Ph. Bat. 1805
added 1/2 oz. of rectified oil of amber.
2. (P. Cod.) Fresh bay leaves and berries (bruised), of each 1 lb.; lard,
2 lbs.; as hemlock ointment——Ph. L. Highly esteemed on the Continent as a
stimulating friction, in bruises, strains, stiff joints, &c.; and in
deafness.
3. (Trade.) From fresh bay leaves, 2 lbs.; bay berries, 1 lb.; neat’s-foot
oil, 5 pints; boil as last; to the strained oil add, of lard suet, 3 lbs.,
true oil of bay, 1/4 lb., and allow it to cool very slowly, in order that
it may ‘grain’ well. Sold for laurel ointment and common oil of bay.
=Ointment of Lavender= (Baume). _Syn._ OLEUM LAVANDULÆ. _Prep._ Lard,
2-1/2 lbs.; lavender flowers, 10 lbs.; white wax, 3 oz. Melt the lard,
digest with 2 lbs. of the flowers for two hours, and strain; repeat this
with fresh flowers till all are used; melt the ointment and leave it at
rest to cool; separate the moisture and dregs, and melt the ointment with
the wax.
=Ointment of Lead.= _Syn._ (UNGUENTUM PLUMBI, U. LITHARGYRI——P. Cod.)
_Prep._ 1. Litharge, 3 oz.; distilled vinegar, 4 oz.; olive oil, 9 oz.;
mix with heat, and stir until they combine. Camphor, morphia, and opium
are common additions to lead ointment, when an anodyne effect is
desirable.
2. (Compound; NEUTRAL OINTMENT, HIGGIN’S O., KIRKLANDS’ O.; UNGUENTUM
NEUTRALE, U. PLUMBI COMPOSITUM——Ph. L.) Lead plaster, 2 lbs.; olive oil,
18 fl. oz.; mix by a gentle heat, and add of prepared chalk, 6 oz.;
lastly, add of dilute acetic acid, 6 fl. oz., and stir well until the mass
has cooled. As a dressing in indolent ulcers, “but its utility is
doubtful.” (Dr Garrod.)
_Obs._ It will be observed that the College has already modified the old
formula of this ointment. The vinegar is now the last ingredient added to
the mass. “Gradually add the chalk, separately mixed with the vinegar, the
effervescence being finished, and stir,” &c. (Ph. L. 1836.) See ACETATE OF
LEAD, CARBONATE OF L., CHLORIDE OF L., IODIDE OF L.; EYE, GOULARD’S, LE
MORT’S, and other OINTMENTS containing lead.
=Ointment, Le Mort’s.= Carbonate of lead, corrosive sublimate, litharge,
and Venice turpentine, of each 1 oz.; alum, 1/2 oz.; lard, 1/2 lb.;
vermilion, q. s. to colour.
=Ointment of Lu′puline.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM LUPULINÆ, L. _Prep._
(Soubeiran.) Lupuline, 1 part; lard, 3 parts; digest by the heat of a
water bath for 5 or 6 hours, and strain. As an anodyne dressing to
cancerous ulcers, and as a friction to swollen and painful joints.
=Ointment of Lycopo′dium.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM LYCOPODII, L. _Prep._
Lycopodium, 1 dr.; balsam of Peru, 1/2 dr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. In
chaps and excoriations.
=Ointment of Mace.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM MACIDIS, L. _Prep._ From mace (beaten
to a paste) and palm oil, of each 1 lb.; purified beef marrow, 3 lbs.;
gently melted together, and strained. Emollient and stimulant; chiefly
used as a pomade for the hair. Sold for ‘common oil of mace.’
=Ointment of Marshmal′low.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ALTHÆÆ, DIALTHÆÆ, L. _Prep._
1. (Ph. L. 1746.) Oil of mucilages, 2 lbs.; beeswax, 1/2 lb.; yellow
resin, 3 oz.; melt them together, then add of Venice turpentine, 1/2 oz.;
and stir the mixture until it concretes.
2. (Wholesale.) From palm oil, 1/2 lb.; yellow resin, 1-1/4 lb.; beeswax,
2-1/4 lbs.; pale linseed oil, 9 lbs. (say 1 gall.); melt together and stir
until it is nearly cold.
_Uses, &c._ Emollient and stimulant; seldom used in regular practice, but
in great repute amongst the common people. Linseed oil is now almost
universally substituted for the oil of mucilages.
=Ointment of Master-wort.= _Syn._ POMMADE ANTI-CANCÉREUSE DE MILIUS;
UNGUENTUM IMPERITORIÆ, L. _Prep._ (Beasley.) Powdered master-wort
(_Imperatoria Ostruthium_), 1-1/2 oz.; tincture of master-wort, 1 oz.;
lard, 2 oz.
=Ointment of Matico= (Mr Young). _Syn._ UNGUENTUM MATICO. _Prep._ Powdered
matico, 3 drams; opium, 3 gr.; lard, 1 oz.
=Ointment, Mercu′′rial.= _Syn._ (Strong MERCURIAL OINTMENT, BLUE O.,
NEAPOLITAN O.; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI——B. P., Ph. L. E. & D., U. H. FORTIUS,
U. CÆRULEUM.) _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Mercury, 16; prepared lard, 16; prepared
suet, 1; rub together until metallic globules cease to be visible. See
also OINTMENT, MERCURIAL (Compound).
2 (Ph. L. & E.) Mercury; 1 lb.; lard, 11-1/2 oz.; suet, 1/2 oz.; rub the
mercury with the suet and a little of the lard, until globules are no
longer visible; then add the remaining lard, and triturate altogether.
3. (Ph. D.) Pure mercury and lard, of each 1 lb.; as before.
_Pur., &c._ The ‘stronger mercurial ointment’ of the shops is usually made
with a less quantity of mercury than that ordered by the Colleges, and the
colour is brought up with finely ground blue black or wood charcoal. This
fraud may be detected by its inferior sp. gr., and by a portion being left
undissolved when a little of the ointment is treated first with ether or
oil of turpentine, to remove the fat, and then with dilute nitric acid, to
remove the mercury. When made according to the instructions of the Ph.,
its sp. gr. is not less than 1·781 at 60° Fahr. It “is not well prepared
so long as metallic globules may be seen in it with a magnifier of 4
powers.” (Ph. E.) When rubbed on a piece of bright copper or gold, it
should immediately give it a coating of metallic mercury, and a silvery
appearance.
The _Ung. hyd. fort._ of the wholesale houses is generally made of
mercury, 12 lbs., suet, 1-1/2 lb., and lard, 16-1/2 lbs. It thus contains
only 1/3 instead of 1/2 its weight of mercury. That of the same houses
labelled ‘_Ung. hyd. partes æquales_’ is prepared with mercury, 12 lbs.;
suet, 1-1/2 lb.; lard, 13-1/2 lbs.
_Uses._ This ointment is chiefly used to introduce mercury into the system
when the stomach is too irritable to bear it; in syphilis, hepatic
affections, hydrocephalus, &c. For this purpose, 1/2 to 1 dr. is commonly
rubbed into the inside of one of the thighs until every particle of the
ointment disappears. This operation is repeated night and morning until
the desired effect is produced, and should be, if possible, performed by
the patient himself. During its administration the patient should avoid
exposure to cold, and the use of fermented or acidulous liquors, and his
diet should consist chiefly of toast, broth, gruel, milk-and-water, and
other inoffensive matters. This ointment has been employed to prevent the
‘pitting’ in smallpox; and, diluted with 3 or 4 times its weight of lard,
in several skin diseases, as a dressing for ulcers, to destroy pediculi,
&c. Camphor is often added to this ointment to increase its activity. With
the addition of a little extract of belladonna, or hydrochlorate of
ammonia, it forms an excellent anodyne and resolvent friction in painful
syphilitic tumours and glandular enlargements.
_Obs._ The preparation of mercurial ointment according to the common plan
is a process of much labour and difficulty, and usually occupies several
days. The instructions in the Pharmacopœias are very meagre and
unsatisfactory, and, so far as details go, are seldom precisely carried
out. Employers grumble, and operatives become impatient, when they find
the most assiduous trituration apparently fails to hasten the extinction
of the globules. To facilitate matters, various tricks are resorted to,
and various contraband additions are often clandestinely made. Among the
articles referred to, sulphur and turpentine are those which have been
longest known, and, perhaps, most frequently employed for the purpose; but
the first spoils the colour, and the other the consistence, of the
ointment; whilst both impart to it more or less of their peculiar and
respective odours. On the Continent, oil of eggs was formerly very
generally used for the purpose, and is even now occasionally so employed.
Nearly half a century ago Mr W. Cooley clearly showed that the difficulty
might be satisfactorily overcome by simply triturating the quicksilver
with 1/8 to 1/4 of its weight of old mercurial ointment, before adding the
lard; and that the effective power of this substance was in direct
proportion to its age, or the length of time it had been exposed to the
air. His plan was to employ the ‘bottom’ and ‘scraping’ of the store pots
for the purpose. At a later period (1814-15) Mr Higginbottom, of
Northampton, repeated this recommendation, and at length the plan has been
imported into the Pharmacopœia Borussica. About twenty years since, “we
reopened an investigation of the subject, which extended over several
months, during which we satisfied ourselves of the accuracy of the
assertion of M. Roux, that the mercury in mercurial ointment exists
entirely, or nearly so, in the metallic state, and not in the form of
oxide, as was generally assumed. We succeeded in preparing an excellent
sample of mercurial ointment by agitating washed suet and quicksilver
together _in vacuo_. The quantity of oxide present at any time in this
ointment is variable and accidental, and is largest in that which has been
long prepared; but in no case is it sufficient to materially discolour the
fat after the metallic mercury is separated from it. We were led to
conclude that the property alluded to, possessed by old ointment, depends
solely on the peculiar degree of consistence or viscidity of the fat
present in it, and on the loss of much of the thoroughly greasy,
‘anti-attritive’ character, possessed by the latter in a recent state. In
practically working out this idea we obtained pure fats (MAGNETIC ADEPS;
SEVUM PRÆPARATUM), which, without any addition, were capable of reducing,
in a few minutes, 8, 16, 32, and even 48 times their weight of mercury. We
also found that the formula of the Pharmacopœia might be adopted, and that
a perfect ointment might be readily obtained by skilful management in from
half an hour to an hour, even without these resources. All that was
necessary was to employ a very gentle degree of heat by either performing
the operation in a warm apartment or by allowing the mortar to remain
filled with warm water for a short time before using it. Suet or lard,
reduced either by gentle warmth or by the addition of a little almond oil
to the consistence of a thick cream, so that it will hang to the pestle
without running from it, will readily extinguish 7 or 8 times its weight
of running mercury by simple trituration. The exact temperature must,
however, be hit upon, or the operation fails. This fact was afterwards
noticed in the ‘Ann. de Chim.,’ and some other journals.” (A. J. Cooley.)
M. Pomonti has proposed a method of preparing strong mercurial ointment,
which, modified to suit the English operator, is as follows:——Fresh lard,
8 parts; solution of nitre (see _below_), 1 part; mix by trituration, add
of mercury, 32 parts, and again triturate. The globules disappear after a
few turns of the pestle, but reappear in a few minutes, and then again
disappear to return no more. When this happens, the trituration is to be
continued for a few minutes longer, when lard, 24 parts, is to be rubbed
in, and the ointment at once put into pots. It is said that the globules
are so completely extinguished as to escape detection, even when the
ointment is examined by a microscope of low power. The SOLUTION.——Nitre,
100 gr.; water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve. This quantity is sufficient for a
kilogramme of mercury.
M. Lahens strongly recommends for the rapid preparation of mercurial
ointment the application of oil of almonds in the following
proportions:——Mercury, 1000 parts; oil of almonds, 20 parts; lard, 980
parts. The mercury is first triturated with the oil for about fifteen
minutes, after which its globules are said to be no longer discernible by
the naked eye; 200 parts of the melted lard are now added, and the
trituration continued to the complete extinction of the metal, which is
generally accomplished within an hour. The ointment is then mixed with the
remainder of the lard. SEE OINTMENT OF OXIDE OF MERCURY.
=Ointment, Mercurial= (Milder). MILDER BLUE OINTMENT, TROOPER’S O.,
UNCTION; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI MITIUS, U. CÆRULEUM MITIUS. _Prep._ 1.
Stronger mercurial ointment, 1 lb.; lard, 2 lbs.
_Dose, &c._ In the itch and several other cutaneous diseases, as a
dressing to syphilitic ulcers, to destroy pediculi on the body, &c. Each
drachm contains 10 gr. of mercury. That of the shops generally contains
considerably less.
2. (With SOAP; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI SAPONACEUM; SAVON MERCURIEL).——_a._
(Draper.) Mercurial ointment (softened by a gentle heat), 1 oz.; hydrate
of potassa, 1 dr., dissolved in water, 1/2 fl. oz.; triturate them
together until the mass solidifies.
_b._ (Swediaur.) Milder mercurial ointment, 8 parts; soft soap, 2 parts;
camphor, 1 part. In periostitis, engorgements of the testicles, soft
corns, &c. See OINTMENT OF NITRATE OF MERCURY, &c.
=Ointment, Mercurial (Compound).= (B. P.) Mercurial ointment, 6; yellow
wax, 3; olive oil, 3; camphor, 1-1/2. Melt the wax and oil, and when the
mixture is nearly cold, add the camphor in powder and the mercurial
ointment, and mix.
=Ointment, Mercurial, with Hydrochlorate of Ammonia.= (Dupuytren.) _Syn._
UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI CUM AMMONIÆ MURIATE. _Prep._ Stronger mercurial
ointment, 2 oz.; hydrochlorate of ammonia, 1 dr.
=Ointment, Mercurial, with Soda.= (F. H.) _Syn._ UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI CUM
SODA, SAVON MERCURIEL. _Prep._ Mercurial ointment, 3-1/2 oz.; solution of
soda, 3 oz.; triturate until they combine.
=Ointment of Mercury, Oleate of.= (U. C. Hosp.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM
HYDRARGYRI OLEATIS, UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI OLEATIS. (10 per cent.) _Prep._
Yellow peroxide of mercury, 1 dr.; pure oleic acid, 10 dr. To the oleic
acid kept agitated in a mortar, sprinkle in the peroxide gradually, and
triturate frequently during 24 hours, until the peroxide is dissolved, and
a gelatinous solution is formed, 20 per cent. as above, using double the
quantity of yellow oxide. To be applied with a brush, or spread lightly
over the part with the finger. In persistent inflammation of the joints,
Professor Marshall adds to ʒj of the above preparation, 1 gr. of
morphia——the pure alkaloid——not one of its salts, which are insoluble in
oleic acid.
In the preparation of ointment of oleate of mercury it is of the utmost
importance that the mercuric oxide should be thoroughly dry, and further
that it should be sifted in small portions at a time upon the surface of
the oleic acid, each fresh portion being well incorporated before another
is added. Solution should be promoted by frequent stirring, at ordinary
temperatures, since experience has shown that all heating is positively
injurious.[66]
[Footnote 66: C. Rice.]
=Ointment of Mercury, Yellow Oxide of.= (U. S. Ph.) _Syn._ UNGUENTUM
HYDRARGYRI, =Oxydi flavi=. _Prep._ Yellow oxide of mercury, 1 dr.; simple
ointment, 420 gr.
=Ointment of Meze′reon.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM MEZEREI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Hamb.
Cod.) Alcoholic extract of mezereon, 2 dr.; dissolve in rectified spirit,
q. s.; add it to white wax, 1 oz.; lard, 8 oz., and mix by a gentle heat.
2. (P. Cod.) Mezereon (dried root-bark), 4 oz.; moisten it with rectified
spirit, bruise it well, and digest it for 12 hours, at the heat of boiling
water, in lard, 14-1/2 oz.; then strain with pressure, and allow it to
cool slowly; lastly, separate it from the dregs, remelt it, and add of
white wax, 1-1/2 oz. Used as a stimulating application to blistered
surfaces and indolent ulcers.
3. (P. Cod.) Ethereal extract of mezereon, 176 gr.; lard, 9 oz.; white
wax, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 oz.; dissolve the extract in the alcohol,
add the lard and wax, heat moderately, stir until the spirit is driven
off, strain and stir till cold.
=Ointment of Monesia.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM MONESIÆ. _Prep._ Oil of almonds, 4
parts; white wax, 2 parts; extract of monesia, 1 part; water, 1 part.
=Ointment of Mustard.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM SINAPIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Flour of
mustard, 3/4 oz.; water, 1 fl. oz.; mix, and add, of resin cerate, 2 oz;
oil of turpentine, 1/2 oz. Rubefacient and stimulant. As a friction in
rheumatism, &c.
2. (Frank.) Flour of mustard, 3 oz.; oil of almonds, 1/2 fl. oz.; lemon
juice, q. s. In sunburn, freckles, &c.
=Ointment of Naph′thalin.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM NAPHTHALINÆ, L. _Prep._
(Emery.) Naphthalin, 1/2 dr.; lard, 7-1/2 dr. In dry tetters, lepra,
psoriasis, &c.
=Ointment, Neapolitan.= See OINTMENT, MERCURIAL.
=Ointment, Nervine.= _Syn._ BALSAMUM NERVINUM, UNGUENTUM N., L.; BAUME
NERVAL, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Expressed oil of mace and ox marrow, of each
4 oz.; melt by a gentle heat, and add, of oil of rosemary, 2 dr.; oil of
cloves, 1 dr.; camphor, 1 dr.; balsam of tolu, 2 dr.; (the last two
dissolved in) rectified spirit, 4 dr. In rheumatism, &c. A somewhat
similar preparation was included in the Ph. E. 1744.
=Ointment, Narcotic and Balsamic= (G. Ph.). _Syn._ UNGUENTUM
NARCOTICO-BALSAMICUM HELLMUNDI. _Prep._ Acetate of lead, 10 drams; extract
of hemlock, 30 drams; wax ointment, 33 oz.; balsam of Peru, 30 drams; wine
of opium, 5 drams.
=Ointment, Neu′tral.= See OINTMENT OF LEAD (Compound).
=Ointment of Ni′trate of Mercury.= _Syn._ CITRINE OINTMENT, YELLOW O.,
MERCURIAL BALSAM; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI NITRATIS (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), U.
H. N., or U. CITRINUM (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Mercury, 2 oz.;
nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·42), 4 fl. oz.; dissolve and mix the solution,
whilst still hot, with lard, 1 lb., and olive oil, 8 fl. oz., melted
together. (For the MILDER OINTMENT, see _below_.)
2. (Ph. E.) Mercury, 4 oz.; nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·500), 8 fl. oz. 6 fl.
dr.; dissolve by a gentle heat, add the liquid to lard, 15 oz,; olive oil,
32 fl. oz.; melted together, and whilst the whole are still hot, and mix
them thoroughly. “If the mixture does not froth up, increase the heat a
little until this takes place. Keep the ointment in earthenware vessels,
or glass vessels, secluded from the air.” This admirable formula is a
modification of that originally introduced into Pharmacy by the late Dr
Duncan, of Edinburgh. (For the milder ointment, see _below_.)
3. (Ph. D.) Mercury 1 oz.; nitric acid, (1·500), 1 fl. oz.; (diluted with)
water, 1/2 fl. oz.; dissolve by a gentle heat, and add the liquid to lard,
4 oz.; olive oil, 8 fl. oz.; melted together, and still hot; next “let the
temperature of the mixture be raised so as to cause effervescence, and
then, withdrawing the heat, stir the mixture with a porcelain spoon until
it concretes on cooling.”
4. (P. Cod.) Mercury, 3 parts; nitric acid (1·321), 6 parts; lard and oil,
of each 24 parts; as above.
5. (Ph. U. S.) Mercury, 1 oz.; nitric acid (1·42), 14 fl. oz.; lard, 3
oz.; fresh neat’s-foot oil, 9 fl. oz.; mix the mercurial solution with the
melted fat and oil at 200° Fahr.
6. (B. P.) Mercury, 4; nitric acid, 12; prepared lard, 15; olive oil, 32;
dissolve the mercury in the nitric acid with the aid of a gentle heat;
melt the lard in the oil by a steam or water bath in a porcelain vessel
capable of holding six times the quantity, and while the mixture is hot
add the solution of mercury, also hot, and mix them together thoroughly.
If the mixture does not froth up, increase the heat till this occurs. (The
heat required for this is from 170° to 180° Fahr.)
_Uses, &c._ Detergent and stimulant. In ringworm, herpes, itch, porrigo,
psoriasis, and some other chronic skin diseases; in various chronic
affections of the eyes, especially chronic inflammation and ulceration of
the eyelids, ‘blear eye,’ &c. It “may almost be regarded as specific in
psorophthalmia, in the purulent ophthalmia of infants producing ectropium
(eversion of the eyelids), and in ulcerations of the tarsi (edges of the
eyelids).” (A. T. Thomson.) As a dressing to old ulcers, more especially
those of a syphilitic character, it is superior to all the other ointments
containing mercury; in sore legs, assisted by the internal use of the pill
of soap with opium (PIL SAPONIS CUM OPIO), it often acts like a charm when
all other modes of treatment have failed. For most of these purposes it
should be diluted with from twice to seven times its weight of some simple
fatty matter. One of the principal reasons why this ointment is in less
general use than its merits deserve, is the very inferior quality of that
vended in the shops under the name, arising from almost every druggist
preparing some mess of his own, instead of adhering to the College
formulæ.
_Obs._ Ointment of nitrate of mercury, faithfully prepared according to
the instructions in the Pharmacopœia, possesses a rich golden-yellow
colour, and a buttery consistence, and keeps well. Unfortunately, clumsy
and careless operators, who regard the Pharmacopœia as a foolish book,
which it is quite unnecessary to look into, often fail in their attempts
to produce an article of good quality. The difficulty is immediately
surmounted by employing pure ingredients, in the proportions ordered, and
mixing them at the proper temperature. The acid should be of the full
strength, or, if somewhat weaker than that directed, an equivalent
quantity should be employed. A slight excess of acid is not injurious,
rather the contrary; but a deficiency of acid, in all cases, more or less
damages the quality of the product. If, on stirring the mercurial solution
with the melted lard and oil, the mixture does not froth up, the heat
should be increased a little, as, unless a violent frothing and reaction
take place, the ointment will not turn out of good quality, and will
rapidly harden and lose its colour. The most favorable temperature for the
union of the ingredients is from 185° to 200° Fahr., and in no case should
it exceed 212°; whilst below 180° Fahr., the reactions are feeble and
imperfect.
Stoneware or glass vessels must alone be employed in the preparation of
this ointment, and the stirrers or spatulas should be either of glass or
white deal. The best plan is to keep the whole exclusively for the
purpose, and when out of use to preserve them from dust and dirt. (See
_below_.)
=Ointment of Ni′trate of Mercury.= (Milder.) _Syn._ MILDER CITRINE
OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI NITRATIS MITIUS (Ph. L.), U. H. N. M., Or
U. CITRINUM M. (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Ointment of nitrate of
mercury, 1 oz.; lard, 7 oz.; rub them together. “This ointment is to be
used recently prepared.”
2. (Ph. E.) As the stronger ointment, Ph. E., but using a triple
proportion of oil and lard. _Uses, &c._ See the STRONGER OINTMENT
(_above_).
=Ointment of Ni′trate of Sil′ver.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ARGENTI NITRATIS, L.
_Prep._ 1. (M. Jobert.) Nitrate of silver, 2, 4, or 6 parts; lard, 20
parts. These ointments are respectively numbered 1, 2, and 3, and are used
in white-swelling.
2. (Macdonald.) Nitrate of silver, 1 part; lard, 7 to 8 parts. To smear
bougies, in gonorrhœa, &c.
3. (Mackenzie.) Nitrate of silver, 5 gr.; lard, 1 oz. In purulent and
chronic ophthalmia, ulcers on the cornea, &c.
4. (Velpeau.) Nitrate of silver, 1 gr.; lard, 1 dr. In acute ophthalmia,
&c. The above compounds require to be used with caution.
=Ointment of Ni′tric Acid.= _Syn._ OXYGENISED FAT†; UNGUENTUM OXYGENATUM,
U. A. NITRICI, L.; POMMADE D’ALYON, Fr. _Prep._ (Ph. D. 1826.) Olive oil,
1 lb.; lard, 4 oz.; melt them together, add, gradually, of nitric acid
(sp. gr. 1·500), 5-1/2 fl. dr., and stir the mixture constantly with a
glass rod until it concretes.
_Uses, &c._ In itch, porrigo, and some other chronic skin diseases; and as
a dressing for syphilitic and herpetic ulcers, old sores, &c. It is
frequently employed as a substitute for the ointment of nitrate of
mercury, which it somewhat resembles in appearance; but it is less active
and useful.
=Ointment of Ni′tric Ox′ide of Mer′cury.= _Syn._ OINTMENT OF RED OXIDE OF
MERCURY (B. P.), RED PRECIPITATE OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI
NITRICO-OXYDI (Ph. L.), U. H. OXYDI (Ph. E.), U. H. O. RUBRI (B. P., Ph.
D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) White wax, 2 oz.; lard, 6 oz.; mix, by heat,
add of nitric oxide of mercury, in very fine powder, 1 oz., and rub them
together.
2. (Ph. E.) Nitric oxide of mercury, 1 oz.; lard, 8 oz.; mix by
trituration.
3. (Ph. D.) Red oxide of mercury (nitric oxide), 1 dr.; ointment of white
wax, 7 dr.; as the last.
4. (B. P.) Red oxide of mercury, in very fine powder, 62 gr.; yellow wax,
1/4 oz.; oil of almonds, 3/4 oz.; melt the wax, add the oil, and mix.
_Uses, &c._ An excellent stimulant application to indolent and foul sores,
ulcers, &c.; and, when diluted, as an eye ointment in chronic inflammation
and ulceration of the eyes and eyelids, and especially in psorophthalmia;
also in specks on the cornea, and the other affections noticed under
OINTMENT OF NITRATE OF MERCURY. It forms the basis of numerous quack
medicines. See also OINTMENT OF OXIDE OF MERCURY (_below_).
=Ointment, Obstet′ric.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM OBSTETRICUM, L.; POMMADE
OBSTETRICALE, Fr. _Prep._ 1. (Chaussier.) Extract of belladonna, 1 dr.;
water, 2 dr.; lard, 1 oz. To promote the dilatation of the os uteri.
2. (POMMADE POUR LE TOUCHER.) From yellow wax and spermaceti, of each 1
oz.; olive oil, 16 oz.; melt them together, strain, add of solution of
caustic soda, 1 fl. oz., and stir until the whole is nearly cold.
=Ointment of O′pium.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM OPIATUM, U. OPII (Ph. L.), L.
_Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Powdered opium, 20 gr.; lard, 1 oz.; mix by
trituration. As a simple anodyne friction or dressing.
2. (Augustin.) Opium, 2 dr.; ox-gall, 2 oz.; digest 2 days, strain, and
add, of melted lard, 2 oz.; oil of bergamot, 10 drops.
3. (Brera.) Opium, 1 dr.; gastric juice of a calf, 1/2 oz.; digest 24
hours, and add of melted lard, 1 oz.
=Ointment of Oxide of Lead.= See OINTMENT, LEAD.
=Ointment of Oxide of Man′′ganese.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM MANGANESII OXYDI, U.
M. BINOXYDI, L. _Prep._ 1. Black oxide of manganese (levigated), 1 dr.;
lard, 1 oz.; mix by patient trituration. As a friction in scrofulous
swellings and indurations; and in itch, scald-head, chilblains, &c.
2. (W. Cooley.) Binoxide of manganese, 1 dr.; sulphur, 2 dr.; lard, 9 dr.;
cajeput oil, 15 drops. As the last; also as a friction in rheumatism,
swelled joints, &c., and in porrigo, and some other skin diseases.
=Ointment of Oxide of Mer′cury.= Under this name the two ointments noticed
below are often confounded, owing to the different opinions held
respecting the atomic weight of mercury:——
1. =Ointment of Grey Oxide of Mer′cury.= _Syn._ OINTMENT OF SUBOXIDE OF
MERCURY, O. OF PROTOXIDE OF M.†; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI OXYDI, U. H.
SUBOXYDI, U. H. O. CINEREI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E. 1817.) Grey oxide of
mercury, 1 oz.; lard, 3 oz.; triturate together. Formerly proposed as a
substitute for mercurial ointment, but in practice it has been found
useless as a friction, owing to the unctuous matter only being absorbed,
whilst the oxide is left on the surface. This objection does not apply to
the following preparations:——
2. (Donovan.) Grey oxide of mercury, 20 gr.; lard, 1 oz.; mix, and expose
them to the temperature of 320° Fahr. for 2 hours, constantly stirring.
Grey coloured. It may also be made from the nitric- or red-oxide in the
same way, by keeping the ointment heated to about 300° for some hours.
Cleaner and stronger than Ung. hyd. fort.——Ph. L.
3. (Tyson.) Black oxide of mercury (prepared by decomposing precipitated
calomel with liquors of potassa and ammonia), 2 oz.; lard, 1 lb.;
triturate together. Inferior in activity to the last. It closely resembles
in appearance a fine sample of mercurial ointment.
2. =Ointment of Red Oxide of Mercury.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI
BINOXIDI†, U. H. OXYDI RUBRI, L. _Prep._ (Cazenave.) Red oxide of mercury,
30 gr.; camphor, 5 gr.; lard, 1 oz. Closely resembles ointment of nitric
oxide of mercury, over which it, perhaps, possesses some advantage from
the oxide being in a more minutely divided state.
=Ointment of Oxide of Sil′ver.= UNGUENTUM ARGENTI OXYDI, L. _Prep._
(Serre.) OXIDE OF SILVER, 16 to 20 gr.; lard, 1 oz. As a dressing for
scrofulous and syphilitic sores, &c.
=Ointment of Oxide of Zinc.= _Syn._ ZINC OINTMENT; NIHIL ALBUM OINTMENT†;
UNGUENTUM ZINCI (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), U. OXYDI ZINCI, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Ph. L.) Oxide of zinc, 1 oz.; lard, 6 oz.; mix them together.
2. (Ph. E.) Oxide of zinc, 1 oz.; simple liniment (Ph. E.), 6 oz.
3. (Ph. D.) Ointment of white wax, 12 oz.; melt it by a gentle heat, add
of oxide of zinc, 2 oz.; and stir constantly until the mixture concretes.
4. (B. P.) Oxide of zinc, in very fine powder, 1; benzoated lard, 5-1/2;
mix.
_Uses, &c._ Astringent, desiccative, and stimulant; in excoriations,
burns, various skin diseases attended by profuse discharges, in chronic
inflammation of the eyes depending on relaxation of the vessels, in sore
nipples, indolent sores, ringworm of the scalp, &c. It is an excellent and
very useful preparation. See OINTMENT, TUTTY (_below_).
=Ointment of Pep′per.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM PIPERIS NIGRI, L. _Prep._ 1. Black
pepper (bruised), 1 oz.; lard, 2 oz.; suet, 1 oz.; digest together in a
covered vessel, by the heat of a water bath, for six hours, then strain,
with pressure, add of expressed oil of mace, 2 dr., and stir until the
mixture concretes. In piles, itch, as a friction in rheumatism, &c.
2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Black pepper (in fine powder), 4 oz.; lard, 1 lb.; mix.
In scald-head, &c.
=Ointment of Phosphor′ic Acid.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ACIDI PHOSPHORICI, L.
_Prep._ (Soubeiran.) Phosphoric acid, 1 dr.; lard (softened by heat), 1
oz; triturate carefully together. As a friction in caries, osseous
tumours, &c.
=Ointment of Phos′phorus.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM PHOSPHORI, U. PHOSPHORATUM, L.
_Prep._ (P. Cod.) Phosphorus, 1 dr.; lard, 6 oz. 3 dr.; melt together (in
a wide-mouthed bottle) by the heat of a water bath, remove the vessel from
the heat, and shake it briskly until the ointment concretes. As a friction
in gout, chronic rheumatism, and several skin diseases.
=Ointment of Picrotox′in.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM PICROTOXINÆ, L. _Prep._
(Jäjer.) Picrotoxin, 10 gr.; lard, 1 oz. In ringworm of the scalp, and to
destroy pediculi. It should be used with care.
=Ointment for Piles.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM HÆMORRHOIDALE, U.
ANTI-HÆMORRHOIDALE, L. _Prep._ 1. Burnt alum and oxide of zinc, of each
1/2 dr.; lard, 7 dr.
2. (Bories.) Acetate of lead, 15 gr.; freshly burnt cork, 1/2 oz.; washed
fresh butter, 2 oz.; triturate well together.
3. (W. Cooley.) Morphia, 8 gr.; melted spermaceti ointment, 1 oz.;
triturate together until solution is complete, then add, of galls (in
impalpable powder), 1-1/2 dr., essential oil of almonds (genuine crude),
12 to 15 drops, and stir until the mass concretes. In painful piles,
prolapsus, &c. It is not only very effective, but does not soil the linen
so much as most other ointments.
4. (Dr Gedding.) Carbonate of lead, 4 dr.; sulphate of morphia, 15 gr.;
stramonium ointment, 1 oz.; olive oil, q. s. When there is much pain and
inflammation.
5. (Sir H. Halford.) Ointment of nitrate of mercury and oil of almonds,
equal parts, triturated together.
6. (Mazzini.) Nitrate of morphia, 15 gr.; citrine ointment, 1 dr.; fresh
butter, 1 oz. As the last.
7. (Vallez.) Extract of elder leaves, 1/2 dr.; burnt alum, 16 gr.; poplar
ointment, 1 oz. For other formulæ, see the respective names of their
leading ingredients.
8. (Ware.) Camphor, 1 dr.; simple ointment, 1 oz.; dissolve by heat, add
of powdered galls, 2 dr.; mix well, further add of tincture of opium, 2
fl. dr., and stir until the whole is cold. In flabby mucous and painful
piles.
9. (Zanin.) Spermaceti ointment, 1 oz.; powdered galls, 1 dr.; powdered
opium, 18 gr.; solution of diacetate of lead, 1 fl. dr. When there is both
pain and inflammation.
10. (From New Remedies.) Yellow wax, 8 parts; resin, 4 parts; lard, 12
parts; oil of sassafras, 2 parts. Melt the wax, resin, and lard, remove
from the fire, add the oil of sassafras, and stir until the mass is solid.
This is said to be a most excellent application for painful or itching
piles.
=Ointment of Pitch.= _Syn._ BLACK BASILICON, OINTMENT OF BLACK PITCH; UNG.
PICIS (B. P., Ph. L.), U. PICIS NIGRÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Black pitch,
resin, and beeswax, of each 11 oz.; olive oil, 1 pint; melt together,
strain through a linen cloth (and stir until the mass concretes).
2. (B. P.) Tar, 5; yellow wax, 2; melt together, and stir till cold.
_Uses, &c._ Stimulant and detergent; very useful in indolent ulcerations,
scald-head, and various foul eruptions. In itch and psoriasis, and other
scaly skin diseases, a little sulphur is commonly added to it.
=Ointment of Plat′inum.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM PLANTINI, L. _Prep._ (Hœfer.)
Bichloride of platinum, 15 gr.; extract of belladonna, 1/2 dr.; lard, 1
oz. As a dressing for painful indolent ulcers.
=Ointment of Plumbago.= _Syn._ OINTMENT OF GRAPHITE; UNGUENTUM GRAPHITIS,
U. PLUMBAGINIS, L. _Prep._ From pure plumbago (‘black-lead’), 1-1/2 dr.;
lard, 1 oz. As a dressing to ulcers, and in certain skin diseases.
=Ointment, Plunket’s.= _Prep._ (Original formula.) Crowsfoot, 1 handful;
dog’s fennel, 3 sprigs; pound well, add of flowers of sulphur and white
arsenic, of each 3 thimblefuls; beat them well together, form the mass
into boluses, and dry them in the sun. For use, powder them; and mix the
powder with yolk of egg, spread a little on a small piece of pig’s bladder
(size of half a crown), and apply it to the sore, where it must remain
until it falls off by itself. Poisonous; in cancer; with great caution.
=Ointment, Poma′tum.= See OINTMENT, LARD.
=Ointment of Pop′lar Buds.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM POPULEUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Fresh
poplar buds (bruised), 1 part; lard, 4 parts; boil until crisp, and
strain. It never gets rancid. Emollient and stimulant.
2. (Compound——P. Cod.) Poplar buds, 12 oz.; fresh leaves of belladonna,
common nightshade (_Solanum nigrum_), henbane, and poppies, of each 8 oz.;
lard, 4-1/2 lbs.; as the last. Emollient, stimulant, and anodyne.
=Ointment of Potas′sio-tar′trate of An′timony.= _Syn._ ANTIMONIAL
OINTMENT, TARTAR EMETIC O.; UNGUENTUM ANTIMONII TARTARATI (B. P.),
UNGUENTUM ANTIMONII POTASSIO-TARTATRIS (Ph. L.), U. A. TARTARIZATI (Ph.
D.), U. ANTIMONIALE (Ph. E.), U. TARTARI EMETICI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. &
E.) Potassic tartrate of antimony, rubbed to a very fine powder, 1 oz.;
lard, 4 oz.; mix by trituration.
2. (Ph. D.) Tartar emetic, in very fine powder, 1 dr.; ointment of white
wax, 7 dr.
3. (B. P.) Tartrated antimony (in fine powder), 1; simple ointment, 4.
Mix.
_Uses, &c._ Counter-irritant; in phthisis, chronic rheumatism, certain
liver affections, and other deep-seated pains and diseases. A portion
about the size of a nut is rubbed on the skin night and morning, until a
crop of pustules is produced. The part should be well rubbed with a coarse
towel, so as to be reddened, before applying the ointment. The product of
the Dublin formula is of only half the strength of those of the other
Colleges.
_Obs._ Before adding the tartar emetic to the lard it should be reduced to
the state of an impalpable powder. The precipitated salt is the best for
this purpose. As the pustules formed by this ointment permanently mark the
skin, it should only be applied to those parts of the person which are
covered by the dress.
=Ointment, Pur′gative.= See OINTMENT OF COLOCYNTH, WORM O., &c.
=Ointment of Quinine′.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM QUINIÆ, U. QUINIÆ SULPHATIS, L.
_Prep._ 1. Sulphate of quinine, 1 dr.; lard, 3 dr. In the agues of
children.
2. (Beasley _ex_ Antonini.) Sulphate of quinine, 1 dr.; alcohol (rectified
spirit), 2 dr.; sulphuric acid, 10 drops; dissolve, and mix it with lard,
1/2 oz. In malignant intermittents; 2 to 4 dr. at a time, rubbed into the
groin or axilla.
=Ointment of Red Sul′phuret of Mer′cury.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI
BISULPHURETI, U. H. SULPHURETI RUBRI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Alibert.) Red
sulphuret of mercury, 1 dr.; camphor, 20 gr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. In
herpes, applied twice a day.
2. (Collier.) Bisulphuret of mercury, 1-1/2 dr.; sal ammoniac, 1/2 dr.;
lard, 1 oz.; rose water, 1 fl. dr. In several skin diseases, to diminish
the itching, destroy pediculi, &c.
3. (Radius.) As the last, with 1 oz. more lard.
=Ointment of Res′in.= _Syn._ YELLOW BASILICON; UNGUENTUM RESINÆ (Ph. D.),
U. RESINOSUM (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. D.) Yellow wax, 1/4 lb.; yellow
resin, in coarse powder, 1/2 lb.; prepared lard, 1 lb.; melt them together
by a gentle heat, strain the mixture, whilst hot, through flannel, and
stir it constantly until it concretes.
2. (Ph. E.) Beeswax, 2 oz.; resin, 5 oz.; lard, 8 oz.
_Obs._ A useful stimulant dressing to foul and indolent ulcers. For the
corresponding preparation of the Ph. L., see CERATE, RESIN.
=Ointment, Resol′vent.= See OINTMENT, DISCUTIENT.
=Ointment of Rhatany= (Trousseau). _Syn._ UNGUENTUM RHATTINIÆ. _Prep._
Extract of rhatany, 1-1/2 dr.; cacao butter, 5 dr. Mix.
=Ointment, Ring′worm.= UNGUENTUM CONTRA-TINEAM, L. _Prep._ 1. Carbonate of
soda, 1 part; fresh-slaked lime, 4 parts; lard, 120 parts.
2. Ointment of nitrate of mercury, 1 dr.; tar ointment and lard, of each
1/2 oz.
3. (Henke.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 fl. dr.; juniper-tar ointment, 1/2 oz.;
marshmallow do., 1 oz.
4. (Pereira.) Tar, 3 dr.; lard, 1-1/2 oz.; melt them together, and stir in
of acetic acid (Ph. L.), 2 fl. dr.
5. (Thompson.) Carbonate of soda and sulphuret of potassium, of each 1
dr.; creasote, 1/2 dr.; lard, 1-1/4 oz.
_Obs._ The hair must be cut off close, and the part washed clean before
each application. For other forms, see _above_.
=Ointment of Rose.= _Syn._ ROSE POMMADE, ROSE LIP-SALVE; UNGUENTUM ROSÆ,
U. ROSATUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.) Washed lard (melted), and roses
(centif.), of each 2 lbs.; mix, and in 2 days remelt the mass, and press
out the fat; to this last add of fresh roses, 2 lbs., and repeat the
process; lastly, colour it with alkanet root if required red.
2. (UNG. AQUÆ ROSÆ——Ph. U. S.) This is spermaceti ointment melted and
beaten up with about 2/3rds of its weight of rose water until they
congeal. Both the above are simple emollients. The last is an officinal
‘cold cream.’
=Ointment of Rosemary= (Compound). (Ph. G.) _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ROSMARINI
COMPOSITUM. _Prep._ Lard, 16 oz.; suet, 8 oz.; yellow wax, 2 oz.; oil of
mace, 2 oz.; liquefy in a vapour bath, and when nearly cold, add oil of
rosemary and oil of juniper, of each 1 oz., by weight.
=Ointment of Rue= (Span. Hosp.) _Syn._ UNGUENTUM RUTÆ. _Prep._ Fresh rue,
2 oz.; wormwood, 2 oz.; nitre, 2 oz.; lard, 16 oz.; boil till the moisture
is expelled.
=Ointment, Rust’s.= _Prep._ Calcined alum, 1-1/2 dr.; camphor, 1/2 dr.;
powdered opium, 20 gr. balsam of Peru, 1 dr.; lead ointment, 5 dr.;
triturate together. In chilblains, frostbites, frosted limbs, &c.
=Ointment of Sabadil′line.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM SABADILLINÆ, L. _Prep._ (Dr
Turnbull.) Sabadilline, 15 to 20 gr.; lard, 1 oz. Intended as a substitute
for ointment of veratrine.
=Ointment of Sav′ine.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM SABINÆ (B. P., Ph. L. & D.),
CERATUM SABINÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) White wax, 3 oz.; lard, 1 lb.; melt
them together, mix in of fresh savine (bruised), 1/2 lb., and press
through a linen cloth.
2. (Ph. D.) Savine tops, dried and in fine powder, 1 dr.; ointment of
white wax, 7 dr.; mix by trituration. For the formula of the Ph. E., the
uses, &c., see CERATE.
=Ointment of Scrophula′′ria.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM SCROPHULARIÆ, L. _Prep._
(Ph. D. 1826.) Green leaves of knotted rooted figwort and lard, of each 2
lbs.; prepared suet, 1 lb.; boil till crisp, and strain with pressure. In
ringworm, ‘burnt holes’ (_pemphigus gangrenosus_ of children), impetigo,
and some other cutaneous diseases; also as an application to piles,
painful swellings, &c. In the second it is said to be almost specific.
=Ointment, Simple.= _Syn._ OINTMENT OF WHITE WAX, SIMPLE DRESSING;
UNGUENTUM SIMPLEX (B. P., Ph. E.), U. CERÆ ALBÆ (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1.
(Ph. E.) Olive oil, 5-1/2 fl. oz.; white wax, 2 oz.; melted together, and
stirred whilst cooling.
2. (Ph. D.) Prepared lard, 4 lbs.; white wax, 1 lb.; as the last.
3. (B. P.) White wax, 2; prepared lard, 3; almond oil, 8; melt together,
and stir till it becomes solid.
_Obs._ The above are mild emollients, useful in healthy ulcers,
excoriations, &c.; but chiefly as forming the basis for other ointments.
The corresponding preparation of the Ph. L. is spermaceti ointment. See
_below_, also OINTMENT, LARD, &c.
=Ointment, Singleton’s.= See OINTMENTS, EYE.
=Ointment, Smallpox.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ECTROTICUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Mercurial
ointment, 1-1/2 oz.; beeswax and black pitch, of each 1/2 oz.; expressed
oil of mace, 2 dr.; mixed together by a very gentle heat.
2. (Briquet.) Mercurial ointment, 4 parts; powdered starch, 1 part.
3. (Tourriere.) Iodide of potassium (dry and in fine powder), 1 part;
expressed oil of mace, 2 parts; black resin, 4 parts; mercurial ointment,
8 parts. Used to prevent the ‘pitting of the pustules.’ See SMALLPOX.
=Ointment, Smellome’s.= See OINTMENTS, EYE.
=Ointment of Soap.= 1. See CERATE.
2. (Camphorated; UNGUENTUM SAPONIS CAMPHORATUM——Hamb. Cod.) White soap
(scraped), 1 lb.; water, 1/2 lb.; dissolve by heat; add of olive oil, 5
oz.; and when the mixture has partly cooled, further add of camphor, 1
oz., previously dissolved by heat in olive oil, 1 oz.; lastly, stir until
the mass concretes. As an anodyne and stimulating friction in various
local affections, as chaps, chilblains, rheumatism, &c.
=Ointment of So′dio-Chlo′′ride of Gold.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM AURI
SODIO-CHLORIDI, L.; POMMADE DE MURIATE D’OR ET DE SOUDE, Fr. _Prep._
(Magendie.) Sodio-chloride of gold, 10 gr.; lard, 4 dr. In scrofulous and
syphilitic swellings, indurations, ulcers, &c.
=Ointment of Spermace′ti.= _Syn._ EMOLLIENT DRESSING, SIMPLE OINTMENT,
WHITE O.; UNGUENTUM CETACEI (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), U. SPERMATIS CETI, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Spermaceti, 5 oz.; white wax, 14 dr.; olive oil, 1
pint, or q. s.; melt them together by a gentle heat, and stir the mixture
until cold.
2. (Ph. D.) White wax, 1/2 lb.; spermaceti, 1 lb.; prepared lard, 3 lbs.;
as the last.
3. (B. P.) Spermaceti, 5; white wax, 2; almond oil, 20, or a sufficiency;
stir constantly, until it cools.
_Uses, &c._ As an emollient and healing application or dressing to
abrasions, excoriations, blistered surfaces, healthy ulcers, chilblains,
chaps, &c. In trade, the Dublin formula, with double the amount of lard,
is commonly employed. See OINTMENT, LARD, SIMPLE O., &c.
=Ointment of Squills.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM SCILLÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Brera.)
Squills (in very fine powder), 1 dr.; mercurial ointment, 2 dr.
2. (Hufeland.) Squills, 1 oz.; liquor of potassia, 2 fl. oz.; reduce to a
mucilage by boiling, then add of lard, 2 oz., or q. s. As a resolvent
friction to indolent tumours and indurations.
=Ointment of Stavesa′cre.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM STAPHISAGRIÆ, L. _Prep._
(Swediaur.) Powdered stavesacre, 1 oz.; lard, 3 oz.; melt together, digest
3 or 4 hours, and strain. A very cleanly remedy for itch, and to destroy
pediculi on the person. A similar ointment is much used by farriers.
=Ointment of Stramo′′nium.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM STRAMONII, L. _Prep._ 1.
Fresh thorn-apple leaves, 1 part; lard, 4 parts; as ointment of hemlock.
2. (Pereira.) Powdered leaves, 1 oz,; lard, 4 oz.; mix by trituration.
3. (Ph. U. S.) Extract of stramonium, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; as the last.
_Uses, &c._ To dress irritable ulcers, and as an application to painful
piles.
=Ointment of Strych′nine.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM STRYCHNIÆ, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Bouchardat.) Strychnine, 16 gr.; lard, 1 oz.; carefully triturated
together.
2. (Wendt.) Nitrate of strychnine, 6 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; as last. Both are
used as a friction in paralysed parts, &c. From the extremely poisonous
character of strychnine it should be used with caution.
=Ointment of Subac′etate of Cop′per.= See OINTMENT OF VERDIGRIS.
=Ointment of Subacetate of Lead (Compound).= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM PLUMBI
SUBACETATIS COMPOSITUM (B. P.). _Prep._ Solution of subacetate of lead, 6;
camphor 1/8; white wax, 8; almond oil, 20; melt the wax with 16 of the oil
on a steam or water bath; remove the vessel, and as soon as the mixture
begins to thicken, gradually add the solution of subacetate of lead, and
stir the mixture constantly until it cools; then add the camphor, dissolve
in the rest of the oil, and mix thoroughly.
=Ointment of Subchloride of Mercury.= See OINTMENT OF CALOMEL.
=Ointment of Subsul′phate of Mercury†.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI
SUBSULPHATUS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Alibert.) Turpeth mineral, 1/2 dr.; lard, 1
oz.
2. (Biett.) Turpeth mineral, 1 dr.; sulphur, 2 dr.; lard, 2 oz.; oil of
lemons, 15 drops. In herpes, porrigo, and the scaly diseases.
=Ointment of Sulphate of I′ron.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM FERRI SULPHATIS, L.
_Prep._ (Velpeau.) Sulphate of iron, 1-1/2 dr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. In
erysipelas.
=Ointment of Sulphate of Man′′ganese.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM MANGANESI
SULPHATIS, L. _Prep._ From sulphate of manganese, 1 fl. dr.; lard or
simple ointment, 1 oz. Alterative and discutient; in similar cases to
those in which MECURIAL OINTMENT is employed.
=Ointment of Sulphate of Zinc.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ZINCI SULPHATIS, L.
_Prep._ (Scarpa.) Sulphate of zinc (in very fine powder), 1 dr.; lard, 1
oz. In some chronic skin diseases attended with a lax state of the
tissues, and as a dressing to scrofulous tumours after they have separated
and the abscess has been discharged.
=Ointment of Sulphur.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM SULPHURIS (B. P., Ph. L., E., &
D.) _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Sulphur, 1/2 lb.; lard, 1 lb. In the Ph. L. 1836
oil of bergamot, 40 drops, were added. (See 5, Compound.)
2. (Ph. E.) Sulphur, 1 oz.; lard, 4 oz.
3. (Ph. D.) Sulphur, 1 lb.; lard, 4 lbs.
4. (B. P.) Sublimed sulphur, 1; benzoated lard, 4; mix.
_Uses, &c._ In itch, scald-head, &c., in the first of which it is
specific. It should be well rubbed in every night until the disease is
cured; “but not more than one fourth part of the body should be covered
with it at a time.” (A. T. Thomson.)
5. (Compound; ITCH OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM SULPHURIS COMPOSITUM——Ph. L.)——_a._
(Ph. L.) Nitrate of potassa (powdered), 40 gr.; white hellebore
(powdered), 10 dr.; sulphur and soft soap, of each 4 oz.; lard, 1 lb.; rub
them together.
_b._ (P. Cod.) Alum and sal ammoniac, of each, 1/2 oz.; sulphur, 8 oz.;
lard, 16 oz.
_Uses, &c._ In itch, as the simple ointment (1, 2, and 3.) They are more
efficacious, but, owing to the presence of white hellebore, the Ph. L.
preparation is apt to cause irritation in persons with delicate skins. See
OINTMENT, ITCH.
=Ointment of Sulphuret of Mercury.= See OINTMENT OF RED SULPHURET OF
MERCURY.
=Ointment of Sulphurated Potash.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM POTASSÆ SULPHURATE (B.
P.) Sulphurated potash, 30 gr.; triturate, and add prepared lard, 1 oz.;
mix. See also next preparation.
=Ointment of Sulphuret of Potas′sium.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM POTASSI
SULPHURETI, L. _Prep._ 1. Sulphuret of potassium (dry and in fine powder),
1 dr.; lard, 9 dr. Alibert adds 1 dr. of carbonate of soda.
2. Sulphuret of potassium, 2-1/2 dr.; lard and soft soap, of each 1 oz.;
olive oil, 1/2 oz. In several chronic skin diseases, as itch, psoriasis,
ringworm, lepra, eczema, &c.
=Ointment of Sulphuret of So′dium.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM SODII SULPHURETI, L.
_Prep._ (Swediaur.) Sulphuret of sodium, 3 dr.; lard, 1-1/2 oz. In itch,
for which it is very cleanly and effective. The last two ointments are
most powerful when recently prepared.
=Ointment of Sulphuric Ac′id.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ACIDI SULPHURICI, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Dr Duncan.) Sulphuric acid, 1 dr.; lard, 2 oz.
2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Sulphuric acid, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; mix.
_Uses, &c._ Black, fetid; in itch. It is now seldom used. With oil of
turpentine it has been used as a stimulating liniment in rheumatism. An
ointment made of 1-1/2 dr. of dilute sulphuric acid to 1 oz. of lard is a
good application in prurigo.
=Ointment, Sulta′na.= Spermaceti and white wax, of each 1/4 oz.; oil of
almonds and butter of cacao, of each 1/4 lb.; melt together, add of balsam
of Peru, 1 dr., stir constantly for a few minutes, and after it has
settled pour off the clear portion; to this add of orange-flower water, 2
fl. dr., and stir the mixture constantly until it concretes. A very
agreeable species of cold cream.
=Ointment of Tan′nate of Lead.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM PLUMBI TANNATIS, L.
_Prep._ 1. Tannate of lead, 1-1/2 dr.; powdered camphor, 20 gr.;
spermaceti ointment, 7 dr. In inflamed piles, &c.
2. (Sundelin.) Decoction of oak bark, 6 fl. oz.; solution of diacetate of
lead, 1-1/2 oz.; mix, collect and drain the precipitate, and mix it,
whilst still moist, with lard, 1 oz.; camphor, 10 gr. In bedsores.
=Ointment of Tan′nin.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM TANNINI, U. ACIDI TANNICI, L.
_Prep._ (Richard.) Tannin, 2 dr.; water, 2 fl. dr.; triturate them
together, then add of lard, 1-1/2 oz. Astringent and hæmostatic. In piles,
prolapsus, &c. It is a very cleanly and effective application.
=Ointment of Tar.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM PICIS LIQUIDÆ (Ph. L. E. & D.), L.
_Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Tar and suet, of each 1 lb.; melt them together, and
press the mixture through a linen cloth.
2. (Ph. E.) Tar, 5 oz.; beeswax, 2 oz.; melt together, and stir the
mixture briskly until it concretes.
3. (Ph. D.) Tar, 1/2 pint; yellow wax, 4 oz.; as the last.
_Uses, &c._ As a detergent application in ringworm, scald-head, scabby
eruptions, foul ulcers, &c. It should be, in general, at first diluted
with half of its weight of lard or oil. See also OINTMENT OF PITCH.
=Ointment of Tartar Emet′ic.= See OINTMENT OF POTASSIO-TARTRATE OF
ANTIMONY.
=Ointment of Tin, Chloride= (Nanche). _Syn._ UNGUENTUM STANNI CHLORIDI.
_Prep._ Perchloride of tin, 1-1/2 grain; lard, 1 oz. Mix.
=Ointment of Tin, Oxide= (Bate). _Syn._ UNGUENTUM STANNI OXIDI. Oxide of
tin rubbed with oil of St John’s wort was formerly applied for the cure of
blindness; with Localette’s balsam and honey, for the cure of indolent
ulcers.
=Ointment of Tobac′co.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM TABACI, L. _Prep._ 1.
(Chippendale.) Extract of tobacco, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. As a friction in
neuralgia.
2. (Ph. U. S.) Fresh tobacco leaves, 1 oz.; lard, 12 oz.; as ointment of
hemlock. As an anodyne application in irritable ulcers, ringworm, prurigo,
and some other skin diseases.
=Ointment, Tripharm′ic.= _Syn._ OINTMENT OF THREE THINGS; UNGUENTUM
TRIPHARMACUM, L. _Prep._ From lead plaster, 4 oz.; olive oil, 2 fl. oz.;
distilled vinegar, 1 fl. oz.; melt together, and stir until they combine,
and a proper consistence is obtained. Cooling and desiccative; formerly
greatly esteemed as a dressing.
=Ointment, Trooper’s.= See OINTMENT, MERCURIAL.
=Ointment of Turpentine.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM TEREBINTHINÆ (B. P.) _Prep._ 1.
(Guy’s Hosp.) Camphor, 1 dr.; oil of turpentine, 1 to 2 fl. dr.; dissolve,
and add of resin of cerate, 1 oz. As a stimulant and anodyne friction in
nephritic and rheumatic pains, engorgements, &c.
