I
There are three kinds of change in the world in which we live--physical
and mechanical change which goes on in time and place among the tangible
bodies about us, chemical change which goes on in the world of hidden
molecules and atoms of which bodies are composed, and vital change which
involves the two former, but which also involves the mysterious
principle or activity which we call life. Life comes and goes, but the
physical and chemical orders remain. The vegetable and animal kingdoms
wax and wane, or disappear entirely, but the physico-chemical forces are
as indestructible as matter itself. This fugitive and evanescent
character of life, the way it uses and triumphs over the material
forces, setting up new chemical activities in matter, sweeping over the
land-areas of the earth like a conflagration, lifting the inorganic
elements up into myriads of changing and beautiful forms, instituting a
vast number of new chemical processes and compounds, defying the
laboratory to reproduce it or kindle its least spark--a flame that
cannot exist without carbon and oxygen, but of which carbon and oxygen
do not hold the secret, a fire reversed, building up instead of pulling
down, in the vegetable with power to absorb and transmute the inorganic
elements into leaves and fruit and tissue; in the animal with power to
change the vegetable products into bone and muscle and nerve and brain,
and finally into thought and consciousness; run by the solar energy and
dependent upon it, yet involving something which the sunlight cannot
give us; in short, an activity in matter, or in a limited part of
matter, as real as the physico-chemical activity, but, unlike it,
defying all analysis and explanation and all our attempts at synthesis.
It is this character of life, I say, that so easily leads us to look
upon it as something _ab extra_, or super-added to matter, and not an
evolution from it. It has led Sir Oliver Lodge to conceive of life as a
distinct entity, existing independent of matter, and it is this
conception that gives the key to Henri Bergson's wonderful book,
"Creative Evolution."
There is possibly or probably a fourth change in matter, physical in its
nature, but much more subtle and mysterious than any of the physical
changes which our senses reveal to us. I refer to radioactive change, or
to the atomic transformation of one element into another, such as the
change of radium into helium, and the change of helium into lead--a
subject that takes us to the borderland between physics and chemistry
where is still debatable ground.
I began by saying that there were three kinds of changes in matter--the
physical, the chemical, and the vital. But if we follow up this idea and
declare that there are three kinds of force also, claiming this
distinction for the third term of our proposition, we shall be running
counter to the main current of recent biological science. "The idea that
a peculiar 'vital force' acts in the chemistry of life," says Professor
Soddy, "is extinct."
"Only chemical and physical agents influence the vital processes," says
Professor Czapek, of the University of Prague, "and we need no longer
take refuge in mysterious 'vital forces' when we want to explain these."
Tyndall was obliged to think of a force that guided the molecules of
matter into the special forms of a tree. This force was in the ultimate
particles of matter. But when he came to the brain and to consciousness,
he said a new product appeared that defies mechanical treatment.
The attempt of the biological science of our time to wipe out all
distinctions between the living and the non-living, solely because
scientific analysis reveals no difference, is a curious and interesting
phenomenon.
Professor Schäfer, in his presidential address before the British
Association in 1912, argued that all the main characteristics of living
matter, such as assimilation and disassimilation, growth and
reproduction, spontaneous and amoeboid movement, osmotic pressure,
karyokinesis, etc., were equally apparent in the non-living; therefore
he concluded that life is only one of the many chemical reactions, and
that it is not improbable that it will yet be produced by chemical
synthesis in the laboratory. The logic of the position taken by
Professor Schäfer and of the school to which he belongs, demands this
artificial production of life--an achievement that seems no nearer than
it did a half-century ago. When it has been attained, the problem will
be simplified, but the mystery of life will by no means have been
cleared up. One follows these later biochemists in working out their
problem of the genesis of life with keen interest, but always with a
feeling that there is more in their conclusions than is justified by
their premises. For my own part, I am convinced that whatever is, is
natural, but to obtain life I feel the need of something of a different
order from the force that evokes the spark from the flint and the steel,
or brings about the reaction of chemical compounds. If asked to explain
what this something is that is characteristic of living matter, I should
say intelligence.
The new school of biologists start with matter that possesses
extraordinary properties--with matter that seems inspired with the
desire for life, and behaving in a way that it never will behave in the
laboratory. They begin with the earth's surface warm and moist, the
atmosphere saturated with watery vapor and carbon dioxide and many other
complex unstable compounds; then they summon all the material elements
of life--carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, with a little sodium,
chlorine, iron, sulphur, phosphorus, and others--and make these run
together to form a jelly-like body called a colloid; then they endow
this jelly mass with the power of growth, and of subdivision when it
gets too large; they make it able to absorb various unstable compounds
from the air, giving it internal stores of energy, "the setting free of
which would cause automatic movements in the lump of jelly." Thus they
lay the foundations of life. This carbonaceous material with properties
of movement and subdivision due to mechanical and physical forces is the
immediate ancestor of the first imaginary living being, the _protobion_.
To get this _protobion_ the chemists summon a reagent known as a
catalyser. The catalyser works its magic on the jelly mass. It sets up a
wonderful reaction by its mere presence, without parting with any of its
substance. Thus, if a bit of platinum which has this catalytic power is
dropped into a vessel containing a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, the
two gases instantly unite and form water. A catalyser introduced in the
primordial jelly liberates energy and gives the substance power to break
up the various complex unstable compounds into food, and promote growth
and subdivision. In fact, it awakens or imparts a vital force and leads
to "indefinite increase, subdivision, and movement."
