Luther. He afterwards inclined more to the opinions of Zuinglius, and, in
his zeal for the reformation, attempted in vain to reconcile these two
powerful leaders. For twenty years, his eloquence was exerted at Strasburg
to establish the Protestant cause; but the turbulence of the times, and
his opposition to the views of the Catholics at Augsburg, rendered him
unpopular, so that he received with pleasure the invitations of Cranmer to
settle in England. He was received with gratitude by the nation. Edward
VI. treated him with great kindness, and he was appointed theological
professor at Cambridge, in 1549, where he died two years after. Five years
after, the persecutions of Mary were extended to his remains, which were
ignominiously burned; but the insult was repaired by the good sense of
Elizabeth. In learning, judgment, and moderation, Bucer was inferior to
none of the great reformers, and, with Melancthon, he may be considered as
the best calculated to restore and maintain unanimity among contending
churches and opposite sects. His writings, in Latin and German, were very
numerous, and all on theological subjects.
Philip Melancthon.
A celebrated reformer, born 16th February, 1497, at Bretten, in the
Palatinate of the Rhine. His father’s name was Schwartserdt, which
signifies _black earth_; but the word was changed, according to the
affectation of the times, by his friend Reuchlin, into Melancthon, which,
in Greek, expresses the same meaning. He studied at Bretten, Pfortsheim,
and Heidelberg, and with such success that, at thirteen, he wrote a comedy
of some merit. He left Heidelberg in 1512, because he was refused a degree
on account of his youth, and then passed to Tubingen, where he resided for
six years, and gave public lectures on Virgil, Terence, and other
classics. In 1518, by the recommendation of his friend Reuchlin, he was
appointed, by the elector of Saxony, Greek professor at Wittemberg; and
here began that intimacy with Luther, which contributed so much to the
progress of the reformation. He was, in 1527, appointed by his patron, the
duke, to visit the churches of the electorate, and afterwards he was
employed in the arduous labors of preparing those articles of faith which
have received the name of the Augsburg Confession, because presented to
the emperor at the diet of that city. In the disputes which he maintained
in those days of controversial enmity, he displayed great candor and
mildness, which his friend Luther attributed more to a spirit of timidity,
than to the meekness of the Christian character. His moderation, as well
as his learning, was so universally acknowledged, that he received a
liberal invitation from Francis I. to come to France, to settle the
disputes of the Protestants; but through the interference of the duke of
Saxony, the offer was declined, as likewise a similar invitation from the
king of England. He was engaged in the various conferences which took
place on religious subjects at Frankfort, Reinspurg, Worms, Spires, and
Ratisbon, and every where evinced the deepest learning, the most peaceable
temper, and the strongest moderation. The character of the times, and not
inclination, rendered him a controversialist, and his answer to his mother
displayed the great and the good man. When asked by the aged woman, who
repeated before him her prayers in a simple but pious manner, what she
must believe in this great confusion of creeds; he replied, “Go on,
mother, to believe and pray as you have done, and never trouble yourself
about controversies.” He died at Wittemberg, 19th April, 1560, and was
buried by the side of his friend Luther, in the church of the castle.
Among the reasons which, on his death-bed, he assigned for considering
dissolution as happiness, he said that it delivered him from theological
persecutions. His works were very numerous, and, as they were written in
the midst of controversy and ecclesiastical avocations, they were not
always so correct in language, as they proved useful in advancing the
reformation. A chronological catalogue of these was published in 1582, and
they appeared altogether in four volumes, folio, at Wittemberg, 1601.
Peter Martyr.
A celebrated reformer and theologian, whose real name was Vermigli, was
born, in 1500, at Florence. He was originally an Augustine monk, and
became an eminent preacher, and prior of St. Fridian’s, at Lucca. Having,
however, embraced the Protestant doctrines, he found it necessary to quit
his native country. After having been for some time professor of divinity
at Strasburg, he was invited to England, and appointed professor of
theology at Oxford. He left England on the accession of Mary, and died in
1561, theological professor at Zurich. He wrote several works, of great
erudition, among which are Commentaries upon parts of the Scriptures. His
personal character is said to have been extremely amiable.
