reconciled to the monarchy, and nothing more is heard of ecclesiastical
pretensions during the remainder of the reign. It would seem that after
this reconciliation, no churchman, at least not one of the younger
generation, would care to send such a challenge as the _King’s Mirror_
out into the world. One of the older men, one who had suffered with
Sverre and his impoverished Birchshanks, might have wished to write such
a work even after 1247; but after that date the surviving followers of
the eloquent king must have been very few indeed, seeing that Sverre had
now lain forty-five years in the grave. It is therefore the writer’s
opinion, though it cannot be regarded as a demonstrated fact, that the
closing chapters of the _King’s Mirror_ were written after 1240, the
year when Duke Skule was slain, perhaps after 1243, in which year
Norwegian clericalism reasserted itself, but some time before 1247, the
year of Hakon’s coronation and final reconciliation with the church.
In the centuries following its composition the _King’s Mirror_ appears
to have had wide currency in the North. When the editors of the Sorö
edition began to search for manuscripts, they found a considerable
number, though chiefly fragments, in Norway and Iceland; and traces of
the work were also found in Sweden.[150] Thus far twenty-five
manuscripts have come to light; “some of them are extensive, but many
are fragments of only a few leaves.”[151] Copies of the work were made
as late as the reformation period and even later.
Footnote 150:
See the Sorö edition, pp. xxix-xxxvii.
Footnote 151:
_Konungs Skuggsjá_ (ed. G. T. Flom), p. i. Among the fragments is a
part of a Latin paraphrase made in Sweden in the first half of the
fourteenth century. The translator was a cleric in the service of the
Duchess Ingeborg, a daughter of the Norwegian King Hakon V. Ingeborg
was married to the Swedish Duke Erik. _Arkiv for nordisk Filologi_, I,
110-112.
The first mention of the _Speculum Regale_ in any printed work is in
Peder Claussön’s “Description of Norway,”[152] the manuscript of which
dates from the earlier years of the seventeenth century. But more than
one hundred years were still to pass before this important work was
brought to the attention of the literary world. Early in the eighteenth
century, however, great interest began to be shown in the records of the
Old Northern past. The great Icelandic scholar and antiquarian, Arne
Magnussen, had begun to collect manuscripts and was laying the
foundation of the Arnamagnean collection, which is one of the treasures
of the Danish capital. Among other things he found several copies and
fragments of manuscripts of the _Speculum Regale_. No effort was made to
publish any of these before the middle of the century was past; but
about 1760 three young scholars began to plan editions of this famous
work. The first to undertake this task was Professor Gerhard
Schöning,[153] a Norwegian by birth, who was at the time rector of the
Latin school in Trondhjem but later held a professorship in the Danish
academy at Sorö. Schöning began the preparation of a Latin translation
of the work, which he planned to publish along with the original
version; but his work was never completed. About the same time an
Icelandic student at the University of Copenhagen, Hans Finsen,[154]
later bishop in his native island, projected an edition, but was unable
to carry out his plans for want of a publisher, and turned his materials
over to others. The third and only successful attempt at publication was
made on the suggestion of a recently organized association of Icelandic
scholars known as “the Invisible” society. This association requested
Halfdan Einersen,[155] rector of the Latin school at Holar, one of the
members and founders of the “invisible” body, to prepare an edition. An
Icelandic merchant, Sören Pens, generously offered to bear all the
expense of publication.[156]
Footnote 152:
_Norrigis Bescriffuelse_. See _Aarböger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_,
1896, 172 (Daae).
Footnote 153:
Schöning’s dates are 1722-1780. He was professor of Latin literature
and history at Sorö, but his real achievements lie in the field of
Norwegian history.
Footnote 154:
1739-1796.
Footnote 155:
1732-1785.
Footnote 156:
See the introduction to the Sorö edition, xxv-xxviii, from which the
above facts have been culled.