With Professor Schäfer there is first "the fortuitous production of life
upon this globe"--the chance meeting or jostling of the elements that
resulted in a bit of living protoplasm, "or a mass of colloid slime" in
the old seas, or on their shores, "possessing the property of
assimilation and therefore of growth." Here the whole mystery is
swallowed at one gulp. "Reproduction would follow as a matter of
course," because all material of this physical nature--fluid or
semi-fluid in character--"has a tendency to undergo subdivision when its
bulk exceeds a certain size."
"A mass of colloidal slime" that has the power of assimilation and of
growth and reproduction, is certainly a new thing in the world, and no
chemical analysis of it can clear up the mystery. It is easy enough to
produce colloidal slime, but to endow it with these wonderful powers so
that "the promise and the potency of all terrestrial life" slumbers in
it is a staggering proposition.
Whatever the character of this subdivision, whether into equal parts or
in the form of buds, "every separate part would resemble the parent in
chemical and physical properties, and would equally possess the property
of taking in and assimilating suitable material from its liquid
environment, growing in bulk and reproducing its like by subdivision.
In this way from any beginning of living material a primitive form of
life would spread and would gradually people the globe. The
establishment of life being once effected, all forms of organization
follow under the inevitable laws of evolution." Why all forms of
organization--why the body and brain of man--must inevitably follow from
the primitive bit of living matter, is just the question upon which we
want light. The proposition begs the question. Certainly when you have
got the evolutionary process once started in matter which has these
wonderful powers, all is easy. The professor simply describes what has
taken place and seems to think that the mystery is thereby cleared up,
as if by naming all the parts of a machine and their relation to one
another, the machine is accounted for. What caused the iron and steel
and wood of the machine to take this special form, while in other cases
the iron and steel and wood took other radically different forms, and
vast quantities of these substances took no form at all?
In working out the evolution of living forms by the aid of the blind
physical and chemical agents alone, Professor Schäfer unconsciously
ascribes the power of choice and purpose to the individual cells, as
when he says that the cells of the external layer sink below the surface
for better protection and better nutrition. It seems to have been a
matter of choice or will that the cells developed a nervous system in
the animal and not in the vegetable. Man came because a few cells in
some early form of life acquired a slightly greater tendency to react to
an external stimulus. In this way they were brought into closer touch
with the outer world and thereby gained the lead of their duller
neighbor cells, and became the real rulers of the body, and developed
the mind.
It is bewildering to be told by so competent a person as Professor
Schäfer that at bottom there is no fundamental difference between the
living and non-living. We need not urge the existence of a peculiar
vital force, as distinct from all other forces, but all distinctions
between things are useless if we cannot say that a new behavior is set
up in matter which we describe by the word "vital," and that a new
principle is operative in organized matter which we must call
"intelligence." Of course all movements and processes of living beings
are in conformity with the general laws of matter, but does such a
statement necessarily rule out all idea of the operation of an
organizing and directing principle that is not operative in the world of
inanimate things?
In Schäfer's philosophy evolution is purely a mechanical process--there
is no inborn tendency, no inherent push, no organizing effort, but all
results from the blind groping and chance jostling of the inorganic
elements; from the molecules of undifferentiated protoplasm to the
brain of a Christ or a Plato, is just one series of unintelligent
physical and chemical activities in matter.
May we not say that all the marks or characteristics of a living body
which distinguish it in our experience from an inanimate body, are of a
non-scientific character, or outside the sphere of experimental science?
We recognize them as readily as we distinguish day from night, but we
cannot describe them in the fixed terms of science. When we say growth,
metabolism, osmosis, the colloidal state, science points out that all
this may be affirmed of inorganic bodies. When we say a life principle,
a vital force or soul or spirit or intelligence, science turns a deaf
ear.
The difference between the living and the non-living is not so much a
physical difference as a metaphysical difference. Living matter is
actuated by intelligence. Its activities are spontaneous and
self-directing. The rock, and the tree that grows beside it, and the
insects and rodents that burrow under it, may all be made of one stuff,
but their difference to the beholder is fundamental; there is an
intelligent activity in the one that is not in the other. Now no
scientific analysis of a body will reveal the secret of this activity.
As well might your analysis of a phonographic record hope to disclose a
sonata of Beethoven latent in the waving lines. No power of chemistry
could reveal any difference between the gray matter of Plato's brain
and that of the humblest citizen of Athens. All the difference between
man, all that makes a man a man, and an ox an ox, is beyond the reach of
any of your physico-chemical tests. By the same token the gulf that
separates the organic from the inorganic is not within the power of
science to disclose. The biochemist is bound to put life in the category
of the material forces because his science can deal with no other. To
him the word "vital" is a word merely, it stands for no reality, and the
secret of life is merely a chemical reaction. A living body awakens a
train of ideas in our minds that a non-living fails to awaken--a train
of ideas that belong to another order from that awakened by scientific
demonstration. We cannot blame science for ruling out that which it
cannot touch with its analysis, or repeat with its synthesis. The
phenomena of life are as obvious to us as anything in the world; we know
their signs and ways, and witness their power, yet in the alembic of our
science they turn out to be only physico-chemical processes; hence that
is all there is of them. Vitality, says Huxley, has no more reality than
the horology of a clock. Yet Huxley sees three equal realities in the
universe--matter, energy, and consciousness. But consciousness is the
crown of a vital process. Hence it would seem as if there must be
something more real in vitality than Huxley is willing to admit.