Henry Bullinger.
One of the early reformers, born in the canton of Zurich at Baumgarten, in
1504. The works of Melancthon converted him to Protestantism, and he
became closely connected with Zuinglius, to whom he succeeded as pastor of
Zurich. He was one of the authors of the Helvetic Confession, and assisted
Calvin in drawing up the formulary of 1549. Bullinger was a moderate and
conscientious man; and it is much to his honor that, on the ground of its
being inconsistent with Christianity for any one to hire himself out to
slaughter those who had never injured him, he successfully opposed a
treaty for supplying France with a body of Swiss mercenaries. He died in
1575. His printed works form ten folio volumes.
John Knox.
The great champion of the Scottish reformation was born, in 1505, at
Gifford, in East Lothian, and was educated at Haddington and St. Andrews.
After he was created master of arts, he taught philosophy, most probably
as a regent in one of the colleges of the university. His class became
celebrated, and he was considered as equalling, if not excelling, his
master in the subtilties of the dialectic art. About the same time,
although he had no interest but what was procured by his own merit, he was
advanced to clerical orders, and ordained a priest before he reached the
age fixed by the canons of the church. At this time, the fathers of the
Christian church, Jerome and Augustine, attracted his particular
attention. By the writings of the former, he was led to the Scriptures as
the only pure fountain of divine truth, and instructed in the utility of
studying them in the original languages. In the works of the latter he
found religious sentiments very opposite to those taught in the Romish
church, who, while she retained his name as a saint in her calendar, had
banished his doctrine as heretical from her pulpits. From this time he
renounced the study of scholastic theology; and, although not yet
completely emancipated from superstition, his mind was fitted for
improving the means which Providence had given for leading him to a fuller
and more comprehensive view of the system of evangelical religion. It was
about the year 1535, when this favorable change commenced; but it does not
appear that he professed himself a Protestant before the year 1542. He was
converted from the Romish faith by Wishart, and became a zealous preacher
of the new doctrines. Having been compelled to take shelter in the castle
of St. Andrews, he fell into the hands of the French in July, 1547, and
was carried with the garrison to France, where he remained a captive on
board of the galleys till 1549. Subsequent to his liberation, he was for a
short time chaplain to Edward VI., after which he visited Geneva and
Frankfort, and, in 1555, returned to his native country. After having for
twelve months labored actively and successfully to strengthen the
Protestant cause in Scotland, he revisited Geneva, where he remained till
1559. During his residence in Geneva, he published his “First Blast of the
Trumpet against the monstrous Government of Women”—a treatise which was
levelled against Mary of England, but which gave serious offence to
Elizabeth. From April, 1559, when he once more and finally set foot on
Scottish earth, till his decease, which took place November 24, 1572, the
reformed church was triumphant, and he was one of its most prominent,
admired, and honored leaders.
When his body was laid in the grave, the regent of Scotland emphatically
pronounced his eulogium, in the well-known words, “There lies he who never
feared the face of man.”
Knox has been styled the intrepid reformer; and that character he
unquestionably deserves. In personal intrepidity and popular eloquence he
resembled Luther. His doctrinal sentiments were those of Calvin; and, like
Zuinglius, he felt an attachment to the principles of religious liberty.
He effected much in the great work of the reformation; but his manners
were so severe, and his temper so acrid, that whilst he may be equally
respected with Luther and Melancthon, he is not equally beloved. Knox was,
however, known and beloved by the principal persons among the reformed in
France, Switzerland, and Germany; and the affectionate veneration in which
his memory was held in Scotland after his death, evinced that the
influence he possessed among his countrymen, during his life, was not
constrained, but founded on the high opinion which they entertained.
Banatyne has thus drawn his character, and it is unquestionably entitled
to consideration:—“In this manner,” says he, “departed this man of God;
the light of Scotland, the comfort of the church within the same, the
mirror of godliness, and pattern and example to all true ministers, in
purity of life, soundness of doctrine, and boldness in reproving of
wickedness; one that cared not for the favor of men, how great soever they
were.”
John Calvin.