2. (Ph. Austr.) Turpentine, 2 lbs.; simple ointment, 1 lb.; mix by a
gentle heat. As a stimulant dressing.
3. (B. P.) Oil of turpentine, 16; camphor, 1; soft soap, 2; dissolve the
camphor in the turpentine, add the soap, and rub till thoroughly mixed.
=Ointment of Tut′ty.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ZINCI OXYDI IMPURI, U. TUTIÆ, L.
_Prep._ From prepared tutty, 1 part; simple ointment, 5 parts; mix by
trituration. Formerly in great repute in ophthalmic practice, more
particularly in inflammation, &c., of the eyelids. See OINTMENT OF OXIDE
OF ZINC.
=Ointment of Vera′trine.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM VERATRIÆ (B. P.); POMMADE DE
VERATRINE; Fr. _Prep._ 1. (Magendie.) Veratrine, 4 gr.; lard, 1 oz.; mixed
by careful trituration.
2. (Pereira.) Veratrine, 30 gr.; lard, 1 oz.
3. (Turnbull.) Veratrine, 10 to 20 gr.; olive oil, 1 dr.; triturate, and
add of spermaceti ointment, 1 oz.
4. Veratria, 8 gr.; prepared lard, 1 oz.; olive oil, 1/2 dr.; rub the
veratria and the oil together, then mix thoroughly with the lard.
_Uses, &c._ As a friction in neuralgia, neuralgic rheumatism, gout,
dropsy, &c. A piece about the size of a hazel nut is to be rubbed for 10
or 15 minutes over the seat of pain, twice a day. It must not be applied
where the skin is unsound, nor to a large surface at a time, and the
greatest caution must be used, on account of the extremely poisonous
character of veratrine.
=Ointment of Ver′digris.= _Syn._ OINTMENT OF SUBACETATE OF COPPER;
UNGUENTUM ÆRUGINIS (Ph. E.), U. CUPRI SUBACETATIS (Ph. D.). L. _Prep._ 1.
(Ph. E.) Resinous ointment, 15 oz.; melt by a gentle heat, sprinkle into
it of verdigris (in very fine powder), 1 oz., and stir the mixture briskly
until it concretes.
2. (Ph. D.) Prepared subacetate of copper, 1/2 dr.; ointment of white wax,
7-1/2 dr.; mix by trituration.
_Uses, &c._ Detergent and escharotic; as an occasional dressing to foul
and flabby ulcers, to keep down fungous-flesh, and, diluted with oil or
lard, in scrofulous ulceration and inflammation of the eyelids.
=Ointment of Vin′egar.= _Syn._ ACETIC OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM ACETI, U. ACIDI
ACETICI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr Cheston.) Olive oil, 1 lb.; white wax, 4 oz.;
melt them together by a gentle heat, add of strong vinegar, 2 fl. oz., and
stir until the mixture concretes. As a cooling astringent dressing, and as
an application in chronic ophthalmia.
2. (W. Cooley.) Acetate of morphia, 6 gr.; acetic acid (Ph. L.) and water,
of each 1-1/2 fl. dr.; dissolve, add the solution to simple ointment
(melted), 1-1/2 oz., and stir the mixture briskly until nearly cold. In
chronic ophthalmia, painful inflamed piles, &c.; also to remove freckles,
and to allay itching and irritation in several skin diseases.
=Ointment of Walnut Leaves= (_Negrier_). _Syn._ UNGUENTUM JUGLANDIS.
_Prep._ Extract of walnut leaves, 3 drams; lard, 4 drams; oil of bergamot,
1 drop. Mix.
=Ointment, White.= Both SPERMACETI OINTMENT and OINTMENT OF CARBONATE OF
LEAD were formerly so called, but the name is now obsolete. The
CAMPHORATED WHITE OINTMENT of the Ph. L. of 1746 (UNG. ALBUM CAMPHORATUM)
was spermaceti ointment to which a little camphor had been added.
=Ointment of White Precipitate.= _Syn._ OINTMENT OF AMMONIATED MERCURY;
UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI AMMONIATI. (B. P.) Ammoniated mercury, 62 gr.; simple
ointment, 1 oz. Mix. See OINTMENT OF AMMONIO-CHLORIDE OF MERCURY.
=Ointment of White Wax.= See OINTMENT, SIMPLE.
=Ointment of Wolfsbane.= See OINTMENT OF ACONITE.
=Ointment of Wood Soot.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM FULIGINIS. _Prep._ Wood soot and
lard, of each equal parts. Mix.
=Ointment of Wood Soot (Compound).= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM FULIGINIS COMPOSITUM.
Acetic extract of wood soot, 4 dr.; dried salt, 10 dr.; lard, 14 oz. For
ringworm.
=Ointment for Worms.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ANTHELMINTICUM, U. VERMIFUGUM, L.
_Prep._ 1. (Boerhaave.) Aloes and ox-gall, of each 1 part; marshmallow
ointment, 8 parts.
2. (Fr. Hosp.) Aloes and oil of tansy, of each 1 part; dried ox-gall, 2
parts (both in fine powder); lard, 8 parts.
3. (Ph. Bat.) Aloes, 1 dr.; dried ox-gall and petroleum, of each 1-1/2
dr.; lard, 1-1/2 oz.
4. (Soubeiran.) Powdered aloes, 2 dr.; lard, 1 oz.
_Uses, &c._ The above are purgative and vermifuge, applied as frictions to
the abdomen. They are chiefly employed for children and delicate females.
See OINTMENT, COLOCYNTH.
=Ointment of Yel′low Wax.= _Syn._ UNGUENTUM CERÆ FLAVÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. D.
1826.) Beeswax, 1 lb.; lard, 4 lbs.; melt them together. A mild emollient
dressing. Some parties regard it as more ‘healing’ than the OINTMENT OF
WHITE WAX.
=Ointment of Zinc.= 1. See OINTMENT OF OXIDE OF ZINC.
2. (Compound); UNGUENTUM ZINCI COMPOSITUM, L.——_a._ (Hufeland.) Oxide of
zinc and lycopodium, of each 1 dr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. In excoriations
and simple ulcerations, especially those of the eyelids, nipples, &c.
_b._ (Thomson.) Oxide of zinc, 1/2 dr.; powdered opium, 5 gr.; lard, 1 oz.
As the last, when there is much pain.
=Ointment of Zinc, Cyanide= (Cunier). _Syn._ UNGUENTUM ZINCI CYANIDI.
_Prep._ Cyanide of zinc, 12 grains; lard, 5 drams; butter of cacao, 5
drams. Mix.
=OINTMENTS (Flower of).= _Syn._ FLOS UNGUENTORUM, L. _Prep._ From resin,
thus, wax, and suet, of each 1/2 lb.; olibanum and Venice turpentine, of
each 2-1/2 oz.; myrrh, 1 oz.; wine, 1/2 pint; boil them together, and,
lastly, add of camphor, 2 dr. Suppurative; warming.
=O′LEFIANT GAS.= C_{3}H_{4}. _Syn._ ETHYLENE, HEAVY CARBONETTED HYDROGEN,
HEAVY CARBURETTED H., ELAYL, ETHENE. A substance discovered by some
associated Dutch chemists, in 1795, and composed of carbon and hydrogen in
the proportions expressed by C_{2}H_{2} or C_{4}H_{4}.
_Prep._ 1. A mixture of alcohol (rectified spirit), 1 part, and oil of
vitriol, 6 parts, is heated in a retort until it blackens, and sulphurous
acid begins to be evolved; the product is then passed first through a
wash-bottle containing a solution of caustic potassa or milk of lime, and
next through a bottle containing concentrated sulphuric acid, the last
being furnished with a tube dipping into the water of the pneumatic
trough.
2. The vapour of boiling alcohol is passed into a mixture of oil of
vitriol diluted with rather less than one half its weight of water, and so
heated as to be in a state of tranquil ebullition (320° to 330° Fahr.);
the gaseous product is chiefly olefiant gas, and the vapour of water, from
which it may be separated as above. No sulphurous acid is formed, nor does
the acid blacken as in the last process.
_Prop., &c._ Colourless; neutral; nearly odourless; nearly insoluble in
water; alcohol, ether, and the volatile and fixed oils, absorb a portion
of it; burns with a brilliant white flame; at a full red heat it suffers
decomposition, with deposit of carbon and liberation of light carburetted
hydrogen gas; mixed with twice its volume of chlorine and inflamed,
hydrochloric acid is formed, and the carbon of the gas is precipitated in
the form of dense black soot; if the mixture (best in equal volumes),
instead of being kindled, be left standing over water, it soon condenses
into a heavy oily liquid (chloride of olefiant gas, Dutch liquid). Sp. gr.
·981; 100 cubic inches weigh 30·57 gr.
=Olefiant Gas, Bromide of.= _Syn._ BROMIDE OF ETHYLENE. From bromine and
olefiant gas as Dutch liquid. A colourless liquid, with an ethereal odour,
boiling at 265°, and solidifying at 0° Fahr. Sp. gr. 2·16.
=Olefiant Gas, Chlo′′ride of.= _Syn._ DUTCH LIQUID, CHLORIDE OF ETHYLENE.
This substance, referred to above, may be easily prepared in any quantity
by the following process:——Chlorine and olefiant gas (the latter a little
in excess) are conveyed by separate tubes (passing through the same cork)
into a glass globe, having a narrow funnel-shaped neck at its lower part,
dipping into a small bottle destined to receive the product of their
mutual reaction: the newly formed liquid trickles down the sides of the
globe into the receiver, and when a sufficient quantity is collected, it
is purified by agitating it first with water, and then with sulphuric
acid, and, lastly, submitting it to distillation.
_Prop., &c._ Colourless; sweet-tasted; agreeably fragrant, the odour
approaching that of oil of caraway; slightly soluble in water; freely so
in alcohol and ether; it sinks in water; boils at 180° Fahr.; burns with a
smoky greenish flame; is unaffected by oil of vitriol; but decomposed by
solution of caustic potassa. It combines with chlorine, forming new
compounds. See CHLORIDES OF CARBON (page 403).
=OLEIC ACID.= HC_{18}H_{33}O_{2}. _Syn._ ELAIC ACID. One of the fatty
acids discovered by Chevreul, and produced by saponifying oils, and then
separating the base from the resulting soap by means of a dilute acid. It
now forms an important secondary product in the manufacture of stearic
acid. Perfectly pure oleic acid may be obtained as follows:——
1. By saponifying olein, as just noticed.
2. Pure almond or olive-oil soap is decomposed by a dilute acid, and the
resulting oily acid is digested in a water bath with half its weight of
litharge (in very fine powder) for some hours, constantly stirring; the
mixture is then agitated with twice its volume of ether in a close vessel,
and in 24 hours the clear ethereal solution is decanted, and decomposed
with dilute hydrochloric acid; the oleic acid separates, and the ether
mixed with it is expelled by evaporation. To render it colourless, the
acid is again saponified with caustic soda, and the soap thus retained is
repeatedly dissolved in a solution of soda, and as often separated by
adding common salt; this soap is, lastly, decomposed by dilute
hydrochloric acid, as before.
3. (H. N. Fraser, pharmacist.) Oil of cotton seeds (‘winter oil’),
deprived of most of its stearin by chilling and pressure, is first
saponified with potassa, using a slight excess of the base. The soap is
then treated with tartaric acid, or any other acid which will make a
soluble salt with potassa, until the base is completely neutralised; the
residue is washed until a mass is left about the consistence and colour of
cerate, free from any of the salt; this is heated for several hours with
nearly its weight of litharge, and three or four times its bulk of water;
the resulting compound is shaken up while yet warm with ether, and allowed
to stand until all the soluble matter separates.
This separates the stearate, and leaves a nearly pure oleate of lead. The
clear liquor is decanted and briskly shaken with dilute muriatic acid for
a few minutes to precipitate all the chloride of lead, the lighter liquid
washed to remove traces of muriatic acid and filtered; the filtrate heated
slowly in a water bath, and the ether distilled until the residue ceases
to have an ethereal odour. The product is about 60 per cent. of the bulk
of the oil.
Crude oleic acid may be purified as follows:——Expose it repeatedly to a
temperature of about 45° F., and express the liquid portion. With this mix
an equal bulk of solution of sulphurous acid, place the mixture in the
light, and shake it frequently until no more colour is discharged. After
separation the oleic acid is to be washed repeatedly with cold distilled
water, and put into bottles, which should be kept filled up and in a cool
place.
_Prop., &c._ A colourless oily acid, insoluble in water, soluble in
alcohol, ether, and oil; with the bases it forms salts called oleates. The
best kind of oleic acid is known as “pale cloth oil.”
O’LEIN. C_{57}H_{104}O_{6}. _Syn._ ELAIN; HUILE ABSOLUE, Fr. The liquid
portion of the fixed oils and fats. By saponification it yields oleic
acid.
_Prep._ 1. Olive oil or almond oil is digested for 24 hours with a
quantity of caustic soda lye, only sufficient to saponify one half of the
oil, and the undecomposed oily portion (olein) is then separated from the
alkaline solution and newly formed stearine soap.
2. The saponified mixture of oil and alkali (see No. 1) is digested with
proof spirit until all the soap is dissolved out, and the olein separates
and floats on the surface; the latter, after repose, is decanted.
3. Almond or olive oil is agitated in a stout bottle with 7 or 8 times its
weight of strong alcohol (sp. gr. ·798), at nearly the boiling point,
until the whole is dissolved; the solution is next allowed to cool, after
which the clear upper stratum is decanted from the stearin which has been
deposited, and, after filtration, the spirit is removed by distillation at
a gentle heat; by exposure at a very low temperature it deposits any
remaining stearin, and then becomes pure.
_Prop., &c._ The products of the last two formulæ have only a very slight
yellow colour, but may be rendered quite limpid and colourless by
digestion for 24 hours with a little pure, freshly burnt animal charcoal,
and subsequent filtration. In this state the olein is perfectly neutral to
test paper, does not in the slightest degree affect metallic bodies
immersed in it, and does not thicken by exposure to the greatest cold.
Olein is used by watchmakers for their fine work. Some years ago the
product of the last formula was sold, by a certain metropolitan house, as
‘watchmakers’ oil,’ at 1s. 6d. a drachm. Commercial olein is generally
lard oil. The refined oleic acid of the stearin works also commonly passes
under the name. Olein burns well in lamps; but oleic acid does not do so
unless when well refined, and when the wick-tube is so formed as to remain
cool. See LARD OIL and OLEIC ACID.
OLEOM’ETER. _Syn._ ELAÏOMETER, ELÆOMETER, OIL-BALANCE. A delicate
areometer or hydrometer, so weighted and graduated as to adapt itself to
the densities of the leading fixed oils. As the differences of the
specific gravities of these substances are inconsiderable, to render it
more susceptible the bulb of the instrument is proportionately large, and
the tube or stem very narrow. The scale of the oleometer in general use
(Gobby’s) is divided into 50 degrees, and it floats at 0 or zero in pure
poppy oil, at 38 or 38-1/2 in pure almond oil, and at 50 in pure olive
oil. The standard temperature of the instruments made in this country is
now 60°; those made on the Continent, 54·5° Fahr. The oil must therefore
be brought to this normal temperature before testing it, by plunging the
glass cylinder containing it into either hot or cold water, as the case
may be; or a correction of the observed density must be made. The last is
done by deducting 2 from the indication of the instrument for each degree
of the thermometer above the normal temperature of the instrument, and
adding 2 for every degree below it. Thus: suppose the temperature of the
oil at the time of the experiment is 60° Fahr., and the oleometer
indicates 61°; then——
60·0° Actual temperature.
54·5° Normal temperature.
————
5·5° Difference.
Indication of the oleometer 61·0
The difference 5·5 × 2 = 11·0
————
Real density 50·0
Suppose the temperature observed at the time of the experiment is 52°, and
the oleometer indicates 45°; then——
54·5 Normal temperature.
52·0 Actual temperature.
————
2·5 Difference.
————
Indication of the oleometer 45·0
The difference 2·5 × 2 = 5·0
————
Real density 50·0
————
The oil is, therefore, presumed to be pure. See HYDROMETER, OILS (Fixed),
and SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
=O′LEO-PHOSPHOR′IC ACID.= An acid compound found by Fremy in the brain and
nervous matter.
=OLEO-RES′INS.= The natural compounds of resin and essential oil forming
the vegetable balsams and turpentines. Copaiba, Canada balsam, and Venice
turpentine are examples. Certain extracts prepared with ether, as the
fluid extracts of cubebs and pepper in the Ph. U. S., may be regarded as
oleo-resins. See EXTRACT.
=OLEO-SAC′CHARUM.= _Syn._ ELÆOSACCHARUM. Sugar aromatised or medicated by
being rubbed up with an essential oil. The oleosacchara of aniseed,
caraway, cinnamon, peppermint, pennyroyal, and the other like essential
oils, are made by rubbing 15 to 20 drops of the respective oils with white
sugar, 1 oz.——The Ph. Græca 1837 prescribes 1 part of oil to 20 parts of
sugar.——The Ph. Austr. 1836 and Ph. Bor. order the same proportions, or 3
drops of oil to the dr., and 24 drops to the oz., of powdered sugar. When
intended for making extemporaneous distilled waters, 1 dr. of magnesia is
a common addition. The oleosacchara of citrons, lemons, oranges, &c., are
made from the peels, as follows:——After cleaning off any specks in the
outer rind of the fruit, rub a large piece of loaf sugar on it until the
yellow rind is completely removed. Those parts of the sugar which are
impregnated with the essence are, from time to time, to be cut away with a
knife, and put into an earthen pot. The whole being thus taken off, the
sugared essence (oleosaccharum) is to be closely pressed down in the pot,
tied over with bladder, and preserved in a cool place for use.
=OLIB′ANUM.= _Syn._ OLIBAN, INDIAN OLIBANUM, FRANKINCENSE. A gum resin
obtained from _Boswellia thurifera_ or _serrata_. It is stimulant,
astringent, and diaphoretic. It is burnt as incense in the temples of
India and in Roman Catholic churches. African or Arabian olibanum is
produced by _Boswellia floribunda_. (Royle.) This substance must not be
confounded with the resin noticed at page 761.
=Olibanum.= This gum resin is yielded by two varieties of the plant known
as _Boswellia_——one the _B. floribunda_, being a native of Africa, the
other, the _B. serrata_, growing in Asia. Olibanum occurs in the form of
fragments, which are sometimes pale yellow, and at others of a reddish
colour; these fragments have a splintery fracture, a mealy surface, a
faintly balsamic odour and a bitter taste. “It consists of about 4 or 5
per cent. of a volatile oil, 56 per cent. of a resinous acid, 30 to 36 per
cent. of gum, and 6 per cent. of bassorin.”[67] Incense, of which olibanum
forms one of the ingredients, owes much of its pleasant balsamic odour
when burning to its presence. It is also used in pharmacy.
[Footnote 67: Payen.]
=OL′IVE.= _Syn._ OLEA, OLIVA, L. The _Olea Europæa_ (Linn.), a native of
the South of Europe. The unripe fruit is preserved in brine (SPANISH
OLIVES, FRENCH OLIVES); the ripe fruit furnishes olive oil; the bark is
bitter, astringent, and febrifuge, and has been used as a substitute for
cinchona bark; it yields a gum-like substance (OLIVE GUM), which was
formerly reported vulnerary, and contains olivine. The olive tree has in
all ages been held in peculiar estimation as the bounteous gift of Heaven
to man. Some authors have styled it “a mine on earth.” It is remarkable
for yielding a fixed oil from the pericarp instead of from the seed.
=OLLIVIER’S BISCUITS.= See PATENT MEDICINES.
=OLIVINE.= _Syn._ CHRYSOLITE. A crystallised double silicate of magnesia
and iron, found in basaltic and volcanic rocks, and very frequently in
masses of meteoric iron. It is sometimes yellow in colour, but mostly
green.
=Olivine.= (Dr Landerer.) _Syn._ OLIVINA. _Prep._ Treat olive leaves with
acidulated water, concentrate, precipitate with ammonia, re-dissolve the
washed precipitate in a diluted acid, purify with animal charcoal, filter,
and reprecipitate with ammonia.
=OM′ELET.= _Syn._ OMELETTE, Fr. A variety of pancake or fritter made of
eggs and other ingredients. Omelets may contain bacon, ham, herbs, fish,
shell-fish, cold meat, cold game, fruit, or anything else at hand at the
pleasure of the cook. ‘Spirit omelets’ are made by pouring a little
brandy, rum, or whisky over them on serving them up, and setting it on
fire for a moment just before placing the dish on the table. “Where is the
man or woman cook but says they know how to make an omelette, and that to
perfection? But this is rarely the case. It is related of Sarah, the
Duchess of Marlborough, that no one could cook a ‘fraise,’ as it was then
called, for the great duke but herself. The great point is, if in an iron
pan, it should be very clean and free from damp which sometimes comes out
of the iron when placed on the fire. The best plan is to put it on the
fire, with a little fat, and let it get quite hot, or until the fat
burns; remove it, and wipe it clean with a dry cloth, and then you will
be able to make the omelette to perfection.” (Soyer.)
The following formula for a plain omelet is by the above culinary
authority:——“Break four eggs into a basin, add 1/2 teaspoonful of salt,
and 1/4 do. of pepper, and beat them up well with a fork; put into the
frying-pan 1-1/2 oz. of butter, lard, or oil, place it on the fire, and,
when hot, pour in the eggs, and keep on mixing them quickly with a spoon
until they are delicately set; then let them slip to the edge of the pan,
laying hold by the handle, and raising it slantways, which will give an
elongated form to the omelette; turn in the edges, let it rest a moment to
set, turn it over on to a dish, and serve.” “It ought to be of a
rich-yellow colour, done to a nicety, and as light and delicate as
possible.” “2 table-spoonfuls of milk and 1 oz. of the crum of bread, cut
into thin slices, may be added.”
MIXED and FANCY OMELETS are made by simply dropping the ingredients, cut
into dice or fragments, into the above. ANCHOVY, OYSTER, and SHRIMP
OMELETS are generally prepared by placing a few spoonfuls of the
respective sauces in the centre of each when nearly dressed,
=ONGUENT (de la Mère).= A stimulant and digestive ointment, very popular
in French pharmacy.
_Prep._ (P. Cod.) Black pitch, 1 part; butter, lard, litharge, suet and
yellow wax, 4 parts; olive oil, 8 parts.
=ON′ION.= _Syn._ CEPA, L. The bulb of _Allium cepa_. The onion is
diuretic, expectorant, rubefacient, and stimulant. The juice, made into a
syrup with sugar (SYRUPUS CEPÆ), has been given in chronic catarrh,
diarrhœa, croup, dropsy, and calculus. Roasted and split open, onions have
been applied as poultices to suppurating tumours, and applied to the pubes
to relieve suppression of urine in children. According to Dr Cullen,
“onions are acrid and stimulating, and possess little nutrient power. In
bilious constitutions they generally produce flatulence, thirst, headache,
and febrile symptoms; but where the temperament is phlegmatic they are of
infinite service, by stimulating the system, and promoting the excretions,
particularly expectoration and urine.” They also possess antiscorbutic and
soporific properties.
=Onions, To Chop.= “Few persons know how to chop onions properly. In the
first place all the dry skin must be removed, then a thin slice off the
top and bottom, or they will be bitter, then cut them into thin slices,
dividing the onion, and cut crossways to form dice. If a very slight
flavour is required and the onion is strong, like in the North of England,
for it must be remembered that the further north you go the stronger the
flavour of the root, and if French receipt books are exactly copied, it is
no wonder complaints are made of the preponderance of the flavour of the
onion; in which case, when chopped, put them in the corner of a napkin or
cloth, wash them in water, squeeze them dry, then put them back on the
board, and chop finer, or sometimes only rubbing the pan or the meat with
the onion is quite sufficient.” (Soyer.)
=O′NYX.= A sub-species of quartz often wrought into small ornamental
articles. Among jewellers, any stone exhibiting layers of two or more
colours, strongly contrasted, is called an ‘onyx.’ A regularly and richly
banded agate of this class is much prized for cameos. The _Sardonyx_ of
the ancients is a variety of onyx. It is so called from _Sard_ or _Sarda_,
a rich dark-red variety of carnelian, stripes of which in the stone
alternate with white stripes. See GEMS.
=O′PAL.= A mineral allied to agate and chalcedony, but distinguished by
its peculiar resinous lustre. The variety most admired as a gem is the
precious or noble opal, which is remarkable for its beautiful play of
colours. The finest opals come from Hungary, and although usually very
small, will, if of good quality, realise as much as £5 each. Their value
increases in a much greater ratio than their increase in size. They are
also found in Saxony and in North America. The largest known specimen of
an opal is that in the Imperial Cabinet at Vienna, the dimensions of which
are five inches by two and a half. _Girasol_, _Cacholong_, _Hyalite_, and
_Menilite_ are varieties of opal. See GEMS and PASTES.
=O′OLITE.= A variety of limestone composed of a number of collections of
small round particles, bound together by a calcareous cement. The
resemblance the mass is supposed to bear to the roe of a fish has caused
oolite to be called _roestone_. When the grains are of larger dimensions
it is called _peastone_. The little spherical bodies of which the stone is
composed are mostly formed of concentric layers of carbonate of lime
arranged round a grain of sand, a fragment of shell or some other nucleus.
The building stones of Caen, Portland, and Bath are all oolitic
limestones. When first quarried they are mostly soft, a circumstance which
admits of their being easily sawn and carved. They harden by exposure to
the air.
In _geology_ the term “oolite” has a wider signification, and is applied
to an important division of the middle secondary rocks of England,
underlying the chalk formation and rich in the interesting fossil remains.
=OPHTHAL′MIA.= _Syn._ OPHTHALMITIS, L. Inflammation of the eye. In
ordinary cases this disease is confined to the external membrane of the
globe of the eye or to the eyelids; but it occasionally attacks the
sclerotica, cornea, choroid coat, and retina.
The common causes of ordinary or conjunctival ophthalmia are the sudden
exposure of the organ to a cold easterly wind, to dust, gritty particles,
or to any external irritation or injury.
The symptoms are, in part, those common to local inflammation. The eye or
eyelids become more or less bloodshot, swollen, and tender, and a
sensation resembling that induced by the presence of particles of sand or
some gritty substance, accompanied by much heat and a pricking pain, is
almost constantly experienced. The secretion becomes yellowish and
glutinous, and during the night frequently glues, as it were, the lids
together. Sometimes only one eye is attacked, but after two or three days
the disease extends to the other.
The treatment of mild cases of conjunctival ophthalmia is extremely
simple. In general, it may be relieved by fomentations of warm water or
decoction of poppy-heads and the use of aperient medicines, to which
leeches and cupping may often be added with advantage.
“To apply a lotion to the eyes,” writes Dr Gardner, “the best way is to
use a large camel’s-hair pencil or brush. Fill it with the lotion, draw
down the lower lid, and apply the brush; the fluid will now come out of it
into the eye.
“In order to get it well within the upper lid, move the latter up and
down, and the whole surface will be wetted. This is important, because the
usual way of applying lotions to the inside of the eye is very
inefficient, if not entirely useless. The brush should be washed in warm
water after using it.”[68]
[Footnote 68: ‘Household Medicine.’ Smith, Elder, & Co.]
In cases where the inflammation is very severe, the pain very acute, or
the vision in the slightest degree impaired, as well as in those
accompanied by a discharge of matter or pus, no time should be lost in
seeking the services of the oculist.
_Animals._——All animals are liable to attacks of catarrhal or common
ophthalmia, which may originate from various causes, such as exposure to
cold, influenza, or the presence of foreign substances, such as bits of
chaff, the husks of oat, small seeds, &c.
In horses, in addition to the above, it may be caused by a blow from the
whip. In animals affected by it the eye becomes watery and half closed,
the membrane looks thickened, and the eye is frequently bloodshot. If due
to the presence of any foreign body this must be removed, either by means
of the fingers, a handkerchief, or a camel’s-hair brush, or, if necessary,
by the forceps.
The treatment consists in bathing the eyes with tepid milk and water,
after which an alum or zinc lotion may be applied. A mild physic ball
should also be administered.
=Ophthalmia, Purulent.= This dreadful disease, which, like the above, is a
form of inflammation of the mucous membrane of the eye, differs from
ordinary ophthalmia in being accompanied with a discharge of pus, too
frequently terminating in total and irrecoverable blindness of one or both
eyes, and in being very contagious.
Purulent ophthalmia is very prevalent in India, Persia, and Egypt, and
from the circumstance that large numbers of our troops were affected with
it on their return from the campaign in Egypt, in the beginning of the
present century, before which time it was unknown in England, it acquired
the name of “Egyptian ophthalmia.”
Although of late years its ravages amongst the soldiers of our own as well
as of other European nations have considerably abated, the disease is
still more or less prevalent in the British, French, Prussian, Austrian,
Bavarian, Italian, Spanish, Belgian, Swedish, and Russian armies. Purulent
ophthalmia is also by no means uncommon amongst the non-military
population, such as the poorer classes and their children, and the
children in workhouses, asylums, and pauper schools. Dr Parkes says it has
evidently been propagated amongst the civil inhabitants by the soldiery.
The following narrative of an outbreak of purulent ophthalmia that
occurred on board a vessel freighted with slaves for the West Indies
forcibly illustrates the character and infectious nature of this disease.
In the year 1819 the “Le Roideur,” a French vessel, sailed with a cargo of
160 negroes from Bonny, on the coast of Africa, to Guadaloupe. The “Le
Roideur’s” crew consisted of 22 men, so that the number of human beings on
board, including officers, was 182. No epidemic had been observed amongst
the natives from whom the slaves had been taken, and further, at the time
of sailing the crew were in perfect health, and the slaves were said to be
free from disease of any kind.
The wretched Africans were closely packed in the hold of the vessel, the
air of which, as may be imagined, soon became frightfully foul; and after
about the thirtieth or fortieth day, the drinking water running scarce,
their daily allowance was reduced from 8 oz. to half a wineglassful. Then
it was that ophthalmia first showed itself amongst the wretched occupants
of the hold, the lids of their eyes becoming red and inflamed. The surgeon
of the vessel advised that they should breathe in succession the purer air
of the deck. But this course had to be relinquished, since it was found
that many of the negroes on leaving the hold jumped over the side of the
vessel, and purposely drowned themselves. The disease, which was of a most
virulent kind, spread rapidly amongst the negroes, and from these to the
crew.
A notable fact demonstrating the propagation of purulent ophthalmia by
material particles was the circumstance that the first amongst the crew
who was seized was a sailor who guarded the hatch communicating with the
hold. The day after another of the crew was attacked, and in three days
after this the disease had assailed the captain, and almost the whole of
the crew. The disease continued to spread daily, until at last there
remained one only of the whole crew unaffected and with sight intact, and
to him was deputed the important task of steering the vessel. Great fear
was manifested lest he too might eventually be overtaken with the total or
partial blindness that had come to the remainder of the crew.
The “Le Roideur” reached Guadaloupe on the 21st of June, when it was found
that thirty more of the negroes had entirely lost their sight (thirty-six
of whom had been thrown into the sea, since they were unsaleable), twelve
had lost the sight of an eye, and fourteen were more or less blind.
Of the crew, twelve including the surgeon were entirely blind, five were
blind of one eye, and four partially so.
Three days after the arrival of the vessel in port the steerer of the
vessel was seized with the disease.[69]
[Footnote 69: Blythe.]
About thirty years ago a curious discovery in connection with purulent
ophthalmia was made by Dr Loffler, a Prussian army surgeon. Many of the
soldiers of his regiment being disabled by this disease, he submitted the
eyes of all the men to a rigorous daily inspection, and he discovered in
the lining membrane of the eyelids of some of them certain small granular
bodies resembling boiled sago grains. Furthermore he noticed that,
although those soldiers whose eyelids presented this peculiarity showed
then no indications of the disease, they were subsequently invariably
attacked by it; whilst those from whose eyelids the sago grains were
absent as invariably escaped.
Subsequent investigators, amongst whom may be mentioned Drs Welch and
Marston, have confirmed the accuracy of Dr Loffler’s observations and the
soundness of his conclusions——that the occurrence of the sago grains is
always an antecedent condition to an attack of purulent ophthalmia.
As to the nature of the little granular bodies known to pathologists as
‘sago grains,’ it seems to be generally admitted that they are follicles
situated directly beneath the epithelium, which, in a healthy condition of
the lining membrane, are not apparent, but which become swollen and
enlarged when the membrane itself is in an unhealthy and irritable
condition. In this respect they resemble the enlarged glands met with in
scrofulous and weakly children.
“In a regiment the proneness to the development of sago grains is found to
decrease as life advances; that is, to be much greater in young soldiers
than in old ones, and by a parity of reasoning it is assumed to be greater
in a community of children than in a community of adults. In any
individual, and therefore in any community, the sago grains may disappear
without producing mischief; but, as a matter of fact, sources of
irritation to the eyes abound in the world, and when these sources of
irritation act upon eyelids in which sago grains are already present,
they often excite the contagious form of ophthalmia.”[70]
[Footnote 70: Brudenell Carter.]
The diffusion into the atmosphere of the purulent discharge accompanying
this form of ophthalmia is undoubtedly the means by which the disease is
spread.
Hence it is that if one eye be affected the other may be saved from an
attack by being hermetically sealed up——a method of prevention sometimes
adopted by the ophthalmic surgeon.
Mr Brudenell Carter says “that the secretion passes along the
tear-passages into the nostrils, and is driven out with the expired air at
every breath; besides the chances of direct contact that must exist when a
child with ophthalmia is perpetually sending into the atmosphere what I
may describe as a spray of contagious particles.”
Medical opinion is in some measure divided as to the origin of this
disease; for whilst there are authorities who believe that its propagation
is due to contagion assisted by insanitary environments, there are others
who incline to the supposition that these latter conditions alone are
sufficient to produce it. Whether this is so or not there can be no
question that impure air, overcrowding, filth, and deficient water supply,
which implies insufficient ablution, serve to intensify and perpetuate it.
So strongly and confidently impressed are Messrs Welch and Marston of the
connection between unhealthy surroundings and prevalent ophthalmia, that
they regard the two as cause and effect, and state their belief “that the
presence or absence of ‘sago grains’ affords a delicate test of the
sanitary state of a school, a regiment, or any similar community.”
Ample and painful confirmation of these views is afforded by the
prevalence of the disease amongst the children, more particularly those
who live in very poor and crowded districts. The pitiable, blear-eyed
little creatures that one meets with in these localities are very
frequently the victims of purulent ophthalmia, and as such bear unfailing
testimony to the insalubrity and squalor of the homes in which they dwell.
Stromeyer states that he has met with the ‘sago grains’ in the eyelids of
many domestic animals, more particularly pigs, the granules being always
in proportion to the more or less dirty condition in which the animals
were kept.
The above statements plainly indicate the means by which the disease is to
be combated. Of these, thorough ventilation and pure air are the most
important. Stromeyer records how, by simply ventilating some barracks, he
reduced to an amazing extent a number of cases of the disease, which had
broken out in the Hanoverian army. Possibly this result was due to the
removal, by the current of air from the apartment of the dried particles
of contagious matter.
Ablution, which, carefully performed, is, in addition to ventilation, an
important curative agent, may, through the neglect of certain precautions,
assist to spread the disease.
This it will assuredly do if the basins employed by the patients for
washing their eyes are not thoroughly cleansed and disinfected after being
used. Furthermore, the towels may be made to spread the infection, unless
they too are thrown into some disinfecting solution after use, and unless
a separate towel is appropriated to each patient. The danger of
reinoculation may ensue if each towel is not changed sufficiently often.
The bed-clothes of the affected persons, as well as the pillowcases,
should be frequently renewed, the latter every day, since they collect and
disseminate the discharges falling on them from the patient.
Medical authorities also strongly recommend the isolation of the patient,
and then consequent separation from healthy persons as soon as ever the
disease shows itself in a regiment, a school, or amongst any body of
persons congregated together; a daily inspection of the eyes of each is
recommended, so that whenever the “sago grains” develop themselves, the
individuals so attacked may be removed, and placed under proper treatment.
The after effects of the various forms of contagious ophthalmia are
thickening and distortion of the eyelids, more or less serious defect of
vision, and not unfrequently total blindness.
During the course of the disease relapses from the most trifling causes
frequently occur, and Warmolow states that a person who has once been
affected with it is not safe against a recurrence, and should be
assiduously watched.
=Ophthalmia, Infantile, Purulent.= This disease very frequently attacks
infants of 3 or 4 days old. It is distinguished by redness of the edges of
the eyes, the lids of which are often glued together. Upon looking into
the eye the lining membrane is seen to be swollen and red. Infantile
purulent ophthalmia, although yielding much more readily to proper
treatment than that which attacks adults, makes rapid progress if
neglected, and may jeopardise the sight of the babe; hence the great
importance of calling in efficient medical aid as soon as ever it makes
its appearance.
=Ophthalmia, Strumous, or Scrofulous.= This form of ophthalmia is
generally met with in children of scrofulous habit of from 4 to 10 or 11
years of age. Its most distinctive characteristic is the inability of the
sufferer to bear the light, the effect of which is that the eyes are kept
spasmodically partially closed. If the eyes are examined, a slight fulness
of the vessels usually stopping at the edge of the cornea is observable,
and about the line dividing the cornea and sclerotic coat small opaque
pimples or pustules are visible. This variety of ophthalmia, being the
outcome of a constitutional taint, is frequently very obstinate, and
yields with difficulty to medical treatment, besides being very liable to
reappear. It is not unfrequently accompanied with a troublesome cutaneous
affection known as _Crusta lactea_, which occurs on the cheeks, and arises
from the irritation caused by the flow down the cheeks of the acrid
lachrymal secretion. The usual treatment consists in improving the general
health and strength of the patient by means of tonics, such as quinine,
quinine and iron, cod-liver oil, or syrup of iodide of iron. The diet
should be nutritious and easy of digestion, and there should be no stint
of fresh air.
=O′′PIATES.= _Syn._ OPIATA, L. Preparations containing opium. The word is
often applied in a general sense to anodynes and soporifics. In French
pharmacy the name is commonly used synonymously with confections, as in
the following preparations:——
ANTI-DYSENTERIC OPIATE——Quarin. Purified opium, 4 gr.; ipecacuanha, 1/2
dr.; tormentilla, 1 dr.; syrup of whortleberries and conserve of red
roses, of each 6 dr.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful every hour.
ANTI-HYSTERICAL OPIATE——Trousseau and Reveil. Powdered indigo, 1 oz.;
white honey, 3 oz.——_Dose_, 1 tablespoonful daily, gradually increased
until the whole is taken in a day. In hysteria, epilepsy, and nervous
affections of an epileptic character.
BALSAMIC OPIATE——Trousseau and Reveil. Oleo-resin (balsam) of copaiba, 1
oz.; cubebs (in powder), 3 oz.; potassio-tartrate of iron, 2-1/2 dr.;
syrup of quince, q. s. In gleet.——_Dose_, 3 boluses the size of a nut,
thrice daily.
CHARCOAL OPIATE——Ratier. Willow charcoal (recent), 1 oz.; prepared chalk,
1 dr.; powdered white sugar, 2 oz.: rose water, q. s. to form an
electuary. In diarrhœa and incipient cholera, in dysentery with fetid
stools, and in gastralgia, flatulence, &c. By substituting calcined
magnesia for chalk it becomes an excellent remedy for habitual
constipation.
CUBEB OPIATE——Deyeaux. Powdered cubebs, 4 dr.; powdered camphor, 1 dr.;
mix, and divide it into 18 powders.——_Dose._ One, 3 or 4 times daily, in
gleet, painful and scalding micturition. &c.
=O′′PIUM.= _Syn._ OPIUM (B. P., Ph. L., E, & D.), L. The juice inspissated
by spontaneous evaporation, obtained by incision from the unripe capsules
of the _Papaver somniferum_, grown in Asia Minor.
_Hist._——“It is uncertain at what period opium was first known and
introduced into medicine. Hippocrates recommends the _meconion_ or _poppy
juice_, in a disease of the uterus; and Dioscorides, on the authority of
Erasistratus, tells us that Diagoras (who was contemporary, it is
supposed, with Hippocrates) condemned the use of opium. These are, I
believe, the most ancient Greek authorities who speak of this substance;
and it is impossible, I think, to arrive at any accurate conclusion from
their remarks whether opium had, or had not, been known long before their
time, though Alston infers, from the little use made of it by Hippocrates,
as well as from Diagoras condemning its use in diseases of the eyes, that
its virtues were not known long before him. Dioscorides and Pliny mention
that the expressed juice of the heads and leaves is termed _meconium_, and
that it is much weaker than opium. Theodore Zwinger, Sprengel, and others
have supposed that the _nepenthes_ of Homer was opium. It would appear
that opium was not much employed until the time of the Arabs, except in
the form of the confections known as Theriaca, Mithridatica, &c. The word
opium is derived from _otos, the juice_.”[71]
[Footnote 71: Pereira.]
_Var._——1. EGYPTIAN; in roundish flattened lumps; inferior to Turkish
opium.——2. ENGLISH; often equal to the best Smyrna.——3. FRENCH; resembles
the last.——4. GERMAN; similar to English opium,——5. INDIAN;——_a._ BENARES;
in large balls;——_b._ MALWA; in roundish flattened cakes, of 9 or 10 oz.
in weight each;——_c._ PATNA, in balls or square cakes; inferior to Turkey
opium.——6. LEVANT; same as Smyrna opium.——7. PERSIAN; in rolls or sticks,
6 × 1/2 inch; inferior; resembles hepatic aloes in appearance.——8. SMYRNA;
in irregular, rounded, flattened pieces, varying in weight from 2 or 3
lbs. to only as many oz. It forms the best variety of Turkey opium, and is
particularly rich in morphia. It is the only one adapted for the
manufacture of the salts of morphia, as it contains on the average from 7
to 9% of that alkaloid, and usually yields about 12 to 12·5% of
hydrochlorate of morphia, which is more than can be obtained from any
other variety of opium.[72]——9. TURKEY; of which two varieties are known
in commerce, viz. Constantinople opium and Levant or Smyrna opium, noticed
above. Constantinople opium is generally in small, flattened, roundish
cakes, 2 to 2-1/2 inches in diameter, and covered with poppy leaves. It is
more mucilaginous and less esteemed than Smyrna opium, from which it may
be distinguished by the last being always covered with the reddish
capsules of a species of Rumex.
[Footnote 72: Of five kinds of Smyrna opium examined by Merk, the worst
were found to yield 3 to 4 per cent. of morphia, and the best from 13 to
13·5 per cent.]
The following account of the method of opium collection, adopted in Asia
Minor, is extracted from a paper in the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’
contributed by Messrs Maltass and Wilkin.[73] About the end of May the
plants arrive at maturity, and the flowers expand. A few days after the
petals have fallen the capsule is ready for incision.
[Footnote 73: First series, 14th volume.]
This operation is performed in the afternoon of the day and in the
following manner:——A transverse incision is made with a knife in the lower
part of the capsule, the incision being carried round until it arrives
nearly at the part where it commenced; sometimes it is continued spirally
to half way down its starting point. The greatest nicety is required to
avoid cutting too deep, and penetrating the interior coating of the
capsule, as this would cause the exuding milky juice to flow into the
inside.
The following morning those engaged in collecting the opium lay a large
poppy leaf on the palm of the left hand, and having a knife in the right
hand, they scrape the opium which has exuded from the incision in each
capsule, and then transfer it from the knife to the leaf, until a mass of
sufficient size has been formed, when a second poppy leaf is placed over
the top of the mass. If the dew has been heavy during the night the yield
is greater, but the opium is dark in colour; if, on the contrary, there
has been no dew, the yield is less, but the opium is of a lighter colour.
A high wind is prejudicial, as the dust raised from the pulverised soil
adheres to the exudation, and cannot be separated. The poppy capsules are
cut but once, but as each plant will from one stem produce several
branches, and each branch produce a flower, it is usual to pass over the
field a second or a third time, to cut such capsules as were not ready at
the first cutting. After the opium is collected it is dried in the shade.
The proceeds arising from the sale of the opium crop in British India form
a considerable item in the revenues of our Eastern Empire; hence the poppy
as the source of this valuable export, almost the whole of which goes to
China, is very extensively cultivated in India.
In the year ending March 31st, 1872, 93,364 chests, valued at £13,365,228,
were exported from British India. Of this quantity 49,455 chests were from
Bengal, and Bombay 43,909. They were distributed thus:——
To China 85,470 chests.
” the Straits Settlements 7,845 ”
” Ceylon, Java, Mauritius,
and Bourbon 38 ”
” the United Kingdom 4 ”
” other countries 7 ”
——————
93,364
——————
The net revenue to the Indian Government from this source in the year
1871-72 was £7,657,213.[74]
[Footnote 74: Flückiger and Hanbury.]
A large track of country in Bengal, some 600 miles in length and 200 in
breadth, watered by the Ganges, embraces the chief opium district of
India. A comparatively small quantity of opium is obtained from the
mountain parts of the North of India. This latter is yielded by the
_Papaver somniferum_, whilst that from the plains is the produce of the
_Papaver officinale_.
In India the plant is reared in a rich and well-manured soil, and thrives
best in mild moist localities. It requires careful weeding and thinning
whilst growing, and when necessary the ground is irrigated. As in Asia
Minor, when the time comes for making incisions in the capsules for the
purpose of collecting the exuding juice, this latter is always found to be
less in quantity if it be rainy weather. In India the poppy begins to
flower at the end of January, or the commencement of February and about
three or four weeks after its effervescence the capsule, which is about as
large as a hen’s egg, is in a condition to be tapped. This operation is
always performed at early morn, before sunrise, by means of a little iron
instrument notched at the smaller end like a saw.
The treatment to which the milky exudation, which subsequently hardens
into opium, is subjected differs only in details from that followed in
Asia Minor, and in being more carefully and elaborately carried out. For
instance, it is first allowed to stand for some time in a shallow brass
dish tilted on one side, by which means there drains away a thin watery
fluid, the presence of which seriously impairs the quality of the opium.
After this it is dried equably by three or four weeks’ exposure to the
air, and in this condition is packed in earthen jars and taken by the
native cultivators to the factory. Here, after being tested and weighed,
it is thrown into immense vats, which contain the accumulated produce of
whole districts; and when the several samples have been kneaded together
it is removed, and formed into balls or cakes. The soft opium is made into
balls by being pressed into brass cup-shaped moulds, lined throughout with
petals of the poppy, which are made to adhere to each other as well as to
the ball of opium by means of an adhesive fluid obtained from an inferior
kind of opium; other petals are then by the same means stuck on to the
upper part of the ball so that the whole of this is covered with a thin
layer of them. The balls are next removed to the drying-room of the
factory, where they are arranged in tiers on lattice-work shelves. During
the process of drying they are carefully watched and examined by boys, to
keep them from the ravages of insects. When sufficiently desiccated the
cakes of opium are packed in casks, and are ready for the market.
The yield of morphia from East Indian opium is usually very small, a
circumstance which Messrs Flückiger and Hanbury conceived to be partly due
to the climate and partly to the defective method of cultivation.
He believed that the period, three or four weeks, during which the juice
was allowed to remain in the wet state was much too long, and exercised a
destructive influence on its constituents.
Opium from England, France, and Germany is occasionally met with, but
never in considerable quantity. The cultivation of the opium poppy,
however, in these three countries is chiefly carried on for the sake of
the capsules which are largely employed in medicine; and the oil extracted
from the seed, which is highly valued and extensively employed by artists.
_Pur._ The opium of commerce is not unfrequently adulterated with extract
of poppies, extract of lettuce, lactucarium, mucilage of gum tragacanth,
dried leaves, starch, water, clay, sand, gravel, and other substances, in
order to increase its weight. This fraud is readily detected by
inspection, by chemical analysis, and the microscope; and indirectly, with
the greatest certainty, by a simple assay of the sample for its morphia
(morphiometry). This may be effected by one or other of the following
methods:——
1. (Couerbe.) Opium, 4 parts, and quicklime, 1 part, made into a milk with
water, q. s., are boiled together, and the solution filtered whilst hot;
the filtrate is then saturated with dilute hydrochloric acid and the
morphia precipitated by the addition of ammonia, any excess of the latter
being expelled by heat; the precipitate is then collected, dried, and
weighed. If 100 gr. have been operated on, the given weight will represent
(nearly) the per-centage richness of the sample in morphia.
2. (Guilliermond.) 100 gr. of opium are triturated for some time in a
mortar along with 4 times its weight of rectified spirit, and the tincture
strained through linen, with expression, into a wide-mouthed bottle; the
marc is triturated a second time with about 3 times its weight of alcohol,
and the tincture strained into the bottle as before; to the mixed tincture
is added a fl. dr. of liquor of ammonia, and the whole is agitated for a
short time. In about 12 hours the morphia spontaneously separates,
accompanied with some narcotina and meconate of ammonium; the morphia
covering the interior of the vessel with large, coloured, and gritty
crystals, feeling like sand, and the narcotina crystallising in very
light, small, white, and pearly needles. These crystals are washed with
water, either through a paper filter or linen, to free them from the
meconate of ammonia which they contain; after which the narcotina is
separated from the morphia by decantation in water, which removes the
narcotina, which is the lighter of the two. According to M. Mialhe,
however, the morphia is more effectually removed by washing the crystals
with 1 to 1-1/2 fl. dr. of ether, by triturating the two together, when
the morphia is left in an insoluble state, and may then be dried and
weighed.
3. (B. Ph.) Take of opium, 100 gr., slaked lime, 100 gr., distilled
water, 4 oz. Break down the opium and steep it in an ounce of the water
for 24 hours, stirring the mixture frequently. Transfer it to a
displacement apparatus, and pour on the remainder of the water in
successive portions, so as to exhaust the opium by percolation. To the
infusion thus obtained, placed in a flask, add the lime, boil for ten
minutes, place the undissolved matter on a filter, and wash it with an
ounce of boiling water. Acidulate the filtered fluid slightly with
hydrochloric acid, evaporate it to the bulk of 1/2 an ounce, and let it
cool. Neutralise it cautiously with solution of ammonia, carefully
avoiding an excess; remove by filtration the brown matter which separates,
wash it with an ounce of hot water, mix the washings with the filtrate,
concentrate the whole to the bulk of 1/2 an ounce, and add now solution of
ammonia in slight excess. After 24 hours collect the precipitated morphia
on a weighed filter, wash it with cold water, and dry it at 212°. It ought
to weigh at least from 6 to 8 grains.
4. (Cleaver.) Commenting on the above method of opium assay, Mr
Cleaver[75] remarks:——“This process, if properly and carefully carried
out, is one of the best, as, by the use of lime, the resin and meconate of
calcium, also meconic acid, are removed from solution. The objections to
it are——
[Footnote 75: ‘Pharmaceutical Year Book,’ 1876.]
“_a._ That the large quantity of water used, and the subsequent
evaporation, cause loss of morphia.
“_b._ That no account is taken of the loss of morphia by
non-precipitation.
“The modifications I would introduce are as follows:——
“_a._ The opium should be first treated with bisulphide of carbon or
benzine.
“_b._ The dried residue should then be mixed with its own weight of lime
and two or three times its bulk of some inert powder, such as pumice or
glass. It is then to be percolated with water, the first part of the
percolate being returned as fast as it runs through. By this means much
less water will be required to exhaust the opium than would otherwise be
the case.
“After the opium has been exhausted, which will be known by the liquid
dropping through devoid of taste, the solution should be exactly
neutralised with dilute sulphuric acid and filtered and the precipitate
washed. The clear solution is then to be evaporated over a water bath
until its bulk is about 1/2 an ounce, and again filtered if requisite,
then ammonia is to be added in slight excess, and the liquid allowed to
stand for 24 hours.
“The precipitate can then be collected, washed with ether and dried, and
to the amount formed must be added the amount corresponding to the
quantity of water used in precipitating and washing.
“The morphia obtained by this process is of a dull white colour,
crystalline, perfectly soluble in alcohol, acids, and alkalies.”
5. (Prollius.) This is a very simple process and is said to give very
exact results. It is as follows:——The opium is exhausted with 9 or 10
times its weight of spirit of 34 per cent. strength. Of the resulting
tincture, 100 parts are well shaken with 5 parts of ether and 2 parts of
solution of ammonia in a stoppered bottle, and then allowed to stand from
12 to 24 hours. The liquids separate slowly, and retain, partly in the
ether, partly in the alcoholic liquid, the colouring matter, narcotine,
and other crystallisable constituents of opium; while the morphia
separates in crystals between the two layers, and finally sinks to the
bottom. The fluid portion is decanted, the crystals are washed with
diluted alcohol, dried and weighed.
6.[76] (Teschemacher.) In employing the following method the use of
alcohol to extract the morphia is avoided, and meconic acid is separated
at an early stage, which prevents the formation of a basic meconate on
precipitation of the morphia. Two special reagents are required for this
process; the one prepared by mixing 1 part of ammonia, sp. gr. 0·880, with
20 parts of methylated alcohol, and digesting in this mixture a large
excess of morphine; this, when filtered, is termed “_morphiated spirit_;”
the other, _morphiated water_, is water saturated with excess of morphine,
and contains 0·04 per cent. of this alkaloid. 1000 gr. of opium are
macerated for 12 to 24 hours in about 4000 grains of cold distilled water,
together with 300 gr. of lead acetate, stirring the mixture from time to
time. This separates the meconic acid as lead meconate, whilst the morphia
is dissolved in the acetic acid set free.
[Footnote 76: ‘Chemical News,’ xxxv, 47.]
After this maceration the opium may be readily ground in a mortar to a
paste, and so much more cold distilled water added, raising the pestle and
mortar with successive portions of it as to fill with the mixture a
measure = 20,250 grains of distilled water; experience has shown that the
space occupied by the insoluble matters measures from 200 to 300 gr., so
that the limit of possible error, by averaging and allowing 250 gr. for
the insoluble portion, amounts to 0·05% in opium containing 10% of
morphia. The mixture is to be filtered and 15,000 measured gr. = 750
grains of opium, of the clear solution, are to be evaporated to an extract
on a water bath, and this residue to be drenched with 3090 gr. of boiling
alcohol or methylated spirit, and the whole digested, with frequent
stirring, for about 10 minutes.
This separates the gum, &c., of the opium which is insoluble in alcohol,
and so far frees the solution of morphia from impurity.
At this stage of the process it is well to get rid of the excess of
lead-salts, and to accomplish this, sulphuric acid is preferable to
sulphuretted hydrogen. So much diluted sulphuric acid as may be equal to
30 gr. of oil of vitriol will almost always be sufficient for this
purpose, any excess of acid being converted into sulphate of ammonia by
the subsequent addition of so much solution of ammonia as shall be
equivalent to the 30 gr. of oil of vitriol, thus forming a salt but
slightly soluble in the alcoholic solution. This mixture may now be
transferred to a beaker and allowed to settle for 12 hours, after which it
is to be filtered, and the filter and insoluble residue thoroughly washed
with alcohol or methylated spirits. This alcoholic filtrate is then
distilled, or evaporated on a water bath, to about 1000 gr.; and mixed,
while still hot, with 400 gr. of solution of ammonia, sp. gr. 0·880,
stirring rapidly and continuously for at least 20 minutes, whilst the
beaker or evaporating dish should be cooled as rapidly as possible by
immersion in an external vessel filled with cold water. The rapid and
continuous stirring is most important, as the precipitation of the whole
of the morphia _in fine powder_ is thereby effected, instead of the
granular or mamillated condition so frequently met with, and it thus
permits of the easy and thorough separation of all the narcotine which may
be mixed with the morphine. When the cooling of the mixture and
precipitation of the morphia is thus attained, transfer it quickly and
completely to a filter of sufficient capacity to hold the whole, and when
the liquid portion has passed through, wash the remainder of the
precipitated morphia adhering to the dish or beaker on to the filter,
using for this purpose the morphiated spirit already described, and
continuing the washing of the precipitate until it is completely freed
from the mother-liquor. To do this effectually requires some little care:
thus the morphia on the filter must be kept in a spongy condition and
never allowed to cohere, which is easily effected by pouring the
morphiated spirit round the edges of the filter, so as not to disturb the
precipitate, which must not be permitted to drain or solidify until this
washing is completed.
The precipitate is now to be washed from off the filter-paper with the
morphiated water previously described, and digested therein for a few
minutes, which removes some more colouring matter, together with any salts
soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol, which may have adhered to the
precipitated morphia; then once more collect the precipitate on a filter,
washing it with morphiated spirit, after this once with ether, and finally
thrice, or more with benzine; this completely frees it from narcotina,
which is very soluble in benzine; morphia, on the contrary, being
insoluble in this liquid. It now remains to drain and dry at a low
temperature, say 100° F., the resulting pure and white morphia, the weight
of which will indicate the amount of this alkaloid present in 750 gr. of
the opium under examination.
