such a man exhibits—resigned to the will of Heaven, free from all the
feelings of earthly desire, and pursuing, quietly, the peaceful tenor of
his way.”
REFORMATION.
This term is used, by way of eminence, to denote that great change which
took place in the Christian world, under the ministry of Luther, Calvin,
Zuinglius, Melancthon, and others, who successfully opposed some of the
doctrines, and many of the practices, of the Roman church. It commenced at
Wittemberg, in Saxony, in 1517, and greatly weakened the Papal authority.
It was from causes seemingly fortuitous, and from a source very
inconsiderable, that all the mighty effects of the reformation flowed. Leo
X., when raised to the Papal throne, in 1513, found the revenues of the
church exhausted by the vast projects of his two ambitious predecessors.
His own temper, naturally liberal and enterprising, rendered him incapable
of severe and patient economy; and his schemes for aggrandizing the family
of Medicis, his love of splendor, and his munificence in rewarding men of
genius, involved him daily in new expenses, in order to provide a fund for
which, he tried every device that the fertile invention of priests had
fallen upon, to drain the credulous multitude of their wealth. Among
others, he had recourse to a sale of indulgences.
The Romish church believe that pious persons may do works of
supererogation, that is to say, more good works than are necessary for
their own salvation. All such works, according to their doctrine, are
deposited, together with the infinite merits of Jesus Christ, in one
inexhaustible treasury. The keys of this were committed to St. Peter, and
to his successors the popes, who may open it at pleasure, and, by
transferring a portion of this superabundant merit to any particular
person for a sum of money, may convey to him either pardon for his own
sins, or a release for any one, for whom he feels an interest, from the
pains of purgatory. Such indulgences were offered as a recompense for
those who engaged in the wars of the crusades against the Infidels. Since
those times, the power of granting indulgences has been greatly abused in
the church of Rome. Pope Leo X., finding that the sale of indulgences was
likely to be lucrative, granted to Albert, elector of Mentz and archbishop
of Magdeburg, the benefit of the indulgences of Saxony, and the
neighboring parts, and farmed out those of other countries to the highest
bidders; who, to make the best of their bargain, procured the ablest
preachers to cry up the value of the commodity. The form of these
indulgences was as follows.—“May our Lord Jesus Christ have mercy upon
thee, and absolve thee by the merits of his most holy passion. And I, by
his authority, that of his blessed apostles, Peter and Paul and of the
most holy pope, granted and committed to me in these parts, do absolve
thee, first, from all ecclesiastical censures, in whatever manner they may
have been incurred; then from all thy sins, transgressions, and excesses,
how enormous soever they may be; even from such as are reserved for the
cognizance of the holy see, and as far as the keys of the holy church
extend. I remit to you all punishment which you deserve in purgatory on
their account; and I restore you to the holy sacraments of the church, to
the unity of the faithful, and to that innocence and purity which you
possessed at baptism; so that, when you die, the gates of punishment shall
be shut, and the gates of the paradise of delight shall be opened; and if
you shall not die at present, this grace shall remain in full force when
you are at the point of death. In the name of the Father, Son, and the
Holy Ghost.”
According to a book, called the “Tax of the Sacred Roman Chancery,” in
which are the exact sums to be levied for the pardon of each particular
sin, some of the fees are thus stated:—For simony, 10_s._ 6_d._; for
sacrilege, 10_s._ 6_d._; for taking a false oath, 9_s._; for robbing,
12_s._; for burning a neighbor’s house, 12_s._; for defiling a virgin,
9_s._; for murdering a layman, 7_s._ 6_d._; for keeping a concubine,
10_s._ 6_d._; for laying violent hands on a clergyman, 10_s._ 6_d._
The terms in which the retailers of these abominable licenses described
their advantages to the purchasers, and the arguments with which they
urged the necessity of obtaining them, were so extravagant that they
appear almost incredible. “If any man,” said they, “purchase letters of
indulgence, his soul may rest secure with respect to its salvation. The
souls confined in purgatory, for whose redemption indulgences are
purchased, as soon as the money is paid, instantly escape from that place
of torment, and ascend into heaven.” They said that the efficacy of
indulgences was so great, that the most heinous sins would be remitted and
expiated by them, and the person be freed both from punishment and guilt:
this was the unspeakable gift of God, in order to reconcile man to
himself; the cross erected by the preachers of indulgences was equally
efficacious with the cross of Christ. “Lo,” said they, “the heavens are
open; if you enter not now, when will you enter? For twelve pence you may
redeem the soul of your father out of purgatory; and are you so ungrateful
that you will not rescue the soul of your parent from torment? If you had
but one coat, you ought to strip yourself of that instantly, and sell it,
in order to purchase such benefit,” &c.
