It is possible that the basking sharks are meant rather than the
Greenland sharks; they are larger than the Greenland sharks, but do
not seem to be common in the Arctic waters.
There are certain varieties that are fierce and savage toward men and
are constantly seeking to destroy them at every chance. One of these is
called the “horse whale,” and another the “red comb.”[208] They are very
voracious and malicious and never grow tired of slaying men. They roam
about in all the seas looking for ships, and when they find one they
leap up, for in that way they are able to sink and destroy it the more
quickly. These fishes are unfit for human food; being the natural
enemies of mankind, they are, in fact, loathsome. The largest of this
type never grow more than thirty or forty ells in length.
Footnote 208:
The “horse whale” and the “red comb” have not been identified.
There is still another sort called the narwhal, which may not be eaten
for fear of disease, for men fall ill and die if they eat of it. This
whale is not large in size; it never grows longer than twenty ells. It
is not at all savage but rather tries to avoid fishermen. It has teeth
in its head, all small but one which projects from the front of the
upper jaw. This tooth is handsome, well formed, and straight as an onion
stem. It may grow to a length of seven ells and is as even and smooth as
if shaped with a tool. It projects straight forward from the head when
the whale is traveling; but sharp and straight though it is, it is of no
service as a defensive weapon; for the whale is so fond and careful of
its tusk that it allows nothing to come near it. I know of no other
varieties of whales that are unfit for human food, only these five that
I have now enumerated: the two that I mentioned first were the beaked
whale and the “hog whale;” the three mentioned later were the “horse
whale,” the “red comb,” and the narwhal.
There are certain varieties of even greater size which I have not yet
described; and all those that I shall now discuss may be eaten by men.
Some of them are dangerous for men to meet, while others are gentle and
peaceable. One of these is called humpback; this fish is large and very
dangerous to ships. It has a habit of striking at the vessel with its
fins and of lying and floating just in front of the prow where sailors
travel. Though the ship turn aside, the whale will continue to keep in
front, so there is no choice but to sail upon it; but if a ship does
sail upon it, the whale will throw the vessel and destroy all on board.
The largest of these fishes grow to a length of seventy or eighty ells;
they are good to eat.
Then there is that kind which is called the Greenland whale.[209] This
fish grows to a length of eighty or even ninety ells and is as large
around as it is long; for a rope that is stretched the length of one
will just reach around it where it is bulkiest. Its head is so large
that it comprises fully a third of the entire bulk. This fish is very
cleanly in choice of food; for people say that it subsists wholly on
mist and rain and whatever falls into the sea from the air above. When
one is caught and its entrails are examined, nothing is found in its
abdomen like what is found in other fishes that take food, for the
abdomen is empty and clean. It cannot readily open and close its mouth,
for the whalebone which grows in it will rise[210] and stand upright in
the mouth when it is opened wide; and consequently whales of this type
often perish because of their inability to close the mouth. This whale
rarely gives trouble to ships. It has no teeth and is fat and good to
eat.
Footnote 209:
This is another name for the right whale described above; the author’s
classification in this case must have been based on size only.
Footnote 210:
The author seems to believe that the whalebone rises from the lower
jaw or the floor of the mouth; as a matter of fact it is fastened to
the palate.
Then there is a kind of whale called the rorqual, and this fish is the
best of all for food. It is of a peaceful disposition and does not
bother ships, though it may swim very close to them. This fish is of
great size and length; it is reported that the largest thus far caught
have measured thirteen times ten ells, that is, one hundred and thirty
ells by the ten-count. Because of its quiet and peaceful behavior it
often falls a prey to whale fishers. It is better for eating and smells
better than any of the other fishes that we have talked about, though it
is said to be very fat; it has no teeth. It has been asserted, too, that
if one can get some of the sperm of this whale and be perfectly sure
that it came from this sort and no other, it will be found a most
effective remedy for eye troubles, leprosy, ague, headache, and for
every other ill that afflicts mankind. Sperm from other whales also
makes good medicine, though not so good as this sort. And now I have
enumerated nearly all the varieties of whales that are hunted by men.