7. (Ph. E.) Macerate 100 gr. of opium for 24 hours in 2 fl. oz. of water,
filter, and strongly squeeze the residue; then precipitate the infusion
with carbonate of sodium, 1/2 oz., dissolved in cold water, 2 fl. oz.;
gently heat the precipitate until it shrinks and fuses, then cool and
weigh it. It should weigh at least 10 gr., and, when powdered, be entirely
soluble in a solution of oxalic acid. See also Watts’ ‘Dic. of Chemistry,’
article OPIUM.
_Tests._ These depend chiefly on the chemical and physical characters of
morphia and meconic acid, the tests for which have been already noticed.
In operating upon the contents of the stomach, or upon solid organs, in
cases of suspected poisoning, the best method or proceeding is that
already described under ALKALOID.
Another method is to boil the substances in water slightly acidulated with
acetic acid, next to evaporate the solution to the consistence of a thick
syrup, and then to treat it twice with boiling rectified spirit; the
tincture thus obtained is to be filtered when cold, and again evaporated
to the consistence of a syrup; it is now re-dissolved in distilled water,
the filtrate treated with solution of subacetate of lead, and the
precipitate of meconate of lead, separated by filtration, and carefully
preserved. A current of sulphuretted hydrogen is then passed through the
solution to precipitate excess of lead, and after again filtering it the
liquid is evaporated, at first in a water bath, and afterwards under the
receiver of an air-pump. The shapeless mass of crystals thus obtained
present all the characters of morphia, if the substance examined contained
opium. In the meantime the precipitate of meconate of lead is to be boiled
with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and the insoluble sulphate of
lead separated by filtration; the filtered liquid, by evaporation,
furnishes meconic acid, either under the form of crystals or an amorphous
powder, the solution of which precipitates ferric salts of a deep
blood-red.
The following are additional tests to those already noticed:——
1. From the peculiar odour of opium, often perceptible when the drug has
been taken only in very small quantities.
2. A solution containing crude opium is turned of a deep red colour, or if
coloured, it is turned of a reddish brown, and is darkened by tincture of
ferric chloride.
3. (Hare.) A portion of the suspected liquid is poured into a beaker
glass, and a few drops of solution of acetate of lead are added to it; the
whole is stirred frequently for 10 or 12 hours, and then allowed to
settle, after which the supernatant liquid is decanted; 20 or 30 drops
each of dilute sulphuric acid and solution of ferric sulphate are next
poured on the precipitate (meconate of lead), when a deep and beautiful
red colour will be developed if the original liquid contained opium.
4. (Dr Rieget.) The suspected substance is mixed with some potassa, and is
then agitated with ether; a strip of white unsized paper is next several
times moistened with the solution, and when dry it is re-moistened with
hydrochloric acid, and exposed to the steam of hot water. The paper
assumes a red colour, more or less deep, if opium is present.
_Uses, &c._ Opium is one of the most valuable substances employed in
medicine. In small doses it acts as a powerful and diffusible stimulant,
in somewhat larger ones it is narcotic, and in excessive doses it proves
an active narcotic poison. It is also anodyne, antispasmodic, diaphoretic,
soporific, and sedative, its peculiar action being greatly modified by the
dose and the condition of the patient. Its action as a stimulant is
followed by sedative effects, which are, in general, much more marked than
could be expected from the degree of previous excitement it induces. It is
employed to fulfil a variety of indications——to procure sleep, to lull
pain, allay irritation, check morbid discharges, alleviate cough and
spasm, &c. &c. It also, when judiciously administered, renders the body
less susceptible of external impressions, as those of cold, contagion,
&c.; but it is injurious when the pulse is high, the heat of the body
above the natural standard, and the skin dry, or when there is a
disposition to local inflammation or congestion. When applied externally,
in the form of frictions, liniments, ointments, &c., it is absorbed, and
produces similar effects to those produced by swallowing it, but in this
way it requires to be used in larger quantities.——_Dose._ As a stimulant,
1/4 gr., every 2 or 3 hours; as an anodyne and antispasmodic, 1/2 to 1
gr.; as a soporific, 1/2 to 2 gr.; in violent spasms, neuralgia, acute
rheumatism, &c., 2 to 4 gr., increased in delirium tremens, hydrophobia,
mania, tetanus, &c., to several times that quantity, according to
circumstances.
The use of opium as a stimulant and intoxicant is common among the nations
of the East. The Turks chew it, and the Chinese smoke a watery extract of
it, under the name of ‘chundoo,’ the preparation of which from the crude
article constitutes a special business. Messrs Flückiger and Hanbury, in
their ‘Pharmacographia,’ published in 1874, say this particular business
is not confined to the celestials, since, in 1870, a British firm at Amoy
opened an establishment for preparing chundoo for the consumption of the
Chinese in California and Australia.
The qualities most valued by the Chinese in opium are its fulness and
peculiarity of aroma, and its degree of solubility. The amount of morphine
it contains is a secondary consideration.
The practice of opium smoking yearly increases in China. It appears to be
openly followed, and no odium attaches to it, provided it is not carried
so far as to intoxicate or incapacitate the smoker.
In the larger cities and towns adjacent to Amoy the proportion of opium
smokers, according to Mr Hughes, Commissioner of Customs at Amoy, is
estimated at from 15 to 20 per cent. of the adult population.
In the country districts 5 to 10 per cent. of the population are believed
to be opium smokers.
In many of the Western States of America the practice has become so
notoriously common that in 1872 the legislature of Kentucky passed a bill
by which any person who, through the excessive use of opium, is
incapacitated from managing himself or his affairs, may, upon the
affidavit of two citizens, be confined in an asylum, and subjected to the
same restraint as lunatics or habitual drunkards.[77]
[Footnote 77: Blythe.]
Of late years opium-eating and laudanum-taking have, unfortunately, been
greatly on the increase in this country, and the employment of this drug
as a soporific for infants and young children has become so general
amongst the poor and dissipated as to call for the interference of the
legislature.
Of the 250,000 lbs. of opium which, as shown by the recent returns made by
the Custom House, are imported into this country, it has been computed
that not more than a third of this quantity is used for medicinal
purposes.
According to Dr Chevers the practices of opium-eating and opium-smoking
are very common among the natives of India. The same authority also states
that in that country a large number of female infants are purposely
poisoned by it, by introducing the drug into the child’s mouth, and in
various other ways.
The first effect of opium as a stimulant is to excite the mental powers
and to elevate those faculties proper to man; but its habitual use impairs
the digestive organs, induces constipation, and gradually lessens the
energy of both the mind and body. In excessive quantities it destroys the
memory, induces fatuity and a state of wretchedness and misery, which
after a few years is mostly cut short by a premature death. In this
respect the effects of the excessive use of opium closely resemble those
of fermented liquors.
Opium is somewhat uncertain in its action; some persons being able,
sometimes from idiosyncrasy, but more frequently from previous indulgence
in it, to take a much larger dose than others. The smallest quantity which
is said to have proved fatal with an adult is 4 grains of the crude opium.
In contrast with this may be quoted the statement of Dr Garrod, of a young
man who not only swallowed 60 gr. of Smyrna opium night and morning, but
very frequently, in addition to this, 1 oz. to 1-1/2 oz. of laudanum
during the day.
Dr Chapman also cites the case of a patient to whom a wineglass of
laudanum had to be administered several times in 24 hours.
_Pois._——_Symptoms._ Headache; drowsiness; stupor; frightful reveries;
vertigo; contracted pupil (generally); scanty urine; pruritus or dry
itching of the skin, often accompanied by a papular eruption; thirst;
dryness of mouth and throat; weak and low pulse; vomiting; respiration,
generally, natural. Sometimes the drowsiness or sleep is calm and
peaceful.——_Ant., &c._ Vomiting must be induced as soon as possible, by
means of a strong emetic and tickling the fauces. If this does not
succeed, the stomach-pump should be applied. The emetic may consist of a
1/2 dr. of sulphate of zinc dissolved in 1/2 pint of warm water, of which
one third should be taken at once, and the remainder at the rate of a
wine-glassful every 5 or 10 minutes, until vomiting commences. When there
is much drowsiness or stupor, 1 or 2 fl. dr. of tincture of capsicum will
be found a useful addition; or one of the formulæ for emetic draughts
given at page 588 (especially No. 7) may be taken instead. Infusion of
galls, cinchona, or oak-bark, should be freely administered before the
emetic, and water soured with vinegar and lemon-juice, after the stomach
has been well cleared out. To rouse the system, spirit-and-water or strong
coffee may be given. To keep the sufferer awake, rough friction should be
applied to the skin, an upright posture preserved, and walking exercise
enforced, if necessary. When this is ineffectual, cold water may be dashed
over the chest, head, and spine, or mild shocks of electricity may be had
recourse to. To allow the sufferer to sleep is to abandon him to
destruction. Bleeding may be subsequently necessary in plethoric habits,
or in threatened congestion. The costiveness that accompanies
convalescence may be best met by aromatic aperients; and the general tone
of the habit restored by stimulating tonics and the shower bath. The
smallest fatal dose of opium in the case of an adult within our
recollection was 4-1/2 gr. Children are much more susceptible of the
action of opium than of other medicines, and hence the dose of it for them
must be diminished considerably below that indicated by the common method
of calculation depending on the age. See DOSES, &c.
_Concluding Remarks._ Opium is a very complicated substance, and contains
a number of alkaloids and other proximate vegetable principles, besides a
certain portion of saline matter. The substances already detected in it
are caoutchouc, codein, fatty matter, lignin, meconic acid, meconia,
morphia, narceia, narcotia, odorous matter, opiania, papaveria,
pseudomorphia (?), porphyroxin, resin, saline matter, &c. It is doubtful,
however, whether some of these substances are not generated from other
principles existing in opium during the processes adopted to obtain them.
According to Mulder, 100 parts of ordinary Smyrna opium contain——
Morphia 10·842
Codeia ·678
Narcotia 6·808
Narceia 0·662
Meconia ·804
Meconic acid 5·154
Resin 3·582
Gummy matter 26·242
Mucus 19·086
Fatty matter 2·166
Caoutchouc 6·012
Water 9·846
Matter undetermined and
loss 2·118
————————
100·
The sp. gr. of Smyrna opium is 1·336.
The following chart, showing the natural alkaloids of opium and a few of
their artificial derivatives, is taken from the ‘Pharmacographia’ of
Messrs Flückiger and Hanbury:——
+----------------+----------------------------------------------------+——+——+——+——+
| | |C.|H.|N.|O.|
|Discovered by | COTARNINE |12|13| 1| 3|
| Wöhler, 1844 |Formed by oxidising narcotine, soluble in water. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Hesse, 1871 | 1. Hydrocotarnine |12|15| 1| 3|
| | Crystallisable, alkaline, volatile at 100°. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Matthiesen and | APORMORPHINE |17|17| 1| 2|
| Wright, 1869 |From morphine by hydrochloric acid, colourless, | | | | |
| | amorphous, turning green by exposure to air, | | | | |
| | emetic. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Wright, 1871 | DESOXYMORPHINE |17|19| 1| 2|
| | | | | | |
|Sertürner, 1816 | 2. Morphine |17|19| 1| 3|
| | Crystallisable, alkaline, levogyre. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Pelletier and | 3. Pseudomorphine |17|19| 1| 4|
| Thibouméry, |Crystallises with H_{2}O, does not unite even with | | | | |
| 1835 | acetic acid. | | | | |
+----------------+----------------------------------------------------+——+——+——+——+
| Discovered by | |C.|H.|N.|O.|
|Matthiesen and | APOCODEINE |18|19| 1| 2|
|Burnside, 1871 |From codeine by chloride of zinc; amorphous, | | | | |
| | emetic. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Wright, 1871 | DESOXYCODEINE |18|21| 1| 2|
| | | | | | |
|Robiquet, 1832 | 4. Codeine |18|21| 1| 3|
| | Crystallisable, alkaline, soluble in water. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Matthiesen and | NORNARCOTINE |19|17| 1| 7|
|Foster, 1868 | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Thibouméry, 1835| 5. Thebaine |19|21| 1| 3|
| |Crystallisable, alkaline, isomeric with buxine. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Hesse, 1870 | THEBENINE |19|21| 1| 3|
| | | | | | |
|Hesse, 1870 | THEBARCINE |19|21| 1| 3|
| |From Thebaine or Thebenine by hydrochloric acid. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Hesse, 1871 | 6. Protopine |20|19| 1| 5|
| | Crystallisable, alkaline. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Matthiesen and | METHYLNORNARCOTINE |20|19| 1| 7|
|Foster, 1868 | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Hesse, 1871 | DEUTEROPINE |20|21| 1| 5|
| | Not yet isolated. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Hesse, 1870 | 7. Laudanine |20|25| 1| 4|
| |An alkaloid, which, as well as its salts, forms | | | | |
| | large crystals; turns orange by hydrochloric acid.| | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Hesse, 1870 | 8. Codamine |20|25| 1| 4|
| |Crystallisable, alkaline, can be sublimed; becomes | | | | |
| | green by nitric acid. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Merck, 1848 | 9. Papaverine |21|21| 1| 4|
| |Crystallisable, also its hydrochlorate; sulphate in | | | | |
| | sulphuric acid precipitated by water. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Hesse, 1865 | 10. Rhœadine |21|21| 1| 6|
| |Crystallisable, not distinctly alkaline, can be | | | | |
| | sublimed; occurs also in Papaver Rhœas. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Hesse, 1865 | RHŒAGENINE |21|21| 1| 6|
| |From rhœadine, crystallisable, alkaline. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Armstrong, 1871 | DIMETHYLNORNARCOTINE |21|21| 1| 7|
| | | | | | |
|Hesse, 1870 | 11. Meconidine |21|23| 1| 4|
| |Amorphous, alkaline, melts at 58°, not stable, the | | | | |
| | salts also easily altered. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|T. and H. Smith,| 12. Cryptopine |21|23| 1| 5|
|1864 |Crystallisable, alkaline, salts tend to gelatinise, | | | | |
| | hydrochlorate crystallises in tufts. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Hesse, 1871 | 13. Laudanosine |21|27| 1| 4|
| | Crystallisable, alkaline. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Derosne, 1803 | 14. Narcotine |22|23| 1| 7|
| |Crystallisable, not alkaline, salts not stable. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Hesse, 1870 | 15. Lanthopine |23|25| 1| 4|
| |Microscopic crystals, not alkaline, sparingly | | | | |
| | soluble in hot or cold spirit of wine, ether or | | | | |
| | benzol. | | | | |
| | | | | | |
|Pelletier, 1832 | 16. Narceine |23|29| 1| 9|
| |Crystallisable (as a hydrate), readily soluble in | | | | |
| | boiling water, or in alkalies, levogyre. | | | | |
+----------------+----------------------------------------------------+——+——+——+——+
⁂ The following preparations, once famous, are now nearly obsolete in this
country. Those that are made with cold water or by fermentation are
supposed to be milder than crude opium, and in this respect to be similar
to ‘BLACK DROP,’
=Opium, Homberg’s.= Opium exhausted by repeated coction in 10 or 12 times
its weight of water, and the mixed liquors evaporated to one third, and
kept boiling for 2 or 3 days, adding water from time to time, then
straining and evaporating to a pilular consistence. BAUMÉ’S PURIFIED OPIUM
is similar.
=Opium, Launcelotte’s.= Opium, 1 lb.; quince juice, 1 gall.; pure potassa,
1 oz.; sugar, 4 oz.; ferment for some time, evaporate to a syrup, digest
in rectified spirit, filter, and evaporate the tincture.
=Opium, Let′tuce.= Lactucarium.
=Opium, Newmann’s.= Infusion of opium, strained, mixed with a little
sugar, and fermented for some months in a warm place; and, lastly,
strained and evaporated to an extract, or preserved in the liquid form.
=Opium, Powell’s.= Opium, exhausted by coction with water, the residuum
treated with spirit of wine, and the mixed tincture and decoction
evaporated to an extract.
=Opium, Pu′′rified.= _Syn._ OPIUM PURIFICATUM, L. The purified opium of
old pharmacy is now represented by the aqueous extract of the
Pharmacopœias. (See page 703.) Formerly, picked opium, beaten to a pilular
consistence, with the addition of a little water or proof spirit, was
called ‘SOFT PURIFIED OPIUM’ (OPIUM PURIFICATUM MOLLE); and picked opium,
dried in a water bath until brittle enough for powdering, was called ‘HARD
PURIFIED OPIUM’ (O. P. DURUM). CORNETTE’S and JOSSE’S PURIFIED OPIUM are
similar to the extract of Ph. L.
=Opium, Quercetan’s.= Vinegar of opium evaporated to an extract.
=Opium, Strained.= _Syn._ EXTRACTUM THEBAICUM, OPIUM COLATUM, OPIUM
PURIFICATUM, L. Opium dissolved or softened in an equal weight of water,
passed through canvas, and evaporated to the consistence of an extract. It
is now superseded by the aqueous extract.
=Opium, Tor′refied.= _Syn._ ROASTED OPIUM; OPIUM TORREFACTUM, L. Opium,
dried, cut into thin slices, and roasted on an iron plate, at a low heat,
as long as it emits vapours, care being taken not to burn it.
=OPODEL′DOC.= 1. See LINIMENT OF SOAP.
2. (STEER’S OPODELDOC.) This, which differs from common opodeldoc chiefly
in containing more soap, is prepared as follows:——
_a._ White Castile soap (cut very small), 2 lbs.; camphor, 5 oz.; oil of
rosemary, 1 oz.; oil of origanum, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; mix,
and digest in a strong bottle (closely corked), by the heat of a water
bath, until solution is complete; when the liquid has considerably cooled,
add of liquor of ammonia, 11 oz., and immediately put it into
wide-mouthed bottles (Steer’s), cork them close, and tie them over with
bladder. Very fine, solid and transparent when cold.
_b._ Soap, 4 oz.; camphor, 1 oz.; oil of rosemary and origanum, of each 1
dr.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; liquor of ammonia, 1-1/2 fl. oz. Mix.
_c._ (Phil. Coll. of Phar.) White soap, 28 oz.; camphor, 8 oz.; rectified
spirit, 6-1/2 pints; dissolve, suffer the impurities to subside, add of
liquor of ammonia, 4 fl. oz.; oils of rosemary and horsemint, of each 1
fl. oz.; and pour it into phials, as before.
=OPOPONAX.= A resinous substance obtained from the roots of the _Opoponax
chironium_. It occurs in lumps of a reddish-yellow or brown colour, and
has a waxy fracture. It has a powerful odour, which somewhat resembles
garlic, and a bitter taste.
Opoponax is only partially soluble in alcohol, According to Payen it
consists of a little volatile oil, a resin that melts it at 100° C., gum,
inorganic and organic salts, and mechanical admixtures. It is used in
French pharmacy; and was held in great esteem by Hippocrates,
Theophrastus, and Dioscorides, all of whom employed it therapeutically.
=ORANGE.= _Syn._ AURANTIUM, L. The common SWEET ORANGE is the fruit of
_Citrus Aurantium_. The SEVILLE or BITTER ORANGE is produced by _Citrus
vulgaris_ or _Bigaradia_.
Oranges are probably about the most wholesome and useful of all the
subacid fruits. Their juice differs from that of lemons chiefly in
containing less citric acid and more sugar. In their general properties
the two are nearly similar.
FACTITIOUS ORANGE JUICE is made by dissolving citric acid, 1 oz., and
carbonate of potassa, 1 dr., in water, 1 quart, and digesting the solution
on the peel of half an orange until sufficiently flavoured; Narbonne honey
or white sugar is then added to impart the necessary sweetness. Instead of
orange peel, 5 or 6 drops of oil of orange peel, with 1/2 fl. oz. of
tincture of orange peel, may be used.
ORANGE PEEL (CORTEX AURANTII) is an agreeable, stomachic, bitter tonic,
especially useful as an adjunct to more active medicines. That ordered to
be used in medicine is the exterior (yellow) rind of the _Citrus
Bigaradia_, or bitter orange, dried in the months of February, March, or
April. See CANDYING, INFUSION, ISSUE PEAS, OILS (volatile), &c.
=ORANGEADE′.= _Syn._ ORANGE SHERBET. 1. Juice of 4 oranges, thin peel of 1
orange, lump sugar, 4 oz.; boiling water, 3 pints.
2. Juice and peel of 1 large orange, citric acid, 15 gr.; sugar, 3 oz.;
boiling water, 1 quart.
=Orangeade, Effervescing or Aerated.= 1. Mix 1 lb. of syrup of orange
peel, a gallon of water, and 1 oz. of citric acid, and charge it strongly
with carbonic acid gas with a machine.
2. Syrup of orange juice, 3/4 fl. oz.; aerated water, 1/2 pint.
3. Simple syrup, 1/2 fl. oz.; tincture of orange peel, 1/2 dr.; citric
acid, 1 scruple; fill the bottle with aerated water.
4. Put into a soda-water bottle 1/2 oz. to 1 oz. of syrup of orange peel,
30 gr. of bicarbonate of potash, 8 oz. of water, and, lastly, 40 gr. of
citric acid, in crystals, and cork immediately.
5. Put into each bottle 2 or 3 dr. of sugar, 2 drops of oil of orange
peel, 30 gr. of bicarbonate of potash, or 25 gr. of bicarbonate of soda
water to fill the bottle, and 40 gr. of citric acid, as before.
=OR′ANGE CHROME.= _Prep._ 1. From a solution of chromate of potash and
diacetate of lead, as chrome yellow.
2. From chrome yellow or chromate of lead, by acting on it with a weak
alkaline lye, until sufficiently darkened. Used as a pigment.
=ORANGE DYES.= These are produced from mixtures of red and yellow dyes in
various proportions; or by passing the cloth, previously dyed yellow,
through a weak red bath.
1. A very good fugitive orange may be given with annotta, by passing the
goods through a solution made with equal parts of annotta and pearlash,
or, still better, through a bath made of 1 part of annotta, dissolved in a
lye of 1 part each of lime and pearlash and 2 parts of soda. The shade may
be reddened by passing the dyed goods through water acidulated with
vinegar, lemon juice, or citric acid, or through a solution of alum. The
goods are sometimes passed through a weak alum mordant before immersion in
the dye bath.
2. (For COTTON.) For 40 lbs. 2-1/2 lbs. annotta, 24 lbs. of bark, 3 quarts
of chloride of tin. Boil the annotta, put off the boil, enter and wince
until it has a good body. Then wring out, wash well, wring again, and
shake out. Next, in a clean boiler, boil the bark in a bag for a quarter
of an hour, add the chloride of tin, and enter, wince at the spring till
the required shade is got.
3. (For SILK.) For 10 yards. Annotta, 1-3/4 oz.; bark, 1-1/4 oz.; chloride
of tin, 1-1/2 oz. Give a good body of annotta at 212° Fahr.; wash in one
water, then top with the bark and chloride of tin.
4. (For WOOL.) For 50 lbs. Boil 10 lbs. of bark and 1-1/2 lbs. of
cochineal; add 2 lbs. of tartar, 2-1/2 quarts of yellow spirits. Enter at
200° Fahr.; boil 30 minutes. See ANNOTTA, DYEING, &c.
=ORANGE RED.= _Syn._ SANDIX. From white lead, by calcination, in a nearly
similar manner to that by which red lead is prepared from the protoxide.
Brighter than red lead. Used wholly as a pigment.
=OR′ANGERY.= The gallery, building, or enclosure in a garden, in which
orange trees are preserved or cultivated, to shield them from the effects
of the external winter, or to assist their growth by artificial heat.
=OR′CHARD.= See CIDER.
=OR′CEIN.= C_{7}H_{7}NO_{2}. _Syn._ LICHEN LAKE. A brownish-red powder,
obtained by dissolving orcin in ammonia, exposing the solution to the air,
and then precipitating with dilute acetic acid. It is nearly insoluble in
water, but dissolves freely in solutions of ammonia and the fixed
alkalies, with the production of a rich purple or violet colour. It
probably constitutes the leading tinctorial ingredient in ARCHIL, CUDBEAR,
and LITMUS. (See _below_.)
=OR′CHIL.= See ARCHIL.
=OR′CIN.= C_{7}H_{8}O_{2}. The general product of the decomposition of the
acids obtained from the tinctorial lichens under the influence of heat or
the alkaline earths.
_Prep._ 1. The powdered lichen is treated with boiling alcohol, the
tincture filtered whilst hot, and again after it has become cold; the
alcohol is then removed by distillation, and the remainder evaporated to
the consistence of a syrup; this is redissolved in water, and the solution
is again filtered and evaporated to a syrup; it is then set aside some
days in a cool place, and the crystals of orcin which form are collected,
and dried by pressure in bibulous paper. Impure.
2. Lecanoric or orsenillic acid (impure will do) is boiled in baryta
water, and the excess of baryta is precipitated by carbonic acid; the
filtered liquid is then evaporated to a small bulk, and set aside to
crystallise, as before.
_Prop., &c._ Large, square, prismatic crystals; slightly yellowish;
intensely sweet; very soluble in both water and alcohol; melt to a syrupy
liquid, and then distil unchanged. Alkalies decompose it; when exposed to
the air, it gradually reddens. (See _above_.)
=OREIDE.= A variety of brass, in appearance very much like gold. The
following, according to MM. Menrier and Valient, its inventors, is the
composition of this alloy:——Copper, 100 parts; zinc, 17 parts; magnesia, 6
parts; sal ammoniac, 3·6 parts; quicksilver, 1·80 parts; tartar of
commerce, 9 parts. The copper being first melted, the other ingredients
are added by small portions at a time, the whole being kept in fusion for
about half an hour, and during which time they are kept skimmed. The
oreide has a fine grain, is malleable, is capable of being brilliantly
polished, and has its lustre restored by the use of acidulated water.
=OR′ELLIN.= A yellow colouring matter contained together with bixin in
annotta. It is soluble in water and in alcohol, slightly soluble in ether,
and dyes alumed goods yellow. Also the name sometimes given to purified
annotta. The commercial annotta is dissolved in an alkaline solution,
either caustic or carbonated, and then precipitated by an acid. See
ANNOTTA.
=ORES.= The mineral bodies from which metals are obtained. The processes
adopted for this purpose constitute OPERATIVE METALLURGY; those by which
their value is determined, MINERAL ASSAYING.
A very small proportion only of the metals are met with in nature in the
free or elementary condition, by far the greater number found being
united with some non-metallic element or elements, in definite atomic
proportions, and as such forming true chemical compounds, in which in
almost every instance the physical and chemical properties of the metal
are obliterated. In these bodies, which, when they are used as sources of
the metals commonly employed by man, are called ORES, the metal is mostly
combined with oxygen or sulphur, sometimes with carbonic acid, and less
frequently with chlorine, and other negative elements. Thus we have the
native combinations of iron and oxygen constituting the minerals known as
hæmatite iron ore (Fe_{2}O_{3}), bog iron ore (Fe_{2}O_{3},3H_{2}O), and
magnetic iron ore (Fe_{2}O_{3},FeO), of tin and oxygen in tin stone
(SnO_{2}), and of copper and oxygen known as red copper ore (Cu_{2}O). Of
the principal ores into which sulphur enters as a chemical ingredient, we
may mention native sulphide of antimony (Sb_{2}S_{3}); the two native
sulphides of arsenic, realgar (As_{2}S_{2}) and orpiment (As_{2}S_{3});
galena, or native sulphide of lead (PbS), blende, or native sulphide of
zinc (ZnS), and cinnabar, or native sulphide of mercury (HgS). Besides the
above, there are also certain double native sulphides, such as the double
sulphide of iron and copper, known as Peacock ore, and having the
composition Fe_{2}S_{3},3Cu_{2}S; iron and copper pyrites
(Fe_{2}S_{3},Cu_{2}S); and red silver ore (Sb_{2}S_{3},3AgS).
In the state of carbonate, ores occur——as malachite native carbonate of
copper (CuCO_{3}.Cu(HO)_{2}), as calamine, or native carbonate of zinc
(ZnCO_{3}), and as spathose iron ore, or native carbonate of iron
(FeCO_{3}). Horn silver and horn lead, the former having the composition
AgCl, and the latter PbCO_{3} + PbCl_{2} are illustrations of ores
containing chlorine.
The process of obtaining the metal from the ore of course varies with the
nature and character of the latter. Before, however, this operation can be
undertaken, the ore itself is subjected to certain mechanical operations,
in order to remove the gangue or the adhering earthy, rocky, stony, and
other matters with which it is always more or less mixed up. The amount of
attention which is given to this preparatory treatment of the ores greatly
depends upon their value; those, for instance, of copper and lead as
commanding a higher market price than those of zinc and iron being
submitted to commensurate treatment. This process of freeing the ores from
the gangue, which is termed dressing, is generally conducted as follows,
mostly near the pit entrance of the mine whence the ores have been
extracted.
If the material brought up to the pit’s mouth is a lead or a copper ore,
it mostly contains a number of lumps, which are considered sufficiently
pure for the smelting oven, and these are set aside without being dressed.
Generally, however, the ore is first broken by hammers into pieces about
as large as a walnut, and the best pieces are then selected for smelting.
The remaining or inferior portions are then crushed under the large and
horizontal cylinders of a grinding mill, to which they are supplied by
hoppers. After being ground the ore is separated by being made to pass
through coarse sieves, the coarser portions being set aside for the
stampers, whilst the finer ones are subjected to the operation of jigging.
This consists in a workman separating the contents of the sieve under
water by imparting to them such a movement that the bits of ore
(particularly if they are of a friable nature like galena) become broken,
and thus pass through the meshes of the sieve to the bottom of the water,
whilst the less friable and specifically lighter matter, mostly consisting
of gangue, remains behind on the sieve. This residue, being mixed with the
coarser portions resulting from the first sifting, and which have not been
subjected to the jigging process, is transferred to the stamping mill,
whilst those portions of ore found at the bottom of the well are reserved
for smelting. If the ore be one containing tin, it does not undergo the
above processes, but passes at once to the stamping apparatus.
This stamping apparatus consists of five or six large wooden beams, each
weighing 1/8th of a ton. Each beam is covered at the bottom with iron, and
is made to rise and fall in succession by means of projections from a
horizontal axle, made to revolve either by water or steam power. Behind
the stampers is an inclined board, upon which are placed the residue and
coarser portions of the ore already described, and when the stampers are
in motion the ore slides down the inclined plane under them, and thus gets
crushed. When it is thought the ore has been sufficiently crushed, it is,
by means of a current of water running through the mill, carried away
through a grating in front of the mill into a channel in which there are
two pits, with the result that the more valuable and heavier portion of
the ore becomes deposited in the first pit, whilst the inferior portion is
carried on, and falls into the second one.
The crushed ore has, however, to undergo other operations before it is
considered sufficiently pure for the furnace. That part (the purer
portion, called the crop by the Cornish miner) which has deposited in the
first pit after removal therefrom, is subjected to a series of further
washings, the different apparatus by which these are effected being known
in Cornish language as a buddle and a kieve.
“The crop is first subjected to washing in the buddle; this is a wooden
trough about 8 feet long, 3 wide, and 2 deep, fixed in the ground with one
end somewhat elevated. At the upper end a small stream of water enters,
and is reduced to a uniform thin sheet by means of a distributing board,
on which a number of small pieces of wood are fastened to break the
stream. The ore to be washed is placed in small quantities at a time on a
board just below the distributing board, and somewhat more inclined than
the body of the buddle, and as the ore is spread out into a thin layer the
water carries it forward.
“The richer portions subside near the head of the trough, and the light
ores are carried further down. ‘The heads’ are then tossed into the kieve,
a covered wooden tub, which is filled with water and ore added by a
workman, who keeps the contents of the kieve in continual agitation by
turning an agitator, the handle of which projects through the lid of the
tub. When the vessel is nearly full the agitation is stopped; the kieve is
struck sharply upon the side several times, and its contents are allowed
to subside; the upper half of the sediment is again passed through the
buddle. Various modifications of the washing process are resorted to, but
they are all the same in principle.”[78]
[Footnote 78: Miller.]
The water which has been used in washing the ore on the buddle, as well as
that in the kieve, contains in addition to the débris of the gangue more
or less of small pieces of the ore itself. Hence this water is not allowed
to escape, but conveyed into a narrow channel cut at the end of the
buddle, where it deposits the solid materials. These being then removed
undergo a second washing on an inclined stage, a process by which any
remaining mineral is recovered, followed in Cornwall.
The above is the method of dressing the ores of lead and tin, and, with
some modifications, those of copper.
Some metals, as, for example, certain iron and zinc ores, previous to
being dressed, require a preliminary exposure for some time to the
atmosphere. This operation, which is called ‘weathering,’ has the effect
of aiding the subsequent removal by water of certain materials of a
clayey, slatey, or marly nature, which sometimes adhere very tenaciously
to the ores in question.
Again, in some cases weathering is had recourse to for obtaining a
metallic compound in a soluble form. It is by this means that iron pyrites
if exposed to the air after a time becomes converted into a sulphate of
the metal.
Large quantities of commercial sulphate of iron or green vitriol are
manufactured from this natural sulphate after it has been dissolved by the
rain, and then crystallised. Sometimes the ores after dressing, and
previous to roasting or smelting, are subjected to a process of
calcination without access of air, with the object of depriving them of
water, carbonic acid and bituminous matters, and also of rendering the ore
softer and in a favorable condition to be acted upon by the subsequent
metallurgic operations.
The ores having been by these various processes sufficiently freed from
extraneous matters, are next, according to their composition, either
submitted to the operations of roasting or smelting, and in many cases to
both.
_Roasting._ This operation is mostly carried out in a reverbatory furnace.
The result of the process upon the ores containing sulphur, which are
those chiefly subjected to it, varies with the nature of the ore. Thus,
when the sulphides of antimony, arsenic, or zinc are roasted, the sulphur
escapes as sulphurous anhydride with the formation of the volatile oxides
of arsenic, antimony, or zinc, which sublime, and are afterwards collected
and purified with cinnabar or native sulphide of mercury.
Sulphurous anhydride is evolved with the vapours of metallic mercury,
these being at the same time condensed by cooling. When copper pyrites
(the double sulphide of copper and iron) is placed in the reverbatory
furnace, the copper and iron become converted into oxides.
When galena or lead sulphide is exposed to the roasting process, lead
oxide and sulphate, with the copious escape of sulphurous acid, are at
first formed. The oxide and sulphate become eventually decomposed, leaving
behind metallic lead, with a small portion of a subsulphide of the metal.
In most cases, however, the effect of roasting on an ore is to convert it
into an oxide.
Clay ironstone, which is that from which the greater part of the iron is
manufactured in Great Britain, and that known as the black band of the
Scotch coal fields, are impure carbonates of iron, and these when roasted
yield ferric oxide. The roasting in the case of these minerals is
sometimes effected in kilns, but more frequently in the open air; in the
latter case by the firing of stacks composed of alternate layers of the
ore and of small coal. Calamine or native carbonate of zinc is converted
into oxide sometimes by being roasted in kilns, but more frequently in a
reverbatory furnace.
_Smelting._ Except in those cases in which the ore is directly reduced
from the state of a sulphide to that of a metal, it is, as has been shown,
converted into an oxide. If, therefore, it be required to procure the
metal _per se_, some method must be adopted for the removal of the oxygen
from its oxide.
This process, which is called smelting, and is applied to most metallic
oxides, whether of natural or artificial origin, consists in heating the
oxide with a substance which has a stronger attraction for oxygen than the
metal has. Such bodies are coal, coke, or charcoal, which when raised to
very high temperatures in contact with certain metallic oxides, rob them
of their oxygen, and thus reduce them to the state of metals, carbonic
oxide or carbonic anhydride being at the same time formed and carried
off. A mechanical impediment, however, to the reducing action of the fuel
upon the ore exists in the rocky, earthy, and other impurities mostly
present in large quantities, even after the dressing, which envelop the
mineral, and afford it a protective covering. To remove these it is not
only necessary that some substance should be added which has the power of
combining with them, but of one which is capable of forming a compound
which shall become fusible by the heat of the furnace, so that the molten
metal as it sinks through it by reason of its greater specific gravity,
and falls to the bottom of the furnace, shall be protected in doing so
from contact with the air. Many substances, varying with the nature of the
gangue accompanying them, are thus employed as fluxes, such as limestone,
fluor spar, gypsum, heavy spar, &c., and they act by combining with the
silicious compounds contained in the gangue attached to the ore, and
forming a fusible silicate known as slag, which is from time to time run
off by an aperture at the side of the furnace. Considerable knowledge and
experience are required in the selection of suitable fluxes.
The smelting furnaces in which the deoxidation of iron is accomplished are
of considerable size. The following description of one, together with the
engraving, are from Professor Bloxam’s able work, ‘Chemistry: Inorganic
and Organic,’
[Illustration]
“Great care is necessary in first lighting the blast furnace, lest the new
masonry should be cracked by too sudden a rise of temperature, and when
once lighted, the furnace is kept in constant work for years, until in
want of repair.
“When the fire has been lighted the furnace is filled up with coke, and as
soon as this has burnt down to some distance below the chimney, a layer of
the mixture of calcined ore with the requisite quantity of limestone is
thrown upon it; over this there is placed another layer of coke, then a
second layer of the mixture of ore and flux, and so on in alternate
layers, until the furnace has been filled up; when the layers sink down
fresh quantities of fuel, ore, and flux are added, so that the furnace is
kept constantly full.
“As the air passes from the tuyères pipes into the bottom of the furnace,
it parts with its oxygen to the carbon of the fuel, which it converts into
carbonic acid, the latter passing the red-hot fuel as it ascends in the
furnace is converted into carbonic oxide by combining with an additional
quantity of carbon. It is this carbonic oxide which reduces the calcined
ore to the metallic state when it comes in contact with it at a red heat,
in the upper part of the furnace, for carbonic oxide removes the oxygen at
a high temperature from the oxides of iron, and becomes carbonic acid, the
iron being left in the metallic state.
“But the iron so reduced remains disseminated through the mass of ore
until it has passed down to a part of the furnace which is more strongly
heated, where the iron enters into combination with a small proportion of
carbon to form cast-iron, which fuses or runs down into the crucible or
cavity for its reception at the bottom of the furnace.
“At the same time the clay contained in the ore is acted upon by the lime
of the flux, producing a double silicate of alumina and lime, which also
falls in the liquid state into the crucible, where it forms a layer of
slag above the heavier metal. This slag, which has five or six times the
bulk of the iron, is allowed to accumulate in the crucible and to run over
its edge down the incline upon which the blast furnace is built; but when
a sufficient quantity of cast iron is collected at the bottom of the
crucible, it is run out through a hole provided for the purpose, either
into channels made in a bed of sand, or into iron moulds, where it is cast
into rough semi-cylindrical masses, called pigs, where cast-iron is also
spoken of as pig-iron.
“The temperature of the furnace is, of course, highest in the immediate
neighbourhood of the tuyères; the reduction of the iron to the metallic
state appears to commence at about two thirds of the way down the furnace,
the volatile matters of the ore, fuel, and flux being driven off before
this point is reached.
“Some idea may be formed of the immense scale upon which the smelting of
iron ores is carried out, when it is stated that each furnace consumes in
the course of 24 hours about 50 tons of coal, 30 tons of ore, 6 tons of
limestone, and 100 tons of air.
“The cast-iron is run off from the crucible once or twice in 12 hours, in
quantities of 5 or 6 tons at a time. The average yield of calcined
clay-iron stone is 35% of iron.
“The gases escaping from the chimney of the blast furnace are highly
inflammable, for they contain, beside the nitrogen of the air blown into
the furnace, a considerable quantity of carbonic oxide and some hydrogen,
together with the carbonic acid formed by the action of the carbonic oxide
upon the ore. Since the carbonic oxide and hydrogen confer considerable
heating power upon these gases, they are employed in some iron-works for
heating steam-boilers, or for calcining the ore, or for raising the
temperature of the blast.
“The composition of the gas issuing from a hot blast furnace (fed with
uncoked coal) may be judged of from the following table:——
“_Gas from Blast Furnace._
Nitrogen 55·35 vols.
Carbonic oxide 25·97 ”
Hydrogen 6·73 ”
Carbonic acid 7·77 ”
Marsh gas 3·75 ”
Olefiant gas 0·43 ”
————————
100·00 ”
“The carbonic oxide of course renders these gases highly poisonous, and
fatal accidents occasionally happen from this cause. Although the bulk of
the nitrogen present in the air escapes unchanged from the furnace, it is
not improbable that a portion of it contributes to the formation of the
cyanide of potassium which is produced in the lower part of the furnace,
the potassium being furnished by the ashes of the fuel.” See METALLURGY.
_Assay._ Three general methods are adopted for this purpose:——
1. (MECHANICAL.) This consists in pulverising the ore by any convenient
method, and expertly washing a given weight of it (say 1000 gr.) in a
wooden bowl or capsule with water, so as to remove the earthy gangues from
the denser and valuable metallic matter in such a way that none of the
latter may be lost. This is the common plan adopted with auriferous sands,
the ores of tin after they have passed the stamping-mill, galena, grey
antimony, &c., and may either be employed as an independent process or
merely as preparatory to more exact investigations. When galena is thus
tested, the product is a nearly pure sulphide of lead, of which every
grain is equivalent to ·8666 of metallic lead, the rest being sulphur. The
results with grey antimony ore are still more direct, since the product is
only melted into pigs before being sent to market. In this state it
contains 73% (nearly) of metallic antimony.
2. (HUMID.) Assays in the ‘humid way’ are true chemical analyses, and are
described under the head ‘_Estim._’ attached to most of the more important
minerals noticed in this work. This plan offers greater facilities and
gives more accurate results than either of the other methods.
3. (DRY.) Of the methods of assay in the ‘dry way’ the following are the
most accurate, generally useful, and easily applied:——
_a._ (Dr Abiche.) The mineral is reduced to powder, and mixed with 5 or 6
times its weight of carbonate of barium, also in powder; this mixture is
fused at a white heat in a platinum crucible, and the resulting slag,
after being powdered, is exhausted with hydrochloric acid. This process
answers well with both stony and metallic minerals, the most refractory of
which give way under this treatment.
_b._ (Liebig.) Into a crucible containing commercial cyanide of potassium,
a weighed quantity of the ore, in the state of fine powder, is sprinkled,
when the metallic oxides and sulphides which it contains are almost
immediately reduced to the metallic state, and may be separated from the
scoria by edulcoration with water. With the oxides and sulphides of
antimony and tin this reduction occurs at a dull red heat; with the
compounds of copper it occurs with the disengagement of light and heat;
but an ore of iron requires to be mixed with a little carbonate of
potassium or of sodium before throwing it into the fused cyanide, and to
be then submitted to a full red heat for a short time, before it is
reduced to the reguline state. In this case any manganese present in the
ore of iron is left under the form of protoxide. A mixture of about equal
parts of dry carbonate of sodium and cyanide of potassium answers better
for the crucible than the cyanide alone. See ALLOYS, METALLURGY, &c.; also
PERCY’S METALLURGY.
=ORGAN′IC BA′SES.= These interesting bodies may be divided into two
classes: the first comprising those which occur ready formed in nature
(ALKALOIDS); and the second those produced by artificial processes in the
laboratory (ARTIFICIAL ALKALOIDS, ARTIFICIAL ORGANIC BASES). They all
contain the element NITROGEN. The natural bases have already been
described under ALKALOID. Hitherto they have none of them been produced by
artificial means. The bases of artificial origin are mostly volatile, and
their constitution is much simpler than that of the native bases. Of the
vast number which have been formed the following are, perhaps, the most
interesting:——ETHYLAMINE, METHYLAMINE, AMYLAMINE, ANILINE, NAPHTHYLAMINE,
CHINOLINE, and PICOLINE. These and other bodies of the class are noticed
under their respective heads.
By Berzelius the natural organic bases (owing to the invariable presence
in them of hydrogen and nitrogen) were regarded as compound ammonias, or
combinators of ammonia with a variety of neutral principles.
He conceived the greater part of these neutral bodies were incapable
of isolation, and further more that the closest union existed
between them and the ammonia. Thus it was his opinion that quinine
C_{20}H_{12}NO_{2}, 3HO (halving the modern formula) was a compound of
the group C_{20}H_{9}O_{2} with oxide of ammonium and water of
crystallisation thus (C_{20}H_{9}O_{2}H_{4}NO)_{2}HO. He believed the
organic base owed its basicity to the ammonia. Berzelius’ opinion carried
weight at the time, from the circumstance that certain neutral substances
when directly combined with ammonia were capable of forming a number of
artificial bases very similar in qualities and also in composition to the
natural ones, or those obtained from living plants. Thus, the artificial
base _thiosinamine_ having the formula C_{4}H_{5}NS is produced by the
combination of oil of mustard and ammonia; and another base may be
artificially obtained from the union of oil of bitter almonds with
ammonia.
Liebig, who was one of the first chemists to dispute the correctness of
Berzelius’ hypothesis, by showing that the natural organic bases never
gave any indication of the presence in them of ready formed ammonia,
replaced it by the suggestion that they might be bodies into the
composition of which amidogen (H_{2}N) entered, and that these, instead of
being compounds of ammonia and an organic group, might be derivatives from
ammonia; or ammonia in which an atom of hydrogen had been displaced by an
equivalent organic radicle.
The labours of subsequent chemists, notably those of Messrs Wurtz and
Hofman, have developed Liebig’s theory, and have proved the analogy in
structural arrangement between ammonia and the greater number of organic
bases; whilst they have further shown, not only in one, as supposed by
Liebig, but for all three of the hydrogen atoms in ammonia, may be
substituted certain compound radicles.
=ORGAN′IC SUBSTANCES.= We have reserved a notice of the method of
estimating the quantity of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, in
organic compounds, until now, in order to present them to the reader in a
more useful and connected form. The operation essentially consists, in
respect of the first three, in causing the complete combustion of a known
quantity of the substance under examination, in such a manner that the
carbonic acid and water thus produced shall be collected, and their
quantity determined. From these the proportions of their elements are
easily calculated. The estimation of the quantity of nitrogen (as is also
the case with chlorine, phosphorus, sulphur, &c.) requires a separate
operation. The two great classes of organic bodies (azotised and
non-azotised) are readily distinguished from each other by heating a small
portion with some solid hydrate of potassium, in a test tube. If nitrogen
is present, it is converted into ammonia, which may be recognised by its
characteristic odour and its alkaline reaction.
1. _Estimation of the_ CARBON, HYDROGEN, _and_ OXYGEN.——_a._ The method of
Prof. Liebig, now almost exclusively adapted for this purpose, is as
follows:——The substance under examination, reduced to powder, is rendered
as dry as possible, either by the heat of a water bath or by exposure over
concentrated sulphuric acid, _in vacuo_; 5 or 6 gr. of it are then weighed
in a narrow open test tube, 2 or 3 inches long, and to ensure accuracy
this tube and any little adhering matter is again weighed after its
contents have been removed——the difference between the two weights being
regarded as the true quantity of the substance employed in the experiment.
A ‘combustion tube,’ of hard white Bohemian glass (·4 to ·5 inch diam.; 14
to 18 inches long), is next taken, and about 2-3rds filled with black
oxide of copper, prepared by the ignition of the nitrate, and which has
been just re-heated to expel hygrometric moisture. Nearly the whole of
this oxide, whilst still warm, is then gradually poured from the tube and
triturated with the organic sample in a dry and warm mortar, after which
the mixture is transferred to the combustion tube, and the mortar being
rinsed out with a little fresh oxide, which is added to the rest, the tube
is, lastly, nearly filled with some warm oxide fresh from the crucible.
The contents of the tube are next arranged in a proper position by a few
gentle blows, so as to leave a small passage for the evolved gases from
the one end of the tube to the other. (See _engr_.)
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
The ‘combustion tube’ with its ‘charge’ is next placed in a ‘furnace’ or
‘chauffer’ of thin sheet iron (see middle figure _above_). Its open end is
then connected with a ‘drying tube’ filled with fragments of fused
chloride of calcium, and carefully weighed. This tube is, in its turn,
connected with a small glass (‘Liebig’s potash bulbs’) containing solution
of pure potassa of sp. gr. 1·27, also carefully weighed. The junction with
the first is made by means of a perforated cork; that with the second by
means of a small tube of india rubber tied with silk, the whole being made
quite air-tight. The apparatus is then tested by sucking a few bubbles
through the liquid with the dry lips, when, if the level of the solution
of potassa in the two legs continues unequal for some minutes, the joints
are regarded as perfect. The whole arrangement being complete (see
_engr._), burning charcoal is now placed in the furnace around the front
part of the combustion tube, and when this has become red-hot the screen
is slowly moved back, and more burning charcoal is added, until the
furthest extremity of the tube has been exposed to its action. (Gas,
burned in furnaces specially contrived for the purpose, is now usually
employed instead of charcoal.) The firing is so regulated that the gas
enters the potassa apparatus in bubbles easily counted, without any
violence or inconvenience, and it is kept up as long as gas is extricated.
As soon as the apparatus is complete, and the slightest retrograde action
is observed, the charcoal is removed from the combustion tube, and the
extreme point of this last is broken off. A little air is then sucked
through the apparatus in order to seize on any remaining carbonic-acid gas
and moisture. The potash apparatus and the chloride of calcium tube are,
lastly, detached, and again accurately weighed. The increase in the weight
of the first gives the weight of the carbonic acid formed during the
combustion; that of the second the weight of the water. The numbers
equivalent to any given number of grains, found as above, are converted
into the proportions per cent. by simply dividing them by the weight of
the organic substance which has been employed in the experiment, and
moving the decimal point of the result two figures to the right.
Gr. Gr.
1 gr. of _Carbonic acid_ = 0·27273 of _Carbon_ + 0·72727 of _Oxygen_,
1 ” _Water_ = 0·11112 ” _Hydrogen_ + 0·88888 ”
—— ———————— ————————
2 less 0·38385 equal to 1·61615 ”
—— ———————— ————————
_b._ In applying the preceding method to volatile liquids, it is necessary
to enclose them in a small bulb with a narrow neck, instead of mixing them
directly with the protoxide of copper. The bulb with its contents is
introduced into the combustion tube, and after some 6 or 8 inches of the
protoxide is heated to redness, a hot coal is applied near where the bulb
is situated, so that the liquid which it contains may be slowly
volatilised and passed through the heated mass in the state of vapour, and
be thus completely burned. For further information, consult Fresenius’
‘Chemical Analysis.’
2. _Estimation of the_ NITROGEN——_a._ Several methods are employed for
this purpose, but the only one of general application, and adapted to the
non-scientific operator, is that of MM. Varrentrap and Will, described
under GUANO. To ensure correct results, the caustic soda must be pure, and
the lime of good quality and well burnt. The last, having been properly
slaked with a little water, holding the former in solution, the mixture is
thoroughly dried in an iron vessel, and then heated to full redness in an
earthen crucible. The ignited mass is rubbed to powder in a warm dry
mortar, and either used at once or carefully preserved from the air. The
best quantity of the organic substance to operate on is, in this case,
about 10 gr., which must be dried, and accurately weighed with the usual
precautions. Bodies very rich in either nitrogen or hydrogen are best
mixed with about an equal weight of pure sugar before triturating them
with the soda-lime. MM. Varrentrap and Will weigh the nitrogen under the
form of double chloride of platinum and ammonium, dried at 212° Fahr. This
salt contains 6·272% of nitrogen.
_b._ M. Péligot has modified the preceding plan by conducting the gaseous
matter extricated during the operation into a three-bulb tube charged with
a standard solution of sulphuric acid. This he subsequently pours into a
beaker-glass, and after tinging it with a single drop of tincture of
litmus, he tests it with either a standard aqueous solution of soda or one
of lime in sweetened water, after the common method of alkalimetry. The
difference between the saturating power of the acid in its normal
condition and after its exposure in the condenser indicates the amount of
ammonia formed. (See GUANO.) Each grain of ammonia contains ·82353 gr. of
nitrogen.
_Concluding Remarks._ The successful application of the above processes
requires considerable care and some aptitude in manipulating, as well as
the employment of a very delicate balance for determining the weights. A
greater error in the weighings than the 1/250 gr. cannot be tolerated when
exact results are desired. The method of MM. Varrentrap and Will for the
determination of nitrogen answers admirably for all organic compounds
containing it, except those in which it exists under the form of
hyponitrous, nitrous, and nitric acids; for which, however, it is not
required. When extreme accuracy is aimed at, the atmospheric air in the
apparatus, and that absorbed during the preliminary operations by the
substances employed, must be expelled before the application of heat to
the combustion tube. (See WATER, ANALYSIS OF.)
=OR-MOLU′.= [Fr.] This name is given to gold-coloured brass or bronze, so
finished off as to have the appearance of gold, or of being gilt; but it
is often applied in a more general sense. The French more particularly
excel in working in or-molu, and the products of this branch of their
industry hold an important position in the art manufactures of France.
To give or-molu its richest appearance, “it is not unfrequently brightened
up after ‘dipping’ (that is, cleaning in acid) by means of a scratch-brush
(a brush made of very fine brass wire), the action of which helps to
produce a very brilliant gold-like surface. It is protected from tarnish
by the application of lacquer.” (Ure.)
Ure says or-molu contains more copper and less zinc than ordinary brass,
and that although, in many of its applications, the colour is heightened
by means of a gold lacquer, in some cases the true colour of the alloy is
best preserved after it has been properly developed by means of dilute
sulphuric acid.
=ORMSKIRK MEDICINE.= A nostrum supposed to prevent hydrophobia, so named
after the residence of its inventor, Mr Hill, of Ormskirk. It is said to
have consisted of the ingredients named below, but nothing certain is
known on the subject, as the inventor died without revealing its
secret:——Chalk, 1/2 oz.; Armenian bole, 3 dr.; elecampane root, 1 dr.;
alum, 10 gr.; oil of aniseed, 5 or 6 drops; all in fine powder. For a
dose, to be taken for 6 successive mornings, in a glass of weak milk and
water.
=OR′PIMENT.= Native yellow sulphide of arsenic. The finest samples used by
artists (golden orpiment) come from Persia. See ARSENIC (Tersulphuret).
=OR′RIS.= _Syn_. ORRIS ROOT, FLORENTINE R.; RADIX IRIDIS, L. The dried
rhizome of _Iris Florentina_, _pallida_, and _Germanica_. Sialogogue,
irritant, subacrid, and errhine. Chiefly employed to impart a violet odour
to oils, tooth powder, snuffs, spirits, &c.; and when cut into peas to
keep open issues.
=ORSE′DEW.= Dutch leaf-gold.
=ORSEL′LIC ACID.= Two compounds pass under this name——ALPHA-ORSELLIC ACID
and BETA-ORSELLIC ACID. They closely resemble each other, and are obtained
in a similar manner; the first from the South American variety of _Rocella
tinctoria_, the last from that grown at the Cape.
=ORSELLIN′IC ACID.= _Syn_. LECANORIC ACID. A compound formed along with
picroerythrine, by boiling erythric acid for some time with water. It is
also formed by boiling alpha-orsellic acid with water. In both cases, if
the ebullition is too long continued, the new acid is wholly or in part
converted into orcin.
_Prop., &c._ Crystallisable; bitter-tasted; soluble in water; its aqueous
solution, by exposure to the air, assumes a beautiful purple colour.
=ORTHOCLASE.= _Syn._ POTASSIUM FELSPAR. This material, which is a double
silicate of potassium and aluminium, enters into the composition of many
rocks, and is a common ingredient in granite. It has the following
composition:——Silica, 64·8 parts; alumina, 18·4 parts; and potash, 16·8
parts. Part of the potassium is frequently replaced by small quantities of
calcium, magnesium, and sodium.
Orthoclase is used for glazing the finest varieties of porcelain, a very
intense heat being necessary to effect its fusion in the porcelain
furnace. By the Chinese potters it is called _petuntze_. “The name
‘orthoclase’ is generally restricted to the subtranslucent varieties,
there being many subvarieties (founded on variations of lustre, colour,
and other differences), of which the following are some of the principal,
viz. _adularia_, a transparent or translucent felspar, met with in
granitic rocks (frequently in large crystals); _moonstone_; _sunstone_;
_Murchisonite_, _erythrite_; glassy felspar or _lanadine_, a transparent
variety found in volcanic rocks, containing 4 per cent. of soda or
upwards.”[79]
[Footnote 79: Ure.]
=ORTHOPÆ′DIA.= In _surgery_, the straightening, correcting, or curing
deformities of children. See SURGERY.
=OSIER.= The osier, which is a species of willow (_salix_), and is largely
used in the construction of baskets and other wickerwork, is extensively
cultivated at Nottingham and on the level lands of Cambridgeshire and
Huntingdonshire, as well as on the banks of the Thames, Severn, and other
rivers. The small islands in these rivers, when planted with osiers, are
known as osier HOLTS. But large as is the supply of shoots afforded by the
English osier beds, it is insufficient for home consumption; hence great
quantities of ozier rods are imported into this country from Holland,
Belgium, and France. There are a great variety of oziers, and it is found
that those which have been the most highly cultivated yield the toughest
and finest wood, and those best adapted for the superior kinds of basket
work. The branches of the wilder and less domesticated kind, which are
more liable to break, are used for making hoops and coarse baskets. This
last variety, which is known as the COMMON OSIER (_Salix viminalis_),
grows on the alluvial grounds of Britain, and in other European countries,
and is often planted on the banks of rivers to prevent their being washed
away.
