lights can be which the Greenlanders call the northern lights, I have no
clear knowledge. I have often met men who have spent a long time in
Greenland, but they do not seem to know definitely what those lights
are. However, it is true of that subject as of many others of which we
have no sure knowledge, that thoughtful men will form opinions and
conjectures about it and will make such guesses as seem reasonable and
likely to be true. But these northern lights have this peculiar nature,
that the darker the night is, the brighter they seem; and they always
appear at night but never by day,—most frequently in the densest
darkness and rarely by moonlight. In appearance they resemble a vast
flame of fire viewed from a great distance. It also looks as if sharp
points were shot from this flame up into the sky; these are of uneven
height and in constant motion, now one, now another darting highest; and
the light appears to blaze like a living flame. While these rays are at
their highest and brightest, they give forth so much light that people
out of doors can easily find their way about and can even go hunting, if
need be. Where people sit in houses that have windows, it is so light
inside that all within the room can see each other’s faces. The light is
very changeable. Sometimes it appears to grow dim, as if a black smoke
or a dark fog were blown up among the rays; and then it looks very much
as if the light were overcome by this smoke and about to be quenched.
But as soon as the smoke begins to grow thinner, the light begins to
brighten again; and it happens at times that people think they see large
sparks shooting out of it as from glowing iron which has just been taken
from the forge. But as night declines and day approaches, the light
begins to fade; and when daylight appears, it seems to vanish entirely.
The men who have thought about and discussed these lights have guessed
at three sources, one of which, it seems, ought to be the true one. Some
hold that fire circles about the ocean and all the bodies of water that
stream about on the outer sides of the globe; and since Greenland lies
on the outermost edge of the earth to the north, they think it possible
that these lights shine forth from the fires that encircle the outer
ocean. Others have suggested that during the hours of night, when the
sun’s course is beneath the earth, an occasional gleam of its light may
shoot up into the sky; for they insist that Greenland lies so far out on
the earth’s edge that the curved surface which shuts out the sunlight
must be less prominent there. But there are still others who believe
(and it seems to me not unlikely) that the frost and the glaciers have
become so powerful there that they are able to radiate forth these
flames. I know nothing further that has been conjectured on this
subject, only these three theories that I have presented; as to their
correctness I do not decide, though the last mentioned looks quite
plausible to me. I know of no other facts about Greenland that seem
worth discussing or mentioning, only those that we have talked about and
what we have noted as the opinions of well-informed men.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
XX
THE SUBJECT OF THE NORTHERN LIGHTS CONTINUED
_Son._ Everything that you have told here seems wonderful to me, though
also very instructive, and this fact most of all, that men, as you have
pointed out, are able to leave the earth, as it were, and view for
themselves the boundaries which God has drawn amid such great perils.
Your last remark, however, suggests that there is yet a little matter to
inquire about along this same line. In speaking of those three
conjectures you said that you think it most likely that these lights
have their origin in frost and ice; but just before in describing their
appearance, you added that now and then fog and dark mist resembling
smoke would mount up among these lights. But even if the cold should be
so prevalent there as to give rise to these lights with their fire-like
rays, I cannot help wondering whence that smoke can come which sometimes
appears to shade and becloud the light till it seems almost quenched;
for to me it seems more likely that the smoke is due to heat than to
frost. There is one more thing that looks strange to me which you
mentioned earlier in your speech, namely that you consider Greenland as
having a good climate, even though it is full of ice and glaciers. It is
hard for me to understand how such a land can have a good climate.
_Father._ When you say, in asking about the smoke that sometimes appears
to accompany the northern lights, that you think it more likely that the
smoke comes from heat than from cold, I agree with you. But you must
also know that wherever the earth is thawed under the ice, it always
retains some heat down in the depths. In the same way the ocean under
the ice retains some warmth in its depths. But if the earth were wholly
without warmth or heat, it would be one mass of ice from the surface
down to its lowest foundations. Likewise, if the ocean were without any
heat, it would be solid ice from the surface to the bottom. Now large
rifts may appear in the ice that covers the land as well as openings in
the ice upon the sea. But wherever the earth thaws out and lies bare,
whether in places where there is no ice or under the yawning rifts in
the glacier, and wherever the sea lies bare in the openings that have
formed in the ice, there steam is emitted from the lower depths; and it
may be that this vapor collects and appears like smoke or dark fog; and
that, whenever it looks as if the lights are about to be quenched by
smoke or fog, it is this vapor that collects before them.