There is a fish not yet mentioned which it is scarcely advisable to
speak about on account of its size, which to most men will seem
incredible. There are, moreover, but very few who can tell anything
definite about it, inasmuch as it is rarely seen by men; for it almost
never approaches the shore or appears where fishermen can see it, and I
doubt that this sort of fish is very plentiful in the sea. In our
language it is usually called the “kraken.” I can say nothing definite
as to its length in ells, for on those occasions when men have seen it,
it has appeared more like an island than a fish. Nor have I heard that
one has ever been caught or found dead. It seems likely that there are
but two in all the ocean and that these beget no offspring, for I
believe it is always the same ones that appear. Nor would it be well for
other fishes if they were as numerous as the other whales, seeing that
they are so immense and need so much food. It is said, that when these
fishes want something to eat, they are in the habit of giving forth a
violent belch, which brings up so much food that all sorts of fish in
the neighborhood, both large and small, will rush up in the hope of
getting nourishment and good fare. Meanwhile the monster keeps it mouth
open, and inasmuch as its opening is about as wide as a sound or fjord,
the fishes cannot help crowding in in great numbers. But as soon as its
mouth and belly are full, the monster closes its mouth and thus catches
and shuts in all the fishes that just previously had rushed in eagerly
to seek food.[211]
Footnote 211:
The kraken myth probably came to the North with the legend of St.
Brendan, an Irish abbot, who was believed to have made a journey into
the Atlantic about the middle of the sixth century. The oldest extant
form of the legend, the _Navigatio Brendani_, dates from the eleventh
century. For earlier versions of the myth see Nansen, _In Northern
Mists_, II, 234.
Now we have mentioned and described most of those things in the
Icelandic waters that would be counted wonderful, and among them a few
that are more plentiful in other seas than in those which we have just
discussed.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
XIII
THE WONDERS OF ICELAND
_Son._ Now since we have named most of the species of fish that roam
about in the ocean, those that are worth mentioning or discussing, I
should like to hear about those features of the land itself that are
most worthy of mention. What do you think of the extraordinary fire
which rages constantly in that country? Does it rise out of some natural
peculiarity of the land, or can it be that it has its origin in the
spirit world? And what do you think about those terrifying earthquakes
that can occur there, or those marvelous lakes, or the ice which covers
all the higher levels?
_Father._ As to the ice that is found in Iceland, I am inclined to
believe that it is a penalty which the land suffers for lying so close
to Greenland; for it is to be expected that severe cold would come
thence, since Greenland is ice-clad beyond all other lands. Now since
Iceland gets so much cold from that side and receives but little heat
from the sun, it necessarily has an over-abundance of ice on the
mountain ridges. But concerning the extraordinary fires which burn
there, I scarcely know what to say, for they possess a strange nature. I
have heard that in Sicily there is an immense fire of unusual power
which consumes both earth and wood. I have also heard that Saint Gregory
has stated in his _Dialogues_[212] that there are places of torment[213]
in the fires of Sicily. But men are much more inclined to believe that
there must be such places of torment in those fires in Iceland. For the
fires in Sicily feed on living things, as they consume both earth and
wood. Trees live; they grow and put forth green leaves; but they dry up
and wither when they begin to die; therefore, since they die when they
wither, they must be called living while they are green. The earth, too,
must be called living, inasmuch as it sometimes yields much fruitage;
and as soon as one crop is fallen into decay, it gives new growth. All
living creatures, too, are formed of earth, and therefore it surely must
be called living. Both these things, earth and wood, the fires of Sicily
can burn and consume as nourishment. The fire of Iceland, however, will
burn neither earth nor wood, though these be cast upon it; but it feeds
upon stone and hard rock and draws vigor from these as other fires do
from dry wood. And never is rock or stone so hard but that this fire
will melt it like wax and then burn it like fat oil. But when a tree is
cast upon the fire, it will not burn but be scorched only. Now since
this fire feeds on dead things only and rejects everything that other
fires devour, it must surely be said that it is a dead fire; and it
seems most likely that it is the fire of hell, for in hell all things
are dead.