The following are the principal varieties of osier indigenous to this
country, and which yield the most valuable wood:——1. THE FINE BASKET OSIER
(_Salix Forbyana_). 2. THE GREEN-LEAVED OSIER, or ORNARD (_Salix rubra_).
3. THE SPANISH ROD (_Salix triandra_). 4. THE GOLDEN OSIER, or GOLDEN
WILLOW (_Salix vitellina_).
The osier requires plenty of water, and hence it thrives best in those
localities and low grounds which are washed by a river. The soil best
adapted for it is a rich but not clayey one. In planting an osier bed an
important condition is that the trees should be placed sufficiently
closely together, since it is found that, with too much space, the shoots
do not develop into long and slender branches, which are so much sought
after. The shoots are cut once a year, at any time between the fall of the
leaf and the rising of the sap in spring. After being cut they are divided
into those destined for brown, and those for white baskets. In the latter
ease the rods have to be peeled, but as this operation cannot be performed
at once, and the rimous of the bark would be difficult were they allowed
to dry, the shoots are placed upright and sustained in that position in
wide shallow trenches in about four inches of water, where they are kept
until they begin to bud and blossom in the spring, which they do as if
they were attached to the parent plant. The peeling is easily done by
passing them through an instrument known as a _break_. If the spring has
been a cold one, they have, previous to peeling, to be laid for some time
under a layer of litter.
When they have been peeled they are stacked, preparatory to being sold.
With the rods intended for brown baskets, no peeling is of course
necessary. They are therefore carefully stacked in some place protected
from the rain, and diligently watched to see that no heat is set up in
them, as is sometimes the case with freshly stacked hay, and which, if not
stacked, would cause the rods to rot and render them useless.
In England, besides the native produce, 5000 tons of osiers are annually
imported, valued at about £40,000. Of late years the Australian colonists
have turned their attention to the cultivation of the osier, in the hopes
of supplying the demand for it in Great Britain.
=OS′MAZOME.= The substance on which the peculiar odour and flavour of
boiled meat and broth were formerly supposed to depend.
_Prep._ From lean meat, minced, and digested in cold water, with
occasional pressure; the filtered infusion is gently evaporated nearly to
dryness, and then treated with alcohol; the alcoholic tincture is, lastly,
evaporated. The product has a brownish-yellow colour, is soluble in water,
and its aqueous solution is precipitated by infusion of galls and the
mineral astringent salts.
=OS′MIUM.= Os. A rare metal found associated with the ores of platinum by
M. Tennant, in 1803.
These ores mostly consist of a mixture of platinum, palladium, rhodium,
osmium, ruthenium and iridium. When they are treated with aqua regia, the
insoluble residue which remains, chiefly consists of an alloy and osmium,
iridium, ruthenium and rhodium. To separate the osmium from the other
metals, Fremy takes advantage of its easy oxidability, and of the
volatility of its tetroxide.
In the first part of this process (which is a great improvement upon the
methods previously followed) the above residue or alloy is heated to
redness in a platinum or porcelain tube. In that part of the tube which
projects from the furnace, some fragments of porcelain are placed, and the
tube is connected with a series of glass flasks, in which the tetroxide of
osmium is condensed as it distils over, any tetroxide that may have
escaped condensation is retained by a solution of caustic potash, placed
in the last flask of the series. This last flask is connected with an
aspirator, by means of which a current of air is drawn through the
apparatus.
Before being allowed to enter the heated tube the air is dried by being
made to pass through tubes filled with pumice-stone, moistened with
sulphuric acid. During the operation the osmium and ruthenium become
oxidised, the tetroxide of osmium condenses in needles in the flasks, and
mechanically carries forward the deoxide of ruthenium, which is deposited
upon the pieces of porcelain.
There are several processes for obtaining osmium in the metallic
condition. We give two of the most simple of these. 1. By treating the
volatile tetroxide of osmium obtained by Fremy’s method, as above
described, with hydrochloric acid and metallic mercury in a closed vessel
at 140° C.
The mercurous oxide which is first formed at the expense of the oxygen
contained in the tetroxide of osmium is decomposed by the hydrochloric
acid, and calomel is produced, together with metallic osmium.
The water and excess of acid are removed by evaporation to dryness, and on
heating the residue in a small porcelain retort, the excess of mercury and
calomel is drawn off, pure osmium being left behind in the form of a fine
powder.
2. Deville and Debray procure it in the metallic form by passing the
tetroxide of osmium, in a current of nitrogen, over carbon which has been
obtained by passing the vapour of benzine through a porcelain tube at a
high temperature. The metal procured by this process is of a fine blue
colour, with a tinge of grey.
The specific gravity of osmium in the pulverulent form is about 10; but
after having been heated to the fusing point of rhodium in the oxyhydrogen
jet, it acquires a density of 21·4, and in the crystalline state it has a
sp. gr. of 22·477. Osmium appears to be the least fusible of all the
metals.
There are five known oxides of osmium:
=1. Osmium protoxide.= (OsO). The anhydrous protoxide is of a
greyish-black colour. It is insoluble in acids. Its bluish-black hydrate,
which dissolves in hydrochloric acid, forms a solution of osmium
dichloride of a deep indigo blue colour. The solution absorbs oxygen
readily, and becomes converted into the tetrachloride (OsCl_{4}).
=2. Osmium sesquioxide.= (Os_{2}O_{3}.) This has never been isolated. Its
salts, which are uncrystallisable, are of a rose-red colour.
=3. Osmium dioxide.= (OsO_{2}.) This is black.
=4. Osmium trioxide.= (OsO_{3}.) This possesses feebly acid properties. It
has never been obtained in a separate form; with potassium it forms a
crystalline, sparingly soluble compound, having the composition
K_{2}OsO_{4}, 2H_{2}O, a dipotassic osmite.
=5. Osmium tetroxide.= _Syn._ OSMIC ACID (OsO_{4}). This oxide may be
obtained by operating, according to Fremy’s process, on the ores of
platinum, as already described. It is also formed when metallic osmium is
heated with potassic nitrate, or roasted in air. It crystallises in
colourless, transparent, flexible needles, which fuse easily, and dissolve
readily in water. Its aqueous solution, however, does not redden litmus.
Tetroxide of osmium is converted into vapour at about 100°C. The fumes are
excessively irritating and deleterious, and have an odour somewhat like
that of chlorine. This oxide unites with alkalies, but not with acids. It
is given off as tetroxide when the alkaline solution which contains it is
boiled. If applied to the skin, this oxide becomes partially reduced, and
imparts a permanent black colour to the skin, due to the deposition of
metallic osmium. With tincture of galls its solutions give a distinctive
blue precipitate.
There are four chlorides of osmium, the best known of which are the
dichloride and the tetrachloride.
1. =Osmium dichloride.= (OsCl_{2}). _Syn._ OSMIOUS DICHLORIDE, OSMIUM
PROTOCHLORIDE. This is green, and sublimes in green needles. It may be
obtained by heating metallic osmium in a current of dry chlorine gas. It
forms double salts, which are of a green colour.
2. =Osmium tetrachloride.= (OsCl_{4}). _Syn._ OSMIC TETRACHLORIDE, OSMIUM
BICHLORIDE. This may be procured in the same manner as the dichloride,
using, however, an excess of chlorine. It occurs as a red, crystalline,
fusible, deliquescent powder. It is more volatile than the dichloride.
Both the dry chloride and the tetrachloride of osmium are dissolved by
water, which decomposes them into tetroxide of osmium, hydrochloric acid
and the metal.
=OSTEOCOL′LA.= A rough sort of glue or gelatin obtained from bones by
digestion in dilute hydrochloric acid, to remove their earthy matter, and
afterwards acting on the residuum with water at a high temperature, until
it is wholly dissolved.
=OTAL′GIA.= Pain in the ear. See EARACHE.
=O′′THYL.= In chemistry, a radicle having the formula C_{2}H_{3}O, assumed
by Professor Williamson to exist in acetic acid.
=OT′TO OF ROSES.= See OILS (Volatile).
=OVALBU′MEN.= White of egg; to distinguish it from seralbumen, or the
albumen of the serum of the blood.
=O′VENS.= A very ingenious and useful improvement in the apparatus for
baking was introduced some years ago by Mr Sclater, of Carlisle. It
consists in causing the articles to be baked to traverse a heated
earthenware tube. This tube forms the oven. It is of considerable length,
and the biscuits or other articles are slowly traversed through it, from
end to end, at such a rate as will allow of the baking being completed
during the passage. The biscuits are carried on trays, set on travelling
chains; or the trays are made into an endless web or chain. The oven is
thus entirely self-acting, and the articles demand no attention whatever
from the attendants, whilst the system combines superior economy with the
best results. A ‘pyrometer,’ or heat indicator, is attached externally, so
that the attendant can regulate the heat with great facility. The object
of these improvements is to reduce the cost of baking, and to improve the
appearance of the baked articles. The apparatus is applicable as well to
the baking of articles of clay or earthenware as to bread or biscuits.
Of the ovens now in common use by the bakers, that known as the ‘hot-water
oven’ is perhaps the best; not merely in reference to economy, but also
with reference to its superior cleanliness, and the ease with which the
articles operated on may be turned out of that delicate yellowish-brown
tint for which the bread of the Viennese and Parisian bakers is so
celebrated. See BAKING, BREAD, &c.
=OWNER.= For the purposes of the Public Health Act this term is thus
defined:——“‘Owner’ means the person for the time being receiving the
rack-rent of the lands or premises in connection with which the word is
used, whether on his own account, or as agent or trustee for any other
person, or who would so receive the same if such lands or premises were
let at a rack-rent.”
=OX.= The _Bos Taurus_ (Linn.), one of the ruminantia. In its more limited
sense the word is restricted to the emasculated animal. The flesh, milk,
skin, horns, bones, and blood of this animal are all serviceable to man.
Goldbeater’s skin is prepared from the peritoneal membrane of its cæcum.
Its blood, fat, horns, and excrement were among the simples of the Ph. L.
1618. See BEEF, GALL, MILK, and _below_.
=Ox-Gall.= Syn. OX-BILE; FEL BOVINUM, F. BOVIS, F. TAURI, L. Crude ox-gall
is noticed at page 774. Refined ox-gall (_Fel bovinum purificatum_) is
prepared as under:——
1. Fresh ox-gall is allowed to repose for 12 or 15 hours, after which the
clear portion is decanted, and evaporated to the consistence of a thick
syrup by the heat of a water bath; it is then spread thinly on a dish, and
exposed in a warm situation near the fire, or to a current of dry air,
until nearly dry; it is, lastly, put into wide-mouthed bottles or pots,
and carefully tied over with bladder. In this state it will keep for years
in a cool situation. For use a little is dissolved in water.
2. Fresh gall, 1 pint; boil, skim, add powdered alum, 1 oz.; boil again
till the alum is dissolved, and when sufficiently cool pour it into a
bottle, and loosely cork it down. In a similar manner boil and skim
another pint of gall, add to it 1 oz. of common salt, and again boil,
cool, and bottle it, as above. In three months decant the clear from both
bottles, and mix them in equal quantities; the clear portion must then be
separated from the coagulum by subsidence or filtration.
_Uses, &c._ Both the above are employed by artists to fix chalk and pencil
drawings before tinting them, and to remove the greasiness from ivory,
tracing paper, &c. The first is also used in medicine.
=OX′ALATE.= _Syn._ OXALAS, L. A salt of oxalic acid. The soluble oxalates
are easily formed by directly neutralising a solution of oxalic acid with
a metallic hydrate, carbonate, or oxide; and the insoluble oxalates, by
double decomposition. See OXALIC ACID and the respective bases.
=OXAL′IC ACID.= H_{2}C_{2}O_{4}. _Syn._ ACIDUM OXALICUM, L. This substance
was discovered by Bergman in 1776. It occurs both in the mineral and
organic kingdoms, and is produced artificially by the action of nitric
acid on sugar, starch, woody fibre, &c. It abounds in wood-sorrel, in
which it exists in combination with a little potassa. With the exception
of gum and sugar of milk all starchy and saccharine substances yield
oxalic acid when treated with nitric acid at a somewhat elevated
temperature.
_Prep._ 1. From sugar:——
_a._ Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·42), 5 parts, diluted with water, 10 parts, is
poured on sugar, 1 part, and the mixture is digested at a gentle heat as
long as gaseous products are evolved; the liquid is then concentrated by
evaporation until it deposits crystals on cooling; the crystals, after
being drained and freed from superfluous moisture, are redissolved in the
smallest possible quantity of boiling water, and the solution is set aside
to crystallise. The residuary ‘mother-water’ is treated with a little
fresh nitric acid (say 1-1/2 part) at a gentle heat, after which it is
evaporated, as before, for a second crop of crystals. This process is
repeated until the solution is exhausted. The brownish-coloured crystals
thus obtained are allowed to effloresce by exposure to dry air, and are
then redissolved and recrystallised. By repeating this treatment they
yield pure colourless oxalic acid at the third crystallisation.
_b._ (Schlesinger.) Sugar (dried at 257° Fahr.), 4 parts, and nitric acid
(sp. gr. 1·38), 33 parts, are digested together, as before, and as soon as
the evolution of gas ceases the liquid is boiled down to one sixth of its
original volume, and set aside to crystallise. The whole process may be
completed in about 2 hours, and in 1 vessel, and yields of beautifully
crystallised oxalic acid, at the first crystallisation, a quantity equal
to 56 to 60% of the weight of the sugar employed.
_c._ (Ure.) Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·4), 4 parts, and sugar 1 part, are
digested together by the heat of a water bath, and as soon as gas ceases
to be extricated the vessel is removed from the heat, and set aside to
cool and crystallise. The use of a little sulphuric acid along with the
nitric acid contributes to increase the product.
2. From POTATO- or DEXTRIN-SUGAR:——(Nyren.) From the washed pulp of
potatoes, boiled for some hours with water, q. s., in a leaden vessel,
with about 2% of oil of vitriol, until the fecula of the pulp is converted
into saccharine matter, shown by the liquid being no longer turned blue by
iodine; the whole is then filtered through horse-hair bags or strainers,
and the filtrate is evaporated until its density is such that a gallon of
it weighs 14 to 14-1/2 lbs.; in this state it is converted into oxalic
acid by treatment with nitric acid in the way already described. A similar
process was patented some years ago by Messrs Davy, Macmurdo, and Co.
3. From SAWDUST:——(Roberts, Dale, & Co. Patent.) This process is the one
now usually employed for the manufacture of oxalic acid on the large
scale. It is based on Gay-Lussac’s discovery, that wood and similar
substances are converted into oxalic acid by fusion with caustic alkali.
The practical details of the process are thus given by Dr Murray Thomson,
of Edinburgh:——(1) Hydrate of sodium and hydrate of potassium, mixed in
the proportion of 2 equivalents of the former to 1 equivalent of the
latter, are dissolved, and solution evaporated until of specific gravity
1·35; sawdust is now stirred in until a thick paste results. (2) This
paste is then heated on iron plates, during which it is constantly
stirred; water is first given off; the mass then swells; inflammable
gases, hydrogen and carburetted hydrogen, are evolved, along with a
peculiar aromatic odour. When the temperature has been maintained at 400°
for one or two hours, this stage of the process is complete; the mass has
now a dark colour, and contains only 1 to 4 per cent. of oxalic acid, and
about ·5 per cent. of formic acid. The bulk, therefore, of the mass at
this stage consists of a substance whose nature is not yet known, but
which is intermediate between the cellulose and oxalic acid. (3) The next
stage consists in a simple extension of the last, in which the mass is
heated till quite dry, care being taken that no charring takes place. It
now contains the maximum quantity of oxalic acid, 28 to 30 per cent. (4.)
This oxalic acid now exists as oxalate of potassium and sodium in the grey
powder resulting from stage 3. This powder is now washed on a filter with
solution of carbonate of sodium, which seems to have the singular and
unexpected power of decomposing the oxalate of potassium and converting it
into oxalate of sodium. At all events, it is quite true that all traces of
potassa are washed out with the solution of carbonate of sodium. The only
explanation that occurs to account for this unusual decomposition is that
oxalate of sodium is a more insoluble salt than oxalate of potassium, and
therefore may be formed by preference. (5) This oxalate of sodium is now
decomposed by boiling milk of lime. Oxalate of calcium falls as a
precipitate, and soda remains in solution. This soda is boiled down, and
again made use of with fresh sawdust. This recovery of alkali is also
practised with the potassium salt which filters through in the last stage.
(6) The oxalate of calcium is now decomposed in leaden vessels with
sulphuric acid. Sulphate of calcium is precipitated, and oxalic acid is in
solution, which is now evaporated, and the acid separates in crystals,
which now need only to be recrystallised to make them quite pure, and fit
the acid for all the purposes for which it is employed. _Prod._ By this
ingenious process 2 lbs. of sawdust are made to yield 1 lb. of oxalic
acid.
_Prop., &c._ Colourless, transparent, prismatic crystals, possessing a
powerful sour taste and acid reaction; these effloresce in warm dry air,
with loss of 28% (2 eq.) of water, and then form a white powder, which may
be sublimed in part, without decomposition; the crystals are soluble in 8
parts of water (9 parts, “and form a solution of sp. gr. 1·045,”——Ure) at
60° Fahr., in their own weight or less of boiling water, and in about 4
parts of alcohol; with the acids, it forms salts called oxalates.
_Tests._——1. Solution of chloride of barium occasions a white precipitate
in neutral solutions of oxalic acid (oxalates), which is soluble in both
nitric and hydrochloric acid.——2. Solution of nitrate of silver, under
like circumstances, gives a white precipitate, which is soluble in nitric
acid, and in ammonia, and which, when heated to redness, yields pure
silver.——3. Lime water and solutions of all the soluble salts of calcium
produce white precipitates, even in highly dilute solutions of oxalic acid
or of the oxalates, which is freely soluble in both nitric and
hydrochloric acid, but is nearly insoluble in either acetic or oxalic
acid, and is converted into carbonate of calcium upon ignition.——4. Oxalic
acid (or an oxalate), when heated, in the dry state, with oil of vitriol
in excess, is converted into carbonate anhydride and carbonic oxide; the
former produces a white precipitate with lime water, and the latter, when
kindled, burns with a faint blue flame. Of the above tests, solution of
sulphate of calcium (_vide_ No. 3) is the most delicate and
characteristic.——5. It is distinguished from Epsom salt by its acid
reaction, its solubility in rectified spirit, its complete dissipation by
heat, and by emitting a slight crackling noise during its solution in
water. See MAGNESIA (Sulphate).
_Uses, Pois., &c._ Oxalic acid is chiefly used in the arts of calico
printing and bleaching; to remove ink-spots and iron moulds from linen,
and to clean boot-tops. It is extremely poisonous. The treatment, in cases
of its having been swallowed, is to promote vomiting, and to administer
chalk, whiting, or magnesia, mixed up with water, in considerable
quantities. The use of the alkalies or their carbonates must be avoided,
as the compounds which these form with oxalic acid are nearly as poisonous
as the acid itself. The remaining treatment is noticed under ACIDS. In
poisoning by oxalic acid the nervous system is almost always affected, and
the patients experience numbness, formication of the extremities, and
sometimes convulsions, so that the symptoms somewhat approach those
produced by strychnia, from which it is distinguished by its corrosive
action on the tissues, and its effect upon the heart and circulatory
system.
_Concluding Remarks._ The manufacture of oxalic acid is an important one.
The process of Roberts, Dale, and Co. has so much cheapened the price of
oxalic acid, that in 1851 it sold for 16d. per lb., and in 1864 it only
cost from 8d. to 9d. per lb. More than half the amount of oxalic acid used
all over the world is now made from sawdust. In manufacturing the acid
from sugar, on the large scale, the first part of the process is either
conducted in salt-glazed stoneware pipkins of the capacity of 3 to 5
quarts each (which are about two thirds filled and set in a water bath),
or in wooden troughs lined with lead, and heated by means of a coil of
steam-pipe. On the small scale, a glass retort or capsule is commonly
employed. The most appropriate temperature appears to be about 125° Fahr.
and the best evidence of the satisfactory progress of the decomposition is
the free but not violent evolution of gas, without the appearance of dense
red fumes, or, at all events, any marked quantity of them. When these are
disengaged with violence and rapidity, a greater quantity of the newly
formed acid suffers decomposition, and flies off in a gaseous form. The
sp. gr. of the nitric acid commonly used on the large scale ranges from
1·22 to 1·27 equivalent quantities being taken. The evaporation is
preferably conducted by the heat of steam. The evolved nitrous vapours are
usually allowed to escape, but this loss may be in part avoided by
conveying them into a chamber filled with cold damp air, and containing a
little water, when they will absorb oxygen, and be recondensed into fuming
nitric acid. Various modifications of this plan have been patented. That
of Messrs McDougall and Rawson, which is one of the simplest and best,
consists in passing the mixed nitrous fumes through a series of vessels
containing water, and connected together by tubes, so that the fumes which
collect at the top of one vessel are conveyed to nearly the bottom of the
next one, and then, bubbling up through the water, mix with the air, a
supply of which is provided for the purpose. The nitrous fumes are thus
brought alternately into contact with air and water, and by the time they
reach the last vessel are reconverted into nitric acid. Another plan is to
pass the mixed nitrous vapours through a vessel stuffed with some porous
substance, as pumice-stone or pounded glass, conjointly with a supply of
steam from a boiler and a supply of oxygen by a blowing machine.
The product obtained by skilful manipulation are——from good dry sugar,
128%; from good treacle, 107%.——“One cwt. of good treacle will yield
about 116 lbs. of marketable oxalic acid, and the same weight of good
brown sugar may be calculated to produce about 140 lbs. of acid.” “As a
general rule, 5 cwt. of saltpetre, or an equivalent of nitrate of soda,
with 2-1/2 cwt. of sulphuric acid, will generate sufficient nitric acid to
decompose 1 cwt. of good sugar, and yield, as above, 140 lbs. of fair
marketable oxalic acid, free from superfluous moisture.” (Ure.) On the
small scale, 5 parts of sugar yield nearly 6 parts of crystallised acid.
Chemically pure oxalic acid is best prepared by precipitating a solution
of binoxalate of potassium with a solution of acetate of lead, washing the
precipitate with water, decomposing it, whilst still moist, with dilute
sulphuric acid or sulphuretted hydrogen, and gently evaporating the
filtrate so that crystals may form as it cools.
=OXALURIA.= Also known as the oxalic-acid diathesis; is an abnormal
condition of the system, marked by the presence in the urine of crystals
of oxalate of lime. The crystals occur as minute transparent octahedra,
and sometimes in the form of dumb-bells. They can be easily recognised
under a microscope with a power of from 200 to 250 diameters, when they
present a very beautiful appearance. They differ from phosphatic deposits
in being insoluble in acetic acid. Their presence is mostly indicated by
the appearance in the urine of a cloud of mucus, which forms after the
urine has stood some little time.
Oxaluria most generally affects persons of dyspeptic and sedentary habits
and of nervous temperament; those suffering from skin affections and
neuralgia are also occasionally attacked by it. In ordinary cases the
treatment consists in the administration of the nitro-hydrochloric acid,
in infusion of gentian two or three times a day, or of a course of quinine
and iron, aided by plenty of exercise in the open air, care being taken to
avoid fatigue. If it can be borne the shower bath should also be had
recourse to. Rhubarb tarts and tomatoes, which contain oxalic acid, must
be excluded from the diet; so also should aerated water and too much
sugar.
If after a short time the oxalates should not disappear from the urine
under this treatment, the patient should seek proper medical advice; since
the persistent presence of this deposit is of very serious significance,
as indicating the existence in the bladder of that dangerous form of
urinary concretion known as ‘mulberry calculus.’
=OXIDA′TION.= _Syn._ OXYDATION. The combination of bodies with oxygen,
forming oxides; the operation or process adopted to induce or facilitate
such conversion.
=OX′IDE.= _Syn._ OXYD; OXYDUM, L. A compound formed by the union of oxygen
with another body.
=OXYCHLO′′RIDE.= _Syn._ OXICHLORIDE; OXYCHLORIDUM, L. A term often
loosely applied to compounds of an oxide and chloride, whether in definite
or variable proportions. See ANTIMONY (Oxychloride), &c.
=OX′YCRATE.= _Syn._ OXYCRATUM, L. The old name of a mixture of vinegar and
water, dulcified with honey.
=OXYCRO′CEUM.= See PLASTERS.
=OX′YGEN.= O. _Syn._ OXYGEN GAS, DEPHLOGISTICATED AIR†, EMPYREAL A., VITAL
A.†; OXYGENIUM, L. An elementary body discovered by Scheele and Priestly
in 1774. It is remarkable that, although this substance forms a large
proportion of our atmosphere (nearly one fourth), and confers upon it the
power of supporting respiration and combustion, and also constitutes the
principal portion of the water of our rivers and seas (eight ninths), and
enters largely into the composition of the majority of the various mineral
bodies that form the bulk of our globe, its existence should have remained
unsuspected, or at least undetermined, until a comparatively recent date.
Oxygen is an essential constituent of all living organisms. It is absorbed
by animals during respiration, and evolved in a free state by growing
vegetables when exposed to sunlight. The oxygen gas of the atmosphere is
mechanically mixed, not chemically combined, with the nitrogen.
_Prep._ 1. From red oxide of mercury, heated over a spirit lamp or a few
pieces of ignited charcoal. The operation is usually performed in a small
green-glass retort, or in a short tube of hard Bohemian glass, closed with
a perforated cork furnished with a piece of bent glass tube of small bore,
to convey the liberated gas to the vessel arranged to receive it. Pure. 1
oz. yields about 100 cubic inches.
2. From chlorate of potassium, as the last. Pure. 100 gr. yield nearly 100
cubic inches (Brande; 115——Ure). This is the plan adopted in the P. Cod.
The decomposition occurs with both the above substances at a heat below
that of redness.
3. From a mixture of chlorate of potassium (in coarse powder), 3 parts;
powdered binoxide of manganese, 1 part; both by volume. Pure. 100 gr. of
the mixture yield about 110 cubic inches as oxygen. This method, which has
received the approval of Faraday, is exceedingly convenient. The gas is
evolved with a rapidity which is entirely at the command of the operator
by simply increasing or lessening the heat. The residuum in the retort may
be kept for another operation, if not exhausted; or it may be at once
washed out with a little warm water, and the manganese, which is uninjured
by the process, reserved for future use. Red lead, black oxide of copper,
red oxide of iron, and several other substances, answers nearly as well as
binoxide of manganese.
4. From a mixture of bichromate of potassium, 3 parts; oil of vitriol, 4
parts; gently heated, as before. Yields pure oxygen very freely, and with
a rapidity entirely at the will of the operator. (Balmain.)
5. From binoxide of manganese and oil of vitriol, equal parts; as the
last. 44 gr. of pure binoxide of manganese yield 8 gr., or 24 cubic
inches, of oxygen; 1 oz. yields 88 gr., or 256 cubic inches. (Liebig.)
6. (On the large scale.)——_a._ From nitre exposed to a dull red heat in an
iron retort, or gun-barrel. 1 lb. yields about 1200 cubic inches of gas,
contaminated, more or less, with nitrogen. (Ure.)
_b._ From binoxide of manganese, as the last. 1 oz. of the pure binoxide
yields 44 gr., or 128 cubic inches, of oxygen (Liebig); 1 lb. of good
commercial binoxide yields from 1500 to 1600 cubic inches, or from 5 to 6
galls.
_c._ M. Boussingault has reinvestigated a process, long known, although
not usefully applied, by which pure oxygen gas may be obtained from the
atmosphere at a trifling cost, so as to enable it to be collected in
unlimited quantities and preserved in gasometers, like coal-gas, for
application in the arts, manufactures, and sanitation. This process
depends upon a peculiar property possessed by the earth baryta, of
absorbing atmospheric oxygen at one temperature and evolving it at
another; or rather, the ready conversion of hydrate of barium into
peroxide of barium by a current of atmospheric air at a dull red heat, and
the decomposition of this peroxide, by steam, at a lower temperature, even
at 212° Fahr., with reproduction of hydrate of barium, the process being
in reality a continuous one. The baryta is mixed with a portion of hydrate
of calcium or of magnesium, and the mixture being placed in an appropriate
earthen tube heated to dull redness, is oxidised by passing a current of
dry atmospheric air over it. As soon as the oxidation is complete, the
tube is connected with the gas-holder, and a jet of steam allowed to act
upon it; this reconverts the peroxide of barium into hydrate of barium,
the excess of oxygen being given off and collected in the gas-holder. The
baryta is then again oxidised by a fresh current of air and deoxidized by
steam, and the whole process is repeated as frequently as required. One
ton of baryta, thus treated, is capable of yielding 2500 cubic feet of
pure oxygen every 24 hours; and this, as it does not waste or lose its
properties, at the mere cost of the fuel and labour required in the
process.
_d._ From ferrate of potassium, prepared on the large scale. When exposed
to moisture or thrown into water, pure oxygen is evolved. This method has
been successfully adopted to maintain the air of diving-bells, and of
other confined spaces, in a state fit for respiration.
_e._ The decomposition of sulphuric acid has been recommended by MM.
Deville and Debray as a means whereby large quantities of oxygen gas may
be obtained at a low price. Into a tubulated retort are put fragments of
fire brick, and upon these, when raised to a full red heat, sulphuric acid
is made to fall drop by drop, by passing through an iron tube, which
passes through and is luted to the tubulure. The tube reaches to the
bottom of the retort, and the acid is poured into it through a bent
funnel. The sulphuric acid becomes decomposed into sulphurous anhydride,
oxygen, and water. The volatilised products are sent through a spiral
condenser, by which the water and any undecomposed acid become liquefied;
whilst the sulphurous acid is removed by subsequent washing with water,
and oxygen is collected in the usual manner.
_f._ A process for obtaining oxygen on a large scale, and which has been
made the subject of a patent in this country, has been devised by MM.
Marechal and Tessié du Mothay. It consists in heating in a current of
steam the manganates, permanganates, chromates and ferrates of the
alkalies and alkaline earths, and regenerating the residue by passing air
over it at a red heat.
_g._ Mallet procures oxygen in large quantities as follows:——He puts into
retorts revolving on horizontal axes, a mixture of cuprous chloride, and
kaolin or sand. He moistens this with water, heats it to 100° C., and
passes air through the retorts for some hours. His oxygen he obtains from
heating the resulting cupric oxychloride to about 400° C.; the aqua
residual cuprous chloride becomes converted into oxychloride on cooling
100 kilograms of cuprous chloride, after conversion into oxychloride,
about 3 cubic mètres of oxygen.
7. OXYGEN GAS AT THE ORDINARY TEMPERATURE. Boettger states that when a
mixture is made of equal weights of the peroxides of lead and barium, and
dilute HNO_{3} of a strength of 9° Baumé is poured thereon, a current of
pure O, free from ozone and antozone, is given off abundantly. This
mixture of the two peroxides may be kept dry in a stoppered bottle for any
length of time. Boettger also prepares pure oxygen, free from ozone, by
submitting permanganate of potassium to a gentle heat.
8. Fleitman[80] has found that when chloride of lime in solution is heated
with a small quantity of freshly prepared peroxide of cobalt, it is
completely resolved into chloride of calcium and oxygen. A concentrated
solution consisting of 35 per cent. of chloride of lime, which must be
previously filtered to prevent frothing, yields when heated with 1/10th to
1 per cent. of peroxide of cobalt, a volume of oxygen from 25 to 30 times
as great as that of the liquid, and always rather more than the calculated
quantity, probably in consequence of the absorption of oxygen from the
air. The remaining peroxide may always be employed again. A like result
follows if, instead of the peroxide, an ordinary salt of cobalt in small
quantity be used. Fleitman seeks to explain the reaction on the
supposition that there are several peroxides of cobalt, and that the
effects produced depend upon the alternate formation and partial reduction
of a higher oxide; or on the formation of a cobaltic and a percobaltic
hypochlorite, which is subsequently decomposed into cobaltous chloride and
oxygen.
[Footnote 80: Watts.]
_Prop._ Oxygen gas is colourless, tasteless, inodorous, and incombustible;
the sp. gr. is 1·057 (Dumas; 1·1026——Berzelius & Dulong; 1·111——Thomson);
100 cubic inches at 60° Fahr., and 36 inches of the barometer, weigh 34·29
gr. (Dumas; 34·109 gr.——Berz.; 34·6 gr.——Brande; 33·85 gr.——Ure). Its
density to that of atmospheric air is, therefore, as about 11 to 10. It is
a powerful supporter of combustion, and its presence is essential to the
existence of both animal and vegetable life. It forms 21% (20·81%) by
volume, and 23% by weight, of the atmosphere. (M. Dumas.) Water dissolves
about 5 per cent. by volume of oxygen, and by pressure a much larger
quantity, forming oxygenated water (AQUA OXYGENII). Oxygen has recently
been liquified.
_Tests._ 1. It is distinguished from other gases by yielding nothing but
pure water when mixed with twice its volume of hydrogen and exploded, or
when a jet of hydrogen is burnt in it.——2. A recently extinguished taper,
with the wick still red hot, instantly inflames when plunged into this
gas.——3. A small spiral piece of iron wire ignited at the point, and
suddenly plunged into a jar of oxygen, burns with great brilliancy and
rapidity. Charcoal does the same.
_Estim._ The estimation of the quantity of oxygen in an organic compound
has already been described. For determining the quantity present in
atmospheric air, and other like gaseous mixtures, Dobereiner has proposed
the use of pyrogallic acid. The air under examination (freed from
moisture) is measured into an accurately graduated tube over mercury,
capable of holding about 30 cubic centimètres, and which it should 2/3rds
fill. A solution formed of 1 part of dry hydrate of potassium and 2 parts
of water, and in volume about 1/35th that of the air, is next introduced
by means of a pipette with a curved point, and is gently agitated
therewith in the gas for a short time; the decrease of volume gives the
proportion of carbonic anhydride present. A solution of pyrogallic acid (1
gramme in 5 or 6 centimètres of water), equal in volume to one half that
of the solution of potassa already used, is then introduced by means of
another pipette, and the mixed liquids are cautiously shaken together over
the inner surface of the tube. When absorption ceases (which it does in a
few minutes), the quantity of residual gas (nitrogen) is read off from the
graduations; the difference in volume before and after the introduction of
the pyrogallic acid indicates the proportion of oxygen. This is a mere
modification of Prof. Liebig’s method. 1 gramme of pyrogallic acid in
combination with hydrate of potassium is capable of absorbing about 189
cubic centimètres of oxygen. (Dobereiner.) Other methods employed for the
analysis of air, depending on the increase or loss of weight when the air
is passed over finely divided copper heated to redness, the loss of volume
when the air is exploded in a eudiometer with half its bulk of hydrogen,
or when a stick of phosphorus is left in it for some hours, are well
known, and described at length in every elementary work on chemical
analysis. The last method, although less accurate than the others, has the
advantage of extreme simplicity.
_Uses._ Oxygen has been employed to increase the illuminative and heating
power of lamps, and to render vitiated air respirable, &c.; and when
largely diluted with atmospheric air, or condensed in water, as a remedial
agent in asphyxia arising from the inhalation of carbonic acid and
carbonic oxide.
Dr Ringer says that if oxygen be administered as a gaseous bath for an
hour or two at a time, and the bath repeated six or eight times a day, it
is of great service in senile gangrene.
_Concluding Remarks._ Oxygen gas may be collected in the usual way, either
over water, mercury, or in bags; or, on the large scale, in gasometers.
The purity of the products of the several processes given above depends on
the substances from which the gas is obtained being themselves pure. For
particular experiments the first portion of gas should be allowed to
escape, or be received apart, as with this, as with the other gases, it is
contaminated with the atmospheric air of the apparatus. The gas procured
from manganese or nitre may be purified by passing it through milk of lime
or a solution of caustic potash; it will still, however, retain some
traces of nitrogen. M. Limousin[81] has devised an apparatus for the
preparation of oxygen by the attendants of hospitals, which obviates the
risk of bursting of the retorts, attending its preparation by the old
method. The apparatus consists of two cast-iron hemispheres, whose edges,
which are well polished and about two centimètres thick, can be fitted
hermetically upon each other, and fastened by three screws. The mixture of
chlorate of potash and peroxide of manganese is placed in the lower
hemisphere, which rests upon a tripod; the upper hemisphere, from which
projects an iron tube, is now screwed on, and the iron tube connected with
india-rubber and glass tubing with a Wolf’s wash-bottle, from which the
gas after being washed passes through a second glass tube, and is thus
ready for use. It may be conducted into an air-tight bag, in which it will
keep for several weeks. Such a bag when supplied with a tube and stop-cock
will afford a ready means for inhalations. Oxygen in a condensed or
compressed state is prepared by Mr Orchard, High Street, Kensington. See
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES, OZONE, GASES, LIQUEFACTION OF, &c.
[Footnote 81: ‘Pharm. Centralhalle,’ xiv, 318.]
=OXYGENA′TION.= _Syn._ The act or process of combining with oxygen.
Formerly it was of more general application than the word ‘oxidation,’
with which it has been regarded as synonymous. ‘Oxygenation’ is, however,
at the present day practically obsolete.
=OXYGENI′SED LARD.= _Syn._ OXYGENATED AXUNGE; AXUNGIA OXYGENATA, L.
_Prep._ (Ph. Bat. 1805.) From prepared lard, 16 parts, melted over a slow
fire, and then mixed with nitric acid, 1 part; the combination being
promoted by constant stirring with a glass rod, until it ceases to affect
litmus paper. It should be extremely white, and should be kept in the
dark. See OINTMENT OF NITRIC ACID.
=OXYHYDROGEN BLOWPIPE.= See BLOWPIPE. Deville and Debray (‘Ann. Ch. Phys.’
[3], lvi, 385) employ the oxyhydrogen blowpipe in the following manner for
effecting the fusion of platinum and the refractory metals which accompany
it. The apparatus consists of the blowpipe _C_ (see _below_), a furnace
_ABD_, and a crucible _GHI_. The blowpipe is composed of a copper tube
about half an inch in diameter, terminating below in a slightly conical
platinum jet about 1-1/2 inch long. Within this tube, which is supplied
with hydrogen or coal-gas through the stop-cock _H_, is a second copper
tube _C′_ for supplying oxygen, terminated also by a platinum nozzle with
an aperture of about a twelfth of an inch in diameter.
[Illustration]
The furnace _ABD_ consists of three pieces of well-burnt lime of slightly
hydraulic quality, which may be turned at a lathe with ease. The cylinder
_A_ is about 2-1/2 inches thick, and is perforated by a slightly conical
hole into which the blowpipe fits accurately, passing about half-way
through the thickness of the mass. A second somewhat deeper cylinder of
lime, _B_, is hollowed into a chamber wide enough to admit the crucible,
and leave an interval of not more than a sixth of an inch clear around it.
_KK_ are four apertures for the escape of the products of combustion.
The outer crucible _HH_ is also made of lime, but it contains a smaller
crucible _I_ of gas coke, provided with a cover of the same material; and
in this the substance to be used is placed, the crucible resting on the
lime support _D′_. The conical cover _G_ is made of lime, and its apex
should be placed exactly under the blowpipe jet, at a distance from it of
3/4 to 1-1/2 inch.
The different pieces of the furnace must be bound round with iron wire to
support them when they crack. The oxygen is admitted under a pressure of a
column of 16 inches of water. The temperature is gradually raised to the
maximum, and in about eight minutes from this time the operation is
complete.
[Illustration]
By employing a jet of mixed coal-gas and oxygen (_EQ_, see _engr._) in a
furnace of lime, Deville and Debray succeeded, at an expense of about 43
cubic feet of oxygen, in melting and refining, in 42 minutes, 25·4 lbs.
avoirdupois of platinum, and casting it into an ingot in a mould of gas
coke; and much larger masses have since been melted by this method. Lime
is so bad a conductor of heat that if a cup of lime not more than 0·8 inch
thick be filled with melted platinum the exterior scarcely rises beyond
300° Fahr. (Miller’s ‘Elements of Chemistry,’ 3rd. ed., pt. ii, p. 825.)
=OX′YMEL.= _Syn._ OXYMEL, L. An acidulous syrup made of honey and vinegar.
There are only two oxymels in the last Ph. L. The ingredients in an oxymel
should be of such a character, and in such proportions, as to produce a
mixture of the proper consistence without evaporation.
=Oxymel of Col′chicum.= _Syn._ OXYMEL COLCHICI CORMI, OXYMEL COLCHICI, L.
_Prep._ (Ph. D. 1826.) Fresh corms (roots) of meadow saffron, 1 oz.;
distilled vinegar, 1 pint (wine measure); macerate for 2 days, press out
the liquor, filter, add of clarified honey, 2 lbs., and boil down the
mixture to the consistence of a syrup, frequently stirring.——_Dose_, 1 to
3 dr., twice or thrice a day; in gout, rheumatism, dropsy, &c.
=Oxymel of Gar′lic.= _Syn._ OXYMEL ALII, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1746.) Sliced
garlic, 1-1/2 oz.; caraway seed and sweet fennel seed, of each 2 dr.;
boiling vinegar, 8 fl. oz.; infuse, strain, and add of clarified honey, 10
oz. In hooping-cough, chronic diarrhœa, rheumatism, &c.
=Oxymel of Narcissus.= (Van Mons.) _Syn._ OXYMEL NARCISSI. _Prep._ Vinegar
of Narcissus (made with 1 part of fresh flowers of daffodil to 8 of
vinegar), 1 part; honey, 4 parts. Dissolve.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful. In
hooping-cough and spasmodic asthma.
=Oxymel, Pec′toral.= _Syn._ OXYMEL PECTORALE, O. INULÆ COMPOSITUM, L.
_Prep._ (Ph. Br.) Elecampane, 1 oz.; orris root, 1/2 oz.; water, 1-1/2
pint; boil to 1/2 pint, strain, add of honey, 16 oz.; ammoniacum, 1 oz.;
(dissolved in) vinegar, 3 fl. oz.; lastly, boil to an oxymel.——_Dose_, 1
spoonful, occasionally; in coughs, humid asthma, &c.
=Oxymel, Sim′ple.= _Syn._ VINEGAR SYRUP, ACETATED HONEY; OXYMEL (Ph. L. &
D.), OXYMEL SIMPLEX, MEL ACETATUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Acetic acid (sp.
gr. 1·048) 7 fl. oz.; distilled water, 8 fl. oz.; mix, and add them to
honey, 5 lbs., previously made hot. This contains only one half the acid
ordered in the Ph. L. 1836.
2. (Ph. D.) Clarified honey, 1 lb.; acetic acid (sp. gr. 1·044), 3 oz.; as
before. Stronger than the last.
3. (Ph. L. 1836.) Honey, 10 lbs.; acetic acid (1·048), 1-1/2 pint; as
before. This contains too much vinegar. (See No. 1.)
4. (Wholesale.) From honey (thick and good), 12 lbs.; melt it by a gentle
heat, add of distilled vinegar (of fully 5%), 2 quarts, and strain the
mixture through flannel. No evaporation is required.
_Uses, &c._ Demulcent and refrigerant.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 fl. dr., either
gradually sucked from the spoon or dissolved through some simple liquid.
Dissolved in water, it forms a useful and pleasant cooling drink or gargle
in fevers, sore throats, hoarseness, &c.; but in some individuals it
occasions griping. It is commonly used as an adjunct, in mixtures, &c.
=Oxymel of Squills.= _Syn._ HONEY OF SQUILLS; OXYMEL SCILLÆ (B. P.), MEL
SCILLÆ (Ph. L.), O. SCILLITICUM (L.) _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Mix and evaporate
on a water bath vinegar of squills, 1 pint, and clarified honey, 2 lbs.,
till the product when cold has a specific gravity of 1·32.
2. Vinegar of squills, 2-1/2 pints; gently evaporate it to 12 fl. oz., and
add of honey (previously made hot), 5 lbs.
3. (Ph. L. 1836.) Strained honey, 3 lbs.; vinegar of squills, 1-1/2 pint;
boil to a proper consistence. The formula of the Ph. D. 1826 was similar.
_Uses, &c._ Expectorant, and in large doses nauseant.——_Dose_, 1/2 to fl.
2 dr.; in chronic coughs, hoarseness, humeral asthma, &c.
=Oxymel of Ver′digris.= See LINIMENT OF VERDIGRIS.
=OXYR′RHODYNE.= _Syn._ OXYRRHODINON. An old compound formed of 1 part of
vinegar of roses and 2 parts of oil of roses.
=OXYSAC′CHARUM.= A syrup acidulated with vinegar. See SYRUP.
=OXYSUL′PHIDE.= A name given to certain compounds or mixtures of metallic
oxides and sulphides. See ANTIMONY, OXYSULPHIDE, &c.
=OYS′TER.= _Syn._ OSTREA, L. This well-known shell-fish is the _Ostrea
edulis_ (Linn.)
“The oyster is a genus of lamellibranchiate molluscs of the section with a
single adductor muscle. The shell consists of two unequal and somewhat
irregularly-shaped valves of laminated and closely foliated structure, and
the hinge is without tooth or ridge, the valves being held together by a
ligament lodged in a little cavity in each. The animal is in its
organisation among the lowest and simplest of lamellibranchiate molluscs.
It has no foot, and, except when very young, no power of locomotion, or
organ of any kind adapted to that purpose. Its food consists of
animalcules, and also of minute vegetable particles, brought to it by the
water, a continual current of which is directed towards the mouth by the
action of the gills. The gills are seen in four rows when the valves of
the shell are separated, a little within the fringed edge of the mantle.
In the most central part is the adductor muscle; and between the adductor
muscle and the liver is the heart, which may be recognised by the brown
colour of its auricle. The mouth——for, as in the other lamellibranchiata,
there is no head——is situated beneath a kind of hood formed by the union
of the two edges of the mantle near the hinge. It is jawless and
toothless. The ovaries are very large during the season of reproduction,
which extends over certain months when oysters are out of season for the
table. Oysters are hermaphrodite.”[82]
[Footnote 82: Chambers’ ‘Encyclopædia.’]
The fecundity of the oyster is amazing. Leeuwenhoek estimated that an
oyster, when full of spawn, contained from 3000 to 4000 of its offspring,
and it has also been computed that one oyster alone produces nearly a
million and a quarter of eggs. The eggs are hatched and the young produced
within the shell and mantle of the parent, where they continue floating or
swimming about in the vicinity of the gills in a creamy-looking kind of
mucus or fluid until expelled. Their expulsion is preceded by a change of
appearance in the fluid to a brownish or muddy colour; a circumstance that
may possibly indicate an alteration of composition in the liquid
unfavorable to the infant oyster, and thus lead to its departure. Their
departure or expulsion from all the parent molluscs of the oyster-bank or
bed takes place at the same time.
When they leave the parent shell the young oysters, which in this
condition are called _spat_, are not more than 1/120th of an inch in
length; and two millions of them when closely packed do not occupy a space
of more than a cubic inch. Thus cast adrift they are carried away by
currents, their multitudinous numbers being considerably diminished by
their falling a prey to numerous fish, as well as from their frequent
inability to find a suitable resting-place. This obtained, the young
oyster or spat attaches itself to it, and makes it the permanent home on
which it eats, grows, and breeds, and, debarred of locomotion, passes its
existence unless, of course, removed by external causes. Pending its
obtaining a suitable locality the young oyster is provided with a powerful
swimming apparatus which, it has been surmised, becomes absorbed or
otherwise disappears when its function is rendered unnecessary by the
stationary life of the oyster after it has secured a habitat.
The objects to which it attaches itself are numerous. The _Ostrea
parasitica_, a species of oyster found in warm climates, fixes itself to
the roots and branches of trees growing within reach of and washed by the
tide. Again, in some of the southern states of North America, large
oyster-beds, which are sometimes of such magnitude as to form buttresses
against the force of the tides and winds, originate from the habit of
young oysters attaching themselves to the shells of old ones. Similarly
the banks of some of the rivers of Georgia, which run up some few miles
inland from the sea, are composed of masses of living oysters attached to
each other. These banks, which are so massive as to make a channel for the
river, are known as _racoon banks_, because this animal is one amongst
others which frequents them for the sake of devouring the oysters.... In
some of the French _parcs_, or artificial oyster-beds, the young oysters
attach themselves to large unglazed tiles, or to faggots or other solid
bodies which are placed in suitable situations for the purpose; in the
English artificial beds hurdles are frequently employed, upon which the
spat become deposited. It appears the young oysters select dark objects,
such as slate or black stones, in preference to bodies of a lighter colour
to fix themselves to, and that they choose, where practicable, the inner
side of the object, or that portion of it away from the light. After a
time the young oysters are removed from the breeding beds, placed in the
fattening beds, from whence they are removed when they have attained a
sufficient size, and sent upon the market. In England oysters are not
regarded as fit to be eaten until they are at least three years old;
whereas in France they are served up to table about a year earlier. The
chief enemy of the young oyster is a species of whelk, known in France as
the _bigourneau_, _dog whelk_, or _piercer_. These creatures, which are
found in immense quantities in the celebrated oyster-beds at Arcachon,
near Bordeaux, cause great destruction amongst the bivalves. Part of their
anatomy consists of a boring apparatus, with which they pierce the shell
of the oyster; whatever of the dead oyster is left by the whelk is
devoured by the crabs, which creep into the aperture in the shell made by
the former.
We have already alluded to the abundance of oysters in parts of Georgia,
where, we may add, they are not only confined to the alluvial shores of
the rivers, but are also found in large numbers amongst the long grass of
the adjoining low lands.
In these districts it is by no means an uncommon practice for the
inhabitants to improvise a meal by picking up a bunch of oysters and
roasting them over a fire kindled on the spot. In many of these localities
the oysters occur in quantities so immense that a vessel of 100 tons might
be loaded within three times her own length.[83]
[Footnote 83: Chambers’ ‘Encyclopædia.’]
There are also many other parts of America in which the yield of the
oyster-beds is enormous. In the State of Maryland 6000 persons are said to
be employed dredging, and nearly 11,000,000 bushels of oysters were taken
in 1870-71.
In Baltimore as many as 10,000 persons are employed in tinning this
bivalve. Comparing the plenteousness of the oyster in America with its
great scarcity of late years in our country, and the consequent much lower
price of the foreign bivalve, we should be prepared to learn that
considerable supplies of oysters, both alive and preserved in tins, come
to us from America. The bulk of those consumed in Britain are a small
variety, and come from Maryland and Virginia.
In 1872, owing to the diminished yield of the English oyster-beds, an
attempt was made to introduce the American oyster into British waters; and
we believe the depôt for this purpose still exists at Cleesethorpes, at
the mouth of the Humber, where operations in this branch of oyster culture
are being carried on by the Conway Company. If, however, the opinion of an
eminent pisciculturist be correct, viz. that the American oyster will not
breed in our waters, we should conceive the experiment will be abandoned,
since nothing will be gained by relaying them, that cannot be attained by
simply importing them and sending them to the market, since it is asserted
they are kept alive out of water for a month.
A few years back a Select Committee appointed by Parliament to inquire
into the causes of the scarcity of oysters issued in 1876 a report in
which, endorsing the opinion of previous authorities on oyster culture,
they attributed the diminished yield of our oyster-beds to continual
over-dredging for them in open waters, without allowing sufficient ‘close
time.’ The Committee found that, in France, where the stringent
observances of the ‘close season’ was enforced, the supply of oysters had
increased concurrently. The Committee, therefore, recommended the
establishment ‘of a general close time,’ extending from May 1st to
September 1st, subject to certain exceptions under the supervision of the
Board of Trade; the levying of penalties for buying or selling oysters for
consumption during the ‘close season’ being also recommended. The
Committee further recommended that no oysters should be sold from the
deep-sea fisheries under 2-1/2 or 3 inches in diameter. Commenting upon
the above report, ‘Nature’ very sensibly remarks:——“What is really wanted
for the protection of the oyster is the assurance that these animals shall
not be sold before they have a chance of reproducing their kind. Since the
introduction of the railway system, the demand for oysters in distant
places has become so great and the price has risen so high, that oyster
culturists are tempted to send immature animals to market, and it is this
fact, more than any failure of spat, that is leading to the scarcity.
There are not, in consequence of the unceasing demand and consequent high
price, so many full-grown oysters left to spat as there ought to be; hence
the scarcity. Any Act of Parliament that decrees two oysters to grow where
only one grew before will be greedily welcomed both by oyster culturists
and by the public, and we hope that the issue of the present Report will
lead to some effective measures being taken for the preservation of this
delicious creature ere it be too late.” Previous to 1846 the wholesale
price of best English natives was £2 2s. a bushel; since then the price
has risen rapidly to £4 4s. in 1865, in 1866 to £5, and in 1869 it had
advanced to £8; that is, they had risen nearly 300 per cent. in 8 years,
which is equivalent to an advance of from 1/2d. to 2d. each. At the
present time they are, we believe, sold at from 3s. to 3s. 6d. a dozen by
the retail dealer.
Oysters are nutritious and easy of digestion when fresh, but are apt to
prove laxative to those unaccustomed to their use. It is generally
believed that they are in season each month of the year the name of which
contains the letter R. Whitstable in Kent, and Colchester and other places
in Essex, are the great nurseries or feeding-grounds for supplying the
metropolis, and, indeed, the whole of England, with the most esteemed
variety (NATIVES) of this shell-fish. The shells (TESTÆ PREPARATÆ, T.
OSTREARIÆ) were formerly used in medicine as an absorbent.
Of the various species of oysters, that which holds the foremost place in
the estimation of the _gourmet_ is the ‘English native,’ now, alas! owing
to the unwise rapacity of the collector, nearly dredged out of existence.
The native has a historic reputation too, since it appears it was eagerly
sought after by the old Romans, and was a frequent dish at their tables.
The enthusiasm of the celebrated Dr Kitchener for this particular oyster
was very intense. He is very particular in directing its shell to be
opened with the greatest care so that it may be eaten alive and “_tickled
to death by the teeth_.”
The green oyster of Ostend is also prized by epicures; it acquires its
colour from its food, which consists chiefly of green monads and
confervaæ. Some of the American oysters are excellent in flavour, and are
said to be without the copper taste occasionally to be met with in English
oysters. They smack a little of the mussel.
Payen gives the following as the composition of the oyster:——
Mean of two
Analyses.
Nitrogenous matter 14·010
Fatty matter 1·515
Saline matter 2·695
Non-nitrogenous matter and loss 1·395
Water 80·385
——————
100·00
See SHELL FISH, SAUCES, &c.
=Oyster, Scalloped.= Put them with crums of bread, pepper, salt, nutmeg,
and a bit of butter, into scallop shells or saucers, and bake them before
the fire in a Dutch oven.
=Oysters, Fried= (to garnish boiled fish). Make a batter of flour, milk
and eggs, add a little seasoning to it; dip the oysters into it, and fry
them a fine yellow brown. A little nutmeg should be put into the
seasoning, and a few crumbs of bread into the flour.
=Oysters, Stewed.= Open them, and separate the liquor from them, then free
them from grit by washing, strain the liquor, and add it to the oysters
with a small piece of mace and lemon peel, and a few white peppercorns.
Simmer very gently, and add some cream and a little flour and butter. Let
them be served with sippets.
=Oysters, To Feed.= Pat them into water, and wash them with a birch broom
till quite clean. Then place them bottom downwards in an earthenware pan;
sprinkle them with flour, oatmeal, and salt, and then cover with water.
Repeat this treatment every day, taking care to make the water pretty
salt.
=OZOKERIT.= _Syn._ FOSSIL WAX, MINERAL WAX. This substance, which has
within the last few years been utilised as a source of paraffin and the
mineral hydrocarbon oils, is found in various localities in the tertiary
strata, mostly occurring in, or in close proximity to, the coal measures.
But although extensive deposits of it are to be met with in Gallicia and
on the slopes of the Carpathian mountains, it is by no means an abundant
body. In the Austrian empire there are many large manufactories for its
conversion into paraffin and the mineral oils. In our country there is we
believe only one, that of Messrs Field. Ozokerit is usually met with as a
brown and compact substance, occasionally yellow; however, it is sometimes
black. It melts at a temperature varying from 60° to 80° C.