In reply to your remark about the climate of Greenland, that you think
it strange that it is called a good climate, I shall tell you something
about the nature of the land. When storms do come, they are more severe
than in most other places, both with respect to keen winds and vast
masses of ice and snow. But usually these spells of rough weather last
only a short while and come at long intervals only. In the meantime the
weather is fair, though the cold is intense. For it is in the nature of
the glacier to emit a cold and continuous breath which drives the storm
clouds away from its face so that the sky above is usually clear.[231]
But the neighboring lands often have to suffer because of this; for all
the regions that lie near get severe weather from this ice, inasmuch as
all the storms that the glacier drives away from itself come upon others
with keen blasts. Now if this is clear to you, I believe there is no
need of giving any further explanation of the subject than what you have
now heard.
Footnote 231:
By glacier the author evidently means the great inland ice masses. On
the effect of this inland ice on the climate of Greenland and
neighboring regions, see Nansen, _In Northern Mists_, II, 247.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
XXI
THE ZONES OF HEAT AND COLD
_Son._ These things are all clear to me and it seems reasonable that
they should be as you say. Still, there are a few things that you
mentioned a little earlier in your talk, which I wish to ask about, if
you permit. You said that both sides of the earth are cold, the southern
as well as the northern. But I hear it said by all men who come from the
regions to the south that the farther south one travels, the hotter the
lands are. Likewise all the winds that come from the south are both
moister and milder than other winds. In the winter those winds always
bring a good thaw, while other winds are so cold that they bring frost,
and ice is formed. And during the summer the south wind is still warmer
than other winds. Now if my questions do not tire you and I do not seem
to ask too much, I should like to have you answer this question too.
_Father._ When I told you that in the skies three belts are traced under
which it is difficult to cross, one torrid and two frigid, I added that
the hot belt curves from east to west. But if I have stated this
correctly, it will be evident that the cold must be as severe in the
southern parts as in the northern.[232] I believe, however, that all the
regions lying near the hot belt, whether on the south side or on the
north, are also hot; but I believe those lands to be frigid which lie
very far in either direction. You have stated that all men tell us that
the farther south one travels, the greater the heat; but that, I
believe, is due to the fact that you have never found any one who has
traveled as far south of the hot belt as those lands which we have now
talked of lie to the north. You have also said that the winds which come
from a southerly direction are warmer than the rest. But it is
reasonable that the south wind should be warm when it reaches us, even
though it comes from the frozen south side of the earth, for it blows
through the curved ring of the torrid belt.[233] Consequently, though it
blows cold from the south, it is warm when it emerges on the northern
side. And if people live as near the cold belt on the southern side as
the Greenlanders do on the northern, I firmly believe that the north
wind blows as warm to them as the south wind to us. For they must look
north to see the midday and the sun’s whole course, just as we, who
dwell north of the sun, must look to the south.
Footnote 232:
Cf. _Macrobius_, 601. “... for both the northern and the southern
extremities lie stiff with perpetual frost, and they are like two
zones with which the earth is girdled, but narrow as if they were
circlets drawn about the farthest regions.”
Footnote 233:
Macrobius states the same belief in quite similar terms: the south
wind comes from a frozen clime just as the north wind does; but “since
it comes to us through the flames of the torrid zone and mixes with
the fire, it becomes hot, so that what was cold in the beginning comes
to us with warmth.” (P. 603.)