A celebrated reformer, born at Noyon, in Picardy, 10th July, 1509. His
family name was _Cauvin_, which he Latinized into _Calvinus_. He was first
intended for the church, and, subsequently, for the profession of civil
law. Having embraced the principles of Protestantism, he was under the
necessity of quitting France; and he settled at Bâsle, where he published
his celebrated “Institutions of the Christian Religion.” After having
visited Italy, he was returning by the way of Geneva, in 1536, when Farel
and other reformers induced him to take up his abode in that city. He was
chosen one of the ministers of the gospel, and professor of divinity. A
dispute with the city authorities soon compelled him to leave Geneva, and
he withdrew to Strasburg; whence he was recalled in 1541. From the time of
his recall, he possessed almost absolute power at Geneva; and he exerted
himself vigorously in establishing the Presbyterian form of church
government. The reformer, who so loudly exclaimed against the tyranny of
Rome, directed the whole torrent of his persecution against Servetus, a
physician, who had in an ambiguous style written upon the Trinity; and his
vengeance was not appeased till the unfortunate heretic had expired in the
flames. He died May 26, 1564; and, though he had long enjoyed a high
reputation and exercised an unbounded authority, he left only three
hundred crowns to his heirs, including his library, the books of which
sold afterwards at a great price. The works of Calvin were printed in
twelve volumes, folio, Geneva, and in nine, Amsterdam, in 1667.
Jerome Zanchius.
A native of Alzano, who entered in the congregation of the Lateran canons.
He embraced the tenets of the Protestants by the conversation of Peter
Martyr, who was of the same establishment; and, afraid of persecution, he
retired, 1553, to Strasburg, where he taught divinity and the philosophy
of Aristotle. He quitted Strasburg, in 1563, for Chiavene, and, in 1568,
removed to Heidelberg, where he was appointed professor of theology, and
where he died 19th November, 1590, aged eighty-four. He was author of
“Commentaries on St. Paul’s Epistles,” and other works, published together
at Geneva, in eight volumes, folio, 1613. In his character he was a man of
moderation, learned, benevolent, and pious.
Theodore Beza.
one of the most eminent of the reformers, was born at Vezelai, in the
Nivernois, in 1519, and was originally a Catholic, and intended for the
law. At the age of twenty, he gained an unenviable reputation by the
composition of Latin poetry which was at once elegant and licentious, and
which, some years afterwards, he published under the title of “Juvenile
Poems.” Though not in orders, he possessed benefices of considerable
value. These, however, he abandoned in 1548, and retired to Geneva, where
he publicly abjured Popery. To this he was induced by his having
meditated, during illness, upon the doctrines which he had heard from his
Protestant tutor, Melchior Wolmar; and perhaps also, in some measure, by
his attachment to a lady, whom he carried with him to Geneva, and married.
He now accepted the Greek professorship at Lausanne, which he held for ten
years. It was while he was thus occupied that he produced his tragedy of
“Abraham’s Sacrifice,” his version of the New Testament, and his hateful
defence of the right of the magistrate to punish heretics. In 1559, he
removed to Geneva, and became the colleague of Calvin, through whom he was
appointed rector of the academy, and theological professor. Two years
after this, he took a prominent part in the conference at Poissy, and was
present at the battle of Dreux. He returned to Geneva in 1563, succeeded
Calvin in his offices and influence, and was thenceforward considered as
the head of the Calvinistic church. After an exceedingly active life, he
died on the 13th of October, 1605.
Leo X.
Pope JOHN DE MEDICI, the son of the illustrious Lorenzo, was born in 1475,
at Florence, and was nominated a cardinal in his thirteenth year. In 1505,
he was made governor of Perugia; was intrusted with the command of the
Papal army in 1511; and was made prisoner, in the following year, at the
battle of Ravenna. He attained the Papal crown in 1513, on the death of
Julius II. He died in 1521. Leo was one of the most munificent patrons of
learning and of the arts; but he was prodigal, and on some occasions
grossly violated the principles of justice. To his shameless sale of
indulgences, to raise money to complete St. Peter’s Church at Rome, and
other extravagances, the world is indebted for the reformation of the
church by Luther and others.
Justin.