NEFT-GIL is a substance very similar to ozokerit, and is formed on the
island of Swätoi-Ostrow in the Caspian Sea. According to Rossmässler,
neft-gil is treated in the following manner:——15 cwt. of the crude
material is put into iron stills provided with a leaden worm, and
submitted to fractional distillation, yielding 68 per cent. of distillate,
consisting of 8 per cent. of oil, and 60 per cent. of crude paraffin. The
oil thus obtained is yellow, opalescent, possesses an ethereal odour, and
a sp. gr. of 0·75 to 0·81. Each distillation yields a quantity of a light
oil boiling below 100° C., which is used for the purpose of purifying the
paraffin. The crude paraffin obtained by the first distillation is
tolerably pure, has a yellow colour, and can at once be treated by the
hydraulic press and centrifugal machine; the oil from these operations is
again submitted to fractional distillation in order to obtain more
paraffin. The pressed paraffin is melted and treated at 170° to 180° C.
with sulphuric acid, which is next neutralised by means of lime, and the
paraffin again rapidly distilled, then again submitted to strong pressure,
and the material obtained treated with 25 per cent. of the light oil; then
again melted, again pressed, and finally treated with steam for the
purpose of eliminating the last trace of essential oil. The material
obtained by this treatment is a perfectly pure, colourless material, free
from smell, transparent, and so hard as to exhibit in large blocks almost
a metallic sound. The fusing point is 63° C.
=OZONE= (Greek, όζωh, I smell) is a peculiar variety of oxygen,
characterised by its greater weight, its peculiar chlorous smell, its
intensely active oxidising powers, and, finally, by the ease with which it
passes into common oxygen. The history of ozone may be summed up as
follows:——In 1785 Van Marum observed the production of a peculiar smell
when electric sparks were passed through oxygen. This smell, which every
one who has worked with an electric machine must have noticed, Van Marum
regarded as the “smell of electricity,” thinking that electricity was a
substance. In 1840 Schönbein, of Basle, proved the existence of a definite
substance, to which he assigned the name of ozone, and discovered several
modes of producing it, a delicate test for it, and several of its most
striking properties. He subsequently added many new facts, but to the time
of his death he never held a correct theory in regard to its nature. Later
researches by Marignac and Dedalline, Becquerel and Fremy, Andrews and
Tait, Soret, Brodie, and others, have established the true nature of this
remarkable body. It is now generally admitted that it only differs from
common oxygen in containing three atoms of oxygen in each molecule instead
of two. In fact, as the formula for oxygen is O_{2}, that of ozone is
O_{3}. It follows that ozone is half as heavy again as oxygen, and it has
accordingly been demonstrated that its specific gravity is 24 (H = 1),
that of oxygen being 16. All the known reactions of ozone are easily
explained in accordance with this view.
Ozone may be generated in several ways. 1. By the action of electricity on
oxygen or air, sparks are far less efficacious than the silent or ‘slow’
discharge; but the best apparatus is the induction-tube of Siemens. This
consists of two tubes, one inside the other. The inner side of the inner
and the outer side of the outer tube are coated with tinfoil, and these
coatings are connected with the terminals of a powerful induction-coil.
Dry air or oxygen streams between the tubes and passes out, strongly
charged with ozone.
2. M. Boillot has proposed a modification of Siemens’ apparatus, which
consists of two glass tubes, one fitting within the other, and each coated
externally with powdered coke made to adhere by means of gelatin. The
coatings of the two tubes are connected with the poles of an induction
coil, and a stream of oxygen is made to pass between the tubes, and
becomes thus exposed to the influence of the silent discharge, as in
Siemens’ contrivance.
3. Hozeau has invented an apparatus which he calls an ‘ozoniser,’ by means
of which ozone is produced in considerable quantities. In an ordinary
straight gas-delivery tube is placed a wire of copper, lead, or, better,
platinum, 4 to 6 décimètres long, with one of its extremities passing
through the side of the upper portion of the tube. On the exterior of the
tube is coiled a similar wire over the path of the preceding. When the two
are placed in communication with a Ruhmkorff’s coil, giving a 2 or 3
centimètre spark, a slow stream of oxygen passing through the tube will be
strongly charged with ozone. By this apparatus Hozeau has prepared oxygen
containing 60 to 120 (once 188) milligrams of ozone per litre.
Electrolysis of water furnished only 3 to 5 milligrams, barium peroxide
and sulphuric acid 10 milligrams per litre.[84]
[Footnote 84: ‘Comptes Rendus’ (‘Watt’s Dictionary,’ second supplement),
lxx, 1286.]
4. During certain processes of oxidation a piece of phosphorus, half
covered with water in a bottle of air, absorbs a portion of the oxygen,
while another portion becomes partially ozonised.
5. By plunging a clean glass rod heated to about 260° C. into a jar
containing a few drops of ether.
6. By mixing very gradually 3 parts of strong sulphuric acid and 2 of
permanganate of potash.
7. It has been shown that ozone is formed in small quantity during the
burning of hydrogen at a jet, and in several analogous reactions.
8. During the liberation of oxygen at low temperatures, when barium
dioxide is moistened with sulphuric acid, the odour of ozone is at once
apparent, and the evolution proceeds for a considerable time.
9. In the electrolysis of water the oxygen evolved consists partly of
ozone, especially if the poles are small.
10. Linder has suggested an easy method for the production of ozone for
hygienic purposes, which is as follows:——Make a mixture of manganese
peroxide, potassium permanganate, and oxalic acid. Two spoonfuls of this
powder, if placed on a dish and gradually mixed with water, will generate
ozone sufficient for a room of medium size; more water is added in small
portions from time to time as the evolution ceases; the powder may be kept
in a bottle ready for use.
Ozone has never been isolated. By the use of Siemens’ apparatus, oxygen
containing, as a maximum, twenty volumes per cent. of ozone may be
obtained. This represents a contraction of about 1-11th during formation.
But it is at present impossible to separate the one from the other. Ozone
is entirely converted into oxygen by a temperature of 270° C. The
conversion is effected more slowly at lower temperatures. Silver, iron,
copper, when moistened, are oxidised on the surface immediately at
ordinary temperatures by ozone.
Silver even becomes converted into a peroxide, although it will not
combine with ordinary oxygen, either when moist or dry. Little or no
absorption of ozone takes place when the metals are perfectly dry, except
with dry mercury and dry iodine, both of which remove it immediately. It
was conclusively shown by Andrews and Tait that little or no contraction
followed the absorption of ozone by these or any other agents. Hence, as
suggested by these observers, it seems probable that the ozone is resolved
into a quantity of ordinary oxygen equal in bulk to itself, which is
liberated at the moment when another portion of its oxygen enters into
combination with the metal or the iodine.
Ozonised air becomes deozonised when passed over cold manganese dioxide,
silver dioxide, or lead dioxide. When ozone is mixed with peroxide of
hydrogen, water and oxygen are formed. In these cases the ozone is
converted into ordinary oxygen, and the peroxides into monoxides.
=Antozone=, which Schönbein surmised to be oxygen in an oppositely
electrified condition to ozone, has been shown with great probability by
Van Babo to be peroxide of hydrogen.
From the ease with which it gives up its third atom of oxygen, ozone has
been proposed when mixed with air, as a means of decolorising wax,
stearin, and other organic substances which cannot be subjected to the
fumes of sulphurous acid or chlorine, or at any rate only partially so.
Ozone does not appear, however, to have been much, if at all adopted, for
bleaching the above products, which are still, we believe, mostly whitened
by the old method of exposure to the air.
Being one of the most energetic oxidising agents known, it is not
surprising that the claims of ozone as a disinfectant should have found
many supporters. One of its strongest advocates for this purpose is Dr
Cornelius Fox, who says,——“Ozone should be diffused through fever-wards,
sick rooms, the crowded localities of the poor, or wherever the active
power of the air is reduced and poisons are generated. Its employment is
especially demanded in our hospitals, situated as they mostly are in
densely populated districts, where the atmosphere is almost always
polluted by rebreathed air, decomposing substances and their products, and
where no mere ventilation can be fully effective. If practicable, it would
be highly advantageous to direct streams of sea-air, or air artificially
ozonised into the fever and cholera nests of our towns. Ozone may be
easily disseminated through public buildings, theatres, and other confined
atmospheres, where numbers of people are accustomed to assemble in order
to maintain the purity of the air.”
Another ardent believer in the hygienic value of ozone is Linder, who is
also a strong advocate for its medical application, and recommends it both
in the form of ozonised air and water in tuberculosis, rheumatism, asthma,
and many other diseases. Linder, it is said, has set up an ozone
manufactory, and vends ozone inhalations by the cubic foot.
To the contention of those who assert that it is impossible to convey such
an unstable body as ozone into the blood without the ozone becoming
decomposed into ordinary oxygen, this instability is denied upon the
authority of Lehone and Hozeau, who state that it is less liable to change
than is generally supposed, for they found, after working with it, that
its peculiar odour remained on their hands and garments for some time.
These views, largely shared by many others, as to the beneficial effects
of ozone have, however, not been allowed to pass unchallenged. M. P.
Thénard considered it important that both the public and medical men
should be apprised of the erroneous character of the opinions generally
entertained respecting the action of ozone on the organism. Ozone, he
says, so far from exerting a beneficial effect, is one of the most
energetic of poisons; and the serious accidents which have occurred in his
own laboratory do not leave the slightest room for doubt in the matter.
Writing to the ‘Comptes Rendus,’[85] M. P. Thénard narrates the case of a
guinea-pig, in which the beats of the pulse, normally 148 per minute, fell
to 1/30th after the exposure of the animal for a quarter of an hour to an
atmosphere charged with ozone. He states that under the influence of
ozone, even when very largely diluted, the blood-corpuscles rapidly cohere
and change their form. Other instances are recorded in which the blood,
contrary to anticipation, has been found in the venous condition.
[Footnote 85: Lxxxii p. 1857.]
Drs Dewar and M’Kendrick found that ozone acted as a very powerful
irritant upon the mucous membranes. Further, an experiment was made by
placing some small birds in a mixture of oxygen and ozone, containing 10
per cent. of the latter. In two minutes the birds were dead.
Ozone is frequently present in the atmosphere, formed by electricity and
perhaps by other means. Payen states that it does not amount to more than
1/450,000th weight, and 1/70000 by volume of atmospheric air. Other
observers state that it varies in amount, according to height, locality,
temperature, electricity, &c. Dr Buchanan says it is more abundant “on the
sea-coast than inland, in the west than in the east of Great Britain, in
elevated than in low situations, with south-west than with north-east
winds, in the country than in towns, and on the windward than on the
leeward side of towns.” According to the Scottish Meteorological Society,
ozone is most prevalent in the atmosphere from February to June, when the
average amount is 6, and lasts from July to January, when the average is
5·7. The maximum 6·2 is reached in May, and the minimum 5·3 in November.
These results are said to be in accordance with the conclusions arrived at
by Dr Berigny and M. Hozeau.
Although there appears no ground for doubting that artificially prepared
ozone, by reason of its actively disinfectant properties, may prove a
valuable auxiliary in checking the spread of certain diseases; it seems
far from satisfactorily established that the same quality is possessed by
the ozone in the atmosphere, or on the contrary, as has been asserted,
that certain ailments are caused by it. During an outbreak of influenza at
Berlin, Schönbein states that the air contained a large quantity of ozone;
a circumstance confirmed by Dr Pietra-Santa during the prevalence in
another locality of the same epidemic, which it was imagined might be
caused by the irritating effect of the ozone on the organs of respiration.
Billard, Wolf, Bœckel, and Strambis all state that, during the prevalence
of cholera at Strasbourg, Berlin, and Milan ozone was absent from the
atmosphere, and that the decline of the malady was marked by its
reappearance. Uhle ascribes the accumulation of malaria at night to the
non-formation of ozone by solar heat.
The above facts have, however, been disputed by some observers, whilst
others have refused to regard them as anything more than coincidences, and
have indeed cited evidence of a totally opposite character; thus Grellois
has stated that he found more ozone in a marsh than elsewhere.
Mr Kingzett has shown the incorrectness of Schönbein’s statement that,
when oil of turpentine and other essential oils are oxidised by exposure
to the air, ozone is formed. Schönbein was misled because from the
oxidised oil and the air in its vicinity he obtained the ozone reaction
with potassium iodide.
Mr Kingzett has demonstrated that the compound can be neither ozone nor
hydrogen dioxide, because it is destroyed at the boiling point of oil of
turpentine, viz. 160°, at which temperature ozone and hydrogen dioxide are
permanent; besides which it resists to a certain extent the action of
sodium thiosulphate, and its solution in water retains its properties
after long-continued boiling. Mr Kingzett believes the active properties
of the oxidised turpentine oil are due to the formation of monohydrated
terpene oxide (C_{10}H_{16}O.H_{2}O).
One of the most delicate tests for ozone is potassium iodide, either alone
or mixed with starch. A brown colour in the former case, a blue in the
latter, indicates the liberation of iodine. In the ozometer, strips of
paper saturated with starch and potassium iodide are exposed to the action
of a definite volume of air in a dark chamber. The comparative quantities
of ozone in different samples of air are judged of by the intensity of the
colour compared with a fixed scale on which 1 is the lightest and 10
generally the darkest shade. See OZONOMETER.
Ozone acts as a reducing agent in certain curious cases. Thus, hydrogen
peroxide and ozone reduce one another, water and oxygen being the sole
products; and some substances, such as platinum black and manganese
peroxide, convert it into oxygen without suffering change themselves,
being probably oxidised and reduced alternately.
=OZONOM′ETER.= This name has been given to paper prepared with a mixed
solution of starch and iodide of potassium. It is white, but is turned
blue by ozonised air when exposed to it in a slightly moistened state.
The following are the proportions given by Schönbein for the preparation
of the paper:——1 part of _pure_ iodide of potassium, 10 parts of starch
and 200 of water. Lowe gives 1 part of iodide to 5 of starch; Moffatt, 1
to 2-1/2. The best arrowroot must be used for the starch. It must be
dissolved in warm water and filtered, so that a clear solution is
obtained.
The iodide is dissolved in another portion of water, and gradually added.
The paper, cut in slips and previously soaked in distilled water, is
placed in the mixed iodide and starch for several hours; and lastly,
slowly dried in a cool dark place, the slips being hung horizontally.
Schönbein’s papers require moistening with water after exposure before the
trial is taken.
Payen’s ozonometer, which is an improvement on the above, is made of red
litmus paper with half its surface impregnated with a 1% solution of
potassium iodide. The portion of the paper becomes blue by contact with
air containing ozone, in consequence of oxidation and the formation of
potash. The unimpregnated portion of the paper undergoes no change unless
the air contains ammoniacal vapours, and then the paper becomes blue over
its entire surface.
M. Davy states that he has obtained very satisfactory results in the
estimation of ozone in the atmosphere, by employing a mixture of iodide of
potassium and arsenite of potassium.
The value of the ozonometer as an indicator of atmospheric ozone must be
looked upon as uncertain, when it is borne in mind that there are other
bodies besides ozone frequently present in the air, such as nitrous acid,
chlorine, &c., which give similar reactions with the above reagents.
=PACK′FONG.= _Syn._ PAKFONG, CHINESE WHITE COPPER. An alloy formed by
fusing together, in a covered crucible, arsenic, 2 parts, and copper
clippings, 4-1/2 to 5 parts, arranged in alternate layers, and covered
with a capping of common salt. The product contains about 10% of arsenic.
_Prop., &c._ White, slightly ductile, and permanent at ordinary
temperatures; at a temperature below that of redness it suffers
decomposition, with the extrication of fumes of arsenious acid. Formerly
much used for the scales of thermometers and other instruments, dial
plates, candlesticks, &c. It is now almost superseded by the alloy of
nickel and copper called German silver, to which the name is also applied
by some recent writers.
=PACK′ING.= As there is considerable art in packing brittle hollow-ware,
as glass, china, &c., in such a way that it will stand exposure to the
jolting, blows, and agitation of land carriage, it is better, when it is
of much value, or in quantity, to employ a person qualified for the job. A
man accustomed to packing such articles may be readily procured at any
glassworks or china warehouse for a trifling consideration. When this
cannot be done, it must be recollected that the great secret of safe
packing consists in the articles being carefully preserved from undue
pressure or contact with each other, yet so firmly arranged, and so
surrounded with some material as hay, straw, sawdust, &c., that they
cannot be shaken into such a condition by the ordinary contingencies of
transport. Loose packing must always be avoided.
=PAD′DING.= Among calico printers this term is applied to the operation of
impregnating the pores of their cloth with a mordant. It is now almost
exclusively performed by means of a simple piece of machinery (padding
machine), which essentially consists of——a ‘large reel,’ around which the
unprepared cloth is wound——a ‘guide roller,’ over which it passes to
smooth and adjust it before entering the liquor——a copper cylinder, or
‘dip-roller,’ nearly at the bottom of the ‘mordant-trough,’ under which it
is carried from the guide-roller——a half-round polished ‘stretched-bar,’
to give it equal tension——a pair of ‘padded cylinders,’ to remove
superfluous moisture——and, lastly, a ‘reel’ to receive the mordanted
(‘padded’) cloth. The degree of tension is regulated by a weight suspended
on a lever, and motion is given to the whole by an endless band from the
driving shaft. This machine is also applicable to many of the operations
of dyeing, bleaching, and starching textile fabrics.
=PAINT′ER’S CREAM.= _Prep._ Take of pale nut oil, 6 oz.; mastic, 1 oz.;
dissolve, add of sugar of lead, 1/4 oz., previously ground in the least
possible quantity of oil; then further add of water, q. s., gradually,
until it acquires the consistence of cream, working it well all the time.
Used by painters to cover their work when they are obliged to leave it for
some time. It may be washed off with a sponge and water.
=PAINT′ING.= The art or employment of laying on colour. In the fine arts,
the production of a picture or a resemblance in colours on a flat surface.
The artistic and mechanical consideration of this subject does not come
within the province of our volume; but notices of the leading materials
employed by both artists and house painters are given under the respective
names. See the various pigments, COLOURS, OILS, VARNISHES, &c., and
_below_.
=Painting, Distem′per.= A method of painting generally adopted by the
ancients. Water was the principal medium, but various gelatinous and
albuminous ‘binders’ were added to fix the pigments. Of these the most
important were glue, size, and white of egg. In modern distemper, as
executed by the painters of theatrical scenery, panoramas, &c., spirit of
turpentine is largely employed as a medium.
=Painting, Elydor′ic.= A method of painting invented by M. Vincent, of
Montpelier, having for its object to combine the fresh appearance and
finish of water colours with the mellowness of oil painting. The liquid
employed as a vehicle for the pigments is an emulsion formed of oil and
water by the intervention of certain portion of gum or mucilage.
=Painting, Enam′el.= In this variety of painting, vitrifiable colours are
laid on thin plates of metals, and fused into it. The outline is first
burnt in, after which the parts are filled up gradually, with repeated
fusions at an enameller’s lamp, to the most minute finishing touches. “The
enamel painter has to work, not with actual colours, but with mixtures
which he only knows from experience will produce certain colours after the
operation of the fire.” (Aikin.)
=Painting, Encaus′tic.= This method is very ancient, but is now seldom
practised. According to Pliny, the colours were made up into crayons with
wax, and the subject being traced on the ground with a metal point, they
were melted on the picture as they were used. A coating of melted wax was
then evenly spread over all, and when it had become quite cold was finally
polished.
The art of encaustic painting, after lying dormant for about 15 centuries,
was revived by Count Caylus, in 1753. In its new form, the wood or canvas
to be painted on is first well rubbed over with wax, and then held before
the fire, so that the wax may penetrate and fill up all the interstices,
and form a perfectly even surface. The coloured pigments are next mixed
with the powder noticed below, which is then rubbed smooth with some thick
gum water, and applied with brushes in the same manner as ordinary water
colours. When the painting is finished, and quite dry, it is brushed over
with pure white wax in a melted state, the surface being equalised by the
skilful application of heat; it is, lastly, polished off; as before.
_The powder._——To white wax, melted in an earthen pipkin, add, in small
portions at a time, an equal weight of powdered mastic, stirring
continuously until the whole is incorporated; then pour it into cold
water, and afterwards reduce it to powder in a wedgwood-ware mortar. A
small quantity only of this powder is used with light colours; but more is
required with the darker ones, until, on approaching black, the two may be
mixed in almost equal proportions.
=Painting, Fres′co.= This method of painting was known to the ancient
Egyptians, and was commonly practised by the Greeks and Romans. It is
confined to the decoration of the walls of buildings, and is executed by
incorporating the colours with the still moist plaster, or gesso. The
pigments employed are entirely mineral or vitreous. As it is extremely
difficult to alter the work after the colours are once absorbed, or after
the ground has hardened, the whole must be carefully designed before
commencing the picture, and no more commenced at once than can be executed
during the day.
Of all the varieties of painting, fresco is “undoubtedly the most virile,
most sure, most resolute, and most durable” (Vasari), and the one most
adapted for the purposes of historical painting in its grandest and most
exalted forms. In comparison with it, it has been said that even oil
painting is “employment fit only for women and children.” (Michael
Angelo.)
=Painting, Glass.= See STAINED GLASS.
=Painting, Oil.= This well known and much practised method of painting
takes its name from the vehicle employed for the colours. The last may be
any of those of a permanent character, and whose natural tint is not
altered by admixture with oil. Linseed, nut, and poppy oil, are those
which are principally employed. The first requires the addition of
‘driers,’ and hence is generally used under the form of ‘boiled oil.’
Spirit of turpentine is commonly used to thin down the prepared colours,
and the finished picture is frequently covered with a coat of varnish.
=Painting, Por′celain.= See POTTERY, STAINED GLASS, &c.
=Painting, Vel′vet.= Any of the ordinary non-corrosive pigments or liquid
colours, thickened with a little gum, may be employed in this art;
preference being, however, given to those that possess the greatest
brilliancy, and which dry without spreading. See STAINS, &c.
=Painting, Water-colour.= In its strictest and modern sense, ‘water-colour
painting’ means the painting on paper with colours diluted with water. The
English school of water-colour painting has produced works which bear
comparison with the great masterpieces in oil, and even surpass them in
the delicacy of atmospheric effects. The old practice of making the entire
drawing in light and shade by washes of Indian ink or neutral tints, and
then adding the various local colours in transparent washes, has given
place to the more healthy system of painting every object in its
appropriate local colour at the outset.
=PAINTINGS.= Many valuable paintings suffer premature decay from the
attacks of a microscopic insect, a species of acarus or mite. The best
method of preventing this variety of decay, is to add a little creasote
(dissolved in brandy or vinegar), or a few grains each of corrosive
sublimate and sal ammoniac (dissolved in a little water), to the paste and
glue used to line the picture, as well as to add a few drops of pure
creasote or of an alcoholic or ethereal solution of corrosive sublimate to
the varnish, when any is to be applied. If the destruction alluded to has
already commenced, the painting should be at once carefully cleaned and
re-lined, observing to employ one or other of the remedies just mentioned.
The most appropriate and only safe situation in which to keep paintings,
is where there is a pure and moderately dry atmosphere. To protect
pictures from the effects of damp, it has been suggested to dip the canvas
into a solution of silicate of potash, and afterwards dried, previous to
its being used. Impure air abounds in carbonic acid and sulphuretted
hydrogen. It is the presence of the last in the air that blackens the
‘lights,’ and causes most of the ‘middle tints’ and ‘shades’ to fade; and
it is exposure to damp that produces mouldiness and decay of the canvas.
For this reason valuable paintings should not be kept in churches, nor
suspended against heavy walls of masonry, especially in badly ventilated
buildings. Excess of light, particularly the direct rays of the sun, also
acts injuriously on paintings, since it bleaches some colours and darkens
others.
The blackened lights of old pictures may be instantly restored to their
original hue by touching them with peroxide of hydrogen, diluted with 6
or 8 times its weight of pure water. The part must be afterwards washed
with a clean sponge and water. The most astonishing results have been
produced in this way. See PEROXIDE OF HYDROGEN.
Pettenkofer observing the colours of many of the oil paintings in the
Munich galleries apparently fading, discovered that the dim and grey
appearance they then presented, was not really due to any decay of colour,
but to a discontinuity of the molecules of the vehicle, and the resinous
substances mixed with the pigments; the effect of which was to break up
and lessen the mass of transparent colour and to diminish its intensity.
This separation from each other, of the alternate particles, he conceived
was owing to the shrinking and contraction they underwent after long years
of exposure to a moist atmosphere. To remedy it Pettenkofer subjected the
affected picture to two simple processes, which he is said to have found
absolutely successful. The first, which he terms the ‘regeneration’
process, consists in enclosing the picture in a flat box, where it is
exposed to the vapours of alcohol, part of which being absorbed by the
resinous molecules, restore them to their original volume. Hence it
follows that the gaps between the molecules being thus filled up, there is
presented to the eye a continuous mass of transparent colour, as when the
picture was freshly painted.
In the previous operation the resinous constituents only of the picture
have been acted upon and restored to their normal condition. The hardened
molecules of the oil which have been employed as a vehicle have likewise
diminished in bulk, from the same causes, and in so doing have contributed
to the lessening of the brightness of the picture. In cases where it is
found the increased volume of resinous particles has failed to fill up the
intervals between the shrunken oil molecules, Pettenkofer subjects the
picture to a further process. In this, which he terms ‘nourishing it,’ the
picture is simply rubbed over with balsam of copaiba.
Oil, which was formerly employed for this purpose, is very strongly
condemned by Pettenkofer.
Oil paintings, as probably most of our readers are aware, are mostly
executed either on wood (‘panel’) or canvas, now principally on the
latter. Both these substances have to undergo a preliminary operation
known as ‘priming,’ the priming being, in short, the ground on which the
paint is placed. This priming may consist either of a number of layers
composed of a mixture of chalk or plaster, with paste or glue, or else of
a series of coats of oil colour. When a canvas or panel is prepared with
the former, it is called ‘distemper priming,’ when with the latter, ‘oil
priming.’ The distemper is the more quickly prepared, but is open to the
objection of being easily broken, and of a liability to absorb moisture,
by which it becomes liable to separate from the canvas.
If the priming be of oil colour it is desirable that the chief pigment
used in making it should be white lead, and that if any other colours are
added, they should be in comparatively small quantities. Dr R. Liebreich
cites an example in which a departure from this precaution, persevered in
from the middle of the 16th to that of the 17th century, by a celebrated
school of Italian painters (the Bologna), has resulted in the destruction
in their works of all the glazing of the picture, “so that those colours
only can be recognised which either contain white, or are glazed on
white.” Furthermore, that the dark priming used by these artists has
caused the dark parts of their pictures to become still darker.
This priming which was of a reddish-brown colour, was composed of a
mixture of bole Armenian and umber; and it is conjectured it was employed
with the object of modifying or softening too violent contrasts of light
and dark colours, and thus of easily securing effective chiaroscuro, and
of aiding rapid execution.
The Dutch and Flemish painters mostly employed a light coloured priming;
sometimes it was of a light oak colour. Vandyke is said to have used grey
grounds for his pictures, and in some few instances dull red ones; and
since his pictures are free from the objectionable qualities met with in
the works of the Bologna artists, it has been surmised that in this method
of working, he had recourse to impasto colouring.
In the selection of wood, which is subsequently to be used for the
picture, considerable judgment and experience are required, that from the
toughest and soundest oaks, nut trees, or cedar, being sought after. The
cutting it into boards, and seasoning it, are also points exacting a great
amount of time and care.
The backs of pictures, if made of wood, in addition to their liability to
attacks from insects, not unfrequently warp, or fissures form in them, or
they may become hopelessly rotten.
When the picture warps, it should be moistened with water at the back, on
which it should be lain for 24 hours, at the end of which time, or
sometimes less, it becomes perfectly straight. Fissures may be filled up
by pieces of wood cut to the required size. Small pieces of rotten wood,
if not too near the painting, may be cut out and the gaps filled up with
wedge-shaped pieces of wood. Where the loss is insignificant it may be
stopped up with cement. When the panel is very rotten and decayed, it may
be necessary to remove the picture from it altogether, and to place it
either on a new panel, or upon what Dr Liebreich regards as better still,
a piece of canvas.
This is by no means so formidable and astonishing an operation as it may
at first sight appear; in short, as will be directly shown, the picture
may, if necessary, be freed from its priming even, without any difficulty.
Hacquin, of Paris, was one of the first to remove an oil painting from its
base, and to place it upon a new one. He did this with one of Raphael’s
Madonnas, in the gallery of the Louvre; and the same treatment has since
been extended to the ‘Resurrection of Lazarus,’ by Sebastian del Piombo,
one of the pictures in our National Gallery. This process is generally
accomplished as follows:——
“First of all the surface of the picture is pasted over with gauze and
paper; after that the wood is made straight by moistening, or, if
necessary, by making incisions with the saw, into which cuneiform pieces
of wood are driven. By means of a tenon-saw the panel is to be sawn into
little squares, which must be removed by a chisel, and in this way the
thickness of the wood is reduced to half an inch; it is then planed until
it becomes no thicker than paper, and the rest is removed by means of a
knife and with the fingers.
“The painting being thus severed from its basis, it can be fixed on canvas
if the priming is sufficiently preserved. In the opposite case a mixture
made of chalk and glue, or something of the kind, must be put on first,
and very evenly smoothed after being dry. This done the new canvas has to
be fixed upon it by means of a mixture of glue, varnish, and turpentine,
and the substance of the picture pressed tightly and evenly against it by
means of warm irons.”[86]
[Footnote 86: Liebreich.]
Defects in the priming of an oil painting, when they are confined to a
slight separation of the priming of a canvas, may be remedied by pouring
into the gap caused by the severance a little solution of size, and then
pressing the separated surfaces gently together. Slight cracks must be
filled up with fresh priming.
For paintings in which the whole of the priming seems insecure, or has
extensively separated from the canvas, it is recommended to remove them
entirely from the old basis and to transfer them to new panels or canvas.
The property of unchangeableness, or indisposition to fade, as exemplified
in the retention of its freshness of colour by a picture, is one which, it
is asserted, is very much more generally met with in the pictures of the
Italian,[87] and Dutch painters of the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries,
than in those of the French and English schools of the last hundred years.
Opinions have been advanced in explanation of this circumstance. One is,
that the older masters used pigments and vehicles of much greater purity
and freedom from adulteration than the latter generations of painters;
another, that they worked by a method and prepared their colours by a
process unknown since their time, in fact, that they were possessed of a
technical secret, which, as they never divulged it, has died with them; a
third, that they had choice of many colours unknown in the present day.
[Footnote 87: From the Italian school must be excepted that of Bologna.]
One of the later and most valuable contributions to our knowledge of
these points has been made by Dr R. Liebreich, in his lecture “On the
Deterioration of Oil Paintings,” delivered at the Royal Institution, March
1st, 1878, which also embraces the practical deductions to be drawn from
the results of his investigations. The plan adopted by Dr Liebreich for
unravelling the so-called secret by which the old masters so generally
contrived to secure permanency for their colours was ingenious and
logical; it consisted in dissecting the structure and chemically analysing
the pigments, vehicles, &c., of the pictures of the pupils of the great
masters, for “fortunately they painted with the same material and by the
same methods as the masters, and thousands of pictures by the pupils, well
preserved and in different stages of decay, may be easily secured.”
The third explanation previously given as a reason for the superior
durability of the colouring of the old over the later oil paintings is
thus disposed of by him. He says:——
“We meet very often with the idea that the old masters had been in
possession of colours, that is, pigments, the knowledge of which has been
lost, and that this accounts principally for the difference between the
oil paintings of the 15th and 16th centuries, on the one hand, and that of
the 18th and 19th on the other. But this is a great mistake. We know
perfectly well the pigments used by the old masters; we possess the same
and a considerable number of new ones, good as well as bad, in addition.”
He adds, “In using the expression of good and bad, I am thinking
principally of their durability. From this point of view the pigments can
be placed under three headings:——
“1. Those that are durable in themselves and also agree well with the
other pigments with which they have to be mixed.
“2. Such as when sufficiently isolated remain unaltered, but when in
contact with certain other pigments change colour, or alter the others, or
produce a reciprocal modification.
“3. Those which are so little durable that, even when isolated from other
pigments, the mere contact of the vehicle, the air, or the light, makes
them in time fade, darken, or disappear altogether.
“_The old masters used without reserve only those belonging to the first
of these three categories. For those belonging to the second they imposed
on themselves certain limits and precautions. Those belonging to the third
they did not use at all._
“That some of the modern masters have not followed these principles is not
owing to a lost secret, but to the fact they disregarded those well known
principles, and even consciously acted against them. In Sir Joshua
Reynolds’ diary, for instance, we read that in order to produce certain
tints of flesh, he mixed orpiment, carmine lake, and blue black together.
“Now, orpiment is one of the colours of the second category, carmine lake
one of the third. That is to say, orpiment, as long as it remains
isolated, keeps its brilliant yellow or reddish orange colour; but when
mixed with white lead it decomposes, because it consists of sulphur and
arsenic, and it moreover blackens the white lead, because the sulphur
combines with it. Carmine lake, even if left isolated, does not stand as
an oil colour, and, therefore, has been superseded by madder lake.
Unfortunately some of the most brilliant colours are perishable to such a
degree that they ought never to be used; yet it seems to me that just in
one branch of art, in which of late remarkable progress has been made, I
mean landscape painting, the artists, in order to obtain certain effects
of colour not easy to be realised, do not always resist the temptation to
make use of a number of pigments, the non-durability of which is proved
beyond doubt.”
Another point which Dr Liebreich regards as of much more importance even
than the selection and treatment of their pigments, and in which he says
the old masters exercised great discretion, was the more sparing use of
the vehicles and liquids they mixed with their colours.
He points out that there are certain pigments which when mixed with the
oil impede its drying, whilst others there are which hasten it. “Supposing
now,” he says, “we should add to each of the different pigments the same
quantity of oil, the drying of it would progress at different rates. But
in reality this difference is very greatly increased by the fact that the
different pigments require very different quantities of oil, in order to
be ground to the consistency requisite for painting.”
Pettenkofer quotes the following figures given to him by one of the colour
manufacturers:——
100 parts (weight) White lead require 12 parts of oil.
” ” Zinc white ” 14 ”
” ” Green chrome ” 15 ”
” ” Chrome yellow ” 19 ”
” ” Vermilion ” 25 ”
” ” Light red ” 31 ”
” ” Madder lake ” 62 ”
” ” Yellow ochre ” 66 ”
” ” Light ochre ” 72 ”
” ” Camel’s brown ” 75 ”
” ” Brown manganese ” 87 ”
” ” Terre verte ” 100 ”
” ” Parisian blue ” 106 ”
” ” Burnt terre verte ” 112 ”
” ” Berlin blue ” 112 ”
” ” Ivory black ” 112 ”
” ” Cobalt ” 125 ”
” ” Florentine brown ” 150 ”
” ” Burnt terra sienna ” 181 ”
” ” Raw terra sienna ” 140 ”
According to this table, a hundred parts of the quick drying white lead
are ground with twelve parts of oil, and on the other hand, slow-drying
ivory black requires one hundred and twelve parts of oil.
It is very important that artists should have an exact knowledge of these
matters. But it seems to me that they are insufficiently known to most of
them. All, of course, know perfectly how different the drying quality of
different colours is. But that these different colours introduce into the
picture so different a quantity of the oil, and how large the quantity is
in the colours they buy, and, further, that the oil as well as the mediums
or siccatives they add to dry the colours are gradually transformed into a
caoutchouc-like opaque substance, which envelopes and darkens the
pigments, and, moreover, that the oil undergoes, not in the beginning, but
much later on, when it is already completely dry, changes of volume, and
so impairs the continuity of the picture——all this is not sufficiently
known. Otherwise, the custom of painting with the ordinary oil colours, to
be bought at any colourman’s, would not have been going on for nearly a
hundred years, in spite of all the clearly shown evil results——results due
chiefly to the principal enemy of oil painting, that is to say, the oil.
A close optical examination and accurate study of the pictures of the
French and English masters of the last hundred years have revealed to Dr
Liebreich their principal defects, which he says are:——
1. Darkening of the opaque bright colours.
2. Fading of the transparent brilliant colours.
3. Darkening, and above all, cracking of the transparent dark colours. He
states that these cracks are so characteristic and distinctive of the
pictures of this period that they might be used as a test as to whether or
not a picture really belonged to this school, or was only a copy.
This peculiar cracking in the paint is, according to Dr Liebreich,
particularly observable in Guericault’s ‘Wreck of the Medusa’ in the
Louvre, and also in Ingres’ ‘Portrait of Cherubini,’ and as the same
defect is not to be seen in the works of the Dutch and Italian artists,
the very rational inference to be drawn is that the methods followed by
these schools were sounder than those adopted by their English and French
successors. Dr Liebreich believes the cracks were owing to the practice of
painting over one colour with another before the first was perfectly dry.
“The study of the alterations,” says Dr Liebreich “already fully developed
within the last hundred years only, and their comparison with the works of
the old masters would suggest the following rules for the process of
painting:——
“1. That the oil should in all colours be reduced to a minimum, and under
no form should more of it than absolutely necessary be introduced into a
picture.
“2. All transparent colours which dry very slowly should be ground, not
with oil at all, but with a resinous vehicle.
“3. No colour should be put on any part of a picture which is not yet
perfectly dry, and above all, never a quick-drying colour upon a
slowly-drying one which is not yet perfectly dry.
“4. White and other quick-drying opaque colours may be put on thickly. On
the contrary, transparent and slowly-drying colours should always be put
on in thin layers. If the effect of a thick layer of these latter is
required, it must be produced by laying one thin layer over another,
taking care to have one completely dry before the next is laid on. If
transparent colours are mixed with sufficient quantity of white lead they
may be treated like opaque ones.”
Dr Liebreich concludes his interesting lecture with some judicious advice
on the subject of picture cleaning, and points out that, since different
pictures require to be differently operated upon, all universal agents and
methods suggested for the purpose are open to suspicion and should be
discarded.
For pictures the varnish of which has become cracked or dim he recommends
Pettenkofer’s treatment with alcoholised vapour, already described. For
those in which the varnish may have become dark yellow, brown, or dirty,
he advises its removal altogether, being very careful to specify the
conditions under which this should be accomplished, and the risk the
picture may run of being spoiled if entrusted to an unintelligent and
ignorant manufacturer. “If a picture,” he says, “is throughout painted in
oil, if its substance has remained sound and even, and it has been
varnished with an easily soluble mastich or dammar varnish, there will be
neither difficulty nor danger in removing the varnish. This can, in such a
case, be done either by a dry process, that is by rubbing the surface with
the tips of the fingers and thus reducing the varnish by degrees to a fine
dust, or by dissolving the varnish by application of liquids which, when
brought only for a short time into contact with the oil painting, will not
endanger it. We have, however, seen that the works of the old masters are
not painted with oil colours like those used by modern painters, but, on
the contrary, that certain pigments, and especially the transparent
colours used for glazing, were ground only with resinous substances. These
latter have in the course of time been so thoroughly united with the layer
of varnish spread over the surface of the picture that there no longer
exists any decided limit between the picture and the varnish. It is in
such pictures that a great amount of experience and knowledge of the
process used for the picture, as well as precaution, are required, in
order to take away from the varnish as much only as is indispensable, and
without interfering with the picture itself.
“Numberless works of art have been irreparably injured by restorers, who,
in their eagerness to remove dirt and varnish, attacked the painting
itself. They then destroyed just that last finishing touch of the painting
without which it is no longer a masterpiece.”
“The cleaner is, then, reminded that if the removal from the pictures of
their varnish, when this is known to consist of a spirituous solution of
the gums mastich or dammar, requires the amount of discretion and judgment
before specified, still greater care and prudence are necessary when
dealing with pictures whose surfaces have been covered with oil, oil
varnish, or oleo-resinous varnish. All these substances, which in time
more or less obscure the picture, form on its face a dark and opaque film,
and this frequently requires for its removal the application of some
agent, which, in dissolving the layer of varnish, is very liable at the
same time to dissolve the substance of the picture also.”
As a recent instance of the injurious effects of injudicious picture
cleaning, Dr. Liebreich mentions the case of a valuable picture in the
Pitti Palace, at Florence, the ‘St John of Andrea del Sarto.’ The softness
of the outline of the face of the figure, which he remembers previous to
its attempted restoration, had been entirely destroyed, which disastrous
result Dr Liebreich conceived had been caused by the entire removal of the
glazing.
A new method for cleaning pictures is described by E. Von Bibra in the
‘Journal für Praktische Chemie.’ A very indistinct oil-painting was freed
from dust with a feather, washed with a sponge and water, and then covered
for eight minutes with a layer of shaving soap. The soap was then washed
off with a brush and then left to dry. It was next thoroughly cleaned with
linen cloth soaked in nitro-benzol. The picture was now distinct, but the
colours dull. Finally, it was treated with olive oil, and a coating of
quick-drying varnish laid on. (Academy, May 6th, 1878.)[88]
[Footnote 88: In giving insertion to the above, we do not venture to give
an opinion as to its value or the reverse. We would recommend it to be
read side by side with Dr Liebreich’s advice on picture cleaning, given
above.——ED.]
=PAINTS.= In trade, this term is commonly applied to pigments ground with
oil to a thick paste, ready to be ‘thinned down’ with oil or turpentine to
a consistence adapted for application with a brush.
Paints are prepared on the small scale by grinding the dry pigments with
the oil by means of a stone-and-muller; on the large scale they are ground
in a colour mill. There are several pigments, as King’s yellow, Scheele’s
green, verdigris, white lead, &c., which from their poisonous character
cannot be safely ground by hand, except in very small quantities at a
time, and then only by the exercise of extreme caution.
In mixing or thinning down paints for use it may be useful to mention
that——for outdoor work, boiled oil is principally or wholly employed,
unless it be for the decorative parts of houses, when a portion of
turpentine and pale linseed oil is often added.——For in-door work, linseed
oil, turpentine, and a little ‘driers,’ are generally used in the same
way. The smaller the proportion of oil employed for the purpose, the less
will be the gloss, and the greater the ultimate hardness of the coating.
For ‘flatted white,’ &c., the colour being ground in oil, requires
scarcely any further addition of that article, as the object is to have it
‘dead’ or dull. The best driers are ground litharge, and ground sugar of
lead; the first for dark and middle tints, and the last for light ones.
To preserve mixed paints in pots from ‘skinning over’ or drying up, they
should be kept constantly covered with water; or, what is better, with a
thin film of linseed oil.
Brushes, when out of use, may be preserved in a similar manner to mixed
paints. When dirty, or required for a paint of another colour, they may be
cleaned with a little oil of turpentine, which may be either preserved for
the same purpose another time, or may be allowed to deposit its colour,
and then used to thin down paints as usual. In no case, however, should it
be thrown back into the cistern or pan with the pure ‘turps.’
=Paints, Flex′ible.= _Prep._ Take of good yellow soap (cut into slices),
2-1/2 lbs.; boiling water, 1-1/2 gall.; dissolve, and grind the solution
whilst hot with good oil paint, 1-1/4 cwt. Used to paint canvas.
=Paints, Vitrifi′able.= See ENAMEL, GLAZE, STAINED GLASS, &c.
=PALLA′DIUM.= Pd. A rare metal discovered by Dr Wollaston in the ore of
platinum, in 1803.
_Prep._ 1. A solution of the ore of platinum in _aqua regia_, from which
most of the metal has been precipitated by chloride of ammonium, is
neutralised by carbonate of sodium, and then treated with a solution of
cyanide of mercury; the white insoluble precipitate (cyanide of palladium)
is next washed, dried, and heated to redness; the residuum of the ignition
(spongy palladium) is then submitted to a gradually increased pressure,
and welding at a white heat, so as to form a button, in a similar manner
to that adopted with platinum. _Prod._ Columbian ore of platinum, 1%;
Uralian do., ·25% to ·75%.
2. The native alloy of gold and palladium (from the Brazils) is submitted
to the operations of quartation and parting, the nitric acid employed
being of the density of 1·3; the silver is next precipitated from the
solution by means of a solution of common salt or dilute hydrochloric
acid, and the decanted supernatant liquid, after evaporation to one half,
is neutralised with ammonia, and concentrated so that crystals may form;
these (chloride of palladium and ammonium) are cautiously washed in a
little very cold water, dried, mixed with borax, and exposed in a crucible
to the strongest heat of a powerful blast furnace, when a solid button of
pure palladium is formed.
_Prop., &c._ Palladium closely resembles platinum in appearance,
fusibility, malleability, and ductility; but it is less dense, and has a
rather more silvery colour than that metal; it is freely soluble in aqua
regia, and is slowly attacked by nitric acid, but the other acids exert
little or no action on it; heated to redness in the air, a very
superficial blue or purple film of oxide forms on the surface, which is
again reduced at a white heat. It melts at 156°——Wedgwood. Sp. gr. 11·3 to
12·1 (11·8——Wollaston; 12·14——Vauquelin). It readily unites with copper,
silver, and some other metals, by fusion.
_Tests._ 1. The neutral solutions of palladium are precipitated in the
metallic state by ferrous sulphate, dark brown by sulphuretted hydrogen,
olive by ferrocyanide of potassium, and yellowish white by cyanide of
mercury.——2. A drop of tincture of iodine placed on the surface of
metallic palladium, and then evaporated by the heat of a spirit lamp,
leaves a black spot. By the last two tests palladium is readily
distinguished from platinum.
_Uses._ It has been employed to form the scales of mathematical and
astronomical instruments, and is used in dentistry. Its alloy with silver
is a very valuable white metal. It is also used for making the smaller
divisions of grain and gramme weights. Palladium is not tarnished by
sulphuretted hydrogen. An alloy of 1 part of palladium and 100 parts of
steel is well adapted for cutting instruments which require to be
perfectly smooth on the edge.
=PALMIT′IC ACID.= HC_{16}H_{31}O_{2}. Prepared from palmitin (_see_ next
article), by saponification, as stearic acid is prepared from stearin. It
forms pearly scales, and melts at 140° Fahr., like margaric acid, which it
closely resembles.
=PAL′MITIN.= _Syn._ TRIPALMITIN. C_{3}H_{5} (C_{16}H_{31}O_{2})_{3}. The
solid portion of palm oil, purified by crystallisation from hot ether.
White; soluble in ether and slightly so in hot alcohol; melts at 118°
Fahr.; by saponification it is converted into palmitic acid. (See
_above_.)
=PALPITA′TION.= _Syn._ PALPUS, PALPITATIO CORDIS, L. A violent and
irregular beating or action of the heart, either temporary or occasional.
When it does not arise from sudden or violent agitation or distress of
mind, it may be regarded as a symptom of a disturbance of the nervous
functions by disease, in which case attention should be directed to the
removal of the primary affection.
=PAL′SY.= See PARALYSIS.
=PANACE′A.= A term formerly applied to chose remedies which were supposed
to be capable of curing all diseases, and still applied to some quack
medicines.
=PANA′DA.= See BREAD JELLY (under JELLY).
=PAN′ARY FERMENTA′TION.= The vinous fermentation as developed in the dough
of bread.
=PAN′CAKES.= These are essentially fried batter, variously enriched and
flavoured, according to the taste of the cook. When they contain fruit,
fish, meat, or poultry, or are highly seasoned or ornamented, they are
commonly called FRITTERS.
_Prep._ (M. Soyer.) Break 2 to 4 eggs into a basin, add 4 small
table-spoonfuls of flour, 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar, and a little salt; beat
the whole well together, adding, by degrees, 1/2 pint of milk, or a little
more or less, depending on the size of the eggs and the quality of the
flour, so as to form a rather thick batter; next add a little ginger,
cinnamon, or any other flavour at will; lastly, put them into the pan, and
when set, and one side brownish, lay hold of the frying-pan at the
extremity of the handle, give it a sudden but slight jerk upwards, and the
cake will turn over on the other side; when this is brown, dish up with
sifted sugar, and serve with lemon. See FRITTERS.
=PANCREAS.= This gland, popularly known as the sweet-bread, secretes a
colourless and slightly viscid fluid, which possesses the properties
of——1. Converting starch into sugar; 2. Of emulsifying fats and oils. And
since it is necessary that the starchy and the fatty ingredients of the
food should undergo this preparatory change before they are in a condition
to become assimilated by the animal economy, it will be seen that
_pancreatin_ (as the secretion from the pancreas is called) performs an
important function in bodily nutrition.
With a knowledge of these facts before them, it is not surprising that the
employment of pancreatin in disease should have been recommended by
therapeutists. Dr Harley, we believe, first brought this remedy to the
notice of medical men in 1858, since which time its principal advocate has
been Dr Horace Dobell, whose method of preparing an emulsion from it, as
well as for procuring the pancreatin pure and simple, are given below.
Bernard, correctly divining that the pancreatic fluid was concerned in the
process of digestion, conceived that it aided the assimilation of the
fatty and oily portions of the food, by saponifying them. Subsequent
physiologists have, however, shown, “that the action of the pancreatic
secretion is evidently to break up the large granules, crystals, and
globules of oil and fat into myriads of minute particles of from 1/3000th
to 1/15000th of an inch in diameter. In this way the fat is emulsified and
converted into a milky liquid, which mixes freely with water, and passes
through the tissues of the intestines into the lacteals.”[89]
[Footnote 89: Letheby.]
Pancreatin has an alkaline reaction, and putrefies very quickly. It seems
to contain a nitrogenous organic principle, resembling ptyalin or diastase
in properties. It is coagulated both by heat and nitric acid, and is one
of the few secretions in which albumen is present in a soluble condition.
Even when rendered acid, pancreatin does not lose its power of emulsifying
fatty bodies. At the moment of food being introduced into the stomach the
pancreas gives out this secretion, which is not very abundant at first,
but gradually continues to increase for about four hours, when it as
gradually diminishes for three hours more, and then ceases altogether.
Bidder and Schmidt give the following as the composition of the pancreatic
fluid or pancreatin:——
Water 900·76
Organic matter (pancreatin) 90·38
Chloride of sodium 7·36
Free soda 0·32
Phosphate of soda 0·45
Sulphate of soda 0·10
Sulphate of potassa 0·02
{Lime 0·54
Combinations {Magnesia 0·05
{Oxide of iron 0·02
————————
1000·00
=PANCREATIN.= _Syn._ PANCREATINUM. 1. (Pereira.) Cut the fresh pancreas of
the pig, freed from fat and all foreign matters, into small pieces, and
digest with ether. If the ether be afterwards distilled off from the
filtered liquid, the pancreatin will be left as an oily product.
2. (Griffith.) It is obtained from the pancreas of recently killed animals
by treating the colourless, viscous juice with alcohol, and drying the
precipitate _in vacuo_. Pancreatin is given for stimulating the digestion
of fatty compounds.
The ordinary dose is 10 grains, taken in a glass of wine or water after a
meal.
Dr Dobell’s “Crude Pancreatic Emulsion” is prepared as follows:——After
freeing from fat and all foreign matters the pancreas of a freshly-killed
pig, 2-1/2 lbs. of purified pancreas are bruised in a marble mortar, and
to it are added 2-1/2 lbs. of lard; these are well beaten together, and
then to the mixture 3 lbs. of water are added, very gradually, so as to
ensure the perfect absorption of the latter.
The pancreatised fat is prepared by shaking up one part of the ‘crude
emulsion’ with three parts of ether, allowing the mixture to stand,
drawing off the ethereal solution, and carefully distilling off the ether.
The pancreatised fat remains. Dr Dobell says that pancreatised fat, unlike
the crude fat, has no tendency to putrefy. His ‘purified pancreatic
emulsion’ is made by mixing very carefully together 5 parts of
pancreatised fat, 7-1/2 parts of distilled water, and 2-1/2 parts of
rectified spirit, and flavouring with oil of cloves.
3. SACCHARATED PANCREATIN. Mr Mattison[90] adopts the following process
for the preparation of this substance:——The pancreas is dissected and
macerated in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid for about forty-eight
hours, then separated, and the acidulated solution of pancreas passed
through a pulp filter until it is perfectly clear. To this clear solution
is then added a saturated solution of chloride of sodium, and allowed to
stand until the pancreatin is separated. This is carefully skimmed off and
placed upon a muslin filter, and allowed to drain, after which it should
be washed with a less concentrated solution of sodium chloride, and then
put under the press. When all the salt solution has been removed, and the
mass is nearly dry, it is rubbed with a quantity of sugar of milk, and
dried thoroughly without heat, after which it is diluted until ten grains
emulsify two drachms of cod-liver oil.
[Footnote 90: ‘American Journal of Pharmacy.’]
=PANIFICA′TION.= The changes which occur in flour-dough under the
influence of the fermentative process and heat, by which it is converted
into bread.
=PAPA′VERINE.= _Syn._ PAPAVERINA. An alkaloid discovered by Merck in
opium. It crystallises in needles; is insoluble in water; is slightly
soluble in cold alcohol and in ether; and forms crystallisable salts with
the acids which possess little solubility. The hydrochlorate, one of the
most characteristic of these compounds, crystallises in beautiful
colourless prisms, which possess a high refractive power, and are only
very slightly soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. Flückiger states that
papaverine is much less active than thebaine, that it is not soporific
either with men or animals, that it does not arrest diarrhœa, and is but
slightly analgesic.
=PALAMOND.= Chocolate 1 oz.; rice flour, 4 oz.; potato arrowroot, 4 oz.;
red sanders, in fine powder, 1 dr. Mix. (In the above, by chocolate is
meant the cacao beans roasted and pulverised without addition. Indian
arrowroot, or Tous les mois, may be substituted for the potato arrowroot.)
=PAPER.= _Syn._ CHARTA, PAPYRUS, L.; PAPIER, Fr. The limits of this work
preclude the introduction of a description of the manufacture of this
well-known and most useful article, which is now almost exclusively made
by machinery of an elaborate and most ingenious description. We must,
therefore, content ourselves with a short notice of a few of the
preparations of the manufactured article. (See _below_.)
Good white paper should be perfectly devoid of odour, and when burnt it
should leave a mere nominal amount of ash; digested in hot water, the
liquid should be neutral to test paper, and not affected by sulphuretted
hydrogen or the alkaline sulphurets, or by tincture of iodine. Coloured
papers should not contain any deleterious matter.
=Paper, Antirheumatic.= _Syn._ CHARTA ANTIRHEUMATICA. (M. Berg.)
Euphorbium 30 parts; cantharides, 15 parts; alcohol, 150 parts. Digest
eight days, filter, and add resin, 60 parts; and turpentine, 50 parts.
Thin paper is to be brushed over two or three times with this varnish.
=Paper, Atropine.= _Syn._ CHARTA ATROPIÆ. Paper is impregnated by steeping
in solution of sulphate of atropia in such a manner that a piece 1/5th of
an inch square shall contain 1/250th of a grain of the salt; a square of
1/10th of an inch the 1/1000th of a grain. This square inserted between
the eyelid will dilate the pupil.
=Paper, Atropine, Gelatinised.= Tablets of gelatin are impregnated with
sulphate of atropia, as above.
=Paper, Anti-asthmatic.= (P. Codex). _Syn._ CHARTA FUMIFERA, L. CARTON
ANTI-ASTHMATIQUE, Fr. Unsized grey filtering paper, 12 oz.; nitre, 6 oz.;
belladonna, stramonium, digitalis, lobelia inflata, phellandrium, all in
powder, 1/2 oz. of each; myrrh and olibanum, in powder, 1 oz. each. Tear
the paper in pieces and soak it in water till quite soft; drain off the
greater part of the water, and beat it into a paste; incorporate with it
the powders previously mixed. Then put into tinned iron moulds, and dry by
a stove.
=Paper, Blistering.= See VESICANTS.
=Paper, Cloth.= This is prepared by covering gauze, calico, canvas, &c.,
with a surface of paper pulp in a ‘Foudrinier machine,’ and then finishing
the compound sheet in a nearly similar manner to that adopted for ordinary
paper.
=Paper, Co′loured.= For those papers which are merely coloured on one side
the pigments, ground up with gum water or size, or the stains thickened
with a little of the same, are applied with a brush, after which the
sheets are suspended on a line to dry.
For paper coloured throughout its substance the tinctorial matter is
usually mixed with the pulp in the process of manufacture; or the
manufactured paper is dipped into a bath of the colouring substance, and
then hung up to dry.
=Paper, Cop′ying.= _Prep._ Make a stiff ointment with butter or lard and
black lead or lamp black, and smear it thinly and evenly over soft writing
paper by means of a piece of flannel; the next day wipe off the
superfluous portion with a piece of soft rag.
_Use, &c._ Placed on white paper and written on with a style or solid pen,
a copy of the writing is left on the former. By repeating the arrangement,
2, 3, or more copies of a letter may be obtained at once. This paper, set
up in a case, forms the ordinary ‘manifold writer’ of the stationers. The
copying or transfer paper used for obtaining fac-similes of letters
written with ‘copying-ink’ is merely a superior quality of bank-post
paper.
=Paper, Em′ery.= See EMERY.
=Paper, Glass.= _Prep._ From powdered glass, as emery paper. Used to
polish wood, &c. See GLASS (Powdered).
=Paper, Gout.= _Syn._ CHARTA ANTI-ARTHRITICA, L.; PAPIER FAYARD, Fr.