Rector Einersen prepared the text from the best available Icelandic
manuscripts. He also made a Danish translation and a Latin paraphrase of
the same and forwarded the whole to Denmark to be published. The
materials were given into the editorial charge of another learned
Icelander, Jon Erichsen, teacher of jurisprudence at Sorö Academy.
Although Jon Erichsen’s name does not appear on the title page, it is
quite clear that the general excellence of the work is in large measure
due to his careful collation of Einersen’s text with manuscripts to
which the Icelandic rector had not had access. Professor Erichsen
discarded Einersen’s Danish translation and prepared one of his own. He
also found place in the volume for a dissertation by Hans Finsen, which
was first published in 1766, and in which the learned theologian
discusses various literary problems, such as the authorship of the work,
the date of composition, and the like. All these materials were brought
together and published at Sorö in 1768. On the whole the Sorö edition is
an excellent piece of work. The Icelandic text was made with great care
and reveals the fact that the editors were possessed of a critical
insight which for the time was remarkable. The Danish translation is
somewhat stiff and literal and does not always follow the laws of Danish
syntax; but it is generally accurate and retains an unmistakable flavor
of the Old Norse original.
Except for some assistance rendered by Professor Schöning, the first
edition of the _King’s Mirror_ was the work of Icelanders. The
Norwegians were also beginning to show some interest in their medieval
past; but Norway was still a part of the Danish monarchy, the political
and intellectual center of which was Copenhagen, and for half a century
longer the Norwegians were unable to do anything to promote the
publication of historical materials. However, four years after the Sorö
edition had come from the press, a society of Norsemen at the University
of Copenhagen was organized, the purpose of which was to further the
cause of Norwegian autonomy. After Norway in 1814 resumed her place
among the nations of Europe, it was only natural that Norwegian scholars
should be attracted to the Old Norse treasures of the middle ages. So
far as the means of the impoverished state would allow, publication of
the sources of Norwegian history was undertaken. The first Norwegian
historian of distinction was Rudolf Keyser, professor in the University
of Christiania. In his efforts to draw the attention of his countrymen
to the glories of earlier centuries, he was soon reënforced by his
younger contemporary, the fiery and industrious scholar and investigator
Peter Andreas Munch, who, though his work is somewhat marred by the
fervor of his patriotism, has not yet found a superior among the
historians of the North. Soon a third was added to these two: Carl R.
Unger, a man of remarkable abilities as a linguist. These three now
undertook to edit a series of Old Norse texts, among which was the
_King’s Mirror_, which was published under the auspices of the
University of Christiania in 1848.
The Christiania edition is based on the main manuscript of the _Speculum
Regale_, the manuscript 243 B of the Arnamagnean collection. This was
produced in Norway some time during the last quarter of the thirteenth
century, perhaps not long after 1275.[157] As the manuscript was
incomplete in part, the editors also made use of the copies which had
been made the basis of the earlier edition. Inasmuch as the materials to
be used had been copied at different times and consequently reflected
various stages of linguistic development, it was thought desirable to
normalize the orthography: and in this part of their task the editors
made use of a fragment which was thought to belong to a somewhat earlier
date than the main manuscript.[158] If this belief is correct, the
Christiania edition must, in respect to orthography, be a comparatively
close approximation of the original manuscript.
Footnote 157:
See Flom’s edition of _Konungs Skuggsjá_, introduction.
Footnote 158:
See the Christiania edition, pp. xiii-xvi.
In 1881 a third edition prepared by the German philologist Otto Brenner
was published under the title _Speculum Regale, ein altnorwegischer
Dialog_. Brenner based his text on the Norwegian manuscript 243 B, but
he also made use of the Icelandic copy (243 A) and of some of the older
fragments. His edition consequently includes all the materials that had
been used in the earlier editions. It was Brenner’s purpose to prepare a
text which should give the Norwegian version in its original form, so
far as such a restoration is possible. Though scholars are not agreed
that Brenner achieved his purpose, all have acknowledged the value of
his work, and since its publication his version has been regarded as the
standard edition.