Surnamed the MARTYR, one of the fathers of the church, was born at
Neapolis, anciently Sichem, in Palestine, and was a philosopher of the
Platonic school. He is believed to have preached the gospel in Italy, Asia
Minor, and Egypt. He was beheaded at Rome, in 165. Of his works, the
principal are two Apologies for the Christians.
Arius.
Founder of the sect of the Arians, was an African by birth. Disappointment
made him a sectary. He propagated the opinion that the Word was not a
divine person; and the heresy, though condemned by various councils,
gained followers, and excited schisms in the Roman empire. The Nicene
creed was drawn up to combat his errors. He was a violent enemy of
Athanasius. He died at Alexandria, 386.
Athanasius.
The celebrated patriarch of Alexandria was born in that city about 296. At
the council of Nice, though then but a deacon of Alexandria, his
reputation for skill in controversy gained him an honorable place in the
council, and with signal ability he exposed the sophistry of those who
pleaded on the side of Arius. Six months after, he was appointed the
successor of Alexander. Notwithstanding the influence of the emperor, who
had recalled Arius from banishment, and, upon a plausible confession of
his faith, in which he affected to be Orthodox in his sentiments, directed
that he should be received by the Alexandrian church, Athanasius refused
to admit him to communion, and exposed his prevarication. The Arians upon
this exerted themselves to raise tumults at Alexandria, and to injure the
character of Athanasius with the emperor, who was prevailed upon by
falsehoods to pronounce against him a sentence of banishment. In the
beginning of the reign of Constantius, he was recalled to his happy
people, but was again disturbed and deposed through the influence of the
Arians. Accusations were also sent against him and other bishops from the
east to the west; but they were acquitted by Pope Julius in full council.
Athanasius was restored a second time to his see, upon the death of the
Arian bishop, who had been placed in it. Arianism, however, being in favor
at court, he was condemned by a council convened at Arles, and by another
at Milan, and was a third time obliged to fly into the deserts. His
enemies pursued him even here, and set a price upon his head. In this
situation, Athanasius composed writings full of eloquence to strengthen
the faith of believers, and expose the falsehood of his enemies. He
returned with the other bishops whom Julian the Apostate recalled from
banishment, and, in A. D. 362, held a council at Alexandria, where the
belief of a consubstantial Trinity was openly professed. Many now were
recovered from Arianism, and brought to subscribe the Nicene creed. But
his peace was again interrupted by the complaints of the heathen, whose
temples the zeal of Athanasius kept always empty. He was again obliged to
fly to save his life. The accession of Jovian brought him back. During the
reign of Jovian, also, Athanasius held another council, which declared its
adherence to the Nicene faith; and with the exception of a short
retirement under Valens, he was permitted to sit down in quiet and govern
his affectionate church of Alexandria, until his death, in 373. Of the
forty-six years of his official life, he spent twenty in banishment.
Athanasius (says the Encyclopedia Americana) is one of the greatest men of
whom the church can boast. His deep mind, his noble heart, his invincible
courage, his living faith, his unbounded benevolence, sincere humility,
lofty eloquence, and strictly virtuous life, gained the honor and love of
all. In all his writings, his style is distinguished for clearness and
moderation.
Moses Maimonides.
Moses son of Maimon, commonly called Moses Egypticus, because physician to
the sultan of Egypt, was a Jewish rabbi, born at Cordova, in Spain, 1131.
He opened a school in Egypt, and as his skill, not only in languages, but
in all branches of science and of philosophy, was very great, his
instructions were attended by numerous and respectable pupils. Thus
eminently distinguished as a scholar, as a physician, and also as a
divine, so as to be called inferior only to the legislator Moses, he
beheld with indifference, and even contempt, the fables and traditions of
his countrymen, and applied all the powers of learning, and the vast
resources of his mind, in the cause of truth, virtue, and philosophy. Some
of his works were written in Arabic, but are extant now in Hebrew only.
The most famous of these are his Commentaries on the Misna; Jad, a
complete pandect of the Jewish law; More Nevochim, a valuable work,
explaining the difficult passages, phrases, parables, and allegories, in
Scripture, and several other works. This great and learned man died in
Egypt at the age of seventy, and was buried with his nation in the land of
Upper Galilee. His death was mourned for three whole days by Jews and
Egyptians, and the year in which he died, in respect of his great virtues
and learning, was called Lamentum Lamentabile.