_Prep._ 1. Euphorbium, 1 part; cantharides, 2 parts (both in powder);
rectified spirit, 8 parts; ether, 3 parts; digest in a stoppered bottle,
with frequent agitation, for a week; to the strained tincture add of
Venice turpentine, 1 part; lastly, dip thin white paper into it, and dry
the sheets in the air.
2. (Mohr.) Euphorbium, 1 dr.; cantharides, 4 dr.; rectified spirit
(strongest), 5 oz.; make a tincture, to which add of Venice turpentine,
1-1/2 oz., previously liquefied with resin, 2 oz.; and spread the mixture,
whilst warm, very thinly on paper. Used as a counter-irritant in gout,
rheumatism, &c.
=Paper, Hydrograph′ic.= An absurd name given to paper which may be written
on with simple water or with some colourless liquid having the appearance
of water.
_Prep._ 1. A mixture of nut-galls, 4 parts, and calcined sulphate of iron,
1 part (both perfectly dry and reduced to very fine powder), is rubbed
over the surface of the paper, and is then forced into its pores by
powerful pressure, after which the loose portion is brushed off. Writes
black with a pen dipped in water.
2. From persulphate of iron and ferrocyanide of potassium, as the last.
Writes blue with water.
3. As the last, but using sulphate of copper instead of sulphate of iron.
Writes reddish brown with water.
4. The paper is wetted with a colourless solution of ferrocyanide of
potassium, and after being dried is written on with a colourless solution
of persulphate of iron. Writes blue.
_Obs._ The above applications, we need scarcely say, are more amusing than
useful. See SYMPATHETIC INK.
=Paper, Incombus′tible.= See INCOMBUSTIBLE FABRICS.
=Paper, Irides′cent.= _Prep._ (Beasley.) Sal ammoniac and sulphate of
indigo, of each 1 part; sulphate of iron, 5 parts; nut-galls, 8 parts; gum
Arabic, 1/8th part; boil them in water, and expose the paper washed with
the liquid to (the fumes of) ammonia.
=Paper, Issue.= _Syn._ CHARTA AD FONTICULOS, L. _Prep._ (Soubeiran.)
Elemi, spermaceti, and Venice turpentine, of each 1 part; white wax, 2
parts; melt them together by a gentle heat, and spread the mixture on
paper. Used to keep issues open.
=Paper, Lithograph′ic.= _Prep._ 1. Starch, 6 oz.; gum Arabic, 2 oz.; alum,
1 oz.; make a strong solution of each separately, in hot water, mix,
strain through gauze, and apply it whilst still warm to one side of leaves
of paper, with a clean painting-brush or sponge; a second and a third coat
must be given as the preceding one becomes dry; the paper must be, lastly,
pressed, to make it smooth.
2. Give the paper 3 coats of thin size, 1 coat of good white starch, and 1
coat of a solution of gamboge in water; the whole to be applied cold, with
a sponge, and each coat to be allowed to dry before the other is applied.
The solutions should be freshly made.
_Use, &c._ Lithographic paper is written on with lithographic ink. The
writing is transferred by simply moistening the back of the paper, placing
it evenly on the stone, and then applying pressure a reversed copy is
obtained, which, when printed from, yields corrected copies resembling the
original writing or drawing. In this way the necessity of executing the
writing or drawing in a reversed direction is obviated. See LITHOGRAPHY,
INK, &c.
=Paper, Paste.= Boil white paper in water for five hours; then pour off
the water, and pound the pulp in a mortar; pass it through a sieve and mix
with some gum water or isinglass glue. It is used in modelling by artists
and architects.
=Paper, Oiled.= _Prep._ Brush sheets of paper over with ‘boiled oil,’ and
suspend them on a line till dry. Waterproof. Extensively employed as a
cheap substitute for bladder and gut skin to tie over pots and jars, and
to wrap up paste blacking, ground white lead, &c.
=Paper Parch′ment.= _Syn._ PAPYRIN, VEGETABLE PARCHMENT. _Prep._ 1.
(Poumarède and Figuier.) Dip white unsized paper for half a minute in
strong sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1·842, and afterwards in water containing a
little ammonia.
2. (W. E. Gaine, Patent 1857.) Plunge unsized paper for a few seconds into
sulphuric acid diluted with half to a quarter its bulk of water (this
solution being of the same temperature as the air), and afterwards wash
with weak ammonia. This process, now extensively worked by Messrs De la
Rue and Co., produces a much better material than does that of Poumarède
and Figuier.
_Prop._ A tough substance, resembling animal parchment, and applicable to
the same purposes. It is largely used for covering pots of pickles and
preserves, and by the chemist for the intervening membrane in experiments
in diffusion. See DIALYSER, DIALYSIS, &c.
=Paper, Protective.= Various attempts have from time to time been made to
prepare paper which might make the fraudulent alteration of cheques and
other documents difficult or impossible. These attempts have taken two
different directions, which may be briefly described.
The first and best known method consists in printing, in some delicate and
easily destroyed colour, a complicated pattern on the face of the paper.
Any reagent which will remove the writing will, of course, destroy the
pattern below, and so render the alteration evident. The cheques used by
Messrs Coutts and Co. are fine examples of this kind of protection, the
whole of the paper being printed over with the name of the firm in
characters so delicate, that they can scarcely be read without the
assistance of a lens.
The obvious objection to this method is, that it is possible for a skilful
forger to replace the printed design before the completion of the
alteration.
The other method consists in the introduction into the paper during its
manufacture of some substance or mixture of substances which shall strike
a characteristic colour when chemical agents are applied to the ink.
One of the earliest attempts of this kind was that of Stephenson, who
introduced ferrocyanide of potassium into the pulp. When any acid was
applied to the writing, Prussian blue was formed with the aid of the iron
of the ink. In another process iodide of potassium and starch were
introduced into the paper, the application of chlorine then producing a
blue stain (iodide of starch), while in a third (Robson’s) the pulp was
stained with the ingredients of common writing ink.
None of these methods gave, however, any very efficient protection against
fraud, for in each case it was tolerably easy to restore the paper to its
original condition. But another process which followed upon the others has
proved more successful, and, when properly applied, gives a paper which is
practically secure. This process was patented by Barclay, and consists in
the introduction into the pulp of ferrocyanide of manganese. When any acid
is applied to the writing on this paper the blue stain of Prussian blue
appears. This can, it is true, be removed by alkalies, but in that case
the manganese is precipitated as the brown peroxide, an effect also
produced by bleaching powder. This brown stain can be removed by
sulphurous acid, but in that case Prussian blue appears simultaneously, so
that the forger has merely a choice between a brown and a blue stain.
When such paper is printed with a delicate design in some fugitive ink
(common writing ink would be best), the greatest attainable safety is
obtained.
Ferrocyanide of manganese is easily formed by adding to the pulp pure
crystallised chloride of manganese, and rather more than an equal weight
of ferrocyanide of potassium, both in solution. (Heaton.)
=Paper, Ra′′zor.= Smooth unsized paper, one of the surfaces of which,
whilst in a slightly damp state, has been rubbed over with a mixture of
calcined peroxide of iron and emery, both in impalpable powder. It is cut
up into pieces (about 5 × 3 inches), and sold in packets. Used to wipe the
razor on, which thus does not require stropping.
=Paper, Razor-strop.= From emery and quartz (both in impalpable powder),
and paper pulp (estimated in the dry state), equal parts, made into sheets
of the thickness of drawing paper, by the ordinary process. For use, a
piece is pasted on the strop and moistened with a little oil.
=Paper, Re′sin.= _Syn._ POOR-MAN’S PLASTER; CHARTA RESINOSA, L. _Prep._ 1.
Beeswax, 1 oz.; tar and resin, of each, 3 oz.; melted together and spread
on paper.
2. (Ph. Bor.) Paper thinly spread over with black pitch. Calefacient,
stimulant, and counter-irritant; in rheumatism, chest affections, &c.
=Paper, Rheu′matism.= See PAPERS, GOUT, and RESIN.
=Paper, Safe′ty.= _Syn._ PAPIER DE SURETÉ, Fr. White paper pulp mixed with
an equal quantity of pulp tinged with any stain easily affected by
chlorine, acids, alkalies, &c., and made into sheets as usual.
=Paper, Test.= _Syn._ CHARTA EXPLORATORIA, L. Under this head may be
conveniently included all the varieties of prepared paper employed in
testing. For this purpose sheets of unsized paper or of good ordinary
writing paper (preferably the first), are uniformly wetted with a solution
of the salt, or with a cold infusion or decoction of the tinctorial
substance in distilled water, and are then hung up to dry in a current of
pure air; they are, lastly, cut into pieces of a convenient size, and
preserved in closed bottles or jars. For use, a small strip of the
prepared paper is either dipped into or moistened with the liquid under
examination, or it is moistened with distilled water and then exposed to
the fumes. A single drop, or even less, of any liquid may be thus tested.
The following are the principal test papers and their applications:——
PAPER, BRAZIL-WOOD. From the decoction. Alkalies turn it purple or violet;
strong acids, red.
PAPER, BUCKTHORN. From the juice of the berries. Reddened by acids.
PAPER, CHERRY-JUICE. As the last.
PAPER, DAHLIA, GEORGINA P. From an infusion of the petals of the violet
dahlia (_Georgina purpurea_). Alkalies turn it green; acids red; strong
caustic alkalies turn it yellow. Very delicate.
PAPER, ELDERBERRY. From the juice of the berries. As the last.
PAPER, INDIGO. From a solution of indigo. Decoloured by chlorine.
PAPER, IODINE OF POTASSIUM. _a._ From the solution in distilled water.
Turned blue by an acidulated solution of starch.
_b._ From a mixture of a solution of iodide of potassium and starch paste.
Turned blue by chlorine, ozone, and the mineral acids, and by air
containing them.
PAPER, LEAD. From a solution of either acetate or diacetate of lead.
Sulphuretted hydrogen and hydrosulphuret of ammonia turn it black.
PAPER, LITMUS. In general, this is prepared from infusion of litmus,
without any precaution, but the following plan may be adopted when a
superior test paper is desired;——
_a._ (Blue.) Triturate commercial litmus, 1 oz., in a wedgwood-ware
mortar, with boiling water, 3 or 4 fl. oz.; put the mixture into a flask,
and add more boiling water until the liquid measures fully 1/2 pint;
agitate the mixture frequently until it is cold, then filter it, and
divide the filtrate into two equal portions; stir one of these with a
glass rod previously dipped into very dilute sulphuric acid, and repeat
the operation until the litmus infusion begins to look very slightly red,
then add the other half of the filtrate, and the two being mixed together,
dip strips of unsized paper into the liquid, in the usual manner, and dry
them. Acids turn it red; alkalies blue. The neutral salts of most of the
heavy metals also redden this, as well as the other blue test papers that
are affected by acids.
_b._ (Red.) The treatment of the whole quantity of the infusion (see
_above_) with the rod dipped in dilute sulphuric acid is repeated until
the fluid begins to look distinctly red, when the paper is dipped into it
as before. The alkalies and alkaline earths, and their sulphides, restore
its blue colour; the alkaline carbonates and the soluble borates also
possess the same property. Very sensitive. An extemporaneous red litmus
paper may be prepared by holding a strip of the blue variety over a pot or
jar into which 2 or 3 drops of hydrochloric acid have been thrown.
PAPER, MALLOW. From an infusion of the purple flowers of the common
mallow. Affected like ‘dahlia paper.’
PAPER, MANGANESE. From a solution of sulphate of manganese. Ozonised air
blackens it.
PAPER, RHUBARB. From a strong infusion of the powdered root. Alkalies turn
it brown; but boracic acid and its salts do not affect it. Very sensitive.
PAPER, ROSE. From the petals of the red rose, as the last. Alkalies turn
it bright green. Dr A. S. Taylor recommends the infusion to be very
slightly acidulated with an acid before dipping the paper into it. More
sensitive than turmeric paper.
PAPER, STARCH. From a cold decoction of starch. Free iodine turns it blue.
PAPER, SULPHATE OF IRON. From a solution of ferrous sulphate. As a test
for hydrocyanic acid and the soluble cyanides.
PAPER, TURMERIC. From decoction of turmeric (2 oz. to the pint). It is
turned brown by alkalies, and by boracic acid and the soluble borates. It
is not quite so susceptible as some other tests, but the change of colour
is very marked and characteristic.
=Paper, Tra′′cing.= _Prep._ Open a quire of smooth unsized white paper,
and place it flat upon a table, then apply, with a clean ‘sash tool,’ to
the upper surface of the first sheet, a coat of varnish made of equal
parts of Canada balsam and oil of turpentine, and hang the prepared sheet
across the line to dry; repeat the operation on fresh sheets until the
proper quantity is finished. If not sufficiently transparent, a second
coat of varnish may be applied as soon as the first has become quite dry.
2. Rub the paper with a mixture of equal parts of nut oil and oil of
turpentine, and dry it immediately by rubbing it with wheaten flour; then
hang it on a line for 24 hours to dry.
_Obs._ Both the above are used to copy drawings, writing, &c. If washed
over with ox-gall and dried, they may be written on with ink or water
colours. The first is the whitest and clearest, but the second is the
toughest and most flexible. The paper prepared from the refuse of the
flax-mills, and of which banknotes are made, is also called ‘tracing
paper,’ and sometimes ‘vegetable paper.’ This requires no preparation; but
though very flexible, it has little strength.
=Paper, Var′nished.= Before proceeding to varnish paper, card-work,
pasteboard, &c., it is necessary to give it 2 or 3 coats of size, to
prevent the absorption of the varnish, and any injury to the colour or
design. The size may be made by dissolving a little isinglass in boiling
water, or by boiling some clean parchment cuttings until they form a clear
solution. This, after being strained through a piece of clean muslin, or,
for very nice purposes, clarified with a little white of egg, is applied
by means of a small clean brush called by painters a sash tool. A light,
delicate touch must be adopted, especially for the first coat, lest the
ink or colours be started, or smothered. When the prepared surface is
perfectly dry, it may be varnished in the usual manner. See MAPS, VARNISH,
&c.
=Paper, Wa′′fer.= See WAFERS.
=Paper, Waxed.= _Prep._ Place cartridge paper, or strong writing paper, on
a hot iron plate, and rub it well with a lump of beeswax. Used to form
extemporaneous steam or gas pipes, to cover the joints of vessels, and to
tie over pots, &c.
=PAPER HANG′INGS.= The ornamental paper used to cover the walls of rooms,
&c. Under the old system, the paper, after being sized and prepared with a
ground colour, had the pattern produced on it by the common process of
‘stencilling,’ a separate plate being employed for each colour that formed
the pattern. To this succeeded the use of wooden blocks, the surface of
which bearing the design in relief, and being covered with colour, was
applied by simple hand pressure on the paper, in a precisely similar
manner to that adopted in the block-printing of calicoes. The cylinder
calico-printing machine has now been successfully applied to the
manufacture of paper hangings.
The colours employed for paper hangings are——
BLACKS.——Frankfort, ivory, and blue black.
BLUES. Prussian blue, verditer, and factitious ultramarine.
BROWNS. Umber (raw and burnt), and mixtures.
GRAYS. Prussian blue and blue black, with Spanish white.
GREENS. Brunswick green, Scheele’s g., Schweinfurt g., and green verditer;
also mixtures of blues and yellows.
REDS. Decoctions of Brazil wood (chiefly), brightened with alum or
solution of tin; the red ochres; and, sometimes, red lake.
VIOLETS. Decoction of logwood and alum; also blues tempered with bright
red.
YELLOWS. Chrome yellow, decoction of French berries or of weld, terra di
sienna, and the ochres.
WHITES. White lead, sulphate of baryta, plaster of Paris, and whiting, and
mixtures of them.
The vehicle employed to give adhesiveness and body to the colours is a
solution of gelatin or glue, sufficiently strong to gelatinise on cooling.
The satiny lustre observable in some paper hangings (SATIN PAPERS) is
produced by dusting finely powdered French chalk over the surface, and
rubbing it strongly with a brush or burnisher. The ground for this purpose
is prepared with plaster.
FLOCK and VELVET PAPERS are produced by covering the surface of the
pattern with a mordant formed with boiled oil thickened with white lead or
ochre, and then sprinkling powdered woollen flocks on it. These are
previously dyed, and ground to the required fineness in a mill.
=PAPIER-MÂCHÉ.= Pulped paper moulded into forms. It possesses great
strength and lightness. It may be rendered partially waterproof by the
addition of sulphate of iron, quicklime, and glue or white of egg to the
pulp; and incombustible by the addition of borax and phosphate of soda.
The papier-mâché tea-trays, waiters, snuff-boxes, &c., are prepared by
pasting or glueing sheets of paper together, and then submitting them to
powerful pressure, by which the composition acquires the hardness of board
when dry. Such articles are afterwards japanned, and are then perfectly
waterproof.
The refuse of the cotton and flax mills, and numerous other substances of
a like character, are now worked up as papier-mâché, and the manufactured
articles formed of them are indistinguishable from those prepared directly
from paper.
=PAPIN’S DIGESTER= is a strong, closed, iron vessel, in which water can be
heated above 212° F., thereby acquiring a temperature that adds
considerably to its solvent powers. This apparatus is put to many useful
applications in the arts, of which one is the speedy extraction of gelatin
from the earthy matter of bones. The bones may be boiled for hours at 212°
without any such effect being produced. The high temperature acquired by
the water is effected by the confinement of the steam, the internal
pressure of which can be regulated by means of a safety valve attached to
the vessel. By this arrangement the water may be kept at any uniform
temperature above 212° at pleasure. Professor Junichen[91] recommends the
use of the digester for the purpose of boiling meat and other food. It
appears from the author’s experiments that the time for cooking various
articles of daily consumption is much shorter when effected under strong
pressure, while a great saving of fuel is also effected.
[Footnote 91: ‘Chemical News.’]
=PAPY′RIN.= See PAPER (Parchment).
=PAR′ACHUTE.= In aërostation, an instrument or apparatus having for its
object to retard the descent of heavy bodies through the air. The only
form of parachute which has been hitherto adopted with success is that of
the common umbrella when extended. The materials of which the apparatus is
made are canvas and cord, both light but strong, and carefully put
together. The car to contain the adventurer resembles that of the balloon,
only smaller.
It is estimated that a circular parachute, to descend in safety with an
adult, weighing, with the apparatus, 225 lbs., must have a diameter of at
least 30 feet. Its terminal velocity would then be at the rate of 12 to 13
feet per second, or about 6-1/2 miles per hour; and the shock experienced
on contact with the earth would be equal to that which the aëronaut would
receive if he dropped freely from a height about 2-1/2 feet.
Several descents from balloons, after they have acquired a great
elevation, have been effected without accident by means of parachutes.
Unfortunately, however, any want of integrity in the machine, or any
accident which may happen to it after its detachment from the balloon, is
irreparable and fatal.
=PARACYAN′OGEN.= The brown solid matter left in the retort when cyanide of
mercury is decomposed by heat. It is isomeric with cyanogen.
=PARAFFIN.= _Syn._ TAR-OIL STEARIN. This remarkable hydrocarbon is one of
the several substances discovered by Reichenbach in WOOD-TAR.
_Prep._ 1. (From WOOD-TAR. Reichenbach.) Distil beech-tar to dryness,
rectify the oily portion of the product which is heavier than water until
a thick matter begins to rise, then change the receiver, and moderately
urge the heat as long as anything passes over; next digest the product in
the second receiver, in an equal measure of alcohol of ·833, gradually add
6 or 7 parts more of alcohol, and expose the whole to a low temperature;
crystals of paraffin will gradually fall down, which, after being washed
in cold alcohol, must be dissolved in boiling alcohol, when crystals of
pure paraffin will be deposited as the solution cools.
2. (From COAL——James Young, Patent 1850.) The details of this process for
obtaining paraffin and its congeners by the slow distillation of coal
(preferably ‘Boghead’) are given in our article on PARAFFIN OIL. The solid
paraffin is separated from the last products, or ‘heavy oils,’ by
artificial cold; it is then melted and run into moulds.
3. (From RANGOON PETROLEUM——Patent.) In this process, which is worked by
Price’s Candle Company, superheated steam is employed as the heating
agent. The paraffin, or ‘BELMONTINE,’ as it is called, is the last product
which distils over.
4. (From PEAT.) The various processes which have been suggested for
obtaining paraffin from peat, turf, &c., are similar in principle to
Young’s. The great point is to conduct the distillation at as low a
temperature as possible.
_Prop._ A white, hard, translucent body, melting at 110° Fahr. and
upwards, according to its source, and burning with a bright white flame.
It has great stability——sulphuric acid, chlorine, and nitric acid below
212° exerting no action upon it. Dr Anderson states that its composition
and properties vary with the source from which it is derived. With respect
to the melting point, this variation is very remarkable. Thus, Young’s
paraffin, from Boghead coal, melts, according to the observations of Dr
Anderson, at 114°, while that from Rangoon petroleum (‘belmontine’) melts
at 140°, and that from turf at 116°.
_Uses._ Paraffin is now largely used for making candles, for which purpose
it is specially adapted, being a most elegant substance, and surpassing
all other candle materials, even spermaceti, in illuminating power. Its
property of not being acted upon by acids or alkalies renders it suitable
for stoppers for vessels holding chemical liquids; also for electrotype
moulds. It is not acted upon by ozone, so that it has been employed with
great advantages in experiments on this body for rendering air-tight the
joints formed by the union of glass tubes. As it contains no oxygen, it
might be employed to protect oxydisable metals like sodium and potassium
from contact with the air. One use of paraffin candle-ends will commend
them to the ladies of the household——a small piece of paraffin added to
starch will be found to give a gloss and brilliancy of surface to the
starched linen that can be obtained by no other addition.
=PARAFFIN OIL.= See OILS.
=PARAL′YSIS.= _Syn._ PALSY. A loss or considerable diminution of power of
voluntary motion, or functional action, of any part of the body. In its
most usual form one side only of the body is affected. It not uncommonly
seizes the lower extremities, or all parts below the pelvis; sometimes the
arms only; and occasionally a part, as one side of the face, one eyelid,
the tongue, or the muscles of deglutition. In these cases the speech
frequently becomes indistinct and incoherent, and the memory and judgment
impaired, whilst the distorted features assume a more or less revolting
aspect.
The causes of paralysis are various. It may be occasioned by pressure on
particular parts of the brain, the spinal marrow, or the nerves; by
poisons, the long-continued use of sedatives, local injuries, the sudden
suppression of profuse and habitual evacuations, and by whatever tends to
greatly relax or enervate the system. It may also be a consequence of an
attack of apoplexy, or it may be symptomatic of other diseases, as
scrofula, syphilis, and worms. When it is of a distinctly local character
it may arise from excessive use or undue employment of the part or organ.
That of old age is, probably, a mere consequence of the failing nervous
energy of the system being unequally distributed.
Palsy usually comes on with a sudden and immediate loss of the motion and
sensibility of the parts; but in a few instances it is preceded by a
numbness, coldness, and paleness; and sometimes by slight convulsive
twitches. If the disease affects the extremities, and has been of long
duration, it not only produces a loss of motion and sensibility, but
likewise a considerable flaccidity and wasting away of the muscles of the
parts affected.
When palsy attacks any vital part, such as the brain, heart, or lungs, it
soon terminates in death.
The treatment of paralysis depends upon a careful consideration of its
cause. The first object should be, as far as possible, to remove any
compressing force, and to gradually arouse the torpid portion of the
nervous system. In general, more or less depletion will be found
beneficial, together with rather active purgation, and nervous stimulants,
as ammonia, musk, &c. Blisters to the head and neck are also appropriate.
With the debilitated and aged, venesection must be avoided. Stimulant and
rubefacient frictions and liniments, the vapour bath, and other like
remedies, also frequently prove useful. In local attacks of the disease,
as the loss of use of one of the hands, arms, legs, &c., no agent has
proved so generally successful as voltaic electricity. For this purpose
the current should be in one direction only, and continued uninterruptedly
for some time daily. When the direction of the current is alternate, with
slight shocks, as in the common coil machine, this agent is of doubtful
utility, except for occasional use. In all cases medical aid should be
sought as early as possible.
=PARANAPH′THALIN.= _Syn._ ANTHRACEN. See ANTHRACEN.
=PARAPEC′′TIN.= See PECTIN.
=PAR′ASITES.= The parasitical animals that infest the human body are
referred to under the heads ACARI and PEDICULI.
=Parasites, Human.= The following is a list of the principal parasites
infesting man. It is extracted from the ‘Dictionary of Hygiène,’ of Wynter
Blyth, who states that he has arranged it, with some slight alterations,
from a table in Dr Aitken’s ‘Science and Practice of Medicine.’ The two
first divisions include animal parasites, the third vegetable ones. No. 1,
or _Entozoa_, are animal parasites found inside the human body; No. 2,
those found outside; No. 3, consisting of vegetable parasites, comprises
_Entophyta_ and _Epiphyta_, the former existing in the interior, and the
latter on the exterior of the human body. Some of the principal parasites
have already been described and figured in these pages.
I. _Entozoa._
Acephalocystis endogena, _liver_.
” multifida, _brain_.
Anchylostomum, seu Sclerostoma duodenale,
_intestines_.
Anthomia canicularis, _intestines_.
Ascaris alata ”
” lumbricoides ”
” mystax ”
Bilharzia seu Distoma hæmatobia, _portal and
venous system_.
Bothriocephalus cordatus, _intestines_.
” latus ”
Cysticercus cellulosæ, seu telæ cellulosæ (C. of
Tenia solium), _muscles_.
Cysticercus of Tæniæ marginata (C. tenuicollis),
_intestines_.
Dactylius aculeatus, _urinary bladder_.
Diplosoma crenatus.
Distoma seu Distomum crassum, _duodenum_.
” hepaticum seu Fasciola hepatica, _gallbladder_.
” heterophryes, _intestines_.
” lanceolatum, _hepatic duct_
” oculi humani seu ophthalmobium,
_capsule of crystalline_.
Ditrachycerus rudus, _intestines_.
Echinococcus hominis (hydatid of Tænia echinococcus),
_liver, spleen, and omentum_.
Filaria bronchialis seu trachealis, _bronchial
glands_.
” seu dracunculus medinensis, _skin and
areolar tissue_.
” sanguinis hominis, _blood_.
” oculi seu lentis, _eye_.
Hexathrydium pinguicola, _ovary_.
” venarum, _venous system_.
Monostoma lentis, _crystalline_.
Œstrus hominis, _intestines_.
Oxyuris vermicularis, ”
Pentastoma constrictum, _intestines and liver_.
” denticulatum, _intestines_.
Polystroma pinguicola, _ovary_.
” sanguicola seu verarum, _venous
system_.
Spiroptera hominis, _urinary bladder_.
Strongylus seu Eustrongylus bronchialus, _bronchial
tubes_.
” seu Eustrongylus gigas (Acarus
renalis), _kidney and intestines_.
Tænia acanthotrias, _intestines_.
” elliptica, ”
” flavopuncta, ”
” lophosoma, ”
” mediocanellata, ”
” nana, _intestines and liver_.
” solium, _intestines_.
Tetrastoma renale, _kidney_.
Trichina spiralis, _muscles_.
Tricocephalus dispar, _intestines_.
II. _Ectozoa._
Demodex seu Acarus folliculorum, _sebaceous
substance of cutaneous follicles_.
Pediculus capitas (head louse).
” corporis seu vestimenti (body louse).
” palpebrarum (brow louse).
” pubis, Phthirius inguinalis (crab-louse).
” tubescetium, _phthiriasis_ (_lousy disease_).
Pulex penetrans (chigoë), _skin, cellular tissue_.
Sarcoptes seu Acarus scabiei (itch insect),
_scabies_.
III. _Entophyta and Epiphyta._
Achorion Lebertii (Tricophyton tonsurans),
_Tinea tonsurans_.
” Schönleinii, _Tinea favosa_.
Chionyphe Carteri (fungus of Mycetoma), _deep
tissues, bones of hands and feet_.
Leptothrix buccalis (alga of the mouth).
Microsporon Audouini, _Tinea decalvans_.
” Furfur, _Tinea versicolor_.
” mentagrophytes, _follicles of hair
in sycosis or mentagra_.
Oïdium albicans (thrush fungus), _mouth,
mucous, and cutaneous surfaces_.
Puccinia favi, _Tinea favosa_.
Sarcina ventriculi, _stomach_.
Torula cerevisiæ (Cryptococcus cerevisiæ, yeast
plant), _stomach, bladder, &c._
Tricophyton sporuloïdes, _Tinea polornia_.
=PARATARTAR′IC ACID.= See RACEMIC ACID.
=PARCH′MENT.= See VELLUM, and PAPER (Parchment).
=PARCHMENT PAPER.= See PAPER.
=PAREGOR′IC.= See TINCTURE OF CAMPHOR (Compound).
=Paregoric Scotch.= See TINCTURE OF OPIUM (Ammoniated).
=PAREI′RA BRA′VA.= See VELVET LEAF.
=PARR.= A name applied to the salmon until near the end of its second
year, when it loses its dark lateral bars by the superaddition of a
silvery pigment. It was formerly regarded as a distinct species.
=PARS′LEY.= _Syn._ PETROSELINUM, L. This well-known herb is the _Apium
petroselinum_. The root is diuretic; the fruit (seed) carminative; the
leaves are a pleasant stimulating salad and condiment, and are much used
to flavour broth and soup. “The fruit is a deadly poison to parrots.”
(Lind. _ex_ Burnett.)
=PARS′NIP.= The root of _Pastinacea sativa_. The parsnip is native to
England and Ireland, but does not grow in Scotland. It is likewise met
with in many parts of Europe and in northern Asia. In the wild state the
root is somewhat acrid, and injurious effects have been known to have
followed its use as a food. By cultivation, however, it loses both its
acridity and dangerous properties, and forms a table vegetable, not in
universal favour.
In the Channel Islands parsnips constitute the winter food of cows; and
these animals when fed upon them are said to yield butter of a better
quality than can be obtained from them when partaking of any other fodder.
The flesh of cattle fed on the parsnip is also highly commended. In the
North of Ireland the juice of the root, mixed with hops and yeast, is made
into a fermented liquor. Parsnip wine is an agreeable alcoholic beverage.
_Composition of the Parsnip._
Nitrogenous matter 1·1
Starch 9·6
Sugar 5·8
Fat 0·5
Salts 1·0
Water 82·0
——————
100·0
=PASTE.= _Syn._ PASTA, L.; PÂTE, Fr. This word is very loosely applied to
substances and preparations differing so widely from each other, that it
would be scarcely possible to class them together. We shall, therefore,
refer the reader to the individual articles. The pastes (pâtes) of French
pharmacy are compound medicines of the consistence of hard dough, and
which do not stick to the fingers. They are formed of sugar and gum,
dissolved in water or in some medicated liquid. They are evaporated so as
to unite these principles by degrees, and give them the pliancy and the
firmness of paste. They are employed internally in doses more or less
variable in a similar manner to lozenges. “Pâtes, properly so called, are
divided into transparent, or such as are made without agitation, like
jujubes of brown liquorice; and opaque, or such as are made with
agitation, like the pâtes of marshmallow, lichen, &c.” (Trousseau and
Reveil.) See PASTES (Artificial Gems), PASTRY, and _below_.
=Paste, Adhesive.= Let 4 parts, by weight, of glue soften in 15 parts of
cold water for fifteen hours, after which the mixture must be moderately
heated until it becomes quite clear. To this mixture 65 parts of boiling
water are to be added without stirring. In another vessel 30 parts of
starch paste are stirred up with 20 parts of cold water, so that a thin
milky fluid is obtained without lumps. Into this the boiling glue solution
is poured, with constant stirring, and the whole is kept at the boiling
temperature. When cooled the 10 drops of carbolic acid are to be added to
the paste. This paste possesses great adhesive power, and may be used for
leather, paper, or cardboard with great success. It must be preserved in
closed bottles to prevent evaporation of the water, and will, in this
way, keep good for years. (‘Dingler’s Journal.’)
=Paste, Al′mond.= _Syn._ PASTA AMYGDALINA, P. AMYGDALARUM, P. REGIA, L.;
PÂTE ROYALE, Fr. _Prep._ 1. (MOIST.)——_a._ Take of blanched Valentia
almonds, 4 oz.; reduce them to a very smooth paste by patient pounding in
a clean mortar, adding, towards the last, a little rose water, with some
eau de Cologne, or 3 or 4 drops of otto of roses or neroli, or an
equivalent quantity of any other perfume, according to the fancy of the
artiste.
_b._ From bitter and sweet almonds (blanched), equal parts; rose water,
q. s. It requires no other perfume.
_c._ To either of the preceding add of spermaceti, 1/2 oz. The white of an
egg, or 1/4 oz. of white soap, is added by some makers. With about 1/2 dr.
of powdered camphor to each oz. of the above it forms the ‘camphorated
almond paste’ of the shops.
_d._ Take fine Narbonne honey and white bitter paste (see _below_), of
each 1 lb.; beat them to a smooth paste, then add, in alternate portions,
of oil of almonds, 2 lbs.; yolks of 5 eggs; and reduce the whole to a
perfectly homogeneous pasty mass. Much esteemed. It is commonly sold under
the name of ‘honey paste,’ ‘pâte royale,’ &c. In a similar manner are made
nosegay, orange, rose, vanilla, and other like pastes having almonds for a
basis, by merely adding the respective perfumes.
2. (PULVERULENT.)——_a._ (Gray.) Prepared from the cake of bitter almonds
from which the oil has been thoroughly expressed by drying, grinding, and
sifting it.
_b._ (Bitter white.) As the last, but the almonds are blanched before
being pressed.
_c._ (Sweet white.) As the last, but using sweet almonds.
_Obs._ All the above are used as cosmetics, to soften and whiten the skin,
prevent chaps, abrasions, chilblains, &c. The honey paste, and the sweet
and bitter white pastes, are those most esteemed. (See _below_.)
=Paste, Almond.= (In confectionery.) _Prep._ 1. Take of Valentia almonds,
3 lbs.; bitter do., 1/4 lb.; blanch them, and reduce them to a very smooth
paste by pounding, then put them into a clean copper pan along with white
sugar and good gum Arabic, of each 1 lb. (the last previously dissolved in
about a pint of water;) apply a gentle heat, and stir until the whole is
mixed and has acquired a proper consistence, then pour it out on a smooth,
oiled, marble slab, and when cold cut it into squares.
2. As the last, but when the mixture has acquired the consistence of thick
honey, setting it aside to cool; when nearly cold, the whites of 6 eggs
are to be added, and heat being again gradually applied, the whole is to
be stirred until it acquires the proper consistence, as before.
3. Blanched sweet almonds and white sugar, of each 1 lb.; blanched bitter
almonds and powdered gum, of each 3 oz.; beat them, in the cold, to a
perfectly smooth paste, with orange-flower water or rose water, q. s., so
that it may be sufficiently stiff not to stick to the fingers, and then
cut the mass into squares, as before. The above are eaten as confections.
=Paste, Ancho′vy.= _Prep._ Remove the larger bones from the fish, and then
pound them to a smooth paste in a marble mortar, adding a little bay-salt
and cayenne pepper at will; next rub the pulp through a fine hair sieve,
and about 3-4ths fill the pots with it; lastly, cover the surface of each
to the depth of about 1/8 inch with good butter in a melted state. It
should be kept in a cool situation. Other fish pastes, as those of
bloaters, lobsters, shrimps, caviare, &c., are made in a similar manner.
=Paste, Arsen′ical.= See CAUSTICS, PATENT MEDICINES, and POWDERS.
=Paste, Baudry’s.= See PASTE, PECTORAL (_below_).
=Paste, Bird.= See GERMAN PASTE.
=Paste, Black Currant.= As black currant lozenges, but simply cutting the
mass into dice or square.
=Paste, Car′rageen.= _Prep._ From Irish moss, as the lichen paste of the
P. Cod. (see _below_).
=Paste, Chinese′.= _Prep._ From bullock’s blood, 10 lbs., reduced to
dryness by a gentle heat, then powdered, and mixed with quicklime, also in
fine powder, 1 lb. It is used as a cement, made into a paste with water,
and at once applied.
=Paste of Chlo′′ride of Zinc.= See CAUSTICS.
=Paste of Dates.= _Syn._ PASTA DACTYLIFERÆ, P. DACTYLORUM, L.; PÂTES DE
DATTES, Fr. From dates (stoned), as jujube paste. Pectoral, and slightly
astringent. Paste of gum Senegal is usually sold for it.
=Paste, De Handel’s.= _Prep._ From opium, 1/2 dr.; camphor, 1 dr. (both in
powder); extracts of belladonna and henbane, of each 1 dr.; oil of cajeput
and tincture of cantharides, of each 10 or 12 drops; distilled water of
opium (or of lettuce), q. s. In toothache.
=Paste, Depil′atory.= _Syn._ PASTA EPILATORIA, L. Several preparations of
this character are noticed at pages 552-3. 1. A mixture of slacked lime, 2
parts, and water, 3 parts, saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen, is said
to be so powerful, that “a layer a line in thickness denudes the scalp in
three minutes.” (Beasley.)
2. (Payan.) Powdered sulphate of copper made into a soft paste with yolk
of egg.
=Paste of Figs.= _Syn._ PASTA CARICARUM, P. FICARIA, L. _Prep._ 1. From
figs, as jujube paste.
2. (Soubeiran.) Pulp of figs, 1 part; press it through a sieve, mix it
with powdered sugar, 4 parts, concentrated by a gentle heat (if
necessary), roll the mass out, and cut it into squares or lozenges.
=Paste, Flour.= _Syn._ COLLE DE PÂTE, Fr. From wheaten flour.
Paper-hangers, shoemakers, &c., usually add to the flour 1/6 to 1/4 of its
weight of finely powdered resin. It is then sometimes called ‘hard paste.’
The addition of a few drops of creasote or oil of cloves, or a little
powered camphor, colocynth, or corrosive sublimate (especially the first
two and the last), will prevent insects from attacking it, and preserve it
in covered vessels for years. Should it get too hard, it may be softened
with water. See CEMENTS.
=Paste, Fruit.= _Prep._ 1. To each pint of the strained juice add of gum
Arabic, 1 oz., gently evaporate to the consistence of a syrup, and add an
equal weight of bruised white sugar; as soon as the whole is united, pour
it out on an oiled slab, and, when cold enough, cut it into pieces.
2. Citric acid, 3/4 oz.; gum Arabic, 6 oz.; white sugar, 3/4 lb.; water,
q. s.; dissolve, and flavour with any of the fruit essences. It may be
coloured with any pf the stains used for confectionery or liqueurs.
3. As fruit lozenges.
=Paste, Fur′niture.= See POLISH.
=Paste, Glove.= See GANTEINE.
=Paste of Gum Arabic.= _Syn._ PASTA GUMMI, L.; PÂTE DE GOMME, P. DE G.
ARABIQUE, Fr. _Prep._ 1. As marshmallow paste, omitting the mallow roots.
2. Gum Arabic (picked), 1 lb.; water, 1 pint; dissolve, add of white
sugar, 1 lb.; evaporate by a gentle heat to a very thick syrup, then add
the whites of 3 eggs, previously beaten up with orange-flower water, 1 fl.
oz., and strained through muslin, and continue the heat with constant
stirring, until of a proper consistence on being cooled. The last two are
commonly sold for marshmallow paste (pâte de guimauve).
3. (Transparent.) From gum Arabic (picked), 1 lb.; cold water, 1 pint;
white sugar, 1-1/4 lb.; proceed as the last, adding orange-flower water 1
fl. oz., towards the end. Often sold under the name of ‘white jujubes.’
=Paste of Gum Senegal.= _Syn._ PÂTE DE GOMME SENEGAL, Fr. As jujube paste,
without the fruit.
=Paste, Hon′ey.= See PASTE, ALMOND.
=Paste, Ju′jube.= _Syn._ JUJUBES, JUJUBE LOZENGES; PASTA JUJUBÆ, L.; PÂTE
DE JUJUBES, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Jujubes (the fruit), 1 lb.; water, 4
lbs.; boil 1/2 hour, strain with expression, settle, decant the clear
portion, and clarify it with white of egg; add a strained solution of gum
Arabic, 6 lbs., in water, 8 lbs., and to the mixture add of white sugar, 5
lbs.; gently evaporate, at first constantly stirring, and afterwards
without stirring, to the consistence of a soft extract, then add of
orange-flower water, 6 fl. oz., and place the pan in a vessel of boiling
water. In 12 hours carefully remove the scum, pour the matter into
slightly oiled tin moulds, and finish the evaporation (hardening) in a
stove heated to 104°, Fahr. It is commonly coloured with beet-root,
cochineal, or saffron. Expectorant; in coughs, &c. Paste of gum Arabic is
usually sold for it.
=Paste, Li′chen.= _Syn._ PASTA LICHENIS, L.; PÂTE DE LICHEN, Fr. _Prep._
(P. Cod.) Iceland moss, 1 lb.; water, q. s.; heat them to nearly the
boiling-point, strain with pressure, reject the liquor, and boil the moss
in fresh water, q. s., for 1 hour; strain, press, add of gum Arabic, 5
lbs.; white sugar, 4 lbs., and evaporate to a proper consistence, as
above. Pectoral. With the addition of 1/2 gr. of extract of opium to each
oz., it forms the opiated lichen paste. (P. Cod.)
=Paste, liquorice.= _Syn._ LIQUORICE JUJUBES; PASTA GLYCIRRHIZÆ, L.; PÂTE
DE RÉGLISSE, P. DE R. NOIRE, Fr. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.) Refined juice and
white sugar, of each 1 lb.; gum Arabic, 2 lbs.; water, 3 quarts; dissolve,
strain, evaporate considerably, and, of finely powdered orris root, 1/2
oz.; oil of aniseed or essence of cedrat, a few drops, and pour the paste
upon an oiled slab, or into moulds, as before.
2. (Brown; PÂSTA G. FUSCA; PÂTE DE R. BRUNE.) Refined juice, 4 oz.; white
sugar, 2 lbs.; gum Arabic, 3 lbs.; water, 4 pints; proceed as last.
3. (Opiated; PÂTE DE R. OPIACE.——P Cod.) To the last add of extract of
opium, 15 gr.
4. (White; PÂTE DE RÉGLISSE BLANCHE.) As No. 2, substituting the powder of
the decorticated root for the extract. All the above are pectoral; the
second is also slightly anodyne. They are useful in tickling coughs,
hoarseness, &c.
=Paste, London.= _Syn._ PASTA LONDINENSIS. Equal parts of caustic soda and
unslaked lime. Reduce to a fine powder in a warm mortar, and mix
intimately. Keep it in well closed bottles, and when required for use take
as much as is sufficient, and make it into a paste with water.
=Paste, Marsh-mallow.= _Syn._ PASTA ALTHÆÆ, L.; PÂTE DE GUIMAUVE, Fr.
_Prep._ (P. Cod. 1816.) Decorticated marshmallow root (French), 4 oz.;
water, 1/2 gall.; macerate for 12 hours, strain, add white sugar and gum
Arabic, of each 2-1/2 lbs.; dissolve, strain, evaporate without boiling to
the thickness of honey, constantly stirring, and add, gradually, the
whites of 12 eggs, well beaten with orange-flower water, 4 fl. oz., and
strained; continue the evaporation and constant stirring until the mass is
so firm as not to adhere to the fingers, then proceed as before.
_Obs._ It should be very white, light, and spongy. In the P. Codex of 1839
the marshmallow root is omitted, and the name is changed to that of ‘pâte
de gomme,’ a compound long sold for it in the shops. Both are agreeable
pectorals. See PASTE OF GUM ARABIC.
=Paste, Odontal′gic.= _Syn._ PASTA ODONTALGICA, L. _Prep._ 1. Pellitory
(in powder), 1 dr.; hydrochlorate of morphia, 3 gr.; triturate; add, of
honey, 2 dr.; and oil of cloves, 6 drops.
2. Powdered mastic, pellitory, and white sugar, of each 1 dr.; chloroform,
q. s. to form a paste. It must be kept in a stoppered bottle. See
TOOTHACHE, and _below_.
=Paste, Or′ange.= _Prep._ From orange flowers, 2 lbs.; bitter and sweet
almonds, of each blanched, 2-1/2 lbs.; beaten to a perfectly smooth paste.
An agreeable cosmetic. See PASTE, ALMOND.
=Paste, Or′geat.= _Prep._ From blanched Jordan almonds, 1 lb.; blanched
bitter a. and white sugar and honey, of each 1/4 lb.; beaten to a paste,
with orange-flower water, q. s. (or neroli, a few drops), and put into
pots. As a cosmetic or to make orgeat milk. For use, rub 1 oz. with 1/2
pint of water, and strain through muslin.
=Paste, Pec′toral.= _Syn._ PASTA PECTORALIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (PÂTE PECTORALE
DE BAUDRY.) Take of gum Arabic and white sugar of each 7 lbs.; water,
q. s.; dissolve, add of extract of liquorice, 3 oz.; evaporate, add of
extract of lettuce, 2 dr.; balsam of tolu, 1-1/4 oz.; orange-flower water,
4-1/2 fl. oz.; white of 4 eggs; oil of citrons, 5 or 6 drops.
2. (PÂTE PECTORALE BALSAMIQUE DE REGNAULT.) From the flowers of coltsfoot,
cudweed, marrow, and red poppy, of each, 1 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil,
strain; add, of gum Arabic, 30 oz.; white sugar, 20 oz.; dissolve,
concentrate, add of tincture of tolu, 3 fl. dr., and pour the mixture on
an oiled slab.
3. (ANISATED COLTSFOOT PASTE; PÂTE DE TUSSILAGE À L’ANIS.) From a strong
decoction of coltsfoot flowers, 1 quart; Spanish juice, 1/2 lb.; dissolve,
strain, evaporate as before, and towards the end add of oil of aniseed, 1
dr. All the above are useful in hoarseness, coughs, &c.
=Paste, Pho′sphor.= See RATS.
=Paste, Pol′ishing.= _Prep._ 1. (For copper and brass.) See BRASS PASTE.
2. (For iron and steel.) From emery (in fine powder) and lard, equal
parts.
3. (For pewter.) From powdered Bath brick, 2 parts; soft soap, 1 part;
water, q. s. to make a paste. Used with a little water, and afterwards
well rinsed off.
4. (For furniture.) See POLISH.
=Paste, Ra′′zor.= _Prep._ 1. From jeweller’s rouge, plumbago, and suet,
equal parts, melted together and stirred until cold.
2. From prepared putty powder (levigated oxide of tin), 3 parts; lard, 2
parts; crocus martis, 1 part; triturated together.
3. Prepared putty powder, 1 oz.; powdered oxalic acid, 1/4 oz.; powdered
gum, 20 grs.; make a stiff paste with water, q. s., and evenly and thinly
spread it over the strop, the other side of which should be covered with
any of the common greasy mixtures. With very little friction this paste
gives a fine edge to the razor, and its action is still further increased
by slightly moistening it, or even breathing on it. Immediately after its
use, the razor should receive a few turns on the other side of the strop.
4. Diamond dust, jeweller’s rouge, and plumbago, of each 1 part; suet, 2
parts. Powdered quartz is generally substituted for diamond dust, but is
much less effective.
5. (Mechi’s.) Emery (reduced to an impalpable powder), 4 parts; deer suet,
1 part; well mixed together.
6. (Pradier’s.) From powdered Turkey stone, 4 oz.; jeweller’s rouge and
prepared putty powder, of each 1 oz.; hard suet, 2 oz.
_Obs._ The above (generally made up into square cakes) are rubbed over the
razor strop, and the surface being smoothed off with the flat part of a
knife or a phial bottle, the strop is set aside for a few hours to harden
before being used.
=Paste, Regnault’s.= See PASTE, PECTORAL.
=Paste, Rubefa′′cient.= _Syn._ PASTA RUBEFACIENS, L. _Prep._ (Clarus.)
From acetate of lead, 1 oz.; bisulphite of potassa, 3 oz.; water, q. s. It
acts powerfully and quickly on the skin.
=Paste, Rust’s.= _Prep._ From powdered opium and extract of henbane, of
each 10 gr.; powdered pellitory and extract of belladonna, of each 20 gr.;
oil of cloves, 10 drops. In toothache.
=Paste, Sha′′ving.= _Prep._ 1. Naples soap (genuine), 4 oz.; powdered
Castile soap, 2 oz.; honey, 1 oz.; essence of ambergris and oils of cassia
and nutmegs, of each 5 or 6 drops.
2. White wax, spermaceti, and almond oil, of each 1/4 oz.; melt, and,
whilst warm, beat in 2 squares of Windsor soap previously reduced to a
paste with a little rose water.
3. White soft soap, 4 oz.; spermaceti and salad oil, of each 1/2 oz.; melt
them together, and stir until nearly cold. It may be scented at will. When
properly prepared, these pastes produce a good lather with either hot or
cold water, which does not dry on the face. The proper method of using
them is to smear a minute quantity over the beard, and then to apply the
wetted shaving-brush, and not to pour water on them, as is the common
practice.
=Paste, Styptic, of Gutta Percha.= _Syn._ PASTA GUTTÆ PERCHÆ STYPTICA. (Mr
Beardsley.) Gutta percha, 1 oz.; Stockholm tar, 1-1/2 or 2 oz.; creosote,
1 dr.; shellac, 1 oz., or q. s. to render it sufficiently hard. To be
boiled together with constant stirring, till it forms a homogeneous mass.
For alveolar hæmorrhage, and as a stopping for teeth in toothache. To be
softened by moulding with the fingers.
=Paste, Swediaur.= See CHILBLAIN.
=Paste, Tooth.= _Syn._ PASTA DENTIFRICIA, ELECTUARIUM DENTIFRICUM, L.
Various preparations are known under this name. They consist, for the most
part, of the ordinary substances used as dentifrices, reduced to the state
of a very fine powder, and mixed with sufficient honey, sugar, or
capillaire, to give them the required consistence. Honey of roses is often
used for this purpose, with some agreeable perfume at will. A little eau
de Cologne or rectified spirit is a useful addition. The following are a
few examples:——
1. (CARBON PASTE; OPIAT CARBONIQUE.) The chippings of Turkey stone,
cylinder charcoal, and prepared chalk, of each 2 oz.; cochineal and
cloves, of each 1 dr.; honey, 5 oz.; eau de Cologne, q. s. It should not
be put into the pots until the next day, and should be afterwards well
preserved from the air. Much prized by smokers, and by persons troubled
with a fetid breath from rotten teeth.
2. (CORAL PASTE; OPIAT DENTIFRICE ROUGE.) From prepared coral, 8 oz.;
cuttle-fish bone, 4 oz.; mastic, 2 oz.; cochineal, 1/4 oz.; honey, 3/4
lb.; essence of ambergris, 1 fl dr.; oil of cloves, 1/2 fl. dr., dissolved
in rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz. As the last. Cleanse the teeth rapidly.
3. (Dyon’s CHARCOAL PASTE.) From chlorate of potassa, 1 dr.; mint water, 1
fl. oz.; triturate until dissolved, then add, of powdered charcoal, 2 oz.;
honey, 1 oz.
4. (MAGIC PASTE.) From white marble dust 4 oz.; pumice stone (in
impalpable powder), 3 oz.; rose pink, 1 oz.; honey, 1/2 lb.; otto of
roses, 15 drops. Rapidly whitens the teeth, but it should not be used too
freely, nor too frequently.
5. (P. Cod.) Prepared coral, 4 oz.; bitartrate of potassa, 2 oz.;
cuttle-fish bone and cochineal, of each 1 oz.; alum, 1/2 dr.; Narbonne
honey, 10 oz.; with essential oil, q. s. to aromatise the mixture.
6. (Pelletier’s ODONTINE.) This is stated to be a mixture of pulverised
sepia-bone, butter of cacao, and honey, with essential oil.
7. (ROSE PASTE.) Coral paste scented with roses, or the
following:——Cuttle-fish bone, 1 oz.; prepared chalk, 2 oz.; cochineal, 1/2
dr.; honey of roses, 3 oz.; otto of roses, 6 drops.
8. (SOLUBLE PASTE, SALINE DENTIFRICE.) From bitartrate of potassa or
sulphate of potassa (in fine powder), 3 oz.; honey of roses, 2 oz.
9. (SPANISH DENTIFRICE, CASTILIAN TOOTH CREAM.) From Castile soap (in fine
powder) and cuttle-fish bone, of each 2 oz.; honey of roses, 5 oz. An
excellent preparation. It is superior to all the other pastes for removing
tartar and animalculæ from the teeth.
10. (VANILLA PASTE.) From red cinchona bark, 2 dr.; vanilla, 1 dr.;
cloves, 1/2 dr. (the last two reduced to powder by trituration with);
white sugar, 1 oz.; cuttle-fish bone and marble dust, of each 1/2 oz.;
syrup of saffron, q. s.
11. (VIOLET PASTE.) From prepared chalk and cuttle-fish bone of each 3
oz.; powdered white sugar, 2 oz.; orris root 1 oz.; smalts, 1/4 oz.; syrup
of violets, q. s. to mix.
12. (Winckler’s ROSEATE DENTIFRICE.) From cuttle-fish bone, 1 part;
conserve of roses (Ph. L.), 3 parts; white otto of roses, 2 drops to the
oz.
13. Chalk, 8 oz.; myrrh and rhatany root, of each 2 oz.; orris root, 1
oz.; honey of roses, q. s. to mix. In foul and spongy gums.
=Paste, Tooth′ache.= See PASTE, ODONTALGIA.
=Paste, Tor′mentil.= _Syn._ PASTA TORMENTILLÆ, L. _Prep._ (Morin.)
Powdered tormentil root made into a paste with white of egg. In whitlow;
applied on linen. Mixed with an equal weight of simple syrup, it has also
been recommended in dysentery and diarrhœa.
=Paste, Vienna.= See CAUSTIC POTASSA WITH LIME.
=Paste, Vohler’s.= _Prep._ From dragon’s blood, 1 dr.; powdered opium, 2
dr.; powdered gums of mastic and sandarach, of each 4 dr.; oil of
rosemary, 20 drops; tincture of opium, q. s. to form a paste. In
toothache.
=Paste, Ward’s.= See CONFECTION OF PEPPER.
=PASTES.= _Syn._ ARTIFICIAL GEMS, FACTITIOUS G.; PIERRES PRÉCIEUSES
ARTIFICIELLES, Fr. Vitreous compounds made in imitation of the gems and
precious stones. The substances which enter into their composition, and
the principles on which their successful production depends, have been
already briefly noticed. The present article will, therefore, be confined
to giving the reader a few original formulæ, together with several others
carefully selected from the most reliable English and Continental
authorities. Like enamels the artificial gems have for their basis a very
fusible, highly transparent and brilliant, dense glass, which is known
under the name of ‘frit,’ ‘paste,’ ‘strass,’ ‘flux,’ ‘fondant,’ or
‘Mayence base,’ and which in its state of greatest excellence constitutes
the ‘artificial diamond.’ For convenience, this will be noticed here under
its last synonym. (See _below_, also Ure’s ‘Dictionary of Arts,’ &c.)
=Amethyst.= 1. Paste or strass, 500 gr.; oxide of manganese, 3 gr.; oxide
of cobalt, 24 gr.
2. (Douault-Wiéland.) Strass, 4608 gr.; oxide of manganese, 36 gr.; oxide
of cobalt, 2 gr.
3. (Lançon.) Strass, 9216 gr.; oxide of manganese, 15 to 24 gr.; oxide of
cobalt, 1 gr.
=Aqua Marina.= From strass, 4800 gr.; glass of antimony, 30 gr.; oxide of
cobalt, 1-1/2 gr. See BERYL, of which this is merely a variety.
=Aventurine.= 1. From strass, 500 gr.; scales of iron, 100 gr.; black
oxide of copper, 50 gr.; fuse until the black oxide of copper is reduced
to the reguline form, then allow the mass to cool very slowly, so that the
minute crystals of metal may be equally diffused through it. Has a rich
golden iridescence.
2. As the last, but submitting oxide of chromium for the protoxide of
copper. Appears brown, filled with countless gold spangles; or, when mixed
with more paste, of a greenish grey, filled with green spangles.
=Beryl.= (Douault-Wiéland.) Strass, 3456 gr.; glass of antimony, 24 gr.;
oxide of cobalt, 1-1/2 gr. See AQUA MARINA.
=Carbuncle.= See GARNET.
=Chrysolite.= From strass 7000 gr.; pure calcined sesquioxide of iron
(‘trocus martis’), 65 gr.
=Cornelian.= 1. (RED.) From strass, 7000 gr.; glass of antimony, 3500 gr.;
calcined peroxide of iron, 875 gr.; binoxide of manganese, 75 gr.
2. (WHITE.) From strass, 7200 gr.; calcined bones, 250 gr.; washed yellow
ochre, 65 gr.
=Diamond.= 1. From rock crystal (purest), 1600 gr.; borax, 560 gr.;
carbonate of lead (pure), 3200 gr.; oxide of manganese, 1/2 to 1 gr.;
powder each separately, mix them together, fuse the mixture in a clean
crucible, pour the melted mass into water, separate any reduced lead, and
again powder and remelt the mass.