Two years ago (1915) the University of Illinois published, under the
editorial direction of Professor George T. Flom, a photographic
reproduction of this same manuscript, 243 B. This important linguistic
monument has thus been made accessible to scholars in its original form.
Professor Flom has also prepared the Old Norse text of the manuscript,
which makes a part of the publication, and has prefaced the whole with
an extended introduction in which he discusses the history of the
manuscript, marginal addenda, abbreviations, and other paleographic and
linguistic problems.
Until very recently the Danish version prepared by Jon Erichsen for the
Sorö edition was the only translation of the _Speculum Regale_ into a
modern language.[159] But a few years ago the first part of the work was
published under the title _Kongespegelen_ in the form of a translation
into New Norse, a language of recent origin based on the spoken dialects
of Norway. As these dialects are closely related to the original idiom
of the North, such a translation can be made with comparative ease. The
work has recently been completed, and in most respects the New Norse
version proves to be a very satisfactory translation.
Footnote 159:
In 1892 a small volume of extracts from the _King’s Mirror_ translated
by Chr. Dorph was published in Copenhagen.
Some years ago a number of American scholars who have interests in the
fields of Scandinavian history, language, and literature united to form
a Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Study. The founders
believed that the purpose of the organization might be in part achieved
by encouraging the publication of some of the great Scandinavian
classics in English translation. It was on the suggestion of this
Society that the writer undertook to prepare the present version of the
_King’s Mirror_. The translation is based on the text of the Christiania
edition, the readings of which have been consistently followed, except
in a few instances where the scribe does not seem to have copied his
manuscript correctly; in such cases the most satisfactory variant
readings have been followed.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
I
INTRODUCTION: NAME AND PURPOSE OF THE WORK
I passed all the crafts before my mind’s eye and studied intently all
the practices belonging to each craft; and I saw a vast multitude
walking wearily along the paths that slope downward from the highways of
virtue into error and vice. Some of these were very steep, and those who
followed them perished in desolate ravines; for the long, wearisome road
had fatigued them, and they had not enough strength left to climb up the
hillside, nor were they able to find the by-paths that led back to the
highways of virtue.
The destruction of this multitude was due, it seemed to me, to various
causes: some perished through ignorance, for the ways of error were
trodden so generally that they appeared to be the most convenient to
follow, and ignorant men mistook them for highways, since the majority
seemed to walk in them; some perished because of laziness and
carelessness; others feared that they would suffer derision and
contumely, if they walked the highroad alone; while still others were
led astray by perversity, wickedness, and the various passions.
But when I had observed how good morals were scorned and how the
scorners perished, I began to wonder how to find a road where I should
not be traveling entirely alone and yet would not have to choose one of
those paths where the crowd were exhausting their strength, lest the
steep climb should weary me, if I were to make an effort to get back up
again.
Inasmuch as my father was still living and loved me well, I thought it
would be better to seek his counsel than after a slight consideration to
reach a decision which might displease him. So I hastened to my father
and laid the whole problem before him. He was a wise and kind man, and I
found that he was pleased when he heard that my errand was to learn
right conduct. He permitted me to ask whatever I wished about the
practices of the various crafts, and how they differed. He also promised
to make known to me all the usages that are most properly observed by
each craft that I might ask about. He further promised to point out, as
a warning, the paths of error which most men enter upon when they leave
the highways of virtue. Finally he promised to show me the by-paths that
those may take who wish to return from wrong roads to the highway.
Thereupon I began my inquiry by asking about the activities of merchants
and their methods. At the close of the first discussion, when my
questions had all been answered, I became bolder in speech and mounted
to a higher point in our review of the conditions of men; for next I
began to inquire into the customs of kings and other princes and of the
men who follow and serve them. Nor did I wholly omit to ask about the
doings of the clergy and their mode of life. And I closed by inquiring
into the activities of the peasants and husbandmen, who till the soil,
and into their habits and occupation.