John Agricola.
A German divine, born at Isleb. He was the friend and the disciple of
Luther, but afterwards violently opposed him, and became the head of the
Antinomians, a sect which regarded faith as the whole of the duties of
man. He was also engaged in a dispute with Melancthon; but, with the most
laudable motives, he endeavored to effect a reconciliation between the
Catholics and Protestants. He died at Berlin, 1566, aged seventy-four.
Michael Servetus.
A native of Villanuova, in Arragon, son of a notary. He studied the law at
Toulouse, but afterwards applied to medicine at Paris, and took there his
doctor’s degree. The boldness and pertinacity of his opinions created him
enemies, and he left the capital to settle at Lyons, but afterwards he
retired to Charlieu. On the invitation of the archbishop of Vienne, in
Dauphiny, he was prevailed upon to fix his residence there, and he might
have lived in peace and respected, had he been satisfied to seek celebrity
in medical pursuits alone. Eager to publish his Arian opinions on
religion, he sent three questions to Calvin on the Divinity of Christ, on
Regeneration, and on the Necessity of Baptism, and, when answered with
civility, he reflected on the sentiments of his correspondent with
arrogant harshness. This produced a quarrel, and ended in the most
implacable hatred, so that Calvin, bent on revenge, obtained, by secret
means, copies of a work in which his antagonist was engaged, and caused
him to be accused before the archbishop as a dangerous man. Servetus
escaped from prison; but, on his way to Italy, he had the imprudence to
pass in disguise through Geneva, where he was recognized by Calvin, and
immediately seized by the magistrate as an impious heretic. Forty
heretical errors were proved against him by his accusers; but Servetus
refused to renounce them, and the magistrates, at last yielding to the
loud representations of the ministers of Bâsle, Berne, and Zurich, and
especially of Calvin, who demanded the punishment of a profane heretic,
ordered the unhappy man to be burnt. On the 27th October, 1553, the
wretched Servetus was conducted to the stake, and, as the wind prevented
the flames from fully reaching his body, two long hours elapsed before he
was freed from his miseries. This cruel treatment deservedly called down
the general odium on the head of Calvin, who ably defended his conduct and
that of the magistrates. Servetus published various works against the
Trinity, which were burnt in disgrace at Geneva, and other places.
Simonis Menno.
An ecclesiastic of Friesland, embraced the tenets of the Anabaptists, and,
after being again baptized by Ubbo Philippi, became a powerful leader of
his sect. He denied that Jesus Christ received a human shape from his
mother, the virgin Mary; and while he maintained the necessity of again
baptizing adults, he inveighed against the custom of infant baptism, which
he regarded as Popish innovation. His eloquence and his learning were so
much admired, that he gained a great number of followers in Westphalia,
Guelderland, Holland, and Brabant; but, though a price was set on his
head, he had the good fortune to escape his persecutors. He was, in his
opinions, more moderate than the rest of the Anabaptists. His followers
are still to be found in the Low Countries, under the name of
_Mennonites_, divided into two distinct sects. He died at Oldeslo, between
Lubec and Hamburg, 1565. His works were published at Amsterdam, 1681.
Francis Xavier.
Denominated the _Apostle of the Indies_, was born, in 1506, at the castle
of Xavier, in Navarre; studied at Paris; became one of the first and most
zealous disciples of Ignatius Loyola; was sent to the East by John III. of
Portugal, to propagate the gospel; performed his mission in Hindoostan,
the Moluccas, and Japan; and was on the point of landing in China, when he
died, 1552.
Faustus Socinus.
He who from whom the Socinians derive their name, was born, in 1539, at
Sienna, and was for a considerable period in the service of the grand duke
of Tuscany; after which he went to study theology, at Bâsle. The result of
his studies was the adoption of those anti-Trinitarian doctrines, which
his uncle Lelio Socinus is believed also to have professed. Faustus
settled in Poland, gained many followers, endured much persecution, and
died in 1604.
Robert Brown.