2. Pure silica, 150 gr.; pure litharge, 250 gr.; borax and nitre, of each
50 gr.; arsenious acid, 21 gr.
3. (Douault-Wiéland.)——_a._ From rock crystal, 4056 gr.; minium, 6300 gr.;
potash, 2154 gr.; borax, 276 gr.; arsenic, 12 gr.
_b._ From rock crystal, 3600 gr.; ceruse of Clichy (pure carbonate of
lead), 8508 gr.; potash, 1260 gr.; borax, 360 gr.
4. (Fontanier.) Pure silica, 8 oz.; salt of tartar, 24 oz.; mix, bake,
cool, treat the fused mixture with dilute nitric acid until effervescence
ceases, and afterwards with water as long as the washings affect litmus
paper; next dry the powder, add to it of pure carbonate of lead, 12 oz.
and to every 12 oz. of the mixture add of borax, 1 oz.; triturate in a
porcelain mortar, melt in a clean crucible, and pour the fused mass into
cold water; dry, powder, and repeat the process a second and a third time
in a clean crucible, observing to separate any revived lead. To the third
frit add of nitre, 5 dr., and again melt. The product is perfectly limpid
and extremely brilliant.
5. (Lançon.) Litharge, 100 gr.; pure silica, 75 gr.; white tartar or
potash, 10 gr.
6. (Loysel.) Pure silica, 100 parts; red oxide of lead (minium), 150
parts; calcined potash, 30 to 35 parts; calcined borax, 10 parts;
arsenious acid, 1 part. This produces a paste which has great brilliancy
and refractive and dispersive powers, and also a similar specific gravity
to the oriental diamond. It fuses at a moderate heat, and acquires the
greatest brilliancy when remelted, and kept for 2 or 3 days in a fused
state, in order to expel the superabundant alkali, and perfect the
refining (‘Polytech. Journ.’). The products of the above formulæ are not
only employed to imitate the diamond, but they also form the basis of the
other factitious gems. (See _above_.)
7. (YELLOW DIAMOND.) Strass, 500 gr.; glass of antimony, 10 gr.
=Eagle Marine.= From strass, 3840 gr.; copper stain, 72 gr.; pure zaffre,
1 gr.
=Emerald.= 1. From strass, 7000 gr.; carbonate of copper, 65 gr.; glass of
antimony, 7 gr.
2. Paste, 960 gr.; glass of antimony, 42 gr.; oxide of cobalt, 3-1/2 gr.
3. (Douault-Wiéland) Paste, 4608 gr.; green oxide of copper, 42 gr.; oxide
of chrome, 2 gr.
4. (Lançon.) Paste, 9612 gr.; acetate of copper, 72 gr.; peroxide of iron,
1-1/2 gr.
=Garnet.= 1. Paste or strass, 1200 gr.; glass of antimony, 580 gr.; purple
of cassius and binoxide of manganese, of each 3 gr.
2. (Douault-Wiéland.) Paste, 513 gr.; glass of antimony, 256 gr.; purple
of cassius and oxide of manganese, of each 2 gr.
3. (VINEGAR GARNET.) From paste, 7000 gr.; glass of antimony, 3460 gr.;
calcined peroxide of iron, 56 gr.
=Lapis Lazuli.= From paste, 7000 gr.; calcined horn or bones, 570 gr.;
oxides of cobalt and manganese, of each 24 gr. The golden veins are
produced by painting them on the pieces with a mixture of gold powder,
borax, and gum water, and then gently heating them until the borax fluxes.
=Opal.= 1. From strass, 960 gr.; calcined bones, 48 gr.
2. (Fontanier.) Paste, 1 oz.; horn silver, 10 gr.; calcined magnetic ore,
2 gr.; absorbent earth (calcined bones), 26 gr.
=Ruby.= 1. Paste, 45 parts; binoxide of manganese, 1 part.
2. Paste, 1 lb.; purple of cassius, 3 dr.
3. (Douault-Wiéland.)——_a._ From paste, 2880 parts; oxide of manganese, 72
parts.
_b._ Topaz-paste that has turned out opaque, 1 part; strass, 8 parts; fuse
them together for 30 hours, cool, and again fuse it in small pieces before
the blowpipe. Very fine.
4. (Fontanier.) Strass, 16 oz.; precipitate of cassius, peroxide of iron,
golden sulphide of antimony, and manganese calcined with nitre, of each
168 gr.; rock crystal, 2 oz., or more.
5. Paste and glass of antimony, of each 8 oz.; rock crystal, 1 oz.; purple
of cassius, 1-1/2 dr. Turns on the orange.
=Sapphire.= 1. From strass, 3600 gr.; oxide of cobalt, 50 gr.; oxide of
manganese, 11 gr.
2. (Douault-Wiéland.) Paste, 4608 gr.; oxide of cobalt, 68 gr.; fuse in a
little Hessian crucible for 30 hours.
3. (Fontanier.) Paste, 8 oz.; oxide of cobalt, 49 gr.
=Topaz.= 1. From strass, 1050 gr.; glass of antimony, 44 gr.; purple of
cassius, 1 gr.
2. (Douault-Wiéland.) Paste, 3456 gr.; calcined peroxide of iron, 36 gr.
=Turquoise.= From blue paste, 20 to 24 parts; calcined bones, 1 part.
_Concluding remarks._ It is absolutely necessary for the successful
application of the preceding formulæ that the substances employed should
be perfectly free from impurities, more particularly those of a mineral
kind. The litharge, oxide of lead, and carbonate of lead, above all
things, must be entirely free from oxide of tin, as the smallest particle
of that substance may impart a ‘milkiness’ to the paste. All the
ingredients must be separately reduced to powder, and, after being mixed,
sifted through lawn. The fusion must be carefully conducted and
continuous, and the melted mass should be allowed to cool very slowly,
after having been left in the fire from 24 to 30 hours, at the least.
Hessian crucibles are preferred for this purpose, and the heat of an
ordinary pottery or porcelain kiln is sufficient in most cases; but a
small wind-furnace, devoted exclusively to the purpose, is, in general,
more convenient. It is found that the more tranquil, continuous, and
uniform the fusion, the denser and clearer is the paste, and the greater
its refractive power and beauty.
All the coloured vitreous compounds noticed under GLASS may be worked up
as ornamental stones, in the same way as those just referred to.
The following method of obtaining artificial rubies and emeralds, first
pointed out by Boëttger, is exceedingly simple and inexpensive, and
deserves the serious attention of those interested in this ingenious
art:——Recently precipitated and well-washed hydrate of aluminum is
moistened with a few drops of neutral chromate of potassium, and kneaded
so that the mass assumes a tinge scarcely perceptible; it is then rolled
up into small sticks, about the thickness of a finger, and slowly dried,
taking the precaution to fill the fissures (if any) that form during
desiccation with fresh hydrate of aluminum. When perfectly dry, and after
having been submitted to a gentle heat, one end of these sticks is brought
into the termination of the flame of an oxyhydrogen blowpipe, until a
portion of the mass is fused into a small globule. After the lapse of a
few minutes, several minute balls form, having a diameter of some
millimètres, and of such intense hardness that quartz, glass, topaz and
granite, may be easily and perceptibly scratched with them. These, when
cut and polished, appear, however, slightly opaque. By employing nitrate
of nickel in lieu of chromate of potassium, green-coloured globules,
closely resembling the emerald, are obtained.
By the substitution of oxide of chromium for chromate of potassium, Mr
Cooley produced factitious gems of considerable hardness and beauty,
though slightly opaque in some portion of the mass. The addition of a very
little silica prevented, in a great measure, this tendency to opacity.
It may be observed that the beauty of pastes of factitious gems, and
especially the brilliancy of mock diamonds, is greatly depending upon the
cutting, setting up, and the skilful arrangement of the foil or tinsel
behind them. See ENAMEL, FOILS, GEMS, GLASS, &c.
=PAS′TELS.= [Fr.] Coloured crayons.
=PAS′TIL.= _Syn._ PASTILLE; PASTILLUS, PASTILLUM, L. A lozenge or
confection. The pastilles (PASTILLI) of French pharmacy, are merely
‘confectionery drops’ aromatised or medicated. The name is also given to
mixtures or odorous substances made up into small cones and burnt as
incense. (See _below_).
=Pastils, Explo′sive.= Fumigating pastilles, containing a little
gunpowder. Used to produce diversion, but they often prove far from
harmless.
=Pastils, Fumiga′ting.= _Syn._ AROMATIC PASTILLES, INCENSE P.; PASTILLI
FUMANTES, P. ODORATI, L. _Prep._ 1. Benzoin, 4 oz.; cascarilla, 1/2 oz.;
nitre and gum Arabic, of each 3 dr.; myrrh, 1 dr.; oils of nutmeg and
cloves, of each 25 drops; charcoal, 7 oz.; all in fine powder; beat them
to a smooth ductile mass with cold water, q. s.; form it into small cones
with a tripod base, and dry them in the air.
2. (Henry and Guibourt.) Powdered gum benzoin, 16 parts; balsam of tolu
and powdered sandal wood, of each 4 parts; a light charcoal (Linden), 48
parts; powdered tragacanth and true labdanum, of each 1 part; powdered
nitre and gum Arabic, of each 2 parts; cinnamon water, 12 parts; as above.
3. (P. Cod.) Benzoin, 2 oz.; balsam of tolu and yellow sandal wood, of
each 4 dr.; nitre, 2 dr.; labdanum, 1 dr.; charcoal, 6 oz.; mix with a
solution of gum tragacanth, and divide the mass into pastilles, as before.
4. (PASTILLES À LA FLEUR D’ORANGE.) For powdered roses in the next formula
substitute pure orange powder, and for the essence of roses use pure
neroli.
5. (PASTILLES À LA ROSE.) Gum benzoin, olibanum (in tears) and styrax (in
tears), of each 12 oz.; nitre, 9 oz.; charcoal, 4 lbs.; powder of pale
roses, 1 lb.; essence of roses, 1 oz.; mix with 2 oz. of gum tragacanth,
dissolved in rose water, 1 quart.
6. (PASTILLES À LA VANILLE.) Gum benzoin, styrax, and olibanum (as last),
of each 12 oz.; nitre, 10 oz.; cloves, 8 oz.; powdered vanilla, 1 lb.;
charcoal, 4-1/2 lbs.; oil of cloves, 1/2 oz.; essence of vanilla, 7 or 8
fl. oz.; as before.
_Obs._ The products of the above formula are all of excellent quality.
They may be varied to please the fancy of the artiste, by the addition or
substitution of other perfumes or aromatics. Cheaper pastilles may be made
by simply increasing the quantity of the charcoal and saltpetre. The whole
of the ingredients should be reduced to fine powder before mixing them.
The use of musk and civet, so often ordered in pastilles, should be
avoided, as they yield a disagreeable odour when burned. The addition of a
little camphor renders them more suitable for a sick chamber. The simplest
and most convenient way of forming the mass into cones is by pressing it
into a mould of lead or porcelain.
Pastilles are burned either to diffuse a pleasant odour, or to cover a
disagreeable one. For this purpose they are kindled at the apex and set on
an inverted saucer or a penny piece to burn. Persons who use them
frequently employ a small china or porcelain toy (‘pastile house’) sold
for the purpose.
=Pastils, Mouth.= _Syn._ BREATH PILL, CACHOU LOZENGES; PASTILLI COSMETICI,
L.; CACHOU AROMATISÉ, C. AROMATIQUE, C. DE BOLOGNA, GRAINS DE CACHOU, Fr.
_Prep._ 1. Soft extract of liquorice, 3 oz.; gum catechu and white sugar,
of each 1 oz.; gum tragacanth (powdered), 1/2 oz.; oil of cloves, 1 dr.;
oil of cassia, 1/2 dr.; essence of ambergris and oil of nutmeg, of each 12
drops; make a firm mass with rose or orange-flower water, q. s., and
divide it into one-grain pills; when these are dry, cover them with gold
or silver leaf.
2. Solazzi juice (dried by a gentle heat and powdered), 4 oz.; lump sugar,
3 oz.; powdered catechu, 2 oz.; powdered tragacanth, 1 oz.; oil of cloves,
2 fl. dr.; oil of cassia, 1 fl. dr.; white of egg or rose water, q. s. to
form a pill-mass; as before.
3. Powdered catechu, 1 oz.; Solazzi juice, 4 oz.; lump sugar, 12 oz.; oils
of cloves, cassia, and peppermint, of each 1 fl. dr.; mucilage of
tragacanth, q. s. to mix; as before.
4. Extract of liquorice (soft), 2 oz.; white sugar, 3 oz.; powdered
tragacanth and cascarilla (or orris root), of each 1/2 oz.; oil of cloves,
1/2 fl. dr.; oil of cassia, 12 drops, water, q. s.; as before.
5. (Chevallier.) Powdered coffee, chocolate and sugar, of each 1-1/2 oz.;
powdered vanilla, and freshly burnt charcoal, of each 1 oz.; mucilage of
tragacanth, q. s.
6. Chloride of lime (dry and good), 1 dr.; white sugar, 3 oz.; powdered
tragacanth, 1 oz.; oil of cloves, 30 drops; rose water, q. s. To disinfect
the breath.
_Obs._ Almost every maker employs his own forms for these articles. The
objects to be aimed at are the possession of rather powerful and
persistent odour, and a toughness to prevent their too rapid solution in
the mouth. The original Italian formula included liquorice, mastic,
cascarilla, charcoal orris root, oil of peppermint, and the tinctures of
ambergris and musk, but is now seldom employed in this country. The
flavour of peppermint does not, indeed, appear to be approved of by
English smokers. Sometimes, instead of being made perfectly spherical,
they are flattened a little.
CACHOU À L’AMBRE GRIS, CACHOU À LA CANELLE, CACHOU À LA FLEUR D’ORANGE,
CACHOU MUSQUÉ, CACHOU À LA ROSE, CACHOU À LA VANILLE, CACHOU À LA
VIOLETTE, &c., are merely flavoured and scented respectively with the
essences or oils of ambergris, cinnamon, neroli, musk, rose vanilla,
violets, &c. See BREATH, CACHOU AROMATISÉ, LOZENGES, PILLS, &c.
=PA′′STRY.= Articles of food made of ‘paste’ or dough, or of which ‘paste’
forms a principal and characteristic ingredient. The word is popularly
restricted to those which contain puff paste, or such as form the staple
production of the modern pastrycook; but it is, in reality, of much more
general signification.
Several varieties of paste are prepared for different purposes, of which
the following are the principal:——
PUFF PASTE. The production of a first class puff paste is commonly
regarded as a matter of considerable difficulty, but by the exercise of
the proper precautions it is, on the contrary, an extremely simple affair.
This paste, before being placed in the oven, consists of alternate laminæ
of butter or fat and ordinary flour dough, the latter being, of course,
the thicker of the two. During the process of baking, the elastic vapour
disengaged, being in part restrained from flying off by the buttered
surfaces of the dough, diffuses itself between these laminæ, and causes
the mass to swell up, and to form an assemblage of thin membranes or
flakes, each of which is more or less separated from the other.
Individually, these flakes resemble those of an ordinary rich unleavened
dough when baked; but, collectively, they form a very light crust,
possessing an extremely inviting appearance and an agreeable flavour.
The precautions above referred to are——the use of perfectly dry flour, and
its conversion into dough with a light hand, avoiding unnecessarily
working it,——the use of butter free from water or buttermilk, and which
has been reduced to precisely the same degree of plasticity as the dough
between which it is to be rolled,——conducting the operation in a cool
apartment, and, after the second or third folding of the dough, exposing
it to a rather low temperature before proceeding further with the process;
and, lastly,——baking the paste in a moderately smart but not too hot an
oven. The following are examples:——
1. (Rich.) Take of flour, 1 lb.; butter, 1/4 lb.; cold spring water,
q. s.; make a moderately soft flexible dough, then roll in (as described
above) of dry fresh butter, 1/2 lb.
2. (Ordinary.) Take of flour, 1 lb.; cold water, q. s.; make a dough, and
roll in, as before, of butter, 6 oz.
3. (Rundell.) Take 1/4 peck of flour, rub into it 1 lb. of butter, and
make a ‘light paste’ with cold water, just stiff enough to work well; next
lay it out about as thick as a crown-piece; put a layer of butter all over
it, sprinkle on a little flour, double it up, and roll it out again; by
repeating this with fresh layers of butter three or four times, or
oftener, a very light paste will be formed. Bake it in a moderately quick
oven.
4. (Soyer.) Put 1 lb. of flour upon your pastry slab, make a hole in the
centre, into which put a teaspoonful of salt, mix it with cold water into
a softish flexible paste with the right hand, dry it off a little with
flour until you have well cleared the paste from the slab, but do not work
it more than you can possibly help; let it remain for 2 or 3 minutes upon
the slab, then take 1 lb. of fresh butter from which you have squeezed all
the buttermilk in a cloth, and brought to the same consistency as the
paste, upon which place it; press it out flat with the hand, then fold
over the edges of the paste so as to hide the butter, and reduce it with
the rolling-pin to the thickness of about 1/2 an inch, when it will be
about two feet in length; fold over one third, over which again pass the
rolling-pin; then fold over the other third, thus forming a square; place
it with the ends top and bottom before you, shaking a little flour both
under and over, and repeat the rolls and turns twice again as before;
flour a ‘baking-sheet,’ upon which lay it, on ice, if handy, or otherwise,
in some cool place, for about half an hour; then roll it twice more,
turning it as before, and again place it upon ice or in the cold for 1/4
of an hour; next give it two more rolls, making seven in all, and it is
ready for use. “You must continually add enough flour while rolling to
prevent your paste sticking to the slab.”
HALF-PUFF PASTE. As the preceding, using only one half the quantity of
butter, and giving the paste only 3 or 4 folds.
SHORT PASTE, SHORT CRUST.——1. Flour (dry and warm), 1 lb.; sugar, 3 oz.;
butter, 1/4 lb.; 2 eggs; water, 1/2 pint; make a light dough. If one half
of ‘Jones’s patent flour’ be used, no eggs will be required.
2. (Soyer.) Put on the ‘paste slab’ or ‘pie board’ 1 lb. of flour, 2 oz.
of pounded sugar, 6 oz. of butter, 1 egg, 1/2 teaspoonful of salt, and 1/2
pint of water; mix the sugar and water well together, add them with the
water by degrees to the flour, and form a paste, but firmer than puff
paste.
PIE PASTE. That commonly used is ‘short paste,’ varied at will; but at
good tables the upper crust of the pie is generally made of ‘puff paste,’
and the remainder of ‘short paste.’
PUDDING PASTE. This for baked puddings may resemble the last. For boiled
puddings (or indeed for any), the paste may be either ordinary ‘short
paste,’ or one made with 2 to 6 oz. of butter or lard, or 3 to 8 oz. of
chopped beef suet, to each lb. of flour, with or without an egg, and a
little sugar, according to the means of the parties. The first is most
appropriate for those containing fresh fruit, and that with suet for meat
puddings, and those containing dried fruit, as grocers currants, plums,
&c. Milk or milk-and-water is often used instead of simple water to make
the dough. Ginger, spices, savory herbs, &c., are common additions to the
crusts of puddings. Where economy is an object, and especially among the
lower classes, kitchen fat is frequently substituted for suet, and lard
for butter. When ‘Jones’s patent flour’ is employed, an excellent plain
pudding paste may be made by simply mixing it up with very cold water, and
immediately putting it into the water, which should be boiling, and kept
in that state until the pudding is dressed.
=PA′TENT MED′ICINES.= _Syn._ MEDICAMENTA ARCANA, L. The majority of the
preparations noticed under this head are the nostrums popularly termed
‘quack medicines,’ and which are sold with a Government stamp attached to
them. A few other secret or proprietary remedies are also, for
convenience, included in the list. An alphabetical arrangement, based on
the names of the reputed inventors or proprietors of the articles, has
been adopted, as being the one best suited for easy reference. The
composition of a number of them is given from careful personal inspection
and analysis (by Mr Cooley), and that of the remainder on the authority of
Gray, Griffith, Paris, Redwood, the members of the Philadelphia College of
pharmacy, and other respectable writers. A variety of articles, not
included in the following list, is noticed along with other preparations
for the class to which they belong, or under the names of their
proprietors. See BALSAM, CERATE, DROPS, ESSENCE, TINCTURE, OINTMENT,
PILLS, &c.
=Abernethy’s Pills.= See ABERNETHY MEDICINES.
=Albinolo’s Ointment.= See HOLLOWAY’S OINTMENT (_below_).
=Ali Ahmed’s Treasures of the Desert.= There are three preparations
included under this name:——
_a._ (ANTISEPTIC MALAGMA.) From lead plaster, 3 parts; gum, thus and salad
oil, of each 2 parts; beeswax, 1 part; melted together by a gentle heat,
and spread upon calico.
_b._ (PECTORAL, ANTIPHTHISIS, or COUGH PILLS.) From myrrh, 3-1/2 lbs.;
squills and ipecacuanha, of each 1 lb. (all in powder); white soft soap,
10 oz.; oil of aniseed, 1-1/4 oz; treacle, q. s. to form a pill mass.
_c._ (SPHAIROPEPTIC or ANTIBILIOUS PILLS.) From aloes, 28 lbs.; colocynth
pulp, 12 lbs.; rhubarb, 7 lbs.; myrrh and scammony, of each 3-1/2 lbs.;
ipecacuanha, 3 lbs.; cardamom seeds, 2 lbs. (all in powder); soft soap, 9
lbs.; oil of juniper, 7 fl. oz.; treacle, q. s. This, as well as the last,
is divided into 3-1/2 gr. pills, which are then covered with tin foil or
silver leaf. An excellent aperient pill, no doubt, and one likely to prove
useful in all those cases in which the administration of a mild
diaphoretic and stomachic purge is indicated. Unlike many of the
advertised nostrums of the day, there is nothing in their composition that
can by any possibility, prove injurious; but beyond this they are
destitute of virtue.
=Anderson’s Scot’s Pills.= See PILLS.
=Atkinson’s Infant Preservative.= From carbonate of magnesia, 6 dr.; white
sugar, 2 oz.; oil of aniseed, 20 drops; spirit of sal volatile, 2-1/2 dr.;
laudanum, 1 dr.; syrup of saffron, 1 oz.; caraway water to make up 1 pint.
=Balm of Rackasiri.= See BALSAM.
=Balsam of Life.= _Syn._ BAUME DE VIE, Fr. Several compound medicines of
this name are noticed on page 261. The following are well-known
nostrums:——
1. (Hoffman’s)——_a._ Of the oils of cinnamon, cloves, lemon, lavender, and
nutmegs, and balsam of Peru, of each 2 dr.; essence of ambergris, oil of
amber, and oil of rue, of each 1 dr.; cochineal, 12 gr.; strongest
rectified spirit, 3-1/2 pints; mix.
_b._ (Ph. Dan. 1840.) Oils of cinnamon, cloves, lavender, and nutmegs, of
each 20 gr.; purified oil of amber, 10 drops; balsam of Peru, 30 gr.;
rectified spirit (tinged with alkanet root), 10 oz.
2. (Gabius’s.) Nearly similar to Hoffmann’s.
3. (Turlington’s.) Benzoin and liquid styrax, of each 12 oz.; balsam of
tolu and extract of liquorice, of each 4 oz.; balsam of Peru, 2 oz.;
aloes, myrrh, and angelica root, of each 1 oz.; highly rectified spirit of
wine, 7 pints; digest, with frequent agitation for 10 days, and filter.
Externally, the above are rubefacient and corroborant; internally,
stimulant, cordial, and pectoral.
=Betton’s British Oil.= From oil of turpentine, 1 pint; Barbadoes tar, 1/2
lb.; oil of rosemary, 1 fl. oz.
=Blake’s Green-mountain Ointment.= We are told that the active ingredient
in this compound is _Arnica montana_, with a basis of soap cerate. It is
very useful as an external applications in several affections. The chief
objection to its use is that it is a secret preparation.
=Blake’s Toothache Essence.= From alum, in fine powder, 1 dr.; sweet
spirit of nitre, 5 dr.
=Boerhaave’s Odontalgic Essence.= From opium, 1/2 dr.; oil of cloves, 5
dr.; powdered camphor, 5 dr.; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 fl. oz.
=Bouchardat’s Tasteless Aperient.= From phosphate of soda, 3/4 oz., placed
in a soda-water bottle, which is then filled up with carbonated water, at
the bottling machine. For a dose.
=Brand’s Tooth Tincture.= From pellitory of Spain (bruised), 1 oz.;
camphor, 3/4 oz.; opium, 1/4 oz.; oil of cloves, 1 dr.; digested for 10
days in rectified spirit, 1/2 pint.
=Brodum’s Nervous Cordial.= _Prep._ 1. “Originally it consisted simply of
an infusion of gentian root in English gin, coloured and flavoured with a
little red lavender (compound spirit of lavender.). After a time the
doctor added a little bark to the nostrum, and subsequently made other
additions.” (‘Anat. of Quackery,’)
2. (Paris.) Tinctures of gentian, calumba, cardamoms, and cinchona,
compound spirits of lavender, and steel wine, of each equal parts. “It is
tonic, stomachic, and stimulant; but, beyond these, possesses no curative
properties.” ‘Anat. of Quackery.’
=Chlorodyne.= This nostrum, which was first introduced as “a combination
of perchloric acid with a new alkaloid,” has become a popular anodyne and
sedative. Several preparations are sold under this name, and the claims of
the rival makers have occasioned some expensive lawsuits. The name was
undoubtedly invented by Dr J. Collis Browne, but Mr Freeman,
pharmaceutical chemist, claims to be the inventor of the preparation.
Whether Browne’s and Freeman’s ‘chlorodynes’ are essentially the same, we
are not able to determine, but we know that there is not the slightest
foundation for the statements made by each manufacturer respecting the new
vegetable principle contained in his medicine. Chlorodyne, in every one of
its forms, is simply a mixture of certain well-known materials, some of
which are rather dangerous ingredients for a popular nostrum. According to
the analysis of Dr Odgen, Browne’s chlorodyne is composed as follows:——
Chloroform, 6 dr.; chloric ether, 1 dr.; tincture of capsicum, 1/2 dr.;
oil of peppermint, 2 drops; hydrochlorate of morphine, 8 gr.; Scheele’s
hydrocyanic acid, 12 drops; perchloric acid, 20 drops; tincture of Indian
hemp, 1 dr.; treacle, 1 dr. ‘Towle’s chlorodyne’ is prepared according to
this formula, the ingredients being named on the label.
=Clarke’s Conglutinum.= See CONGLUTINUM.
=Cochrane’s Cough Remedy.= Acidulated syrup of poppies.
=Corn Nostrums.= See CORN.
=Cottereau’s Odontalgic Essence.= A nearly saturated ethereal solution of
camphor, mixed with about 1/12th of its volume of strong liquor of
ammonia.
=Curtis’s Anti-venereal Lotion.= A mixture of Beaufoy’s solution of
chloride of lime, 2 fl. oz., with cold soft water, 8 fl. oz. For use, 1 to
2 table-spoonfuls are put into a wine-glassful of water.
=Dalby’s Carminative.= 1. (Dr Paris.) Carbonate of magnesia, 40 gr.;
tincture of castor and compound tincture of cardamoms, of each 30 drops;
tincture of assafœtida, and spirit of pennyroyal, of each 15 drops;
laudanum, 5 drops; oil of aniseed, 3 drops; oil of nutmeg, 2 drops; oil of
peppermint, 1 drop; peppermint water, 2 fl. oz.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1
teaspoonful. The bottle should be well shaken before pouring it out.
2. (Wholesale.) Carbonate of magnesia, 1 oz.; tincture of castor, 5 fl.
dr.; tincture of assafœtida, 3 fl. dr.; oils of aniseed and pennyroyal, of
each 1/4 fl. dr.; oil of nutmeg, 15 drops; syrup of poppies, 7 oz.;
rectified spirit. 3-1/2 fl. oz.; peppermint water, 1/2 pint; as before.
=Davidson’s Cancer Remedy.= A mixture of arsenious acid and hemlock, both
in powder. (Dr Paris.)
=Davis’s Calorific.= The ‘LIQUID’ is commercial acetic acid (sp. gr.
1·048), dilated with about an equal volume of water, and coloured with
burnt sugar or spirit colouring. The ‘SHIELD’ consists of a piece of red
flannel backed with oil skin, to prevent evaporation. A few drops of
calorific are sprinkled on the flannel, which is then bound over the
affected part. The heat of the body gradually volatilises the acetic acid,
and the escape of the vapour being prevented by the oil skin, a strongly
counter-irritant action is set up.
=Derbyshire’s Embrocation.= From opium and mottled soap, of each 2 oz.;
extract of henbane, 2 dr.; and mace, 1/2 dr.; boiled for 30 minutes, in
water, 3 pints; to the cold liquor, rectified spirit, 1 quart, and liquor
of ammonia, 1 fl. oz., are added, and, after repose, the clear portion is
decanted. A preventive of sea-sickness.
=Deshler’s Cerate.= Yellow basilicon.
=Duncan’s Gout Medicine.= See GOUT.
=Dutch Ague Remedy.= A mixture formed of Peruvian bark and cream of
tartar, of each 1 oz.; cloves, 1/2 dr.; reduced to fine powder.——_Dose_,
1-1/2 dr., every 3 hours. (Dr Paris.)
=Godfrey’s Cordial.= 1. (Original formula.) Opium (sliced), 1/4 oz.;
sassafras chips 1 oz.; English brandy, 1 quart; macerate for 4 or 5 days,
then add, of water, 1 quart, treacle, 3-1/2 lbs., and simmer the whole
gently for a few minutes; the next day decant the clear portion.
2. (Dr Paris.) Aniseed, caraways, and corianders, of each, bruised, 1 oz.;
sassafras chips, 9 oz.; water, 6 pints; simmer gently until reduced to 4
pints, then add of treacle, 6 lbs.; and when nearly cold, further add of
tincture of opium, 3 fl. oz.
3. (Phil. Coll. of Phar.) Carbonate of potassa, 2-1/2 oz.; water, 26 pints
(old wine measure); dissolve, add of sugar-house molasses (treacle), 16
pints (o. w. m.); simmer the mixture, remove the scum, and when it has
considerably cooled, add of tincture of opium, 24 fl. oz.; oil of
sassafras, 1/2 fl. oz.; (dissolved in) rectified spirit, 1 quart (o. w.
m.) It contains about 16 drops of laudanum (= 1-1/8 gr. of opium) in each
fl. oz.
The following forms are also current in the wholesale trade:——
4. From molasses, 16 lbs.; distilled water, 2-3/4 galls.; oil of
sassafras, 1 fl. oz.; (dissolved in) rectified spirit, 1/2 gall.; bruised
ginger, 3/4 oz.; cloves, 1/2 oz.; laudanum, 8 fl. oz.; macerate for 14
days, and strain through flannel.
5. Sassafras chips, 1 lb.; ginger (bruised), 4 oz.; water, 3 galls.;
simmer until reduced to 2 galls.; then add of treacle, 16 lbs.; rectified
spirit, 7 lbs.; laudanum, 1 pint.
6. Opium, 1/2 oz.; treacle, 7 lbs.; boiling water, 1 gall.; dissolve, and
add, of rectified spirit, 1 quart; oil of sassafrass, 1/2 dr.; cloves and
mustard seed, of each 1/4 oz.; coriander and caraway seeds, of each 1 dr.;
digest for a week.
7. Caraways, corianders, and aniseed, of each 1 lb.; water, 6 galls.;
distil 5 galls., and add, of treacle, 23 lbs.; laudanum, 1 quart; and oil
of sassafras, 1 fl. oz., previously dissolved in rectified spirit, 1 gall.
_Obs._ This preparation is anodyne and narcotic, and, amongst the lower
classes, is commonly given to children troubled with wind or colic. Its
frequent and excessive use has sent many infants prematurely to the grave.
Gray says, “It is chiefly used to prevent the crying of children in pain
or starving.” The dose is 1/3 teaspoonful and upwards, according to the
age and susceptibility of the child.
=Grave’s Gout Preventive.= A tincture prepared by steeping, for a week,
dried orange peel and hiera picra, of each 1 oz., and rhubarb, 1/2 oz., in
brandy, 1 pint.
=Grinrod’s Remedy for Spasms.= From acetate of morphia, 1 gr.; spirit of
sal volatile and sulphuric ether, of each 1 fl. oz.; camphor julep, 4 fl.
oz.; for a mixture. It should be kept closely corked, in a cool place, and
should be well shaken before use.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful in a glass of
cold water or wine, as required. It is a really valuable preparation.
=Herrenschwand’s Specific.= A mixture of gamboge, 10 gr., with carbonate
of potassa, 20 gr. (Dr Paris.)
=Holloway’s Ointment.= The original formula of ALBINOLO’S OINTMENT, of
which this pretends to be a reproduction, contained the “graisses der
serpent et de vipère,” and other pharmaceutical curiosities. The principal
ingredients, however, in the HOLLOWAY’S OINTMENT of the present day are
very homely substances. In the case of Sillen _v._ Holloway, tried at the
Court of Common Pleas in January, 1863, the plaintiff’s counsel asserted
that, on the ointment being received by the agent in Paris, it was
submitted to the authorised government chemists to be analysed, in
accordance with the laws of France prohibiting the sale of secret
remedies, and was found by them to contain butter, lard, Venice
turpentine, white wax, yellow wax, and nothing else. In a letter to the
‘Times’ Mr Holloway stated that the French analysis was incorrect, for
three of the ingredients named were not in the ointment, while there were
other components which the analysts had not discovered. The formula
adopted by those who prepare an imitation ointment on the large scale, and
which closely resembles, if it be not actually identical with, that
employed by Mr Holloway, is as follows:——Fresh butter (free from water),
3/4 lb.; beeswax (good), 4 oz.; yellow resin, 3 oz.; melt them together,
add of vinegar of cantharides, 1 fl. oz., and simmer the whole, with
constant agitation, for 10 or 12 minutes, or until the moisture is nearly
evaporated; then add of Canada balsam, 1 oz.; expressed oil of mace, 1/2
dr.; balsam of Peru or liquid styrax, 10 or 12 drops; again stir well,
allow the mixture to settle, and when it is about half cold (not before)
pour it into the pots, previously slightly warmed, and allow it to cool
very slowly. The label will do the rest. No two samples of Holloway’s
ointment are precisely of the same colour or consistence.
=Holloway’s Pills.= From aloes, 4 parts; jalap, ginger, and myrrh, of each
2 parts; made into a mass with mucilage, and divided into 2-grain pills,
of which about 4 dozen are put into each 1s. 1-1/2d. box.
=Jackson’s Bathing Spirit.= A species of soap liniment, made of soft soap,
1 lb.; camphor, 6 oz.; oils of rosemary and thyme, of each 3/4 fl. oz.;
rectified spirit, 1 gall.
=Kaye’s Infant’s Preservative.= A preparation partaking of the joint
properties of Atkinson’s nostrum and Godfrey’s cordial, but more powerful
than either, as indicated by the doses in which it is directed to be given
during early infancy, viz. “two, three, or more drops.”
=Keating’s Cough Lozenges.= These are said to be composed of——Lactucarium,
2 dr.; ipecacuanha, 1 dr.; squills, 3/4 dr.; extract of liquorice, 2 oz.;
sugar, 6 oz.; made into a mass with mucilage of tragacanth, and divided
into 20-gr. lozenges.
=King’s Sarsaparilla Pills.= From the compound extract. “Instead of two
pills being equivalent to 1/2 fl. oz. of the concentrated decoction or
essence of sarsaparilla, as asserted, it takes about 32 of them to
represent the given quantity, and about 4 of them to be equal in strength
to the common decoction of the Pharmacopœia.” “Instead of one 2s. 9d. box
of these pills being equal to a pint of the costly concentrated fluid
preparation, it would take nearly 1-1/2 lb. of them for that purpose.”
(‘Med. Circ.,’ ii, 493.)
=Kitchener’s Peristaltic Persuaders.= See PILLS.
=Lambert’s Asthmatic Balsam.= The active ingredients in this compound are
said to be squills and aqueous extract of opium.
=Lemazurier’s Odontalgic Essence.= From acetate of morphia, 1 gr.;
dissolved in cherry-laurel water, 1 oz. For use, a teaspoonful is added to
half a wine-glassful of warm water, and the mouth well rinsed out with the
mixture.
=Leroy’s Purgative.=——_a._ (No. 1.) Vegetable turbith, 6 dr.; scammony,
1-1/2 oz.; jalap, 6 oz.; brandy, 10 pints; digest for 24 hours, and add a
syrup made of senna, 6 oz.; water, 1-1/4 pint; sugar, 32 oz.
_b._ (No. 2.) As the last, only one third stronger.
_c._ (No. 3.) Twice as strong as No. 1.
=Lewis’s Electuarium.= A liquid nostrum, said to be alterative and to
contain a small quantity of both antimony and mercury.
=Lewis’s Balsamic Ointment.= This preparation, which is declared by its
proprietor to be “utterly unsurpassable,” for the most part resemble
Holloway’s ointment. (‘Med. Circ.’ ii, 493.)
=Lewis’s Silver Cream.= This nostrum is said to depend for its efficacy on
white precipitate and a salt of lead.
=Locock’s Pulmonic Lozenges.= See WAFERS.
=Mahomed’s Paste.= See ELECTUARY.
=Mardant’s Norton’s Drops.= A mixture of the tinctures of gentian and
ginger, holding in solution a little bichloride of mercury, and coloured
with cochineal.
=Marriott’s Dry Vomit.= A mixture of equal parts of tartar emetic and
sulphate of copper.
=Marsden’s Drops.= A coloured solution of corrosive sublimate. (Dr Paris.)
=Matthieu’s Vermifuge.=——_a._ (To destroy the worms.) Tin filings, 1 oz.;
male fern root, 6 dr.; worm seed, 4 dr.; resinous extract of jalap and
sulphate of potassa, of each 1 dr.; honey, q. s. to form an
electuary.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, repeated every third or fourth hour for
2 or 3 days, when the following is to be substituted, and continued until
the bowels are well acted on.
_b._ (To expel the worms.) Jalap and sulphate of potassa, of each 40 gr.;
scammony, 20 gr.; gamboge, 10 gr.; honey, q. s. as before.
=McKinsey’s Golden Cerate.= This appears to resemble Poor Man’s Friend.
=McKinsey’s Katapotia.= This notorious nostrum is compounded of aloes, 5
oz.; soap, 1-1/2 oz. (both in powder); beaten up with syrup of saffron and
a little essential oil, and divided into pills varying in weight from 2 to
2-1/2 gr. each. (‘Med. Circ.,’ iv, 86).
=McKinsey’s Medicinal Powder.= _Syn._ REV. T. SMITH’S M. P. From dried
lavender flowers and rosemary tops, of each 2-1/2 oz.; asarabacca, 1 oz.;
reduced to powder, and further disguised with a little perfume. A very
small quantity of subsulphate of mercury is also most probably added. Two
or three pinches of this powder, taken 3 or 4 times a day as snuff, is
said by the proprietor to be sufficient to cure almost every known
disease. See ASARABACCA.
=Morison’s Aperient Powder.= A mixture of cream of tartar and lump sugar,
in nearly equal proportions, with sufficient powdered cassia to give it an
aromatic flavour. See PILLS.
=Morison’s Adhesive Paste.= See PLASTER.
=Ollivier’s Biscuits.= Take of the white of 2 eggs; water, 3/4 pint; beat
them together, strain the mixture, and add to it a solution of bichloride
of mercury, 76 gr.; collect the precipitate, wash, dry, powder, and
carefully weigh it; next add to it such a quantity of flour, &c., that
each 2-dr. biscuit may contain exactly 1/7 gr.
=Papier Fayard.= See PAPER (Gout).
=Pate Arsenicale.= A powder composed of arsenious acid, 8 gr.; dragon’s
blood, 22 gr.; cinnabar, 70 gr. It is to be made into a paste with the
saliva at the time of applying it. A favourite remedy in cancer on the
Continent. (Dr Paris).
=Perry’s Balm of Syriacum.= From English gin, 1 pint; moist sugar, 1/2
lb.; (dissolved in) water, 4 oz.; mix, and add of paregoric (Tinct. Camph.
Co.——Ph. L. 1836), 1 oz.; tincture of tolu, 1/2 oz.; tincture of
cantharides, q. s.; together with a few drops each of the oils of aniseed
and spearmint; agitate well together, and the next day filter, or decant
the clear portion.
=Perry’s Preventive Lotion.= This is said to be a solution of sal
alembroth, 2 dr., in water, 1 pint. For use, it is diluted with 4 or 5
times its bulk of water.
=Pieste’s Toothache Essence.= From liquor of ammonia, 2 parts; laudanum, 1
part. It is applied on lint.
=Pilules Angéliques.= _Syn._ GRAINS DE SANTÉ. Take of aloes and juice of
roses, of each 4 oz.; juices of borage and chicory, of each 2 oz.; beat
them together, and when they are reduced to the consistence of a soft
pill-mass, add of powdered rhubarb, 2 dr., powdered agaric, 1 dr., and
divide the mixture into 1-1/2-gr. pills. A good purgative.——_Dose_, 4 to
12.
=Poor Man’s Friend.= (French.) See OINTMENT (Brown).
=Poor Man’s Friend.= (Dr Roberts’.) This consists chiefly of ointment of
nitric-oxide of mercury.
=Pringle’s Remedy for Typhus.= (Dr Paris.) Pale cinchona (bruised), 1/2
oz.; water, 12 fl. oz.; boil them together for 10 minutes, adding, towards
the end, Virginian snake-root (bruised), 2 dr.; macerate for an hour in a
covered vessel, and to the strained liquid add of dilute sulphuric acid, 2
fl. dr., and when the mixture is cold, further add of spirit of cinnamon,
1 fl. oz. The dose is 2 table-spoonfuls every six hours.
=Reynolds’ Gout Specific.= Wine of colchicum disguised by some unimportant
additions.
=Righini’s Odontalgic Drops.= A solution of creasote in an equal weight of
the strongest rectified spirit, coloured with cochineal, and disguised by
the addition of a few drops of oil of peppermint.
=Ruspini’s Styptic.= A strong solution of gallic acid in spirit of roses.
Dr A. T. Thomson says that it also contains sulphate of zinc.
=Rust’s Toothache Paste.= See PASTE.
=Scott’s Drops.= _Syn._ TINCTURE OF SOOT. From wood-soot, 2 oz.;
assafœtida, 1 oz.; brandy or proof spirit, 1 pint.——_Dose_, 1 to 2
table-spoonfuls; in hysteria, &c.
=Smith’s Powder.= See MCKINSEY’S POWDER.
=Solomon’s Anti-impetigines.= A solution of bichloride of mercury
disguised by the addition of a little flavouring and tinctorial matter.
(‘Med. Circ.,’ ii, 69, 70).
=Standert’s Red Mixture.= Take of carbonate of magnesia, 1 oz.; powdered
Turkey rhubarb, 1/3 oz.; tincture of rhubarb, 3 fl. oz.; tincture of
opium, 2 fl. dr.; oils of aniseed and peppermint of each 1/2 dr.;
(dissolved in) gin or proof spirit, 5 fl. oz.; agitate the whole together,
then further add of soft water, 1-1/4 pint. In colic and
diarrhœa.——_Dose._ A wine-glassful. The spirit is frequently omitted, but
then the mixture soon spoils.
=Standert’s Stomachic Candy.= Take of lump sugar, 1 lb.; water, 3 fl. oz.;
dissolve by heat; add cardamom seeds, ginger, and rhubarb, of each 1 oz.;
and when the mixture is complete, pour it out on an oiled slab or into
moulds.
=Storey’s Worm Cakes.= Take of calomel and cinnabar, of each 24 gr.;
powdered jalap, 72 gr.; ginger, 1 dr.; white sugar, 1-1/4 oz.; syrup,
q. s.; mix and divide into a dozen cakes. Resemble ‘Ching’s lozenges’ in
their action. (See page 1007).
=Struve’s Lotion.= See LOTION, HOOPING-COUGH.
=Succession Powder.= A mixture of powdered quartz and diamond dust,
chiefly the first. Used as an escharotic.
=Tasteless Ague Drops.= A solution of arsenite of potassa. It is the
common ague medicine in the fen counties of England.
=Turlington’s Balsam.= See BALSAM OF LIFE (_above_).
=Valangin’s Solution of Solvent Mineral.= From arsenious acid, 1/2 dr.,
dissolved in hydrochloric acid, 1-1/2 dr., and the solution diluted with
distilled water, 1-1/2 pint. In ague, &c. It has rather less than half the
strength of the solution of arsenite of potassa, Ph. L.
=Vance’s Cream.= See CHILBLAIN.
=Wahler’s Ointment.= See CHILBLAIN.
=Ward’s Purging Powder.= A mixture of jalap and cream of tartar, equal
parts, coloured with a little red bole.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, or more,
in broth or beer, twice or thrice daily; in dropsy.
=Webster’s Diet Drink.= A sweetened decoction of betony, dulcamara,
guaiacum wood, liquorice root, sarsaparilla, sassafras, thyme, and
turmeric.
=Wilson’s Gout Tincture.= This is said to be wine of colchicum.
=Wright’s Pearl Ointment.= Take of white precipitate, 8 oz.; Goulard’s
extract, 1 pint; rub them to a cream, and add the mixture to white wax, 7
lbs., and olive oil, 10 lbs., previously melted together by a gentle heat;
lastly, stir the whole until it is nearly cold. (‘Pharm. Journ.’)
=Young’s Aperient Drink.= From carbonate of soda, 2-1/2 dr.; bitartrate of
potassa, 3 dr. (both in crystals); throw them into a soda-water bottle
containing cold water, 8 fl. oz., and immediately cork it down securely,
and keep it inverted, in a cool place, until required for use.
=Zanhetti’s Bohemian Restorative Tincture.= From crushed raisins, 3/4 lb.;
hay saffron, 2 oz.; aqueous extract of opium, 3 dr.; powdered cochineal, 2
dr.; capillaire and orange-flower water, of each 1/2 pint; proof spirit,
3 pints; digested together for a week, and then strained, with expression.
=PAULLIN′IA.= See GUARANA.
=PAYAN′IZING.= The name given to Mr Payne’s process for preserving and
mineralising wood. See DRY-ROT.
=PEACH.= _Syn._ PERSICUM, L. The fruit of _Amygdalus Persica_. Two
varieties are known in our gardens——CLINGSTONE PEACH and FREESTONE PEACH,
terms which explain themselves. The fruit is wholesome; but the flowers
and kernels contain prussic acid, and are poisonous.
The peach, the original habitats of which were Persia and the North of
India, is now very generally grown in the South of Europe, in many parts
of the East, and very largely in the more temperate portions of North and
South America; more particularly in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and
Maryland, where there are extensive orchards of peach trees. This fruit is
also extensively cultivated by the Mormon community at Utah. The fruit of
the NECTARINE, which is a variety of the peach, differs from that of the
latter in having a smooth skin. When stewed, the fruit of the peach is
said to be useful in habitual constipation.
Dr Fresenius has analysed this fruit, and found its composition to be:——
_Soluble matter_——
Large Dutch.
Sugar 1·580
Free acid (reduced to equivalent
in malic acid) 0·612
Albuminous substances 0·463
Pectous substances 6·313
Ash 0·422
_Insoluble matter_——
Seeds 4·629
Skins } 0·991
Pectose }
[Ash from soluble matter included
in weights given] 0·042]
Water 84·990
————————
100·000
————————
It will be seen from the above that the peach contains a very small amount
of sugar.
=PEACH′WOOD.= The produce of a species of _Cæsalpinia_, now extensively
used in calico-printing.
=PEAR.= _Syn._ PYRUS, L. The fruit of _Pyrus communis_ (Linn.), one of the
rosaceæ. Its general qualities resemble those of the apple.
COMPOSITION OF THE PEAR.
_Soluble matter_——
Sugar 7·000
Free acid (reduced to equivalent
in malic acid) 0·074
Albuminous substances 0·260
Pectous substances, &c. 3·281
Ash 0·285
_Insoluble matter_——
Seeds 0·390
Skins 3·420
Pectose 1·340
[Ash from insoluble matter
included in weights given] 0·050]
Water 83·950
————————
100·000
(FRESENIUS.)
=PEARL.= _Syn._ MARGARITA, MARGARITUM PERLA, UNIO, L. The most beautiful
and costly pearls are obtained exclusively from the pearl oyster
(_Meleagrina margaritifera_) of the Indian Seas. The principal fisheries
are on the coast of Ceylon, and at Olmutz, in the Persian Gulf. An
inferior description of pearl is procured from a fresh-water shell-fish
(_Unio margaritifera_) in the neighbourhood of Omagh, county of Tyrone. A
similar quality is also procured from the river Ythan, Aberdeenshire. It
is probable that pearls from this source collected by the ancient Britons
may have given rise to the statement by Tacitus, in his ‘Life of
Agricola,’ of pearls “not very orient, but pale and wan,” being among the
indigenous products of Great Britain.
Pearls are composed of membrane and carbonate of calcium; or, in other
words, of substances similar to bladder and chalk, in alternate layers.
The cause of the production of pearls is highly curious and interesting.
When any foreign body gains a permanent lodgment within the shells of any
of the mollusca which are lined with pearly matter, or nacre, the pearly
secretion of the animal, instead of being spread in layers on the inside
of its habitation, is accumulated around the offending particles in
concentric films of extreme tenuity, and more or less spherical, forming a
pearl.
Pearls were formerly used in medicine as absorbents or antacids; and among
the ancients they were occasionally taken, dissolved in acid, both as a
remedy and for the purpose of displaying the careless opulence and luxury
of their possessors. A perfect pearl, large, truly spherical, highly
iridescent, and reflecting and decomposing the rays of light with
vivacity, claims to rank with the most costly of the gems, and in some
parts of the East is, with justice, more highly prized than even the
diamond. In Europe, however, the present estimation of their value is
somewhat different, “A handsome necklace of Ceylon pearls, smaller than a
large pea, costs from £170 to £300; but one of pearls about the size of
peppercorns may be had for £15. The pearls in the former sell at a guinea
each, and those in the latter at about 1s. 6d.” (Milburn.) Seed pearls are
of little value, however beautiful.
=Pearl, Artificial.= These are hollow spheres or beads of glass,
perforated with two holes at opposite sides to permit of their being
strung into necklaces. A small portion of essence d’orient is introduced
into each, by suction, and is then spread over the inner surface of the
glass. When this has become dry and hard, the globe is filled up with
white wax, spermaceti, or gum Arabic. The glass of which the beads are
formed is slightly bluish and opalescent, and very thin. The latest
improvement consists in removing the glassy appearance of the surface of
the prepared bead by exposure to the fumes of hydrofluoric acid, highly
diluted.
=Pearl, Mother of.= _Syn._ UNIONUM CONCHÆ, L.; NACRE DE PERLE, Fr. This is
the internal or nacreous layer of those shells which produce the pearls
for ornamenting the person; hence the term ‘mother of pearl’ is by no
means inappropriate. It is also derived from several other species known
in trade as ear-shells, green snail-shells, Bombay-shells, &c.
The brilliant hues of mother of pearl do not depend so much upon the
nature of the substance as on its structure. Its surface is covered by
minute corrugations or furrows, which give a chromatic appearance to the
reflected light. Sir David Brewster was the first to show that this
substance is capable of imparting its iridescent appearance to fusible
metal or fine black wax.
Mother of pearl is cut and wrought with nearly similar tools to those used
for ivory, but its treatment, owing to its more fragile nature and
delicate structure, requires considerably greater care. It is polished
with colcothar or putty powder.
The numerous applications of mother of pearl, for buttons and
knife-handles, boxes, inlaying work, &c., are well known.
=PEARL′ASH.= This is prepared by calcining crude potashes on a
reverberatory hearth, dissolving the calcined mass in water, and, after
repose, decanting the clear solution, and evaporating it to dryness in
flat iron pans, the product being constantly stirred towards the end to
reduce it to a semi-granular state. Although purer, its richness in
absolute alkali is less than that of the potashes from which it is
prepared, being only from 47% to 51%. This exists almost entirely under
the form of carbonate. The commercial value of this substance is
determined by the ordinary processes of ALKALIMETRY.
=PEARL BARLEY.= See BARLEY.
=PEARL FLAVOUR.= See ESSENCE.
=PEARL WHITE.= This is a subchloride of bismuth; but the name is now
commonly applied to trisnitrate of bismuth, which is sold for it.
=PEARLS (Rose).= _Syn._ ROSE BEADS. The petals of red roses beaten in an
iron mortar for some hours, until they form a smooth, black paste, then
rolled into beads and dried. Hard; very fragrant; take a fine polish.
=Pearls, to Polish.= Take very finely pulverised rotten stone, and make it
into a thick paste by adding olive oil; then add sulphuric acid, a
sufficient quantity to make into a thin paste.
This is to be applied on a velvet cork, rub quickly, and as soon as the
pearl takes the polish wash it. This mixture when properly applied will
give to pearl a brilliant polish.
=PEAS.= _Syn._ GARDEN PEAS, MOTOR P.; PISA, L. The seed of _Pisum sativum_
(Linn.). Poggiale found in 100 parts of common green peas, dried and
shelled, 57 of starch, 21·7 of a nitrogenous substance (legumin), 1·9 of
fatty matter, 3·2 of cellulose, 2·8 of ash, and 12·7 of water. In the
fresh state (GREEN PEAS) they are nutritive, and, with the pods which
contain them, are highly serviceable in scurvy. The last have been used
for making beer. The dried seeds are still more nutritious, but are heavy
and flatulent unless well cooked. For kitchen use ‘SPLIT PEAS’ should be
chosen, and after having washed them in a little clean soft water, and
allowed them to drain, they should be left to soak in cold soft water for
at least 12 hours before applying heat to them, and should then be dressed
in the same water in which they have been soaked, and be only gently
simmered until they are reduced to a pulp. Additions of meat, vegetables,
&c., should not be made until they have nearly arrived at this condition.
‘WHOLE PEAS’ require soaking for at least 18 or 20 hours.
A substitute for green peas in winter may be obtained by placing the dried
seed on a flat dish, sprinkling them with water, and keeping them in a
warm situation. In a few days germination commences, and, after it has
proceeded sufficiently far, the whole is dressed in the usual manner. An
easier and simpler plan is to preserve the green peas, when they are in
season, by the common method adopted for gooseberries and other like
fruit.
[Illustration]
Pea flour is sometimes used to adulterate ordinary flour. It is never
added to this latter to a greater extent than 4 per cent., as, if this
quantity be exceeded, it makes the bread heavy and dark.
It is also used as a sophisticant for other substances, particularly for
butter.
=Peas, Is′sue.= _Syn._ PISA PRO FONTICULIS, L. Orange berries, or the
small unripe fruit of the orange tree, dried, and smoothed in a lathe. See
ISSUE.
=PEB′BLE.= The trade name for the transparent colourless variety of rock
crystal or quartz used for the lenses of spectacles instead of glass, over
which, from its extreme hardness, it has the advantage of being little apt
to be scratched.
=PEC′TIC ACID.= The name given by Braconnot to an acid which is found very
generally diffused throughout the vegetable kingdom.
_Prep._ From carrot roots, from which the juice has been pressed out, by
boiling them with 1/25th part of their weight of carbonate of potassium,
and about 6 times their weight of water, until the liquid becomes
gelatinous when neutralised with an acid. A pectate of potassium is
formed, from which the acid may be obtained by neutralising the alkali
with a stronger acid, or by carefully adding a solution of chloride of
calcium as long as a gelatinous precipitate (pectate of calcium) falls,
and, after washing this with water, decomposing it with dilute
hydrochloric acid.
_Prop., &c._ A colourless jelly, having an acid reaction; scarcely soluble
in cold water, more so in hot water; and precipitated by acids, alkalies,
alcohol, salts, and even sugar. Its compounds with the bases are called
pectates. By long boiling with solution of caustic alkali it is converted
into metapectic acid, which does not gelatinise. (See _below_.)
=PEC′TIN.= _Syn._ VEGETABLE JELLY. Obtained by adding alcohol to the juice
of ripe currants or other fruit, until a gelatinous precipitate forms,
which must be drained, washed with a little weak alcohol, and dried.
_Prop., &c._ In the moist state it forms a neutral, tasteless, soluble,
transparent jelly; when dried, a translucent mass, closely resembling
isinglass; boiled with water, or with dilute acids, it is converted into
parapectin and metapectin; in the presence of alkalies, these, as well as
pectin, are changed into pectic acid, and by continuing the ebullition for
some time longer, into metapectic acid, which is not gelatinous. See
PECTIC ACID.
=PECTORAL BALSAM.= The same as BALSAM OF HONEY, which see. The reference
to ‘Pectoral balsam,’ which occurs at the end of the article ‘Balsam of
Honey,’ conveys the impression that it is a different medicine. This is an
error.