We have said earlier that in winter the sun’s course here is short, but
of such extraordinary length in summer that we then have day nearly all
the time. From this you may conclude that the sun’s path is quite broad
and that its course is not narrow and straight as if it were always
following a certain line. As soon as it reaches the outer edge of its
sloping circuit toward the south, those who live on the extreme side of
the world to the south have summer and long sun paths, while we have
winter and little sunlight. And when the sun comes to the extreme edge
of its circuit to the north, we have long-continued sunshine, while they
have cold winter. For it is always this way, that the sun rises higher
in the north when its path declines in the south: and when its course
begins to decline in the north, it begins to wax on the southern side.
You should also know that the change from day to night is due to the
movements of the sun. For some places have midday when others have
midnight; and the day dawns and brightens in some places just when
darkness begins and night falls in other places.[234] For the day and
the light always follow the sun, while the shadows flee from it; still
they follow after it as it moves away; and there is always night where
the shadows are, but always day where the light is. Now if you
understand all these things that we have discussed in these hours, the
change in day and night, the course of the sun, and all the other
matters that we have talked about, you may count yourself thoroughly
prepared for the trader’s calling, inasmuch as few only have had more
instruction in these subjects than you have had.
Footnote 234:
Cf. Capella, _Satiricon_, 204.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
XXII
THE WINDS WITH RESPECT TO NAVIGATION
_Son._ I should indeed consider it highly informing, if I could remember
all the things that you have now told me. I gather from your remarks,
however, that you seem to think that I have asked about too many things
in these our talks. But if you are not wearied with my questions, there
still remains a little matter which, with your permission, I should like
to ask about, one that also seems to belong to the knowledge of
seafarers.
In a talk some time ago you said that whoever wishes to be a merchant
ought to be prepared early in spring, and be careful not to remain out
at sea too late in the autumn; but you did not indicate the earliest
time in the spring when you think one may risk a journey over-seas to
other countries, nor how late you consider it safe to sail the seas in
autumn. You told how the ocean manages to quiet its storms, but you did
not show under what circumstances it begins to grow restless. Therefore
I would fain ask you again to answer this question, even if it does
annoy you, for I think that a time may come when it will seem both
needful to know this and instructive to understand it.
_Father._ The matters to which you are now referring can scarcely be
grouped under one head; for the seas are not all alike, nor are they all
of equal extent. Small seas have no great perils, and one may risk
crossing them at almost any time; for one has to make sure of fair winds
to last a day or two only, which is not difficult for men who understand
the weather. And there are many lands where harbors are plentiful as
soon as the shore is reached. If the circumstances are such that a man
can wait for winds in a good haven or may confidently expect to find
good harbors as soon as he has crossed, or if the sea is so narrow that
he needs to provide for a journey of only a day or two, then he may
venture to sail over such waters almost whenever he wishes. But where
travel is beset with greater perils, whether because the sea is wide and
full of dangerous currents, or because the prow points toward shores
where the harbors are rendered insecure by rocks, breakers, shallows, or
sand bars,—wherever the situation is such, one needs to use great
caution; and no one should venture to travel over such waters when the
season is late.
Now as to the time that you asked about, it seems to me most correct to
say that one should hardly venture over-seas later than the beginning of
October. For at that time the sea begins to grow very restless, and the
tempests always increase in violence as autumn passes and winter
approaches. And about the time when we date the sixteenth of October,
the east wind begins to look sorrowful and thinks himself disgraced, now
that his headgear, the golden crown, is taken away. He puts a
cloud-covered hat on his head and breathes heavily and violently, as if
mourning a recent loss. But when the southeast wind sees how vexed his
neighbor is, he is stricken with a double grief: the one sorrow is that
he fears the same deprivation as the east wind has suffered; the other
is grief over the misfortunes of his good and estimable neighbor.