Footnote 212:
_Dialogorum Libri_ IV. Pope Gregory died in 604. The Icelandic version
of Gregory’s _Dialogues_ is published in _Heilagra Manna Sögur_, I.
Footnote 213:
It is difficult to determine whether the author uses “places of
torment” as a term for hell or for purgatory; it seems probable,
however, that in this case hell is meant.
I am also disposed to believe that certain bodies of water in Iceland
must be of the same dead nature as the fire that we have described. For
there are springs which boil furiously all the time both winter and
summer. At times the boiling is so violent that the heated water is
thrown high into the air. But whatever is laid near the spring at the
time of spouting, whether it be cloth or wood or anything else that the
water may touch when it falls down again, will turn to stone. This seems
to lead to the conclusion that this water must be dead, seeing that it
gives a dead character to whatever it sprinkles and moistens; for the
nature of stone is dead. But if the fire should not be dead but have its
origin in some peculiarity of the country, the most reasonable theory as
to the formation of the land seems to be that there must be many veins,
empty passages, and wide cavities in its foundations. At times it may
happen that these passages and cavities will be so completely packed
with air, either by the winds or by the power of the roaring breakers,
that the pressure of the blast cannot be confined, and this may be the
origin of those great earthquakes that occur in that country.[214] Now
if this should seem a reasonable or plausible explanation, it may be
that the great and powerful activity of the air within the foundations
of the earth also causes those great fires to be lit and to appear,
which burst forth in various parts of the land.[215]
Footnote 214:
For the history of this theory see above, pp. 17–18.
Footnote 215:
The number of volcanoes in Iceland is variously given, but the more
reliable authorities give 107.
Now it must not be regarded as settled that the facts are as we have
just said; we have merely tried to bring together and compare various
opinions in order to determine what seems most reasonable. For we see
that all fire originates in force. If a hard stone is stricken against
hard iron, fire comes out of the iron and out of the energy of the
stroke when they clash. You can also rub pieces of wood against each
other in such a way that their antagonism will produce fire. It also
happens frequently that two winds rising at the same time will go
against each other; and when they meet in the air, heavy blows fall, and
these blows give forth a great fire which spreads widely over the
sky.[216] At times it also happens that this fire is driven to the earth
where it causes much damage by burning houses and sometimes forests and
ships at sea. But all the fires that I have now named, whether they come
from iron, or winds colliding in the air, or any of those mighty forces
which can produce fire, will consume trees, forests, and earth: while
the fire which we discussed earlier and which appears in Iceland refuses
all these things, as I have already shown. Now these facts lead to this
conclusion as to its nature, that it is more likely to have arisen from
dead things or from like sources, than those other fires that we have
now discussed. And in case it is as we have imagined, it is likely that
the great earthquakes of that country originate in the power of those
mighty fires that well through the bowels of the land.
Footnote 216:
The common belief of medieval scientists was that lightning was caused
by the collision of clouds.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
XIV
THE VOLCANIC FIRES OF ICELAND
_Son._ I should like very much, with your permission, to ask further
about this fire. You stated earlier in your remarks that Gregory has
written in his _Dialogues_ that there are places of torment in Sicily;
but to me it seems more likely that those places are in Iceland. You
also said that so vast are the fires in the bowels of the land that
earthquakes arise out of their violent movements; but if the fires are
so destructive to stone and rock that it melts them like wax and feeds
wholly upon them, I should imagine that it would soon consume all the
foundations beneath the land and all the mountains as well. Though you
may think I am asking childish questions about these things, still I
entreat you to give indulgent replies; for, of course, one can ask many
questions that reveal youth rather than wisdom.