=PEC′TORALS.= Under this head are popularly included all the various
remedies employed in breath or chest diseases.
=PEDIC′ULI.= See LOUSE.
=PEL′LICLE.= See CRYSTALLISATION.
=PEL′LITORY.= _Syn._ PELLITORY OF SPAIN; (PELLITORY ROOT; PYRETHRI RADIX,
B. P.); PYRETHRUM (Ph. L. & E.), L. The root of _Anacyclus Pyrethrum_. It
is a powerful topical excitant. It is chiefly employed as a masticatory in
headache, toothache, palsy of the tongue, and facial neuralgia and
rheumatism; and made into a tincture with rectified spirit, it is a common
remedy among dentists for the toothache. Internally, it has been given as
a gastric stimulant, and in intermittents, &c. Half to 1 dr. may be chewed
at a time.
=PEL′TRY.= The name applied to fur skins in the state in which they are
received from the hunters. To prepare them as furs, the inside of them is
generally first ‘tawed’ by the application of a solution of alum. They are
next well dusted over and rubbed with hot plaster of Paris or whiting, and
are, lastly, thoroughly dried and brushed clean. When it is desired to
change or modify their colour, the grease being removed by lime water or a
weak soda lye, they are stretched out on a table or board, and the
ordinary liquid mordants and dyes are applied to them hot by means of a
painter’s brush.
The furs of the rabbit and hare are rendered fit for the purposes of the
felt and hat manufacturers by a process called by the French
‘_sécretage_,’ This consists in thoroughly moistening the hair with a
solution of quicksilver, 1 part, in aquafortis, 16 parts, diluted with
half to an equal bulk of water. This is applied with a brush, and the
moistened skins being laid together, face to face, are dried as rapidly as
possible in a stove room. See FURS.
=PEMPHIGUS.= A disease of the skin, in which large vesicles or blisters
filled with a serous fluid, develop themselves. In the mild form of the
disorder the blisters vary in size from a pea to a chestnut. They chiefly
attack the extremities, and break after three or four days, when they then
give rise to a thin scab, which soon heals and disappears without causing
any bodily derangement.
In the acute form, however, there is a considerable constitutional
disturbance, which shows itself in the shape of more or less fever and
inflammation; the blisters too are larger, and the scabs very irritable
and obstinate. Children during teething, or owing to injudicious diet, are
frequently subject to this kind of pemphigus. There is also a chronic
variety of the disease, which varies but slightly from the acute form,
except that it continues longer. Old people are those who principally
suffer from this chronic pemphigus.
A mild attack seldom calls for any treatment; the best course to pursue in
the case of an acute one is to administer some saline aperient, to adopt a
moderately low diet, and to protect the exposed parts caused by the
breaking of the blister by applying to them some simple dressing, such as
spermaceti ointment.
When the case becomes chronic it will be advisable to consult the medical
practitioner.
=PENALTIES.= The following sections of the Public Health Act of 1875 refer
to various offences for which penalties may be inflicted under the
statute:——
BUILDING or re-erecting a house in an urban district without proper
drains, &c., £50 (s. 25). For building or re-erecting a house in any
district without proper sanitary conveniences (privies, &c.), £20, or less
(s. 35).
Unauthorised building over sewers or under streets in an urban district,
£5 penalty, and 40s. per day during continuance of offence (s. 26).
BURIAL. For obstructing a justice’s order with regard to the burial of a
person who has died from an infectious disease, &c., £5, or less (s. 142).
BYE-LAWS. Penalties may be imposed by local authorities for the
contravention of bye-laws; such penalties are not to exceed £5, and for
continuing offences further penalties of sums not exceeding 40s. a day (s.
183). Penalty for injury or defacement of any board, &c., on which a
notice or bye-law of any authority is inscribed by the authority of the
Government Local Board, or of the local authority, £5, or less (s. 306).
CELLARS, Unauthorised occupation of, 20s. per day (s. 73).
CLEANSING AND WHITEWASHING, &c., Failure to comply with notice to cleanse
and whitewash a house, 10s. per day (s. 46).
CONTRACTS. All contracts are to specify some pecuniary penalty (s. 174).
Officers or servants being concerned or interested in contracts, accepting
fees, are liable to a penalty of £50, recoverable with full costs of suit.
DISINFECTION. Failure to comply with notice to disinfect and cleanse
articles and premises, not less than 1s. and not more than 10s. per day.
Expenses of local authority doing the work may also be recovered (s. 120).
Failure to disinfect public conveyances after conveying infected persons,
£5, or less (s. 127). For letting infected houses without proper
disinfection, £20, or less (s. 128).
DRAINS, &c. Unauthorised connection of a drain with a sewer, £20, or less
(s. 21). For neglecting to comply with notice for the construction of
privies, &c., for factories, £20, or less, and 40s. per day. For
non-compliance with notice for the construction of drains, privies, &c.,
10s. per day (s. 41).
EPIDEMIC DISEASES. For violation or obstruction of the regulations of the
Local Government Board with regard to epidemic diseases, £5, or less (s.
140).
EXPOSURE of infected persons or things, £5, or less (s. 126).
HOUSES OR ROOMS. Making false statements with regard to infectious
diseases for the purpose of letting, £20, or less, or imprisonment for
one month with or without hard labour (s. 129).
LODGING-HOUSES. Receiving lodgers in unregistered houses, failure to make
a report, failure to give notice of infectious diseases, £5, or less, and
40s. per day during continuance of offence. Refusal or neglect to affix or
renew notice of regulation in common lodging-houses, £5, or less, and 10s.
a day during continuance of offence after conviction (s. 79). For
neglecting the limewashing and cleansing of lodging-houses according to
the Act 40s., or less (s. 82).
MANURE. Failure to comply with a notice of urban authority to periodically
remove manure, &c., 20s. a day (s. 50).
MEAT. For exposing for sale or having in possession unsound meat and other
articles of food specified in the Act, £20, or less, for each carcase or
piece of meat, or fish, &c., or three months imprisonment with or without
the option of a fine (s. 117). For obstruction of officer inspecting the
food, £5, or less (s. 118).
MORTGAGE OF RATE. Refusal of custodian of register to permit inspection,
£50, or less. Neglect or refusal of clerk to register transfer of
mortgage, £20, or less.
NUISANCE. The court may impose a penalty of £5, or less, with regard to
nuisances generally (s. 98). For want of diligence in carrying out the
order to abate nuisance, 10s. per day; for contravention of order, if
wilful, 20s. per day during such contrary action, besides the expenses of
the local authority in abating the nuisance (s. 98).
For nuisance of pigs, pigsties, and the contents of cesspools, &c.,
overflowing, 40s., or less, and 5s. per day during continuance of offences
(s. 47).
OBSTRUCTION. For wilful obstruction of member of, or person authorised by
local authority, £5, or less (s. 306).
Obstruction of owner by occupier in carrying out any of the provisions of
the Act, £5 per day, commencing twenty-four hours after non-compliance
with the justice’s order (s. 306).
OFFICES. Certain offices are not to be held by the same person. Penalty
for offence, £100, recoverable with full costs of suit (s. 192).
ORDER OF JUSTICES. Refusal to obey order for admission of local authority,
£5, or less (s. 103).
RATES. Refusal of officers in custody of rate-books, valuation lists for
the relief of the poor, &c., to permit inspection, £5, or less (s. 212).
Refusal of person to permit inspection of rate, £5, or less (s. 219).
SCAVENGING. Obstruction of the contractor or local authority in scavenging
the streets or in removal of refuse, £5, or less (s. 42). Neglect of local
authority to scavenge after undertaking to do so, 5s. per day (s. 43).
STREETS. Wilful unauthorised displacement or injury of pavement stones,
injury to fences, &c., of streets vested in urban authority, £5, or less,
and a further penalty of 5s. or less for every square foot of pavement
injured, &c. Compensation may also be awarded by the court for injury to
trees (s. 149).
For building or bringing forward buildings beyond the general line of the
houses in the street in an urban district, 40s. per day after written
notice (s. 156).
TRADE, OFFENSIVE. Unauthorised establishment of in an urban district, £50,
and 40s. per day during continuance of offence (s. 112). Nuisance arising
from offensive trade is punishable by penalty——for first offence not less
than 40s., and not exceeding £5; for second or any subsequent offence,
double the amount of the last penalty which has been imposed, but in no
case to exceed £200 (s. 114).
WATER. Pollution of by gas, £280; and when offence is continued at the end
of twenty-four hours’ notice, £20 per day (s. 68).
For injuring water-meters, 40s., or less, and the damage sustained may
also be recovered (s. 60).
WORKS. For wilful damage of works or property belonging to a local
authority, in cases where no other penalty is provided, £5, or less (s.
307).
⁂ All penalties, forfeitures, costs, and expenses, directed to be
recovered in a summary manner, or not otherwise provided for, may be
prosecuted and recovered under the “Summary Jurisdiction Acts” before a
court of summary jurisdiction (P. H. S. 251); but proceedings for the
recovery of penalties are only to be taken by the person aggrieved, or by
the local authority of the district, except the consent in writing of the
Attorney-General be obtained. But this restriction does not apply to the
proceedings of a local authority with regard to nuisances, offensive
trades, houses, &c., without their district, in cases in which the local
authority are authorised to take proceedings with respect to any act or
default (s. 253).
Unless otherwise provided for the penalty is thus applied: One half goes
to the informer, and the remainder to the local authority of the district
in which the offence was committed; but if the local authority be the
informer, they are entitled to the whole of the penalty recovered.
All penalties and sums recovered by a local authority are paid to the
treasurer, and carried to the account of the fund applicable to the
general purposes of the Public Health Act.
(The justices or court have power to reduce penalties imposed by 6 Geo.
IV, c. 78. P. H. Part III.)
=PEN′CILS.= This name is applied to the small brushes made of camel’s hair
used by artists, as well as to the plumbago crayons familiarly known as
black-lead pencils. The last are prepared by one or other of the following
methods:——
1. The blocks of plumbago are exposed to a bright-red heat in a closely
covered crucible, and are afterwards sawn into minute sticks, and mounted
in cases of cedar or satin wood.
2. The plumbago, in powder, is calcined as before, and then mixed with an
equal, or any other desired proportion of pure washed clay, also in
powder, after which the mixture is reduced to a plastic state with water,
and pressed into grooves cut on the face of a smooth board, or into
well-greased wooden moulds, in which state it is left to dry. When dry,
the pieces are tempered to any degree of hardness by exposing them,
surrounded by sand or powdered charcoal, in a closely covered crucible to
various degrees of heat. The crucible is not opened until the whole has
become cold, when the prepared ‘slips’ are removed and mounted as before.
This method was invented by M. Conté in 1795.
3. The dough or paste, prepared as last, is reduced to the required form
by forcing it through a perforated plate (in a similar manner to that
adopted for coloured crayons), or into minute metallic cylinders, from
which it may be readily shaken after it has become partially dry.
_Obs._ The _leads_ for some varieties of drawing-pencils are immersed for
a minute in very hot melted wax or suet before mounting them. To the
composition for others a little lampblack is added, to increase and vary
the degree of blackness. The pencils for asses’ skin books and prepared
paper are tipped with ‘fusible metal.’ Numerous improvements in pencil
cases and pencil mounts have been patented of late years by Stevens and
others.
=PENNYROY′AL.= _Syn._ PULEGIUM (Ph. L. & E.), MENTHA P. (Ph. D.), L. “The
recent and dried flowering herb of _Mentha pulegium_, Linn.” (Ph. L.)
PENNYROYAL TEA is a popular emmenagogue, expectorant, and diaphoretic, and
is in common use in asthma, bronchitis, hooping-cough, hysteria,
suppressions, &c. Water, essence, oil, and spirit of pennyroyal are
officinal. They are now chiefly used as mere adjuncts or vehicles.
=PENTASTOMATA.= There are two varieties of this entozoon——the _Pentastoma
denticulatum_, which Leuckart has shown to be the larvæ of the _Pentastoma
tænoides_, and the _Pentastoma constrictum_. The _P. denticulatum_ infests
the human liver and small intestines. The _P. constrictum_ does not appear
to be known in this country. The latter appears to have caused death by
setting up peritonitis. According to Dr Aitken these parasites are
provided with two pairs of hooks or claws, placed on each side of a pit or
mouth, on a flattened head. He says: “These claws appear to be implanted
in socket-like hollows or depressions, surrounded by much loose
integument. These socket-like hollows appear to be elevated on the summit
of the mass of tissues which lies underneath the folds of integuments
surrounding the base of the hooks. These parts are regarded as the feet of
the parasite, and the hooks are the fore claws. The pit or mouth is of an
oval shape, the long axis of the oval lying in the direction of the length
of the worm.
“The less or outer margin of the pit is marked by a well-defined, thin
line. There are no spines nor hooks on the integument of the elongated
body.”
=PEPPER (Black).= _Syn._ PEPPER; PIPER, B. P.; NIGRI BACCÆ, PIPER NIGRUM
(Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The immature fruit (berry) of _Piper nigrum_,
Linn., or the black pepper vine.” (Ph. L.)
_Pur._ The ground black pepper of the shops is universally adulterated; in
fact, the public taste and judgment are so vitiated that the pure spice is
unsaleable. A most respectable London firm, on commencing business,
supplied their customers with unadulterated ground pepper, but in 3 cases
out of every 4 it was returned on their hands and objected to, on account
of its dark colour and rich pungency, which had induced the belief that it
was sophisticated. The house alluded to was therefore compelled by the
customers to supply them with an inferior, but milder and paler, article.
The substances employed to lower black pepper are known in the trade
as——‘P. D.,’ ‘H. P. D.,’ and ‘W. P. D,’——abbreviations of pepper dust, hot
pepper dust, white pepper dust. The first is composed of the faded leaves
of autumn, dried and powdered; the second, the ground husks (hulls) of
black mustard, obtained from the mustard mills; and the third is common
rice, finely powdered. Equal parts of black peppercorns, H. P. D., and W.
P. D., form the very best ground pepper sold. The ordinary pepper of the
shops does not contain more than 1/8th to 1/6th of genuine pepper, or 2 to
2-1/2 oz. in the lb. Very recently, ground oil-cake or linseed meal has
been chiefly employed as the adulterant, instead of the old ‘P. D,’
[Illustration]
Dr Parkes[92] says: “The microscopic characters of pepper are rather
complicated. There is a husk composed of four or five layers of cells and
a central part. The cortex has externally elongated cells, placed
vertically, and provided with a central cavity, from which lines radiate
towards the circumference; then come some strata of angular cells, which,
towards the interior, are larger and filled with oil. The third layer is
composed of woody fibre and spiral cells. The fourth layer is made up of
large cells, which towards the interior become smaller and of a deep red
colour; they contain most of the essential oil of the pepper. The central
part of the berry is composed of large angular cells, about twice as long
as broad. Steeped in water, some of these cells become yellow; others
remain colourless. It has been supposed that these yellow cells contain
piperine, as they give the same reaction as piperine does; namely, the
tint is deepened by alcohol and nitric acid, and sulphuric acid applied to
a dry section causes a reddish hue.” (Hassal.)
[Footnote 92: ‘Practical Hygiene.’]
_Uses, &c._ Black pepper is a powerful stimulant, carminative, and
rubefacient. Its use in moderation, as a condiment, is peculiarly
serviceable to persons who are of cold habit, or who suffer from weak
digestion; but in inflammatory habits, and in affections of the mucous
membranes, it is generally highly injurious. As a medicine it is often
serviceable in nausea, vomiting, chronic diarrhœa, and agues. In North
America a common remedy for the last is 1/2 oz. of ground pepper stirred
up with a glassful of warm beer; or a like quantity made into a tincture
by steeping it in 5 or 6 times its weight of gin, rum, or whisky, for a
few days.
Prepared black pepper is made by steeping the berries for 3 days in 3
times their weight of vinegar, and then drying and grinding them. It is
milder than common pepper. See CONFECTIONS, PIPERINE, &c.
=Pepper, Cayenne.= _Syn._ BIRD PEPPER, CHILI P., GUINEA P., INDIAN P., RED
P.; PIPER CAPSICI, P. CAYENNE, L. This is prepared from chillies, or the
pods of _Capsicum frutescens_, or from _Capsicum baccatum_, or bird
pepper, but generally from the first, on account of its greater pungency
and acrimony; and, occasionally, from _Capsicum annuum_ or medicinal
capsicum.
_Prep._ 1. From the dried pods (powdered), 1 lb.; and wheaten bread or
captain’s biscuits (heated until they are perfectly dry and brittle, and
begin to acquire a yellow colour throughout, and then powdered), 7 lbs.;
mixed and ground together. Colouring matter and common salt are frequently
added, but are unnecessary.
2. As the last, but making the mixture into a dough with water, then
forming it into small cakes, drying these as rapidly as possible at a
gentle heat, and then grinding them.
3. (Loudon.) The ripe pods, dried in the sun, are stratified with wheaten
flour in a dish or tray, and exposed in a stove-room or a half-cold oven
until they are quite dry; they are then removed from the flour, and ground
to fine powder; to every oz. of this powder 1 lb. (say 15 oz.) of wheaten
flour (including that already used) are added, and the mixture is made
into a dough with a little tepid water and a teaspoonful of yeast; after
fermentation is well set up, the dough is cut into small pieces, and baked
in a slow oven until it is perfectly hard and brittle; it is then beaten
or ground to powder, and forms ‘cayenne pepper.’
Pure cayenne pepper, when burnt, leaves a scarcely perceptible quantity of
white ash; a red-coloured ash indicates the presence of red ochre,
brick-dust, Armenian bole, or other earthy colouring matter. If red lead
is present, it will be left behind under the form of a dark-coloured
powder, or a small metallic globule.
_Pur._ The ‘cayenne pepper’ of the shops is often a spurious article, made
by grinding a mixture of any of the reddish woods or sawdust with enough
red pods or chillies to render the mixture sufficiently acrid and pungent.
Common salt, colcothar, red bole, brick-dust, vermilion, and even red
lead, are also common additions.
_Uses, &c._ The capsicums resemble the peppers, except in their greater
energy and their pungency being unmodified by the presence of essential
oil. As a condiment, under the form of cayenne pepper, and in all diseases
in which the employment of a powerful stimulant or rubefacient is
indicated, their uses are well known. In medicine the fruit of _Capsicum
annuum_ (Linn.——Ph. E. & D.; _C. fastigiatum_, Blume——B. P., Ph. L.), or
annual capsicum is ordered (CAPSICUM——Ph. L., E., & D.). The London
College directs the fruit to be that of ‘Guinea,’ less than one inch long,
oblong, cylindrical, and straight. See ESSENCE OF CAYENNE.
=Pepper, Prepared Cayenne=, is the residuum of cayenne——vinegar, essence,
or tincture, dried and ground (see _below_).
=Pepper (Soluble) Cayenne.= _Syn._ CRYSTALLISED SOLUBLE CAYENNE. _Prep._
1. Capsicum pods (recent, ground in a pepper mill), 1 lb.; rectified
spirit, 2-1/2 pints; proceed by percolation so as to obtain 2-1/2 pints;
from this distil one half of the spirit by the heat of a water bath; to
the residuum add of fine dry salt, 5 lbs.; mix them well together, and dry
the mixture at a very gentle heat, frequently stirring; lastly rub it
through a sieve, and put it into warm dry bottles. It is usually coloured
with a little vermilion or rouge (sesquioxide of iron), but it possesses
an agreeable colour without it,
2. Essence of cayenne (No. 1, page 652), 6 pints; distil off 3 pints, add
to the residual liquor of dry salt 12 lbs.; mix well, dry by a gentle
heat, and otherwise proceed as before.
3. Capsicums (ground), 3 lbs.; red sanders or Brazil wood (sliced or
rasped), 10 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; macerate for 14 days, then
express the tincture, filter, distil off one half, add of dry salt, 15
lbs., and proceed as before.
4. As the first formula, with the addition of a strong decoction of
saffron, q. s. It gives a beautiful colour to soups, &c.
_Obs._ The above formulæ are those actually employed by the houses most
celebrated for their ‘soluble cayenne.’ The products are of the very
finest quality, and are perfectly wholesome. We speak from an extensive
experience in the manufacture. The spirit distilled from the essence forms
a most suitable menstruum for making fresh essence or tincture of cayenne.
=Pepper, Cu′beb.= See CUBEBS.
=Pepper, Jamai′ca.= See PIMENTO.
=Pepper, Kit′chen.= See SPICE.
=Pepper, Long.= _Syn._ PIPERIS LONGI FRUCTUS, PIPER LONGUM (Ph. L. & E.),
L. “The immature fruit (dried female spikes) of _Piper longum_, Linn.”
(Ph. L.), or long-pepper vine. The spikes are about 1-1/2 inch in length,
with an indented surface, and are of a dark-grey colour. In its general
properties it resembles black pepper, but it is less aromatic, though
equally pungent. Elephant pepper is merely a larger variety of this
species. (Gray.) The root and stems, sliced and dried, form the ‘pippula
moola’ of the East Indies. (Roxburgh.)
=Pepper, Red.= See CAYENNE.
=Pepper, White.= _Syn._ PIPER ALBUM, L. This is made by either soaking
ordinary black pepper in a solution of common salt, until the outside
skins are soft, and then rubbing them off in the hands, or by merely
rubbing off the skins of the over-ripe berries that fall from the vines.
An inferior quality is made by bleaching black pepper with chlorine.
_Obs._ The use of white pepper instead of black is an instance of the
sacrifices made to please the eye. Pure white pepper has only about 1-4th
of the strength of pure black pepper, whilst it is nearly destitute of the
fine aroma of the latter. It also contains a mere trace of piperina or
piperine, one of the most valuable constituents of black pepper.
=PEP′PER PODS.= Capsicums. See CAYENNE PEPPER.
=PEP′PERMINT.= _Syn._ MENTHA PIPERITA (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The recent
and dried flowering herb of _Mentha piperita_” (Ph. L.), or garden
peppermint. The flavour and odour of this herb are well known. It is the
most pleasant and powerful of all the mints. Peppermint water and the
essential oil have long been employed in nausea, griping, flatulent colic,
hysteric, diarrhœa, &c.; but in regular practice chiefly to cover the
taste of nauseous medicines, or as an adjunct or vehicle for more active
remedies. See OILS (Volatile), WATERS, &c.
=PEP′SIN.= _Syn._ GASTERACE, CHYMOSIN. A peculiar principle found in the
gastric juice, and which, in conjunction with hydrochloric acid, also
present in the stomach, confers upon it the power of digesting certain
portions of the food, and of dissolving, as Tuson has shown, calomel and
other mineral substances.
_Prep._ 1. (Beale, ‘Med. Times & Gaz.,’ February 10th, 1872, p. 152.) “The
mucous membrane of a perfectly fresh pig’s stomach is carefully dissected
from the muscular coat, and placed on a flat board. It is then lightly
cleansed with a sponge and a little water, and much of the mucus, remains
of food, &c. carefully removed. With the back of a knife, or with an ivory
paper-knife, the surface is scraped very hard, in order that the glands
may be squeezed and their contents pressed out. The viscid mucus thus
obtained contains the pure gastric juice with much epithelium from the
glands and surface of the mucous membrane. It is to be spread out upon a
piece of glass, so as to form a very thin layer, which is to be dried at a
temperature of 100° over hot water, or _in vacuo_ over sulphuric acid.
Care must be taken that the temperature does not rise much above 100 F°.,
because the action of the solvent would be completely destroyed. When dry
the mucus is scraped from the glass, powdered in a mortar, and transferred
to a well-stoppered bottle. With this powder a good digestive fluid may be
made as follows:
Of the powder 5 grains.
Strong hydrochloric acid 18 drops.
Water 6 ounces.
Macerate it at a temperature of 100° for an hour. The mixture may be
filtered easily, and forms a perfectly clear solution very convenient for
experiment.
“If the powder is to be taken as a medicine, from two to five grains may
be given for a dose, a little diluted hydrochloric acid in water being
taken at the same time. The pepsin powder may be mixed with the salt at a
meal. It is devoid of smell, and has only a slightly salt taste. It
undergoes no change if kept perfectly dry, and contains the active
principle of the gastric juice almost unaltered.
“The method of preparing this pepsin was communicated to Mr Bullock, of
the firm of Messrs Bullock and Company, 3, Hanover Street, Hanover Square,
who at once adopted it for the preparation of medicinal pepsin, and soon
improved upon it in some particulars. The dose is from 2 to 4 or 5
grains.——_Test._ 4/5ths of a grain of this pepsin, with 10 drops dilute
hydrochloric acid and an ounce of distilled water, dissolve 100 grains of
hard-boiled white of egg in from twelve to twenty-four hours. In the body
probably twice this quantity of white of egg or even more would be
dissolved in a comparatively short space of time. The digestive powder
prepared from the pig’s stomach retains its activity for any length of
time if kept dry. I had some which had been kept in a bottle for upwards
of five years, and still retained its active power unimpaired. The
solution made with this pepsin and hydrochloric acid was nearly tasteless
and inodorous. One pig’s stomach, which costs sixpence, will yield about
45 grains of the powder prepared as above described.
“Gradually the usefulness of this preparation of pepsin of the pig was
found out, and it had to be prepared in increasing quantities. I should
be afraid to say how many pigs’ stomachs have been used of late years
during the winter season.
“In 1857 Dr. Pavy carefully examined the pepsin prepared and sold by many
different firms, and found that this dried mucus of the pig’s stomach was
the most active of them all (‘Medical Times and Gazette,’ 1857, vol. i, p.
336). In 1870 Professor Tuson instituted a still more careful comparative
examination, and with a similar result (‘Lancet,’ August 13th, 1870); for
he found that this preparation was _twenty-five times stronger than some
others that he obtained for examination_.”
2. (Scheffer, ‘Pharm. Journ.,’ March 23rd, 1872, p. 761.) “Of the
well-cleaned fresh hog stomach the mucous membrane is dissected off,
chopped finely and macerated in water acidulated with muriatic acid for
several days, during which time the mass is frequently well stirred. The
resulting liquid, after being strained, is, if not clear, set aside for at
least twenty-four hours in order to allow the mucus to settle. To the
clarified liquid the same bulk of a saturated solution of sodium chloride
is added, and the whole thoroughly mixed. After several hours the pepsin,
which, by the addition of chloride of sodium, has separated from its
solution, is found floating on the surface, from whence it is removed with
a spoon and put upon cotton cloth to drain; finally it is submitted to
strong pressure, to free it as much as possible from the salt solution.
“The pepsin, when taken from the press and allowed to become air-dry, is a
very tough substance, and presents, according to thickness, a different
appearance, resembling in thin sheets parchment paper, and in thick layers
sole leather; its colour varies from a dim straw yellow to a brownish
yellow. Besides a little mucus, it contains small quantities of phosphate
of lime and chloride of sodium, which, however, do not interfere with its
digestive properties, as they are found also in normal gastric juice.
“In order to get a purer article I redissolve the pepsin, as obtained
after expression, in acidulated water, filter the solution through paper
and precipitate again with a solution of sodium chloride; the precipitate,
after draining and pressing, is now free of phosphate of lime and mucus,
but still contains salt. In the freshly precipitated state the pepsin is
very readily soluble in water, and cannot therefore be freed from adhering
salt by washing.
“By allowing the pressed sheet of pepsin to get perfectly air-dry——whereby
it becomes coated with a white film and small crystals of chloride of
sodium——and by immersing it then in pure water for a short time, the
greater part of sodium chloride can be extracted, but it has to be done
very rapidly, as the pepsin swells up considerably and loses its
tenacity. By operating in this matter I have obtained a pepsin which
dissolves in acidulated water to quite a clear colourless liquid, but as
it still contains traces of salt, I prefer to call it purified pepsin.”
3. (B. Ph.) A preparation of the mucous lining of a fresh and healthy
stomach of the pig, sheep, or calf. The stomach of one of these animals,
recently killed, having been cut open and laid on a board with the inner
surface upwards, any adhering portions of food, dirt, and other impurity,
are to be removed and the exposed surface slightly washed with cold water;
the cleansed mucous membrane is then to be scraped with a blunt knife or
other suitable instrument, and the viscid parts thus obtained is to be
immediately spread over the surface of glass or glazed earthenware, and
quickly dried at a temperature not exceeding 100° F. the dried residue is
to be reduced to powder, and preserved in a stoppered bottle.——_Dose_, 2
to 5 grains.
=Pepsin, Saccharated.= To work it into saccharated pepsin (‘American
Journal of Pharmacy,’ January, 1871) the damp pepsin, as it is taken from
the press, is triturated with a weighed quantity of sugar of milk to a
fine powder, which, when it has become air-dry, is weighed again, the
quantity of milk sugar subtracted, and so the amount of pepsin found. The
strength of this dry pepsin is now ascertained by finding how much
coagulated albumen it will dissolve at a temperature of 100° F. in five or
six hours, and after this sufficient milk sugar is added to result in a
preparation of which ten grains will dissolve one hundred and twenty
grains of coagulated albumen, and this preparation I have called
saccharated pepsin.
=Pepsin with Starch.= Pepsin mixed with starch is the _medicinal Pepsine_
of M. Boudault; the _Poudre nutrimentive_ of M. Corvisart.
=PERCENTAGE.= Literally, “by the hundred.” In commerce the term is applied
to an allowance duty or commission on a hundred. (WEBSTER.)
=PERCHLO′′RATE=, _Syn._ PERCHLORAS, L. A salt of perchloric acid.
The perchlorates are distinguished from the chlorates by their great
stability, and by not turning yellow when treated with hydrochloric acid.
Like the chlorates, they give off oxygen when heated to redness. They may
be prepared by directly neutralising a solution of the acid with a
solution of the base. See POTASSIUM (Perchlorate of), and CHLORINE.
=PERCHLO′′RIC ACID.= See CHLORINE.
=PERCOLA′TION= _Syn._ METHOD OF DISPLACEMENT. A method of extracting the
soluble portion of any substance in a divided state, by causing the
menstruum to filter or strain through it. The ‘sparging’ of the Scotch
brewers is an example of the application of this principle on the large
scale. In _pharmacy_, the ‘method of displacement’ is frequently adopted
for the preparation of tinctures, infusions, &c., and is, in some
respects, superior to digestion or maceration. “The solid materials,
usually in coarse or moderately fine powder, are moistened with a
sufficiency of the solvent to form a thick pulp. In twelve hours, or
frequently without delay, the mass is put into a cylinder of glass,
porcelain, or tinned iron, open at both ends, but obstructed at the lower
end by a piece of calico or linen, tied lightly over it as a filter; and
the pulp being backed by pressure, ranging as to degree with different
articles, the remainder of the solvent is poured into the upper portion of
the cylinder, and allowed gradually to percolate. In order to obtain the
portion of the fluid which is absorbed by the residuum, an additional
quantity of the solvent is poured into the cylinder, until the tincture
which has passed through equals in amount the spirit originally
prescribed. The spirit employed for this purpose is then recovered, for
the most part, by pouring over the residuum as much water as there is
spirit retained in it, which may be easily known by an obvious calculation
in each case. The method of percolation is now preferred by all who have
made sufficient trial of it to apply it correctly.” (Ph. E.)
The first portion of liquid obtained by the method of displacement is
always in a state of high concentration. In general it is a simple
solution of the soluble ingredients of the crude drug in the fluid
employed. But sometimes the solvent, if compound, is resolved into its
component parts, and the fluid which passes through at any given time is
only one of these, holding the soluble parts of the drug in solution. Thus
if diluted alcohol be poured over powder of myrrh, in the cylinder of the
percolator, the fluid which first drops into the receiver is a solution of
an oily consistence, chiefly composed of resin and volatile oil, dissolved
in alcohol. In like manner, when the powder of gall-nuts is treated in the
same way by hydrated sulphuric ether, two layers of fluid are obtained,
one of which is a highly concentrated solution of tannin in the water of
the ether, and the other a weak solution of the same principle in pure
ether. In all cases, therefore, in which it is not otherwise directed it
is absolutely necessary to agitate the several portions of the liquid
obtained by percolation together, in order to ensure a product of uniform
strength or activity.
Several forms of displacement apparatus are employed by different
operators. A simple and useful one is that figured in the margin. It has
also the advantage of being inexpensive, and may be made by any worker in
tin plate.
In operating on some substances it is found advantageous to hasten the
process by pressure. This may be effected by any of the methods adopted
for that purpose, and already described under FILTRATION. An ingenious
little apparatus, which is well adapted for small quantities, is shown in
the _engr._ By pouring mercury or water through (_e_), into the bottle
(_c_), the air in the latter suffers compression, and acts in a
corresponding manner on the percolating liquor in (_a_). The whole of the
joints must be made air-tight.
[Illustration: _a._ Percolator.
_b._ Stand.
_c._ Receiver.
_d._ Menstruum.
_e._ Substance operated on.
_f._ Calico strainer.]
[Illustration: _a._ Percolator.
_b._ Tube connecting; it with——
_c._ A double-necked bottle containing——
_d._ Mercury.
_e._ Feeding-tube.
_f._ Receiver.
_g._ Stop-cock to regulate or arrest the pressure of air on the contents
of the cylinder (_a_).]
The method of displacement, although apparently simple, requires for its
successful application no inconsiderable amount of experience and skill in
manipulation. The principal points to be attended to are——the reduction of
the substance to the proper state of comminution (neither too coarse nor
too fine),——the due regulation of the period of maceration according to
the hardness, density, and texture of the substance; and, more important
still,——the proper packing of the ingredients in the cylinder. On the
correct performance of the last the success of the process mainly depends.
Some substances require considerable pressure to be used, whilst others,
when even lightly packed, scarcely permit the fluid to pass through them.
When the material is too loosely packed, the menstruum passes through
quickly, but without exerting its proper solvent action; when too great
pressure is employed, percolation either progresses very slowly or not at
all. On the whole, the firmness of the packing should be inversely as the
solvent and softening power of the menstruum upon the solids exposed to
its action; but to this rule there are many exceptions, and each substance
may be said to require special treatment. An excellent plan, applicable to
all substances, and especially to those of a glutinous or mucilaginous
nature, is to mix the powder with an equal bulk of well-washed siliceous
sand before rubbing it up with the menstruum. In reference to the
coarseness of the powder it must be observed that substances which readily
become soft and pappy when wetted by the menstruum, should not be used so
fine as those that are more woody and fibrous, and not of a glutinous or
resinous nature.
The ‘method of displacement’ has the advantage of expedition, economy, and
yielding products possessing considerable uniformity of strength; but the
difficulties attending its application by the inexperienced are serious
obstacles to its general adoption in the laboratory. It answers admirably
for the preparation of all tinctures that are not of a resinous nature,
and for most infusions of a woody and fibrous substances, as roots, woods,
barks, leaves, seeds, insects, &c., and particularly when cold or tepid
water is taken as the solvent. It is also especially adapted for the
preparation of concentrated infusions and essences, as they may thus be
obtained of any required strength without loss, or requiring concentration
by heat, which is so destructive to their virtues.
“When (ordinary) tinctures are made in large quantities, displacement is
never likely to supersede maceration, on account of any practical
advantages it may possess. If the prescribed directions be duly attended
to, the process of maceration is unexceptionable. The process is more
simple than the other; the mode of operating is more uniform, it is, in
fact, always the same; it requires less of skill and dexterity in
conducting it; it requires less constant attention during its progress
which, in operating on large quantities is a consideration; and, finally,
the apparatus required is less complicated. When, however, only small
quantities of tincture are made at a time, and kept in stock, the adoption
of the process of displacement will often be found convenient and
advantageous. It offers the means of making a tincture in two or three
hours, which, by the other process, would require as many weeks.” (Mohr
and Redwood.)
Another useful application of the method of displacement is to the
manufacture of extracts on the large scale. Here it is superior to any
other plan. By the simple and inexpensive forms of apparatus in block-tin,
stoneware, or glass, which have recently been designed for the purpose,
not merely a first-class product is ensured, but a great saving in fuel
and labour is at the same time effected. The reader is referred to the
last edition of the ‘United States Pharmacopœia,’ and to papers by Messrs
Saunders and Schweitzer in the ‘Pharmaceutical Year Book for 1873,’ and by
Mr Campbell in the same publication for 1874, for additional information
in the subject of “Percolation.” See BREWING, EXTRACT, TINCTURE, &c.
=PERCUS′SION.= _Syn._ PERCUSSIO, L. In _medicine_, the act of striking any
part of the body with the fingers, or any instrument, to ascertain its
condition.
=PERCUS′SION CAPS.= The composition employed to prime these articles is
noticed under FULMINATING MERCURY.
=PER′FECT LOVE.= See LIQUEUR (Parfait amour).
=PER′FUME.= A substance that emits or casts off volatile particles which,
when diffused through the atmosphere, agreeably affect the organs of
smelling. The term is also applied to the volatile effluvia so perceived.
The principal source of perfumes is the Vegetable Kingdom. Its flowers,
seeds, woods, and barks furnish a rich variety, from which the most
fastidious connoisseur may select his favourite bouquet. A few perfumes,
as musk, ambergris, and civet, are derived from the Animal Kingdom; but
none of these evolve an aroma comparable in freshness to that of the rose,
or in delicacy to that of the orange-blossom, or even the unpretending
jasmine. The Inorganic Kingdom yields not a single perfume, so called; nor
has the science of chemistry yet been able to produce a single odoriferous
compound from matter absolutely inorganic.
=PERFU′′MERY.= Perfumes in general; also the art of perfuming them. In its
commercial application, this word embraces not merely perfumes, but also
cosmetics, and other articles of a closely allied character employed at
the toilet, the manufacture and sale of which constitute the trade of the
modern perfumer. Formulæ for the preparation of all the more valuable
perfumes, as well as of others met with in trade, both simple and
compound, will be found under the heads COSMETICS, DEPILATORY, ESSENCE,
HAIR DYES, OILS, PASTES, PASTILS, POMADE, SPIRIT, WATERS, &c., to which we
refer the reader.
=PERFUMES, ACE′TIC.= See VINEGAR.
=Perfumes, Ammo′′niated.= These may be prepared by simply adding a
sufficient quantity of ammonia to the liquid perfumes. When the articles
are to be distilled, a cheaper plan is to add about 5 dr. of sal ammoniac
and 8 dr. of carbonate of potassa to each pint of the article just before
distillation. Ammoniated Cologne water is now a fashionable substance for
spirit of sal volatile.
=PERIODIC ACID.= _Syn._ HYDRIC PERIODATE. (HIO_{4}.) 1. By passing a
current of chlorine gas through a solution of sodic iodate, containing
caustic soda, in the proportion of 3 atoms of the latter to one atom of
sodic iodate. The hydrated basic sodic periodate, which crystallises out,
is dissolved in diluted nitric acid, and precipitated by the addition of
argentic nitrate; a normal argentic periodate crystallises as the liquid
cools, and this salt being treated with water, is decomposed into a basic
argentic periodate, which is insoluble, and periodic acid, which is
dissolved. By evaporating the solution, the periodic acid may be obtained
in deliquescent, oblique, rhombic prisms, which are somewhat soluble in
alcohol and in ether.
2. From perchloric acid by the action of iodine. See IODINE.
=PERISTAL′TIC PERSUA′DERS.= See PILLS (Kitchener’s).
=PER′MANENT WHITE.= See BARIUM (Sulphate) and WHITE PIGMENTS.
=PERNAMBU′CO WOOD.= _Syn._ PEACH WOOD. The wood of _Cæsalpinia echinata_.
It constitutes the paler variety of Brazil wood used by the dyers.
=PER′RY.= _Syn._ PYRACEUM, L. A fermented liquor prepared from pears in
the same way as cider is from apples. The red rough-tasted sorts are
principally used for this purpose. The best perry contains about 9% of
absolute alcohol; ordinary perry from 5 to 7%.
Perry is a very pleasant-tasted and wholesome liquor. When bottled
‘champagne fashion,’ we have seen it frequently passed off for champagne
without the fraud being suspected.
=PER′SIAN BER′RIES.= See FRENCH BERRIES.
=PERSPIRA′TION.= The liquid or vapour secreted by the ramifications of the
cuticular arteries over the surface of the body. The perspiratory
apparatus consists of a gland deeply seated in the corium, communicating
by means of tubules (pores) with the surface of the scarf-skin.
The uses of the perspiratory functions appear to be to preserve the
suppleness and sensibility of the skin, to maintain the temperature of the
body at a uniform standard, and to remove from the system a number of
compounds noxious to animal life. The perspiration “is a fluid whose
regularity and continuance of exhalation are not merely conducive, but
absolutely necessary, to health; without such regularity the animal
temperature would run riot, and substances of an injurious quality would
be allowed to permeate the finest and most delicate of the tissues of the
body.” (Eras. Wilson.) “From the constriction or constipation of the
cutaneous pores by the ambient air, especially when the body, beforehand
put into a heat, is suddenly exposed thereunto, the serous particles which
used to fly off continually in vapour, being now pent in, excite an
intense and feverish effervescence; till, finding some other passage,
either by the kidneys or by the glandules of the nose and windpipe, they
are discharged by way of a catarrh; or, missing this separation, still
keep up the ebullition, very often to the hazard of life, by suffocating
the vital flame. And this is the natural consequence of obstructed
insensible perspiration, which, in the vulgar phrase, is the same with
what they mean by catching cold, and of which, give me leave to remark,
that as fevers make two thirds of diseases infesting mankind, according to
the computation of the judicious Sydenham, so two thirds of fevers very
probably may take their rise from perspiration hindered.” (Daniel Turner.)
Suppressed perspiration is also one of the commonest causes of diarrhœa.
=PERU′VIAN BALSAM.= See BALSAM OF PERU.
=PERU′VIAN BARK.= See CINCHONA.
=PES′SARY.= _Syn._ PESSUM, PESSARIUM, L. An instrument made of caoutchouc,
gutta percha, box-wood, or ivory, inserted into the vagina to support the
mouth and neck of the uterus. They are variously formed, to meet the
prejudices of the party or the necessities of the case. The cup, conical,
globe, and ring pessaries (pessi) are those best known.
Medicated pessaries are prepared by adding the active ingredients to a
hard cerate, and pressing the mixture into the desired form. Astringents
(various), belladonna, acetate of lead, mercury, &c., have been thus
applied by Dr Simpson and others.
The different formulæ are given below:——
=Pessary, Alum.= _Syn._ PESSUS ALUMINIS. Alum, catechu, wax, of each 1
dr.; lard, 5-1/2 dr.
=Pessary, Belladonna.= _Syn._ PESSUS BELLADONNÆ. Extract of belladonna, 10
gr.; wax, 22-1/2 gr.; lard, 1-1/2 dr.; in each pessary.
=Pessary, Mercurial.= _Syn._ PESSUS HYDRARGYRI. Strong mercurial ointment,
1/2 dr.; wax, 1/2 dr.; lard, 1 dr. Mix.
=Pessary, Lead.= _Syn._ PESSUS PLUMBI. Acetate of lead, 7-1/2 gr.; white
wax, 22-1/2 gr.; lard, 1-1/2 dr.
=Pessary, Iodide of Lead.= _Syn._ PESSUS PLUMBI IODIDI. Iodide of lead, 5
gr.; wax, 25 gr.; lard, 1-1/2 dr.
=Pessary, Tannin.= _Syn._ PESSUS TANNINI. Tannin, 10 gr.; wax, 25 gr.;
lard, 1-1/2 dr.
=Pessary, Zinc.= _Syn._ PESSUS ZINCI. Oxide of zinc, 15 gr.; white wax,
22-1/2 gr.; lard, 1-1/2 dr.
=PEST′ILENCE.= See PLAGUE.
=PESTILEN′TIAL DISEASES.= All those diseases which are epidemic and
malignant and assume the character of a plague. See CHOLERA, &c.
=PETONG′.= Same as _packfong_.
=PET′ROLENE.= The pure liquid portion of mineral tar. It has a pale yellow
colour, a penetrating odour, and a high boiling point; is lighter than
water, and is isomeric with the oils of turpentine and lemons. In its
general proportions it resembles rectified mineral naphtha.
=PETRO′LEUM.= _Syn._ ROCK OIL, LIQUID BITUMEN, OIL OF PETRE; OLEUM PETRÆ,
BITUMEN LIQUIDUM, L. PETROLEUM is an oil found oozing from the ground or
obtained on sinking wells in the soil. To a limited extent it is met with
in most countries of Europe and in the West India islands, but occurs in
abundance in Pennsylvania and other parts of the United States and in
Canada. It varies in colour from slight yellow to brownish black, in
consistence from a thin mobile liquid to a fluid as thick as treacle, in
specific gravity from 800 to 1100 (water being 1000) and is either clear
and transparent or turbid and opaque. Petroleum is essentially a volatile
oil, and when submitted to distillation yields gases homologous with light
carburetted hydrogen of marsh-gas (Ronalds obtained three), liquids of
similar constitution (Pelouze and Cahours isolated twelve), and solid
paraffin-like bodies. Commercially petroleum is distilled so as to yield
petroleum-spirit or mineral naphtha used as a substitute for turpentine
and for burning in sponge-lamps and costermongers’ barrow-lamps; petroleum
oil used all over the world as mineral lamp oil for illuminating purposes;
and a heavy oil employed for lubricating machinery. The value of a sample
of rock-oil is determined by thus distilling a weighed quantity in a small
glass retort and weighing the products. The petroleum or middle product
must be of such a character as to have a specific gravity not higher than
810 or 820 and to contain so little petroleum spirit that it only evolves
inflammable vapour when heated to 100° Fahr. in the manner prescribed in
the Petroleum Act, 1871 (see _below_). Any petroleum product or mineral
oil which will not stand this test, and which is kept in larger bottles
than one pint, and in larger total quantity than three gallons, cannot be
stored or sold except by licence of the local authorities.
_Directions for Testing Petroleum to ascertain the
temperature at which it gives off inflammable
vapour._
The vessel which is to hold the oil shall be of thin sheet iron; it shall
be two inches deep and two inches wide at the opening, tapering slightly
towards the bottom; it shall have a flat rim, with a raised edge one
quarter of an inch round the top; it shall be supported by this rim in a
tin vessel four inches and a half deep and four and a half inches in
diameter; it shall also have a thin wire stretched across the opening,
which wire shall be so fixed to the edge of the vessel that it shall be a
quarter of an inch above the surface of the flat rim. The thermometer to
be used shall have a round bulb about half an inch in diameter, and is to
be graduated upon the scale of Fahrenheit, every ten degrees occupying not
less than half an inch upon the scale.
The inner vessel shall be filled with the petroleum to be tested, but care
must be taken that the liquid does not cover the flat rim. The outer
vessel shall be filled with cold, or nearly cold water; a small flame
shall be applied to the bottom of the outer vessel, and the thermometer
shall be inserted into the oil so that the bulb shall be immersed about
one and a half inches beneath the surface. A screen of pasteboard or wood
shall be placed round the apparatus, and shall be of such dimensions as
to surround it about two thirds and to reach several inches above the
level of the vessels.
When heat has been applied to the water until the thermometer has risen to
about 90° Fahr., a very small flame shall be quickly passed across the
surface of the oil on a level with the wire. If no pale blue flicker or
flash is produced, the application of the flame is to be repeated for
every rise of two or three degrees in the thermometer. When the
flashing-point has been noted, the test shall be repeated with a fresh
sample of the oil, using cold, or nearly cold water as before; withdrawing
the source of heat from the outer vessel when the temperature approaches
that noted in the first experiment, and applying the flame test at every
rise of two degrees in the thermometer. See NAPHTHA, OILS (Mineral), &c.
=PEW′TER.= This is an alloy of tin and lead, or of tin with antimony and
copper. The first only is properly called pewter. Three varieties are
known in trade:——
_Prep._ 1. (PLATE PEWTER.) From tin, 79%; antimony, 7%; bismuth and
copper, of each 2%; fused together. Used to make plates, teapots, &c.
Takes a fine polish.
2. (TRIPLE PEWTER.) From tin, 79%; antimon, 15%; lead, 6%; as the last.
Used for minor articles, syringes, toys, &c.
3. (LEY PEWTER.) From tin, 80%; lead, 20%. Used for measures, inkstands,
&c.
_Obs._ According to the report of the French commission, pewter containing
more than 18 parts of lead to 82 parts of tin is unsafe for measures for
wine, and similar liquors and, indeed, for any other utensils exposed to
contact with our food or beverages. The legal sp. gr. of pewter in France
is 7·764; if it be greater, it contains an excess of lead, and is liable
to prove poisonous. The proportions of these metals may be approximately
determined from the sp. gr.; but correctly only by an assay for the
purpose. See BRASS, GERMAN SILVER, LEAD, and TIN.
=PHARAOH’S SERPENTS.= 1. The chemical toy sold under this name consists of
the powder of sulphocyanide of mercury made up in a capsule of tin foil in
a conical mass of about an inch in height.
Ignited at the apex an ash is protruded, long and serpentine in shape. The
fumes evolved are very poisonous.
2. (NON-POISONOUS.) Bichromate of potassium, 2 parts; nitrate of potassa,
1 part; and white sugar, 3 parts. Pulverise each of the ingredients
separately, and then mix them thoroughly. Make small paper cones of the
desired size, and press the mixture into them. They will then be ready for
use, but must be kept from light and moisture.
=PHARMACY ACT.= The following are the principal clauses of the Pharmacy
Act of 1860 (31 and 32 Victoria, cap. cxxi). We have separated and placed
last, those provisions of the Act which relate to the sale of poisons:——
Whereas it is expedient for the safety of the public that persons keeping
open shop for the retailing, dispensing, or compounding of poisons, and
persons known as chemists and druggists should possess a competent
practical knowledge of their business, and to that end, that from and
after the day herein named all persons not already engaged in such
business should, before commencing such business, be duly examined as to
their practical knowledge, and that a register should be kept as herein
provided, and also that the Act passed in the 15th and 16th years of the
reign of her present Majesty, intituled ‘An Act for Regulating the
Qualification of Pharmaceutical Chemists,’ hereinafter described as the
Pharmacy Act, should be amended: Be it enacted, by the Queen’s most
excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords
Spiritual and Temporal and Commons in this present Parliament assembled,
and by authority of the same, as follows:——
From and after the 31st day of December, 1868, it shall be unlawful for
any person to sell or keep open shop for retailing, dispensing, or
compounding poisons, or to assume or use the title ‘Chemist and Druggist,’
or chemist or druggist, or pharmacist, or dispensing chemist, or druggist,
in any part of Great Britain, unless such person shall be a pharmaceutical
chemist, or a chemist and druggist, within the meaning of this Act, and be
registered under this Act, and conform to such regulations as to the
keeping, dispensing, and selling of such poisons as may from time to time
be prescribed by the Pharmaceutical Society with the consent of the Privy
Council (Clause 1).
Chemists and druggists within the meaning of this Act shall consist of all
persons who at any time before the passing of this Act have carried on in
Great Britain the business of a chemist and druggist in the keeping of
open shop for the compounding of the prescriptions of duly qualified
medical practitioners, also of all assistants and associates, who before
the passing of the Act shall have been duly registered under or according
to the provisions of the Pharmacy Act, and also of all such persons as may
be duly registered under this Act (Clause 3).
All such persons as shall from time to time have been appointed to conduct
examinations under the Pharmacy Act shall be, and are hereby declared to
be, examiners for the purposes of this Act, and are hereby empowered and
required to examine all such persons as shall tender themselves for
examination under the provisions of this Act,[93] and every person who
shall have been examined by such examiners, and shall have obtained from
them a certificate of competent skill, and knowledge, and qualification,
shall be entitled to be registered as a chemist and druggist under this
Act, and the examination aforesaid shall be such as is provided under the
Pharmacy Act for the purposes of a qualification to be registered as
assistant under that Act, or as the same may be varied from time to time
by any bye-law to be made in accordance with the Pharmacy Act as amended
by this Act, provided that no person shall conduct any examination for the
purposes of this Act until his appointment has been approved by the Privy
Council (Clause 6).
[Footnote 93: See above.]
No name shall be entered in the register, except of persons authorised by
this Act to be registered, nor unless the registrar be satisfied by the
proper evidence that the person claiming is entitled to be registered; and
any appeal from the decision of the registrar may be decided by the
council of the Pharmaceutical Society; and any entry which shall be proved
to the satisfaction of such council to have been fraudulently or
incorrectly made may be erased from or amended in the register, by order
in writing of such council (Clause 12).
“The registrar shall, in the month of January in every year, cause to be
printed, published, and sold, a correct register of the names of all
pharmaceutical chemists, and a correct register of all persons registered
as chemists and druggists, and in such registers, respectively the names
shall be in alphabetical order, according to the surnames, with the
respective residences, in the form set forth in schedule (B) to this Act,
or to the like effect, of all persons appearing on the register of
pharmaceutical chemists, and on the register of chemists and druggists, on
the 31st day of December last preceding, and such printed registers shall
be called ‘The Registers of Pharmaceutical Chemists and Chemists and
Druggists,’ and a printed copy of such registers for the time being,
purporting to be so printed and published as aforesaid, or any certificate
under the hand of the said registrar, and countersigned by the president
or two members of the council of the Pharmaceutical Society, shall be
evidence in all courts and before all justices of the peace and others,
that the persons therein specified are registered according to the
provisions of the Pharmacy Act or of this Act, as the case may be, and the
absence of the name of any person from such printed register shall be
evidence, until the contrary shall be made to appear, that such person is
not registered according to the provisions of the Pharmacy Act or of this
Act (Clause 13).
From and after the 31st day of December, 1868, any person who shall sell
or keep an open shop for the retailing, dispensing, or compounding
poisons, or who shall take, use, or exhibit the name or title of chemist
and druggist, or chemist or druggist, not being a duly registered
pharmaceutical chemist, or chemist and druggist, or who shall take, use,
or exhibit the name or title pharmaceutical chemist, pharmaceutist, or
pharmacist, not being a pharmaceutical chemist, or shall fail to conform
with any regulation as to the keeping or selling of poisons, made in
pursuance of this Act, or who shall compound any medicines of the British
Pharmacopœia, except according to the formularies of the said
Pharmacopœia, shall for every such offence be liable to pay a penalty or
sum of £5, and the same may be sued for, recovered, and dealt with in the
manner provided by the Pharmacy Act for the recovery of penalties under
that Act; but nothing in this Act contained shall prevent any person from
being liable to any other penalty, damages, or punishment to which he
would have been subject if this Act had not been passed (Clause 15).
_Clauses of the Pharmacy Act relating to the sale of Poisons._
It shall be unlawful to sell any poison either by wholesale or retail,
unless the box, bottle, vessel, wrapper, or cover in which such poison is
contained be distinctly labelled with the name of the article and the word
poison, and with the name and address of the seller of the poison; and it
shall be unlawful to sell any poison of those which are in the first part
of schedule (A) to this Act, or may hereafter be added thereto under
section II of this Act, to any person unknown to the seller, unless
introduced by some person known to the seller; and on every sale of any
such article the seller shall, before delivery, make or cause to be made
an entry in a book to be kept for that purpose, stating, in the form set
forth in schedule (F) to this Act, the date of the sale, the name and
address of the purchaser, the name and quantity of the article sold, and
the purpose for which it is stated by the purchaser to be required, to
which entry the signature of the purchaser and of the person, if any, who
introduced him, shall be affixed; and any person selling poison otherwise
than is herein provided, shall, upon a summary conviction before two
justices of the peace in England or the sheriff in Scotland, be liable to
a penalty not exceeding £5 for the first offence, and to a penalty not
exceeding £10 for the second or any subsequent offence; and for the
purposes of this section the person on whose behalf any sale is made by
any apprentice or servant shall be deemed to be the seller, but the
provisions of this section, which are solely applicable to poisons in the
first part of the schedule (A) to this Act, or which require that the
label shall contain the name and address of the seller, shall not apply to
articles to be exported from Great Britain by wholesale dealers, nor to
sales by wholesale to retail dealers in the ordinary course of wholesale
dealing, nor shall any of the provisions of this section apply to any
medicine supplied by a legally qualified apothecary to his patient, nor
apply to any article when forming part of the ingredients of any medicine
dispensed by a person registered under this Act provided such medicine be
labelled in the manner aforesaid with the name and address of the seller,
and the ingredients thereof be entered, with the name of the person to
whom it is sold or delivered, in a book to be kept by the seller for that
purpose, and nothing in this Act contained shall repeal or affect any of
the provisions of an Act of the Session holden in the fourteenth and
fifteenth years in the reign of her present Majesty, intituled ‘An Act to
regulate the Sale of Arsenic’ (Clause 17).
SCHEDULE (A).
Part 1.
Arsenic and its preparations.
Prussic acid.
Cyanide of potassium and all metallic cyanides.
Strychnine and all poisonous vegetable alkaloids and their salts.
Aconite and its preparations.
Emetic tartar.
Corrosive sublimate.
Cantharides.
Savin and its oil.
Ergot of rye and its preparations.