Stirred by the distress of a resentful mind, he knits his brows under
the hiding clouds and blows the froth violently about him. When the
south wind sees the wrath of his near neighbors, he wraps himself in a
cloud-lined mantle in which he conceals his treasures and his wealth of
warm rays and blows vigorously as if in terrifying defence. And when the
southwest wind observes how friendship has cooled, now that the truce is
broken, he sobs forth his soul’s grief in heavy showers, rolls his eyes
above his tear-moistened beard, puffs his cheeks under the cloudy
helmet, blows the chilling scud violently forward, leads forth huge
billows, wide-breasted waves, and breakers that yearn for ships, and
orders all the tempests to dash forward in angry contest.
But when the west wind observes that a wrathful blast and a sorrowful
sighing are coming across to him from the east, whence formerly he was
accustomed to receive shining beams with festive gifts, he understands
clearly that the covenant is broken and that all treaties are renounced.
Deeply grieved and pained because of the unpeace, he puts on a black
robe of mourning over which he pulls a cloud-gray cloak, and, sitting
with wrinkled nose and pouting lips, he breathes heavily with regretful
care. And when the ill-tempered northwest wind observes how sorrowful
his neighbors look, and sees how he himself has suffered the loss of the
evening beauty which he was formerly accustomed to display, he shows at
once his temper in stern wrath: he knits his brows fiercely, throws
rattling hail violently about, and sends forth the rolling thunder with
terrifying gleams of lightning, thus displaying on his part a fearful
and merciless anger. But when the north wind misses the friendliness and
the kind gifts which he was wont to get from the south wind, he seeks
out his hidden treasures and displays the wealth that he has most of: he
brings out a dim sheen which glitters with frost, places an ice-cold
helmet on his head above his frozen beard, and blows hard against the
hail-bearing cloud-heaps. But the chill northeast wind sits wrathful
with snowy beard and breathes coldly through his wind-swollen nostrils.
Glaring fiercely under his rimy brows, he wrinkles his cheeks beneath
his cold and cloudy temples, puffs his jowl with his icy tongue, and
blows the piercing drift-snow vigorously forth.
But since peace has been broken among these eight chiefs and the winds
are stirred to stormy violence, it is no longer advisable for men to
travel over-seas from shore to shore because of great perils: the days
shorten; the nights grow darker; the sea becomes restless; the waves
grow stronger and the surf is colder; showers increase and storms arise;
the breakers swell and the shores refuse good harbors; the sailors
become exhausted, the lading is lost, and there is great and constant
destruction of life due to a too great venturesomeness; souls are placed
in perils of judgment because of recklessness and sudden death.
Therefore all sensible men should beware and not venture upon the sea
too late in the season; for there are many dangers to look out for and
not one alone, if a man dares too much at such times. Consequently, the
better plan is to sail while summer is at its best; for one is not
likely to meet misfortune if there has been careful and wise
forethought. But it would surely pass all expectations if that were to
succeed which was foolishly advised and planned at the beginning, though
sometimes the outcome may be favorable. I consider it a more sensible
plan for a man to remain quiet as long as much danger may be looked for,
and to enjoy during the winter in proper style and in restful leisure
what he labored to win during the summer, than to risk in a little while
through his own obstinate contriving the loss of all the profit which he
strove to gain in the summer. But first of all a man must have care for
his own person; for he can have no further profit, if it fares so ill
that he himself goes under.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
XXIII
THE PROPER SEASON FOR NAVIGATION.
END OF THE FIRST PART
_Son._ I did wisely to continue my inquiries when we had our last talk;
for you have given replies which will be useful as well as instructive
for all who have the sense to understand and profit by such matters as
we have discussed. But I wish to ask you again to tell me briefly how
early in the spring and at what stated time you think one may venture to
travel over-seas to other shores, just as I asked in my earlier
inquiries.
_Father._ Men may venture out upon almost any sea except the largest as
early as the beginning of April. For at the time when we date the
sixteenth of March, the days lengthen, the sun rises higher, and the
nights grow shorter. The north wind gently clears up the face of heaven
with a light and cool breeze, brushes away the restless and storm-laden
clouds, and with blithe persuasiveness asks for a new covenant. Then
peace is renewed among the winds, for they all yearn for rest after the
season of violent wrath and wearisome blasts; so they make a covenant
once more in the way that we told earlier when we described the peace
making. The showers cease, the waves sink to rest, the breakers flag,
the swell of the noisy ocean dies away, all the storms weaken, and quiet
follows upon restless turmoil.