But when my father had given wise and sufficient replies to all the
questions that I had asked, certain wise and worthy men, who, being
present, had heard my questions and his wise and truthful answers,
requested me to note down all our conversations and set them in a book,
so that our discussions should not perish as soon as we ceased speaking,
but prove useful and enjoyable to many who could derive no pastime from
us who were present at these conversations.
So I did as they advised and requested. I searched my memory and
pondered deeply upon the speeches and set them all in a book, not only
for the amusement or the fleeting pastime of those who may hear them,
but for the help which the book will offer in many ways to all who read
it with proper attention and observe carefully everything that it
prescribes. It is written in such a way as to furnish information and
entertainment, as well as much practical knowledge, if the contents are
carefully learned and remembered. But whoever has clear and proper
insight will realize that, if a book is to develop these subjects fully,
it will have to be a much larger work than this one.
The book has been given a handsome title: it is called _Speculum
Regale_, not because of pride in him who wrote it, but because the title
ought to make those who hear it more eager to know the work itself; and
for this reason, too, that if any one wishes to be informed as to proper
conduct, courtesy, or comely and precise forms of speech, he will find
and see these therein along with many illustrations and all manner of
patterns, as in a bright mirror. And it is called _King’s Mirror_,
because in it one may read of the manners of kings as well as of other
men. A king, moreover, holds the highest title and ought, with his court
and all his servants, to observe the most proper customs, so that in
them his subjects may see good examples of proper conduct, uprightness,
and all other courtly virtues. Besides, every king should look
frequently into this mirror and observe first his own conduct and next
that of the men who are subject to him. He should reward all whose
conduct is good, but should discipline and compel those to observe good
morals who cannot learn without threats. Although the book is first and
foremost a king’s mirror, yet it is intended for every one as a common
possession; since whoever wishes is free to look into it and to seek
information, as he may desire, about his own conduct, or any other type
of manners which he may find discussed in the book. And I believe that
no man will be considered unwise or unmannerly who carefully observes
everything that he finds in this work which is suited to his mode of
living, no matter what his rank or title may be.
If any one desires or is curious to hear or study this book, he need not
inquire about the name or the standing of the man who composed and wrote
it, lest perchance he should reject what may be found useful in it
because of contempt, envy, or hostile feeling of some sort for the
author.[160]
Footnote 160:
It seems probable that the form in which the author of the _Speculum_
expresses his desire to remain anonymous shows the influence of the
Old Norse version of the _Elucidarium_, a theological discussion in
dialog form, which dates from the twelfth century and is ascribed to
Honorius of Autun. The author of the _Elucidarium_ writes as follows
in his preface: “My name, however, I have purposely withheld, lest
wicked men should be prompted by a feeling of envy to cast aside a
useful work.” For the original Latin preface to the _Elucidarium_ see
Migne, _Patrologia Latina_, CLXXII, 1110; the Old Norse version is
given in _Annaler for nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 1857, p. 240, 1858, p.
24.
This request, however, which surely may be granted to any man, we should
like to make: we ask all good men who hear this book to give it careful
thought and study; and if there should be aught which seems necessary to
the work but has not been included, whether concerning morals and
conduct or discreet and proper forms of speech, let them insert it in
proper form and connection. And if they find any matters which seem to
impair the work or to have been discussed at too great length, let them
discreetly remove all such and thus, amending our ignorance in kindness,
help our work to be appreciated in proper spirit. For it was not pride
that impelled us to labor but good will toward all who seemed to need
and desire knowledge of this sort.
When I went to my father with these inquiries that I have now mentioned,
I learned in the very first words that I addressed to him, how every one
ought to salute or address one’s father.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
II
“THE FEAR OF THE LORD IS THE BEGINNING OF WISDOM”
_Son._ Good day,[161] sire! I have come to see you as it behooves a
humble and obedient son to approach a loving and renowned father; and I
pray you to listen with patience to the questions that I have in mind to
ask and kindly to vouchsafe an answer to each one.
Footnote 161:
Good day (_God dag_) is still the common form of greeting among
Norwegians and other Scandinavians.