_Father._ I have no doubt that there are places of torment in Iceland
even in places where there is no burning; for in that country the power
of frost and ice is as boundless as that of fire. There are those
springs of boiling water which we have mentioned earlier. There are also
ice-cold streams which flow out of the glaciers with such violence that
the earth and the neighboring mountains tremble; for when water flows
with such a swift and furious current, mountains will shake because of
its vast mass and overpowering strength. And no men can go out upon
those river banks to view them unless they bring long ropes to be tied
around those who wish to explore, while farther away others sit holding
fast the rope, so that they may be ready and able to pull them back if
the turbulence of the current should make them dizzy. Now it seems
evident to me that wherever such a great violence appears and in such
terrible forms, there surely must be places of torment. And God has made
such great and terrifying things manifest upon earth to man, not only
that men may be the more vigilant, and may reflect that these tortures
are indeed heavy to think upon, although after they depart this life
they will have to suffer those that they see while still on earth; but
even more to make them reflect that greater still are the things
invisible, which they are not permitted to see. But these things are a
testimony, that it is not untrue what we have been told, that those men
who will not beware of evil deeds and unrighteousness, while they live
on earth, may expect to suffer torment when they leave this world. For
many a simple-minded man might think that all this was mere deception
unworthy of notice and told merely to terrify, if there were no such
evidence as what we have now pointed out. But now no one can deny what
he sees before his own eyes, since we hear exactly the same things about
the tortures of hell as those which one can see on the island called
Iceland: for there are vast and boundless fire, overpowering frost and
glaciers, boiling springs, and violent ice-cold streams.[217]
Footnote 217:
The belief that hell was a region of extreme cold as well as of heat
was common in the middle ages. The author of the _King’s Mirror_
probably derived his ideas of hell in part from the Old Norse version
of the _Elucidarium_ of Honorius of Autun. See _Annaler for nordisk
Oldkyndighed_, 1857, 292.
But what you suggested just now, namely that this fire is likely to melt
and consume the mountains and the foundations of the earth, so that the
entire land will be destroyed, that cannot come to pass before the time
that God has appointed. For neither this created force nor any other
governs itself; but all things are compelled to move as God’s providence
has ordained from the beginning. And you will understand this better if
I take up certain events that can be used to illustrate these things.
When the lord of death wished to tempt Job, he had no power to do so
before he had asked permission; and when this had been granted, he did
not have power to carry out his will farther than the permission
extended; for he would gladly have slain Job at once, if that had been
allowed. He was allowed to take away Job’s wealth and he took it all at
the first stroke; but he was not permitted to destroy the man himself.
As he yearned for permission to tempt him even more severely than he had
already, he was suffered to carry out his will upon Job’s body and upon
all the possessions that belonged to him. But he was not permitted to
separate soul from body, before the hour should come that He had fixed,
Who has all power over life and destiny. But as soon as Satan had
received permission to carry out his desires upon Job, he showed
immediately how eager he was to act in such matters as were within his
power. For it is written that Satan took away from Job his abundant
wealth and his seven sons and three daughters, and smote his body with
terrible leprosy from the crown to the sole of his feet.