Now I have done as you requested: I have pointed out the seasons with
definite dates both in spring and fall, when it seems most advisable to
brave the perils of the sea. I have also informed you as to the times
that seem more suitable for rest than for travel. I have likewise
described briefly the sources of light in the sky and the belts that are
drawn across the heaven, those under which travel is difficult and those
which allow travel. And if you keep carefully in mind all these things
that I have discussed with you, you will never be counted among the
ignorant navigators, if you shall decide to try the trader’s calling. My
advice, therefore, is first to fix in your mind all the facts which you
have now heard; and later you shall have a chance to ask further
questions, if you should wish to do so.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
XXIV
INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND PART:
THE KING AND HIS COURT
_Son._ The last time that I had a talk with you, sire, I heard a wise
speech from your lips, one that should profit every man who intends to
follow the craft with which our conversation was concerned. Since then I
have meditated on that speech, and I believe that I have fixed firmly in
memory most of the facts that were brought out at the time, whatever
luck I may have later in trying to apply them. No doubt I ought, like
everyone else, to observe carefully all the good which I have been
taught; and more is to be expected from those who take thought than from
those who forget. But whatever success or good fortune I may have in the
practice, I delight to learn while I have the opportunity. Now I still
have some subjects in mind which I wish to inquire about, but I am going
to ask your consent to a discussion before I bring up the questions in
which I am now interested; and when I have presented these, I shall
await your answers.
_Father._ When we last met and talked about the doings and mode of
living of merchants, we mentioned, I believe, most of the things that
were in real need of discussion; and I feel sure that no man will have
ill repute from his conduct who everywhere observes with care what was
then brought out. But if you still wish and are anxious to make further
inquiries into these matters, I shall be glad to answer, if I can. And
even if you wish to open another discussion, I shall also be glad to
answer, as far as I have knowledge. You have permission, therefore, to
ask just as you like; and on my side there shall be such replies as God
enables me to give.
_Son._ The talk that I last heard you give concerning the business of
merchants was delivered with more evident wisdom in the answers than in
the questions; and I shall now let that subject rest. As I have in mind,
with your permission, to try that business, it may be that a very long
time will pass between our conversations. And when I am far away from
you, I shall have no opportunity to seek your advice, though I should
wish to do so, in case my mind should turn to some craft or business
other than that of the merchant’s trade. But though, God willing, we may
meet again in good health, it seems to me advisable to ask about those
things that I am interested in, while I have sure opportunity to learn.
And while there is opportunity we should learn what we do not know, for
this reason especially, that we cannot be sure of a chance to inquire
when it seems most needful to seek knowledge. Now after having learned
the trader’s mode of living and how to travel in unknown lands, it might
happen that I should want to visit the king’s court, where I could see
more perfect manners than those to be seen on my commercial tours; and
therefore I should like to learn from you, while here at home, such
manners as are most needful to know, when one is at court, though it is
not sure that I shall have to use them. Now if such an interest does not
seem worthless to you, I should like to have you inform me as to those
customs that I have mentioned.
_Father._ It cannot be called worthless curiosity to wish to know what
customs prevail and must be observed at the king’s court; for all
courtesy and proper conduct have their origin there, if the mode of life
is as it ought to be and as it was ordained of old. Still, customs at
court are by no means of one sort only, for there is a multitude of
services and offices about the king, and those of his men who are less
in rank are usually not held to strict manners. Those who are higher in
the service often differ much in manners and deportment, so that the men
who observe the better customs are, unfortunately, fewer, as a rule,
than those who are moderately courteous, or scarcely so much. Now I do
not know whose conduct you are interested in, that of the more mannerly
or of the greater number.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
XXV
THE IMPORTANCE OF COURTESY IN THE ROYAL SERVICE