It was against these preachers of licentiousness, and their diabolical
conduct, that Luther began first to declaim.
REFORMED CHURCHES.
The Reformed churches comprehend the whole Protestant churches in Europe
and America, whether Lutheran, Calvinistic, Independent, Quaker, Baptist,
or any other denomination who dissent from the church of Rome. The term
_Reformed_ is now, however, more particularly employed to distinguish the
Calvinists from the Lutherans.
The Reformed churches in America are the two following:—
Reformed Dutch Church.
This is the oldest body of Presbyterians in America: it descended
immediately from the church of Holland; and, for about a century from its
commencement in this country, it hung in colonial dependence on the
Classis of Amsterdam, and the Synod of North Holland, and was unable to
ordain a minister, or perform any ecclesiastical function of the kind,
without a reference to the parent country and mother church.
The origin of this church will lead us back to the earliest history of the
city and state of New York; for they were first settled by this people,
and by them a foundation was laid for the first churches of this
persuasion, the most distinguished of which were planted at New York,
(then called New Amsterdam,) Flatbush, Esopus, and Albany. The church at
New York was probably the oldest, and was founded at, or before, the year
1639; this is the earliest period to which its records conduct us. The
first minister was the Rev. Evarardus Bogardus. But when he came from
Holland, does not appear. Next to him were two ministers by the name of
Megapolensis, John and Samuel.
The first place of worship built by the Dutch in the colony of New
Netherlands, as it was then called, was erected in the fort at New York,
in the year 1642. The second, it is believed, was a chapel built by
Governor Stuyvesant, in what is now called the Bowery. In succession,
churches of this denomination arose on Long Island, in Schenectady, on
Staten Island, and in a number of towns on the Hudson River, and several,
it is believed, in New Jersey. But the churches of New York, Albany, and
Esopus, were the most important, and the ministers of these churches
claimed and enjoyed a kind of episcopal dignity over the surrounding
churches.
The Dutch church was the established religion of the colony, until it
surrendered to the British in 1664; after which its circumstances were
materially changed. Not long after the colony passed into the hands of the
British, an act was passed, which went to establish the Episcopal church
as the predominant party; and for almost a century after, the Dutch and
English Presbyterians, and all others in the colony, were forced to
contribute to the support of that church.
The first judicatory higher than a consistory, among this people, was a
Cœtus, formed in 1747. The object and powers of this assembly were merely
those of advice and fraternal intercourse. It could not ordain ministers,
nor judicially decide in ecclesiastical disputes, without the consent of
the Classis of Amsterdam.
The first regular Classis among the Dutch was formed in 1757. But the
formation of this Classis involved this infant church in the most unhappy
collisions, which sometimes threatened its very existence. These disputes
continued for many years, by which two parties were raised in the church,
one of which was for, and the other against, an ecclesiastical
subordination to the judicatories of the mother church and country. These
disputes, in which eminent men on both sides were concerned, besides
disturbing their own peace and enjoyment, produced unfavorable impressions
towards them among their brethren at home.
In 1766, John H. Livingston, D. D., then a young man, went from New York
to Holland, to prosecute his studies in the Dutch universities. By his
representations, a favorable disposition was produced towards the American
church in that country; and, on his return, in full convention of both
parties, an amicable adjustment of their differences was made and a
friendly correspondence was opened with the church in Holland, which was
continued until the revolution of the country under Bonaparte.
The Dutch church suffered much in the loss of its members, and in other
respects, by persisting to maintain its service in the Dutch language
after it had gone greatly into disuse. The solicitation for English
preaching was long resisted, and Dr. Laidlie, a native of Scotland, was
the first minister in the Dutch church in North America, who was expressly
called to officiate in the English language.
Reformed German Church.
As the Dutch Reformed church in this country is an exact counterpart of
the church of Holland, so the German Reformed is of the Reformed or
Calvinistic church of Germany. The people of this persuasion were among
the early settlers of Pennsylvania: here their churches were first formed;
but they are now to be found in nearly all the states south and west of
the one above named. The German Reformed churches in this country remained
in a scattered and neglected state until 1746, when the Rev. Michael
Schlatter, who was sent from Europe for the purpose, collected them
together, and put their concerns in a more prosperous train. They have
since increased to a numerous body, and are assuming an important stand
among the American Presbyterians.
This denomination is scattered over the Middle, Western, and Southern
States, but is most numerous in the states of Ohio and Pennsylvania. The
population of this church in the United States is estimated at 300,000;
180 ministers, 600 congregations, and 30,000 communicants.
RESTORATIONISTS.
The Restorationists are those who believe that all men will ultimately
become holy and happy. They maintain that God created only to bless, and
that, in pursuance of that purpose, he sent his Son to “be for salvation
to the ends of the earth;” that Christ’s kingdom is moral in its nature,
and extends to moral beings in every state or mode of existence; that the
probation of man is not confined to the present life, but extends through
the mediatorial reign; and that, as Christ died for all, so, before he
shall have delivered up the kingdom to the Father, all shall be brought to
a participation of the knowledge and enjoyment of that truth which maketh
free from the bondage of sin and death. They believe in a general
resurrection and judgment, when those who have improved their probation in
this life will be raised to more perfect felicity, and those who have
misimproved their opportunities on earth will come forward to shame and
condemnation, which will continue till they become truly penitent; that
punishment itself is a mediatorial work, a discipline, perfectly
consistent with mercy; that it is a means, employed by Christ to humble
and subdue the stubborn will, and prepare the mind to receive a
manifestation of the goodness of God, which leadeth the sinner to true
repentance. (See Gen. 12:3; 22:18. Gal. 3:8. Isa. 45:22, 23. Phil. 2:10,
11. Rev. 5:13. 1 Tim. 2:1-6. Col. 1:20. Eph. 1:7-11. Rom. 5:12-21; 8:20,
21. 1 Cor. 15:24-28.)
They contend that this doctrine is not only sustained by particular texts,
but grows necessarily out of some of the first principles of divine
revelation. They maintain that it is immediately connected with the
perfections of the Deity; that God, being infinitely benevolent, must have
desired the happiness of all his offspring; that his infinite wisdom would
enable him to form a perfect plan, and his almighty power will secure its
accomplishment. They contend that the mission of Christ is abortive on any
other plan, and that nothing short of the “restitution of all things” can
satisfy the ardent desires of every pious soul. On this system alone can
they reconcile the attributes of justice and mercy, and secure to the
Almighty a character worthy of our imitation.
They insist that the words rendered _everlasting_, _eternal_, and
_forever_, which are, in a few instances, applied to the misery of the
wicked, do not prove that misery to be endless, because these terms are
loose in their signification, and are frequently used in a limited sense;
that the original terms, being often used in the plural number, clearly
demonstrate that the period, though indefinite, is limited in its very
nature. They maintain that the meaning of the term must always be sought
in the subject to which it is applied, and that there is nothing in the
nature of punishment which will justify an endless sense. They believe
that the doctrine of the restoration is the most consonant to the
perfections of the Deity, the most worthy of the character of Christ, and
the only doctrine which will accord with pious and devout feelings, or
harmonize with the Scriptures. They teach their followers that ardent love
to God, active benevolence to man, and personal meekness and purity, are
the natural results of these views.
Though the Restorationists, as a separate sect, have arisen within a few
years, their sentiments are by no means new. Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen,
Didymus of Alexandria, Gregory Nyssen, and several others, among the
Christian fathers of the first four centuries, it is said, believed and
advocated the restoration of all fallen intelligences. A branch of the
German Baptists, before the reformation, held this doctrine, and
propagated it in Germany. Since the reformation, this doctrine has had
numerous advocates; and some of them have been among the brightest
ornaments of the church. Among the Europeans, we may mention the names of
Jeremy White, of Trinity College, Dr. Burnet, Dr. Cheyne, Chevalier
Ramsay, Dr. Hartley, Bishop Newton, Mr. Stonehouse, Mr. Petitpierre, Dr.
Cogan, Mr. Lindsey, Dr. Priestley, Dr. Jebb, Mr. Relly, Mr. Kenrick, Mr.
Belsham, Dr. Southworth, Smith, and many others. In fact, the restoration
is the commonly-received doctrine among the English Unitarians at the
present day. In Germany, a country which, for several centuries, has taken
the lead in all theological reforms, the Orthodox have espoused this
doctrine. The restoration was introduced into America about the middle of
the eighteenth century, though it was not propagated much till about 1775
or 1780, when John Murray and Elhanan Winchester became public advocates
of this doctrine, and by their untiring labors extended it in every
direction. From that time to the present, many men have been found, in all
parts of our country, who have rejoiced in this belief. This doctrine
found able advocates in the learned Dr. Chauncy, of Boston, Dr. Rush, of
Philadelphia, and Dr. Smith, of New York: Mr. Foster, of New Hampshire,
may also be mentioned as an advocate of the restoration.
Most of the writers whose names are given above, did not belong to a sect
which took the distinctive name of Restorationists. They were found in the
ranks of the various sects into which the Christian world has been
divided. And those who formed a distinct sect were more frequently
denominated Universalists than Restorationists. In 1785, a convention was
organized at Oxford, Massachusetts, under the auspices of Messrs.
Winchester and Murray. And as all who had embraced universal salvation
believed that the effects of sin and the means of grace extended into a
future life, the terms _Restorationist_ and _Universalist_ were then used
as synonymous; and those who formed that convention adopted the latter as
their distinctive name.
During the first twenty-five years, the members of the Universalist
convention were believers in a future retribution. But, about the year
1818, Hosea Ballou, now of Boston, advanced the doctrine that all
retribution is confined to this world. That sentiment, at first, was
founded upon the old Gnostic notion that all sin originates in the flesh,
and that death frees the soul from all impurity. Subsequently, some of the
advocates for the no-future punishment scheme adopted the doctrine of
materialism, and hence maintained that the soul was mortal; that the whole
man died a temporal death, and that the resurrection was the grand event
which would introduce all men into heavenly felicity.
Those who have since taken to themselves the name of Restorationists,
viewed these innovations as corruptions of the gospel, and raised their
voices against them. But a majority of the convention having espoused
those sentiments, no reformation could be effected. The Restorationists,
believing these errors to be increasing, and finding in the connection
what appeared to them to be a want of engagedness in the cause of true
piety, and in some instances an open opposition to the organization of
churches, and finding that a spirit of levity and bitterness characterized
the public labors of their brethren, and that practices were springing up
totally repugnant to the principles of Congregationalism, resolved to obey
the apostolic injunction, by coming out from among them, and forming an
independent association. Accordingly a convention, consisting of Rev. Paul
Dean, Rev. David Pickering, Rev. Charles Hudson, Rev. Adin Ballou, Rev.
Lyman Maynard, Rev. Nathaniel Wright, Rev. Philemon R. Russell, and Rev.
Seth Chandler, and several laymen, met at Mendon, Massachusetts, August
17, 1831, and formed themselves into a distinct sect, and took the name of
_Universal Restorationists_.
The Restorationists are Congregationalists on the subject of church
government.
The difference between the Restorationists and Universalists relates
principally to the subject of a future retribution. The Universalists
believe that a full and perfect retribution takes place in this world,
that our conduct here cannot affect our future condition, and that the
moment man exists after death, he will be as pure and as happy as the
angels. From these views the Restorationists dissent. They maintain that a
just retribution does not take place in time; that the conscience of the
sinner becomes callous, and does not increase in the severity of its
reprovings with the increase of guilt; that men are invited to act with
reference to a future life; that, if all are made perfectly happy at the
commencement of the next state of existence, they are not rewarded
according to their deeds; that, if death introduces them into heaven, they
are saved by death, and not by Christ; and if they are made happy by being
raised from the dead, they are saved by physical, and not by moral means,
and made happy without their agency or consent; that such a sentiment
weakens the motives to virtue, and gives force to the temptations of vice;
that it is unreasonable in itself, and opposed to many passages of
Scripture. (See Acts 24:25; 17:30, 31. Heb. 9:27, 28. Matt. 11:23, 24. 2
Pet. 2:9. 2 Cor. 5:8-11. John 5:28, 29. Matt. 10:28. Luke 12:4, 5;
16:19-31. 1 Pet. 3:18-20.)
UNIVERSALISTS.
The grand distinguishing characteristic of this class of Christians is
their belief in the final holiness and happiness of the whole human
family. Some of them believe that all punishment for sin is endured in the
present state of existence, while others believe it extends into the
future life; but all agree that it is administered in a spirit of
kindness, is intended for the good of those who experience it, and that it
will finally terminate, and be succeeded by a state of perfect and endless
holiness and happiness.
Doctrine.
The following is the “Profession of Belief,” adopted by the General
Convention of Universalists in the United States, at the session holden in
1803. It has never been altered, and it is perfectly satisfactory to the
denomination.
“ART. I. We believe that the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New
Testaments contain a revelation of the character of God, and of
the duty, interest, and final destination, of mankind.
“ART. II. We believe that there is one God, whose nature is love;
revealed in one Lord Jesus Christ, by one Holy Spirit of grace,
who will finally restore the whole family of mankind to holiness
and happiness.
“ART. III. We believe that holiness and true happiness are
inseparably connected, and that believers ought to be careful to
maintain order, and practise good works; for these things are good
and profitable unto men.”
History.
Universalists claim that the salvation of all men was taught by Jesus
Christ and his apostles. It was also taught and defended by several of the
most eminent Christian fathers; such as Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen, &c.
In the third and fourth centuries, this doctrine prevailed extensively,
and, for aught which appears to the contrary, was then accounted orthodox.
It was at length condemned, however, by the fifth general council, A. D.
553; after which, we find few traces of it through the dark ages, so
called.
It revived at the period of the reformation, and since that time has found
many able and fearless advocates;—in Switzerland, Petitpierre and Lavater;
in Germany, Seigvolk, Everhard, Steinbart, and Semler; in Scotland,
Purves, Douglass, and T. S. Smith; in England, Coppin, Jeremy White, Dr.
H. More, Dr. T. Burnet, Whiston, Hartley, Bishop Newton, Stonehouse,
Barbauld, Lindsey, Priestley, Belsham, Carpenter, Relly, Vidler, Scarlett,
and many others.
At the present day, Universalism prevails more extensively than elsewhere
in England, Germany, and the United States.
In England, the Unitarian divines, generally, believe in the final
salvation of all men. Dr. Lant Carpenter says, “Most of us, however,
believe that a period will come to each individual, when punishment shall
have done its work—when the awful sufferings with which the gospel
threatens the impenitent and disobedient, will have humbled the stubborn,
purified the polluted, and eradicated malignity, impiety, hypocrisy, and
every evil disposition; that a period will come (which it may be the
unspeakable bliss of those who enter the joy of their Lord to accelerate,
which, at least, it will be their delight to anticipate,) when he who
‘must reign till he hath put _all enemies_ under his feet,’ ‘shall have
put down all rule, and all authority, and power.’ ‘The LAST ENEMY, death,
shall be DESTROYED.’ ‘Every tongue shall confess that Jesus Christ is
Lord, to the glory of God the Father,’ ‘who wills that all men should be
saved, and come to the knowledge of the truth,’—that truth which
sanctifies the heart,—that knowledge which is life eternal,—and God shall
be ALL IN ALL.”