Now the meaning of this (which ought to be noted carefully in our minds)
is that the Lord of life has power over all things and is kindly
disposed; while the lord of death has an evil will, but has power over
nothing, except as he receives authority beforehand from Him Who rules
over all, Who is Almighty God. The devil can, therefore, injure no one
to such an extent that he is consumed either by the fires of death which
he has kindled and continues to maintain by means of dreadful
earthquakes, or by such other fiendish enmity or malignity as he
delights in. For he is allowed to do nothing more than the task at hand,
as is evident from what I have just related about the case of Job. And
if it should be thought necessary to cite several examples in one
speech, it will be found that instances of this sort are both plentiful
and convincing.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
XV
OTHER ICELANDIC WONDERS: ORE AND MINERAL SPRINGS
_Son._ It seems evident that the more examples I can hear you cite of
the sort that leads to knowledge, the better it will be; and from the
instance that you have just given I can see clearly that if Satan was
not able to carry out his will against one man, except as far as he was
permitted, he will surely have even less power to carry out his desires
against many thousands, either by his own effort or through a servant,
except as far as permission has been given. Now if we are to go on with
this entertaining conversation, as we have been doing, I should like to
know, whether there are any other things about this island which you
think are worth discussing or which seem remarkable.
_Father._ We have already mentioned nearly everything in Iceland that is
really worth noticing; but there are a few other things which I may
discuss, if you wish. In that country there is an abundance of the ore
that iron is made of: it is called “swamp-ore” in the speech of the
people there, and the same term is used among ourselves. It has happened
at times that great deposits of this ore have been found, and men have
prepared to go thither the next day to smelt it and make iron of it,
only to find it gone, and none can tell what becomes of it. This is
called the “ore-marvel” in that country. There is still another marvel
that men wonder at. It is reported that in Iceland there are springs
which men call ale-springs. They are so called because the water that
runs from them smells more like ale than water; and when one drinks of
it, it does not fill as other water does, but is easily digested and
goes into the system like ale. There are several springs in that country
that are called ale-springs; but one is the best and most famous of all;
this one is found in the valley called Hiterdale.[218] It is told about
this spring, or the water flowing from it, that it tastes exactly like
ale and is very abundant. It is also said that if drunk to excess, it
goes into one’s head. If a house is built over the spring it will turn
aside from the building and break forth somewhere outside. It is further
held that people may drink as much as they like at the spring; but if
they carry the water away, it will soon lose its virtue and is then no
better than other water, or not so good. Now we have discussed many and
even trifling things, because in that country they are thought
marvelous; and I cannot recall anything else in Iceland that is worth
mentioning.
Footnote 218:
Mineral springs yielding carbonated waters are found in Iceland,
though they are not numerous. The Hiterdale spring is probably
mythical. See Herrmann, _Island_, I, 66.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
XVI
THE MARVELS OF THE WATERS ABOUT GREENLAND:
MONSTERS, SEALS, AND WALRUSES
_Son._ Now that we have entered upon this interesting conversation and
have spoken of the marvels that are found in Iceland and the Icelandic
seas, let us close it by calling to mind what is worth noting in the
waters of Greenland or in the land itself and the wonders that are to be
seen there.
_Father._ It is reported that the waters about Greenland are infested
with monsters, though I do not believe that they have been seen very
frequently. Still, people have stories to tell about them, so men must
have seen or caught sight of them. It is reported that the monster
called merman is found in the seas of Greenland. This monster is tall
and of great size and rises straight out of the water. It appears to
have shoulders, neck and head, eyes and mouth, and nose and chin like
those of a human being; but above the eyes and the eyebrows it looks
more like a man with a peaked helmet on his head. It has shoulders like
a man’s but no hands. Its body apparently grows narrower from the
shoulders down, so that the lower down it has been observed, the more
slender it has seemed to be. But no one has ever seen how the lower end
is shaped, whether it terminates in a fin like a fish or is pointed like
a pole. The form of this prodigy has, therefore, looked much like an
icicle. No one has ever observed it closely enough to determine whether
its body has scales like a fish or skin like a man. Whenever the monster
has shown itself, men have always been sure that a storm would follow.
They have also noted how it has turned when about to plunge into the
waves and in what direction it has fallen; if it has turned toward the
ship and has plunged in that direction, the sailors have felt sure that
lives would be lost on that ship; but whenever it has turned away from
the vessel and has plunged in that direction, they have felt confident
that their lives would be spared, even though they should encounter
rough waters and severe storms.