_Father._ Inasmuch as you are my only son, I am pleased to have you come
often to see me, for there are many subjects which we ought to discuss.
I shall be glad to hear what you wish to inquire about and to answer
such questions as are discreetly asked.
_Son._ I have heard the common report (which I believe is true) as to
your wisdom, that in all the land it would be difficult to find a man
who has greater insight into every form of knowledge than you have; for
all those who have difficult matters to settle are eager to get your
decision. I have also been told that the same was true when you were at
the royal court, and that the entire government, lawmaking, treaty
making, and every other sort of business, seemed to be guided by your
opinion. Now as I am the lawful heir to your worldly possessions, I
should also like to share somewhat in the heritage of your wisdom.
Wherefore I wish to have you point out to me the beginnings and the
alphabet of wisdom, as far as I am able to learn them from you, so that
I may later be able to read all your learned writings, and thus follow
in your footsteps. For I am sure that after your decease many will rely
on your having trained me after your own ways.
_Father._ It pleases me to hear you speak in this wise, and I shall be
glad to answer; for it is a great comfort to me that I shall leave much
wealth for my own true son to enjoy after my days; but I should scarcely
regard him as a son, though I had begotten him, if he were a fool. Now
if you seek understanding, I will show you the basis and the beginning
of all wisdom, as a great and wise man once expressed it: to fear
Almighty God, this is the beginning of wisdom.[162] But He is not to be
feared as an enemy, but rather with the fear of love, as the Son of God
taught the man who asked him what the substance of the law was. For the
Son of God referred him to the Scripture that reads as follows: Thou
shalt love God with all thy heart and with all thy strength and with all
thy might.[163] Now one should love God above everything else and fear
Him at all times when evil desires arise; he should banish evil longings
for God’s sake, though he were bold enough to cherish them for men’s
sake. Now if you wish to know what are the beginnings and the first
steps in the pursuit of wisdom, this is the true beginning, and there is
none other. And whoever learns this and observes it shall not be wanting
in true knowledge or in any form of goodness.
Footnote 162:
_Proverbs_, ix, 10. In the use of Scriptural quotations the author is
seldom accurate.
Footnote 163:
_St. Luke_, x, 27.
_Son._ This is indeed loving counsel, such as one might expect from you;
besides, it is good and easily learned by every one whom fortune
follows. Still, if one is to be reputed a wise man, it will surely be
necessary to take up many things that pertain to the various crafts.
_Father._ This is the beginning and the alphabet of every good thing.
But through the alphabet one learns to read books, and in the same way
it is always better the more crafts are added to this art. For through
the crafts a man gains wisdom whatever the calling that he intends to
follow, whether that of kingsman,[164] yeoman, or merchant.
Footnote 164:
A “kingsman” (_konungsmaðr_) was any one who had formally entered into
the king’s personal service, whether he was actually employed at court
or not. See below, cc. xxiv ff.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
III
THE ACTIVITIES AND HABITS OF A MERCHANT
_Son._ I am now in my most vigorous years and have a desire to travel
abroad; for I would not venture to seek employment at court before I had
observed the customs of other men. Such is my intention at present,
unless you should give me other advice.
_Father._ Although I have been a kingsman rather than a merchant, I have
no fault to find with that calling, for often the best of men are chosen
for it. But much depends on whether the man is more like those who are
true merchants, or those who take the merchant’s name but are mere
frauds and foisterers, buying and selling wrongfully.
_Son._ It would be more seemly for me to be like the rightful ones; for
it would be worse than one might think likely, if your son were to
imitate those who are not as they ought. But whatever my fate is to be,
I desire to have you inform me as to the practices of such men as seem
to be capable in that business.
_Father._ The man who is to be a trader will have to brave many perils,
sometimes at sea and sometimes in heathen lands,[165] but nearly always
among alien peoples; and it must be his constant purpose to act
discreetly wherever he happens to be. On the sea he must be alert and
fearless.
Footnote 165: