from economic dependence is in supposing that because the woman is not
engaged in a gainful occupation she is therefore being supported by the
man for his own pleasure. This is to adopt the absurd assumptions of the
very condition they denounce. This theory at most, applies to a marriage
which is conceived from an entirely selfish and commercial point of
view. If a man marries for his own pleasure and is willing to pay a cash
price; if a woman marries for cash or support and is willing to pay the
price, there is no doubt as to the proper term for such a transaction.
The result is not a family in the moral sense, and no ceremonies or
legal forms can make it moral. A family in the moral sense exists for a
common good, not for selfish use of others. To secure this common good
each member contributes a part. If both husband and wife carry on
gainful occupations, well; if one is occupied outside the home and the
other within, well also. If there are children, the woman is likely to
have the far more difficult and wearing half of the common labor. Which
plan is followed, i.e., whether the woman works outside or within the
home, ought to depend on which plan is better on the whole for all
concerned, and this will depend largely on the woman's own ability and
tastes, and upon the number and age of the children. But the economic
relation is not the essential thing. The essential thing is that the
economic be held entirely subordinate to the moral conception, before
marriage and after.
=The Family as Consumer.=--The relation of the family as consumer to
society and to the economic process at large involves also an important
moral problem. For while production has been taken from the home, the
selective influence of the family over production through its direction
of consumption has proportionally increased. And in this field the woman
of the family is and should be the controlling factor. As yet only the
internal aspects have been considered. Most women regard it as their
duty to buy economically, to secure healthful food, and make their funds
go as far as possible. But the moral responsibility does not stop here.
The consumer may have an influence in helping to secure better
conditions of production, such as sanitary workshops, reasonable hours,
decent wages, by a "white label." But this is chiefly valuable in
forming public opinion to demand workrooms free from disease and legal
abolition of sweatshops and child labor. The greater field for the
consumers' control is in determining the kind of goods that shall be
produced. What foods shall be produced, what books written, what plays
presented, what clothing made, what houses and what furnishing shall be
provided--all this may be largely determined by the consumers. And the
value of simplicity, utility, and genuineness, is not limited to the
effects upon the family which consumes. The workman who makes fraudulent
goods can hardly help being injured. The economic waste involved in the
production of what satisfies no permanent or real want is a serious
indictment of our present civilization. It was said, under the subject
of the economic process, that it was an ethically desirable end to have
increase of goods, and of the kind wanted. We may now add a third end:
it is important that society should learn to want the kinds of goods
which give happiness and not merely crude gratification. Men often need
most what they want least. Not only the happiness of life but its
progress, its unfolding of new capacities and interests, is determined
largely by the direction of the consumption. Woman is here the
influential factor.
If there were no other reason for the better and wider education of
woman than the desirability of more intelligent consumption, society
would have ample ground to demand it.
Sec. 6. UNSETTLED PROBLEMS: (2) POLITICAL
The family may be regarded as a political unit, first in its implication
of some control of the members by the common end, and in the second
place in its relation to the authority of the State.
=1. Authority within the Family.=--If the political character of the
family were kept clearly in mind, the internal relations of the members
of the family would be on a far more moral basis and there would be less
reason for friction or personal clashes. If there is a group of persons
which is to act as a unity, there must be some leadership and control.
In many cases there will be a common conviction as to the fittest person
to lead or direct, but where the group is a permanent one with frequent
occasions for divergent interests, unity has been maintained either by
force or by some agency regarded by the people as embodying their common
will. In the earliest forms of society this, as we have seen, was not
clearly distinguished from personal and individual command. But as the
conception of the political worked free from that of the personal agent,
it could be recognized more and more that the ruler was not the man--not
Henry or William,--but the King or the Parliament, as representing the
nation. Then government became a more consciously moral act. Obedience
was not humiliating, because the members were sovereign as well as
subject. It was not heteronomy but autonomy. In the family the personal
relation is so close that this easily overshadows the fact that there is
also a family relation of a political sort. The man in the patriarchal
family, and since, has exercised, or has had the legal right to exercise
authority. And with the legal theory of inequality to support him it is
not strange that he should often have conceived that obedience was due
to him as a person, and not to him as, in certain cases, best
representing the joint purpose of the family, just as in other cases the
woman best represents this same purpose.
=Equality or Inequality.=--But even when there had been recognition of a
more than personal attitude the question would at once arise, are the
members of a family to be considered as of equal or unequal importance?
The answer until recently has been unequivocal. In spite of such
apparent exceptions as chivalry, and the court paid to beauty or wit, or
the honor accorded to individual wives and mothers, woman has seldom
been taken seriously in the laws and institutions of society.
Opportunities for education and full participation in the thought and
life of civilization are very recent. Public school education for girls
is scarcely a century old. College education for women, in a general
sense, is of the present generation. But the conviction has steadily
gained that democracy cannot treat half the race as inferior in dignity,
or exclude it from the comradeship of life. Under primitive society a
man was primarily a member of a group or caste, and only secondarily a
person. A woman has been in this situation as regards her sex. She is
now asserting a claim to be considered primarily as a person, rather
than as a woman. This general movement, like the economic movement, has
seemed to affect the attitude of unmarried women, and to a less degree,
of men, toward marriage, and to involve an instability of the family
tie. The question is then this: does the family necessarily involve
inequality, or can it be maintained on a basis of equality? Or to put
the same thing from another angle: if the family and the modern movement
toward equality are at variance, which ought to give way?
The "pseudo-domestic" theory on this point is suggested by its general
position on the economic relations of the family as already stated. It
believes that the family must be maintained as a distinct sphere of
life, coordinate in importance for social welfare with the intellectual,
artistic, and economic spheres. It holds, further, that the family can
be maintained in this position only if it be kept as a unique
controlling influence in woman's life, isolated from other spheres. This
of course involves an exclusion of woman from a portion of the
intellectual and political life, and therefore an inferiority of
development, even if there is not an inferiority of capacity. Some of
this school have maintained that in America the rapid advance in
education and intelligence among women has rendered them so superior to
the average man who has to leave school for business at an early age
that they are unwilling to marry. A German alliterative definition of
woman's "sphere" has been found in "the four K's"--Kirche, Kinder,
Kueche, und Kleider.
If the permanence of the family rests on the maintenance of a relation
of inferiority, it is indeed in a perilous state. All the social and
political forces are making toward equality, and from the moral
standpoint it is impossible successfully to deny Mill's classic
statement, "The only school of genuine moral sentiment is society
between equals." But some of the advocates of equality have accepted the
same fallacious separation between the family and modern culture. They
have assumed that the family life must continue to be unscientific in
its methods, and meager in its interests. Some women--like some
men--undoubtedly place a higher value on book learning, musical and
dramatic entertainment, and other by-products of modern civilization
than on the elemental human sympathies and powers which these should
serve to enrich. It is too easily granted that the opportunity and duty
of woman as wife and mother are limited to a purely unscientific
provision for physical wants to the exclusion of scientific methods,
intellectual comradeship, and effective grappling with moral problems.
=Isolation Not the Solution.=--The solution for the present unrest is
therefore to be found not in forcing the separation between the family
on the one hand and the intellectual, political, and other aspects of
civilization on the other, but in a mutual permeation. They think very
lightly of the elemental strength of sex and parental instincts who
suppose that these are to be overslaughed in any great portion of the
race by cultural interests. And it is to ignore the history of political
progress to suppose that organic relations founded on equality and
democracy are less stable than those resting on superiority and
subordination. The fact is that there is no part of life so much in need
of all that modern science can give, and no field for intellectual
penetration and technological organization so great as the family.
Correlative with its control over economic processes through its
position as consumer, is its influence over social, educational, and
political life, through its relation to the children who are constantly
renewing the structure. To fulfill the possibilities and even the duties
of family life under modern conditions requires both scientific training
and civic activity. Provisions for health and instruction and proper
social life in school, provisions for parks and good municipal
housekeeping, for public health and public morals,--these demand the
intelligent interest of the parent and have in most cases their natural
motive in the family necessities. A theory of the family which would
limit the parent, especially the mother, to "the home" needs first to
define the limits of "the home." To measure its responsibilities by the
limit of the street door is as absurd as to suppose that the sphere of
justice is limited by the walls of the courtroom. A broader education
for women is certainly justified by precisely this larger meaning of the
care of children and of the family interests. The things of greatest
importance to human life have scarcely been touched as yet by science.
We know more about astrophysics than about health and disease; more
about waste in steam power than about waste in foods, or in education;
more about classical archaeology than about the actual causes of poverty,
alcoholism, prostitution, and childlessness, the chief enemies of home
life. In the light of the actual possibilities and needs of family life
two positions seem equally absurd: the one that family life can be
preserved best by isolating it, and particularly its women, from
culture; the other, that it does not afford an opportunity for a full
life. Neither of these errors can be corrected apart from the other. It
is in the mutual permeation and interaction of the respective spheres of
family and cultural life, not in their isolation, that the family is to
be strengthened. Here, as in the economic field, no one family can
succeed entirely by itself. The problem is largely a social one. But
every family which is free and yet united, which shows comradeship as
well as mutual devotion, is forcing the issue and preparing the way for
the more perfect family of the future.
=2. Authority over the Family: Divorce.=--The strains which have been
noticed in the foregoing paragraphs have centered public attention on
the outward symptoms of unrest and maladaptation. Current discussions of
family problems are likely to turn largely upon the increase of divorce.
For the reasons which have been given there has doubtless been
increasing tendency to seek divorce, and this may continue until more
stable conditions are reached. Now that the authority of the church is
less implicitly accepted, individuals are thrown back upon their own
voluntary controls, and whether marriages are arranged by parents as in
France, or formed almost solely on the initiative and unguided will of
the parties as in America, the result is much the same. Two classes of
persons seek divorce. Those of individualistic temperament, who have
formed the marriage for selfish ends or in frivolous moments, are likely
to find its constraints irksome when the expected happiness fails to be
realized and the charm of novelty is past. This is simply one type of
immoral conduct which may be somewhat checked by public opinion or legal
restraint, but can be overcome only by a more serious and social
attitude toward all life. The other class finds in the bond itself,
under certain conditions, a seemingly fatal obstacle to the very purpose
which it was designed to promote: unfaithfulness, cruelty, habitual
intoxication, and other less coarse, but equally effective modes of
behavior may be destructive of the common life and morally injurious to
the children. Or alienation of spirit may leave external companionship
empty of moral unity and value, if not positively opposed to
self-respect. This class is evidently actuated by sincere motives. How
far society may be justified in permitting dissolution of the family
under these conditions, and how far it may properly insist on some
personal sacrifice for the sake of larger social ends is simply another
form of the problem which we considered in the economic field--the
antithesis between individual rights and public welfare. The solution in
each case cannot be reached by any external rule. It will be found only
in the gradual socializing of the individual on the one hand, and in the
correlative development of society to the point where it respects all
its members and makes greater freedom possible for them on the other.
Meanwhile it must not be overlooked that the very conception of
permanence in the union, upheld by the state, is itself effective toward
thoughtful and well-considered action after as well as before marriage.
Some causes of friction may be removed, some tendencies to alienation
may be suppressed, if the situation is resolutely faced from the
standpoint of a larger social interest rather than from that of
momentary or private concern.
=General Law of Social Health.=--Divorce is a symptom rather than a
disease. The main reliance in cases of family pathology, as for the
diseases of the industrial and economic system, is along the lines which
modern science is pursuing in the field of medicine. It is isolating
certain specific organisms which invade the system under favorable
circumstances and disturb its equilibrium. But it finds that the best,
and in fact the only ultimate protection against disease is in the
general "resisting power" of the living process. This power may be
temporarily aided by stimulation or surgery, but the ultimate source of
its renewal is found in the steady rebuilding of new structures to
replace the old stagnation; the retention of broken-down tissues means
weakness and danger. The social organism does not escape this law.
Science will succeed in pointing out the specific causes for many of the
moral evils from which we suffer. Poverty, crime, social injustice,
breaking down of the family, political corruption, are not all to be
accepted simply as "evils" or "wickedness" in general. In many cases
their amount may be greatly reduced when we understand their specific
causes and apply a specific remedy. But the great reliance is upon the
primal forces which have brought mankind so far along the line of
advance. The constant remaking of values in the search for the genuinely
satisfying, the constant forming, criticizing, and reshaping of ideals,
the reverence for a larger law of life and a more than individual moral
order, the outgoing of sympathy and love, the demand for justice--all
these are the forces which have built our present social system, and
these must continually reshape it into more adequate expressions of
genuine moral life if it is to continue unimpaired or in greater vigor.
We do not know in any full sense whence the life of the spirit comes,
and we cannot, while standing upon the platform of ethics, predict its
future. But if our study has shown anything, it is that the moral _is_ a
life, not a something ready made and complete once for all. It is
instinct with movement and struggle, and it is precisely the new and
serious situations which call out new vigor and lift it to higher
levels. Ethical science tracing this process of growth, has as its aim
not to create life--for the life is present already,--but to discover
its laws and principles. And this should aid in making its further
advance stronger, freer, and more assured because more intelligent.
LITERATURE
On the early history of the Family, see the works cited at close of ch.
ii.; also Starcke, _The Primitive Family_, 1889; Westermarck, _The
History of Human Marriage_, 1901; Howard, _A History of Matrimonial
Institutions_, 3 vols., 1904. On present problems: H. Bosanquet, _The
Family_, 1906; Parsons, _The Family_, 1906; Bryce, _Marriage and Divorce
in Roman and in English Law_, in Studies in History and Jurisprudence,
1901; Ellis, _Man and Woman_; Thomas, _Sex and Society_, 1906; Bebel,
_Woman and Socialism_; Riehl, _Die Familie_.
FOOTNOTES:
[249] _Morals in Evolution_, Part I., p. 216.
[250] Howard, _History of Matrimonial Institutions_, I., ch. vii.
[251] Pollock and Maitland, _Hist. Eng. Law_, II., 383, quoted in
Howard, I., 325-26.
[252] Eckstein, _Woman under Monasticism_, p. 478.
[253] Hobhouse, _op. cit._, I., 218.
[254] Helen Bosanquet, _The Family_, p. 313: "'They must hinder your
work very much,' I said to a mother busy about the kitchen, with a
two-year-old clinging to her skirt. 'I'd never get through my work
without them,' was the instant rejoinder, and in it lay the answer to
much of our sentimental commiseration of hard-worked mothers. It may
be hard to carry on the drudgery of daily life with the little ones
clamoring around; it is ten times harder without, for sheer lack of
something to make it worth while."
[255] Bosanquet, Part II., ch. x.
[256] _Man and Woman._
[257] _Sex and Society._
[258] Helen Bosanquet, _The Family_, p. 272.
* * * * *
INDEX
Abelard, 150 f.
Achan, 18, 29, 60, 104
Addams, Jane, 144
Aeschylus, 112, 116, 139
Aesthetic, in Greek valuation of conduct, 91, 112, 116 f., 133 f.,
135 n., 137, 406, 410
Agency, public, see Public Agency;
rationalizing, 40-2;
socializing, 42-8
Altruism, discussion of theories concerning, 384-91;
altruistic springs, 385;
true and false, 387-8;
contrasted with social justice, 389
Amos, 85
Approbation, 399, 402
Angell, 9
Aquinas, Thomas, 150
Aristophanes, 112
Aristotle, on the criterion of a moral act, 12, 37, 202;
on nature and the natural, 7, 127 f.;
on the State, 127 ff.;
Eudaemonism, 134;
the "mean," 134;
on "highmindedness," 135;
on the reflective life, 138;
on the good man, 279, 324;
on the right, 306 n.;
on justice, 414;
referred to, 230, 455
Arnold, M., 91, 338
Art and arts, as a rationalizing agency, 41 f.;
as a socializing agency, 45 f.;
create new interests, 79 f.;
Hebrew, 107;
Greek, 112, 114 f.;
mediaeval, 147, 149;
Church and modern, 155;
as a good that is sharable, 559
Asceticism, 145, 185, 366, 576
Attitude, defined, 229;
emphasized by one type of theory, 236-7, 240;
relation to will, 246;
see Motive and "How"
Augustine, 150
Aurelius, Marcus, 136
Authority, of group, 26 f.;
behind customs, 52;
in Israel's religion, 96 f.;
of custom challenged in Greece, 111 ff., 119 ff.;
of the church, 145-7;
conflict of reason with, 165 f.;
of duty, 344;
in the family, 599 f.;
see Duty, Control, Standard
Autonomy, as essence of moral duty, 225;
Kant's conception of, 169, 346, 352;
in later utilitarianism, 361;
in State and the family, 599 f.;
see Control, Duty, Law, State
Australian customs, marriage, 22;
initiatory, 58 f.;
regulated duel, 63
Bacon, Francis, 4, 164, 165
Bacon, Roger, 164
Bagehot, 53
Bain, on happiness, 265;
on utilitarianism, 286;
his account of duty, 356-8
Balzac, 189
Bayard, Chevalier, 149
Benevolence, 160 f., 375-91
Bentham, on motive, 228, 247-8, 354;
on moral science, 235;
on disposition, 254-5;
on pleasure and happiness, 264, 286;
on utilitarian calculus, 275-6;
denial of quality of pleasure, 282;
on pleasure of sympathy, 291;
democratic individualism of, 525
Blackstone, 578
Blood feud, 28, 62 f., 70, 456
Boniface VIII., Bull of, 147
Bosanquet, Helen, 584, 595 f.
Bryce, James, 146
Caesar, 18
Capital and labor, 499, 501 f., 505 f., 532, 542 f.
Capitalism, as method of industry, 78, 158-60, 498 f., 508, 538, 545;
see Capital, Corporation
Carelessness, 462-4
Carlyle, criticism of individualism, 161, 192;
of utilitarianism, 265, 289 n.
Casuistry, 325-8
Categorical Imperative, 344
Celts, clan system of, 144;
see also Ireland, Welsh
Character, formation of, 9 f.;
organization of, in group morality, 72;
in Hebrews, 104-6;
among Greeks, 138-41;
relation to desire and deliberation, 202;
moral importance of, 229, 233;
relation to will, 246;
relation to conduct, Chapter XIII.;
and disposition, 254-7;
measures the pleasant and unpleasant, 277-9;
unification of, 283;
its reconstruction, 343, 362;
recognized by law, 460 f.
Charity, in Middle Ages, 146, 157;
and right to life, 444;
see Benevolence
Chastity, 146, 177
Chief, authority of, 61
Child-labor, 193 f., 444, 489, 538, 540 f.
Chinese customs, 17 f., 69
Chivalry, 149 f.
Christian conceptions, love, 100;
sacrifice, 102;
faith, 103;
freedom, 108;
social order, 109, 187;
asceticism and authority, 145 f., 364;
unity of members, 147;
moral value of labor, 156;
relation to social order, 184 ff.;
see Church, Hebrew
Church, its contribution to modern morality, 142;
its ideals, 145;
and jural theory of morals, 218 f.;
its influence on history of the family, 576-8;
see also Religion
Cicero, 152
Civil Society, Chapter XXI.;
defined, 451;
reform of its administration, 471-3
Clark, J. B., 542
Class ideals, of Greeks, 116 f.;
of Germans and Celts, 144 f.;
honor and, 86 f.;
as source of moral terms, 175 f.
Class interests, 84, 94, 119-24, 127, 162, 474
Closed shop, 559-61
Collective Agencies,
see Corporations, Labor Union, Public Agency, Socialism
Collectivism, its formula, 484;
contrasted with socialism, 556
Colonna, Aegidius, 147
Communism, 161
Competition, modern theory of, 158, 531, 542;
tends to destroy itself, 532, 538;
crude method of selecting ability, 559;
Carlyle on, 161
Conduct, as subject of ethics, 1;
two aspects of, 2;
three stages of, 8-10;
three levels of, 37-9;
first level, Chapter III.;
second level, Chapter IV.;
third level, Chapters V.-VIII.;
nature of, 205, 237-8;
relation to character, Chapter XIII.;
place of happiness in, Chapter XIV.;
place of reason in, Chapter XVI.
Conflicting services, problem of, 493
Conscience, transition from custom to, 73 f., 179;
Greek symbols of, 139 f.;
Stoic suggestion of, 140 f.;
with Abelard, 151;
meaning of, 183, 188 f.;
analysis of, see Intuitionalism, Knowledge, Reason
Conscientiousness, 405, 434
Consequences, Chapter XIII.;
importance of, 234-5, 238;
denied by Kant, 242-4;
when foreseen form intention, 247;
practical importance, 251;
as moral sanctions, 358-60;
as self-realization, 392;
accidental, 459-60;
careless, 463
Content, see Consequences, and "What"
Contracts, _versus_ status, 20;
theory and value of, 158, 452 f., 496;
of little benefit to wage-earner, 503-5, 529 f.;
as obstacle to legislation, 505 f.;
analyzed, 527 ff.
Control, the right as, 7;
in primitive group, 26-9, 32, 34, 52;
primitive means of enforcing, 54 ff.;
challenged in Greece, 118 ff.;
problem of, 217-9;
theories concerning, 225, 232;
external and internal, 353-61;
self-control, 407;
see Jural, Law, Standard, Right
Convention, in Greek morals and ethics, 111 f., 124 f.
Cooperation, and mutual aid, 43;
in industry, 43;
in war, 44 f.;
in art, 45 f.;
as organized in corporations and unions, 495-507
Corporations, moral difficulties of, 498;
management of, 500 f.;
relations to employes and public, 501 ff.;
require new types of morality, 517-22;
capitalization of, 561 ff.
Corruption, political, 477, 537-9
Coulanges, 19
Courage, 42, 118, 410-13
Courts, primitive, 61;
as school of morality, 182 f.;
as instruments of oppression, 195;
civil, ethical value of, 454;
in labor disputes, 504 f.;
on police power, 505 f., 555 f.;
recognition of public welfare by, 555 f.
Covenant, in Hebrew moral development, 94 ff.
Criminal Procedure, reform of, 468-9
Criterion of the moral, 5-13, 202 ff.;
of the good and right, typical theories of, 224 ff.;
see Good, Right, Kant, Utilitarianism, Plato, Aristotle
Crusades, 154
Cunningham, W., 157
Custom, and the term ethics, 1;
in early group life, 17 ff.;
as "second level" of conduct, 38, 51;
general discussion of, 51 ff., 171 ff.;
educational, 57 ff.;
jural, 59 ff.;
birth, marriage, death, 64 f.;
festal, 65;
hospitality, 67 f.;
values and defects of, 68 ff.;
transition to conscience from, 73 ff.;
transition among Hebrews, 95 f.;
among Greeks, 110 ff.;
opposed to "nature," 120 f.;
Grote on, 172 f.;
compared with reflective morality, 172 ff.;
and moral rules, 330-2, 431
Cultus, of Hebrew priesthood, 97 ff.
Cynics, 112, 125 f.
Cyrenaics, 112, 125 f.
Dante, 150
Darwinism, and morals, 371 f.;
see Naturalism
Deliberation, 202, 319;
and intuition, 322-3;
and conscience, 421;
of crucial importance, 464
Democracy, in Greece, 119 f.;
development of, 151 ff., 162 f.;
moral, 303;
and moral problems, 474-81;
the corporation in relation to, 500;
and economic problems, 521 f.;
and individualism, 530, 535;
as agency, 558;
and the family, 594, 600 f.
Descartes, 164 f.
Desire, hedonistic theory of, 269;
relation to pleasure, 270-1;
to happiness, 272-3;
and reason, 308;
their organization, 317;
conflict with duty, 339-46;
and temperance, 406-8
Dharna, 63
Distribution, theories of, 545-50;
present inequalities in, 545;
individualism and, 546;
equal division, 547;
a working programme, 548-50
Divorce, 574 f., 577, 603-5
Dominicans, 149 f.
Duty, Chapter XVII.;
Stoic conception, 140 f.;
origin of the term, 176;
standpoint of, 232;
double meaning of, 337;
conflict with desire, 340;
explanation of, 342-4, 362-3;
authority of, 344;
social character of, 345;
Kant's view, 346-52;
utilitarian view of, 353-62
Eastman, Charles, 43, 54, 60
Eckstein, 577
Economic conditions and forces, in kinship and family groups, 24 f.;
help to effect transition from group morality to conscience, 76;
among Hebrews, 93 f.;
among Greeks, 119 ff.;
modern, 155-63;
in reflective morality, 194;
restrict physical freedom, 444;
and freedom of thought, 447;
legislative reform of, 481;
in relation to happiness and character, 487 ff.;
social aspects of, 491 ff.;
require ethical readjustment, 496, 517-22;
impersonal character, 511 f.;
ethical principles, 514 ff.;
unsettled problems, 523-65
Education, moral significance of, 168 f.;
right to, 446 f.;
restrictions upon, 448 f.;
as a means of justice, 548 f., 557 f.
Egoism, 214, 258, 303, 423, 467;
hedonistic, 288-9 (see Chapter XV.);
naturalistic theory of, 368-74;
contrasted with altruism, 375;
explanation of, 377-81;
reasonable self-love, 382;
see Self, Individualism
Ellis, H., 584
Eliot, George, 154, 301
Emerson, 349, 350, 446 n., 470, 581
Empiricism, 226, 231, 306;
discussion of, 329-32
Ends, and Means, 210;
relation of happiness to, 273-4;
utilitarian, conflicts with its hedonistic motive, 289;
social and rational, 314;
kingdom of, 315 and 433
Enlightenment, period of, 163, 165 ff.
Epictetus, 140
Epicureans, theory of life, 125, 135, 218;
on friendship, 125, 130, 187
Ethics, definition, 1;
derivation of term, 1;
specific problem of, 2;
method of, 3-13
_Ethos_, meaning, 1;
Chapter IV., 175
Eudaemonism, 134, 230;
see Happiness, Self-realization
Euripides, 112, 116, 139
Evil, problem of, in Israel, 100 ff.
Excitement, and pleasure, 408
Ezekiel, on personal responsibility, 104
"Fagan, J. O.," 503
Family, or Household Group, 23-31;
as an agency in early society, 47-9;
as affected by reflective morality, 193;
and contract, 453;
history of, 571-8;
psychological basis of, 578-84;
strain in, 584-9;
present factors of strain in, 590-4;
and the economic order, 594-9;
authority in, 599-603;
and divorce, 603-5
Feelings, the hedonistic ultimate, 225;
an ambiguous term, 249-51;
Mill on importance of, 294
Feud, see Blood Feud
Fichte, 490
Fisher, G. P., 143
Fiske, John, 581
Franchises, abuses of, 539
Franciscans, 149 f.
Francke, Kuno, 149
Freedom, Pauline conception, 108;
formal and real, 158 ff., 437-9, 483 f., 525 f., 529, 549;
see Rights
Freund, E., 555
Galileo, 164
Genetic Method in Ethics, 3
Gentleman, in Greece, 116 f.;
mediaeval and class ideal of, 144 f., 149, 155-7
Genung, J. F., 102
George, Henry, 162, 510 f.
Germans, customs of, 18, 53;
character and ideals, 143 f., 149;
family among, 575 f.
Golden Rule; 334
Good, the, as subject of ethics, 1, 7 f., 12, 203-5, 215, 236, 241;
origin of the conception of moral, 183 f.;
in group morality, 69-72;
Hebrew ideals of, 107-9;
significance in Greek thought, 113, 117, 119, 124;
Greek individualistic and hedonistic theories of, 126;
Plato on, 131-4, 136 f., 140;
Aristotle on, 134 f., 138;
and modern civilization, 154 ff., 557 f.;
as happiness, 169, Chapter XIV.;
private and general, 289-300, 308;
the true, 208, 284, 302;
good men as standard, 279, 324;
rational and sensuous, 337;
wealth as, 487;
see Happiness, Value
Goodness, 233, 251;
formal and material, 259 n.;
of character, 279;
and happiness, 284;
and social interest, 298;
intrinsic, 318-20;
and progress, 422;
see Virtue
Government, distrust of, 474;
reform of, 479-80;
see also State
Gray, J. H., 17
Greeks, early customs, 18 f., 46;
compared with Hebrews, 91 f.;
moral development of, 111-41, 197, 215, 217 f.
Green, on duty, 225;
on hedonism, 269;
on practical value of utilitarianism, 287-8;
on moral progress, 429
Grosscup, Judge, 552
Grote, 19, 172 f., 178
Group ideal, mediaeval, 144 f.;
see Class Ideal
Group Life, early, Chapter II.;
necessary to understand moral life, 17;
typical facts of, 17;
kinship, 21 ff.;
family, 23 ff.;
ownership of land in, 24;
other economic aspects of, 25 f.;
political aspects of, 26-30;
rights and responsibilities of individual in, 27-30;
religious aspects of, 30-2;
age and sex groups in, 32-4;
moral significance of, 34 f.
Group Morality, 34 f., 51 ff.;
values and defects of, 68-73;
in early Hebrew life, 92;
in Middle Ages, 144 f.;
persistence of, 173-8;
in legal progress, 456;
and international relations, 481 f.;
in industrial conflicts, 500
Habit, and character, 9 f., 12, 202;
effect on knowledge, 319;
effect upon desire, 342-3
Hadley, A. T., 475 n., 488, 563
Hammurabi, Code of, 82, 105, 574
Happiness, and pleasure, 230, 263;
ambiguity in conception of, 266;
relation to desire, 272-4;
as standard, 275-80;
elements in its constitution, 281-3;
final or moral, 284;
general, 286;
and sympathy, 300-3;
and efficiency, 373;
private and public, 395-7;
see Eudaemonism, Good
Hazlitt, on Bentham, 268;
on excitement, 409 n.
Hearn, 24
Hebrews, early morality, 18;
moral development, 91-110;
compared with Greek, 91
Hedonism, 230;
Hebrew, 106 f.;
Greek, 126, 132 f.;
criticism of, 269-75;
universalistic, 286;
egoistic character of, 289-94;
Kant's, 309;
paradox of, 352;
its theory of duty, 353
Hegel, on institutional character of morals, 225-6
High-mindedness, Aristotle's description of, 135 n.
Hobhouse, L. T., on formation of custom, 54;
on social order and individuality, 428;
on the family, 575 f., 577
Hoeffding, 253 n.
Honesty, 188, 414, 496
Honor, 85-8, 144 f., 176
Hosea, 95
Hospitality, in group morality, 67
"How," the, in conduct, 5-8, 228 f., 240;
in group morality, 69 f.;
in Hebrew morality, 102 ff.;
in Greek ethics, 136 ff.;
see Attitude
Howard, 576
Ibsen, 82, 100, 157, 303, 588
Ideal, _vs._ actual in Greek thought, 136-8;
meaning of, 421 f.
India, customs of, 26, 63, 524
Indians (American), 25, 43, 54, 60
Indifferent Acts, 205-6, 210-11
Individual, the, in early group life, 20, 22 f., 27-30, 34, 71 f.;
collision of with group, 74, 75 f., 82 ff., 88, 184-7, 432;
among Hebrews, 104;
development of, in modern civilization, 148-69;
as affected by reflective morality, 187-92;
and society, 427-36;
relation to corporations
and unions, 500-3;
see Individualism, Self
Individualism, as factor in transition from custom to conscience, 75;
forces producing, 76-87;
in Israel, 94, 102, 104;
in Greece, 114-24, 432;
in Greek ethical theory, 124-6;
in modern world, 149-63, 184-6, 220-3, 432 f.;
in ethical theory, 225 f., 290;
Carlyle's criticism of, 265 f.;
hedonistic, 289 ff., 301 f.;
as self-assertion, 368-75;
true and false, 481;
political formula of, 483 f.;
in economic theory, 523-35;
democratic, 525, 530 f.;
"survival of the fittest," 525, 532-4;
values, 527 f., 548 f.;
does not secure real freedom, 529;
nor justice, 530 ff., 535, 546 f.;
other defects of, 551 ff.;
in U. S. Constitution, 534;
on "unearned increment," 564 f.;
in family, 604;
see Individual, Self
Industry, as a rationalizing agency, 39-42;
differentiation in, 41;
as a socializing agency, 42 f.;
factor in effecting transition from custom to conscience, 76-8;
modern development of, 155-9;
agencies of, 497
Initiation, in primitive tribes, 58
Institutions, 192-5, 222, 225-6;
see Chapter XX.
Intention, and Motive, 246-54, 257-8, 261;
and accident, 63, 104, 459-60;
see Deliberation
Intuitionalism, 226, 232, 306;
discussion of, 317-25;
and casuistry, 325-8
Ireland, ancient law of, 24 f., 62, 83
Israel, moral development of, 91-110, 197
James, William, on the social self, 85-7;
on animal activity, 204;
on effect of emotion on ideas, 253
Japanese morality, 18
Jesus, 106 f., 109
Job, moral theory in, 97, 101 f., 106
Judgments, moral; see Moral
Jural influence, 7, 103, 113 f., 177, 218-9, 224, 328, 353-6, 439,
454-5, 467-8
Justice, in primitive society, 27 f.;
as Hebrew ideal, 94 f., 99 f., 108 f.;
in Greek theory, 113 f.;
natural and conventional, 120 f.;
as interest of the stronger, 122-4;
modern demand for, 148, 161 ff.;
and charity, 148, 389 f.;
virtue of, 414-7;
development of civil, 456-63;
formal and substantial, 465 f., 531;
social, 161, 410, 521, 556-8;
the new, 496 f.;
and individualism, 530-5;
in distribution, theories of, 545-50
Kafirs, clanship among, 19, 35
Kant, on unsocial sociableness of man, 75;
forces of progress, 87 f.;
his _Critique of Pure Reason_, 166;
on dignity of man, 167;
general standpoint, 169;
individualism of, 191;
and the "law of nature," 222 n.;
on moral law, 228-9;
on the Good Will, 241-3;
his theory of will discussed, 241-46;
on egoistic hedonism, 289;
theory of practical reason, 309-17;
theory of duty, 344, 346-52;
on legality and morality, 432;
cf. also 231, 492, 580
Kidd, Dudley, 19, 23, 35
Kinship, 21 ff.; see Group Life
Knowledge, place in morals, 215;
theories of, 231-2;
close connection with emotion, 256 n.;
with character, 279;
see Chapter XVI.;
Kant's theory of, 309-16;
intuitional theory of, 317-24;
casuistical view, 325-9;
principles in, 333-4;
and sympathy, 334;
and conscience, 418-23
Labor, differentiation of, in early society, 41;
the gentleman and, 156;
church and, 156;
and the law, 504-7;
conditions of, 540 f.;
of women and children, 540 f.;
exploitation of, 542-4;
Prof. Seager's programme for benefit of, 566 ff.;
see Industry, Labor Union, Capital
Labor Union, moral aspects of, 499 f.;
revives group morality, 500;
relations to the law, 503 ff.;
disadvantages of, 503-6;
violence of, 541;
open and closed shop, 559 ff.
Laissez-faire, 161, 475
Land, "unearned increment," 510 f., 564 f.
Lankester, Ray, 168
Law, as control in group life, 59-63;
in Hebrew moral development, 95-8;
righteousness of the, 103;
Greek conceptions of, 118-23;
of nature, 130, 136, 152, 222;
Roman, 142, 152, 222;
and government, 194 f.;
as defining rights, 454;
development of, 456 ff.;
formal in, 465;
needed reforms in, 468 ff.;
relation to corporations and unions, 503-7;
needed to embody and enforce moral standards, 520 f.;
moral, see Jural;
and Right; see Civil Society, Courts, Justice, Legal, State
Legal and Moral, 177, 182 f., 433, 439, 454-5, 467-8;
see also Jural, Law, Right
Leibniz, 165
Levels of conduct, 37-9, 51, 73
Liability, equals external responsibility, 436
Liberty, struggle for, 84 f.;
see Freedom, Rights
"Life," Hebrew and Christian moral ideal, 107;
the moral as, 606
Locke, on natural rights, 152;
on the "natural light," 166;
his _Essay_, 166;
on danger of fixed rules, 329
Love, between the sexes, 107;
psychological analysis of, 578 ff.;
as moral ideal, 100, 108 f.
Lubbock, 428
Machine, in production, 507 f.
MacLennan, 24
Magic, contrasted with religion, 30 n.;
influence on morals, 457 f.;
see Taboos
Maine, status and contract, 20;
Slav families, 60
Mallock, W. H., 533
Marriage, regulations for, in group morality, 64 f.;
violation of, provokes moral reflection, 106;
in reflective morality, 193;
and contract, 453;
Roman, 574 f.;
church views of, 576 f.;
see Divorce, Family, Sex
Marti, 98
Mead, G. H., 164
Mean, Aristotle's conception of, 134 f.
Measure, among Greeks, 112 f.
Men's clubs and houses, 32 f.
Micah, 99
Mill, John Stuart, on Bentham's method, 235 n.;
on motive and intention, 248;
on disposition, 254;
on partial and complete intent, 256;
on the desirable, 265;
on the quality of pleasure, 279-80;
on utilitarian standard, 286;
on general happiness, 290;
criticism of Bentham, 293;
on desire for social unity, 294, 295, 296;
on personal affections, 299 n.;
on general rules, 330;
as democratic individualist, 525;
on private property, 553 f., 556;
on equality in the family, 601
Monasticism, 149 f., 185 f., 187;
women under, 576 f.
Moral, derivation of term, 1 f.;
characteristics of, 5-13, 49 f., 51, 73, 89, 201-11;
conceptions, derivation of, 175-7;
differentiation of, 177-92;
see Morality
Morality, customary or group, 51 ff.;
defined, 73;
Hebrew, 91 ff. (Chapter VI.);
Greek, 111 ff. (Chapter VII.);
Modern, 142 ff.;
customary and reflective, compared, 171 ff.;
subjective and objective, 259;
Kant's view of, 309-10;
social nature of, 431;
and legality, 433, 439;
changes in, necessitated by present economic conditions, 496 f.,
517 ff.
Mores, or customs, Chapter IV.;
definition, 51;
authority and origin of, 52-4;
means of enforcing, 54-7, 172
Moses, 82
Motives, 216, 228, 237;
in customary morality, 70;
purity of, insisted on by Hebrews, 105 f.;
relation to effort and achievement, 243-6;
relation to intention, 246-54, 257-8, 261;
hedonistic theory of, criticized, 273, 288-92;
sympathy as, 298-300;
Kantian view of, 346-8;
egoistic, 379-80;
altruistic, 385-6;
in business, 538, 541 f.
Naturalism, ethical, 369-75;
and individualism, in the economic, 525, 532-4;
see Nature
Nature, opposed to convention among Greeks, 111 f.; 124-31, 135;
in modern development of rights, 152 f.;
versus artificiality of society, 221 f.;
see Naturalism
Nemesis, 132, 139
Newton, 165
Nietzsche, 82, 122, 370 n.
Nineteenth Century, development of intelligence in, 163
Obligations, 186;
and responsibility, 440;
and rights, 441;
see Duty
Opportunity, equal, 526 f., 549
Optimism and courage, 412-3
"Oregon case," decision of U. S. Supreme Court in, 540
Ought, 176;
see Duty
Owen, 161
Paley, 354 n.
Parsifal, 149
Parties, political, 478
Paul, his ethics, 100, 108 f.
Peace, as moral ideal, 108
Perfectionism, 231
Pessimism, and courage, 413
Pindar, 122
Plato, on the necessity of the moral sense, 2;
moral influence of art, 42;
duty to strangers, 67;
on measure, 112;
religious critic, 116;
on the "gentleman," 117;
presents arguments of individualists, 120 ff.;
on the State, 127, 129 f.;
on the good, 131 ff.;
on pleasure, 132 f.;
on the ideal, 136 ff.;
on the self, 140;
on rule of wealthy, 491;
on private property, 494
Pleasure, good measured by, among early Hebrews, 107;
Greek doctrines of, 125 f., 132 f.;
not the object of desire, 269-71;
quality, 279, 282, 300;
relation to happiness, 230, 281-3;
and sympathy, 291-2;
control of, 407-8
Police Power, 505-7, 540 f., 555 f.
Pollock and Maitland, 460, 576
Post, 61
Principles, 179;
nature of, 333-4;
as motives, 350-2
Problems of Moral Theory, Chapter XI. (211-23);
classified, 201, 214-5, 239, 263, 307
Production, moral cost of, 489;
efficiency of, in individualistic systems, 527;
regulation of, 528 f.
Property, in primitive groups, 24-6;
taboo as substitute for, 55;
as factor in growth of individualism, 79 f., 83, 94, 119 f.;
Plato on, 130;
the Church on, 146 f.;
and wealth, 487 f.;
and character, 490;
social aspects of, 491 f.;
private, and social welfare, 493-5;
implies public service, 515-7;
value of private, 551;
defects in present system, 551 ff.
Prophets, Hebrew, 99 f.
Protagoras, 2
Protestantism, conception of marriage, 577
Public Agency, theory of, 525, Chapter XXV.;
advantages claimed by, 537 ff.
Public ownership, 494 f.
Publicity, necessity of, 511 f., 520 f.
Punishment, as necessitating moral judgment, 96 f.;
evil viewed as by Hebrews, 96 f., 101;
and duty, 353-5;
and justice, 417;
and social welfare, 442-3;
and intent, 461;
reform of, 470
Puritans, conception of God-given rights, 152;
of art, 155;
emphasized value of work, 156
Reason, as element in the moral, 10, 12, 40-2;
as standard among Greeks, 91, 131 f., 134;
age of, 163, 166;
see Chapter XVI.;
defined, 306;
relation to desire, 308;
_a priori_ of Kant, 310;
is social, 315;
value of principles, 333;
and sympathy, 334;
opposition to desire, 338, 340;
and virtue, 405;
and conscientiousness, 418-23
Religion, in early group life, 30-2;
socializing force, 81 f.;
moral agency among Hebrews, 94-102;
Greek, 115 f., 139-41;
ideals of mediaeval, 145-7;
modern development of, 148-50;
and customary morality, 180;
in reflective morality, 195 ff., 432, 448;
as sanction of the family, 582;
see Church.
Renaissance, 163 ff.
Responsibility, collective, in group life, 17-20, 63, 70, 102;
development of personal, 104 f., 141, 153, 158, 182 f.;
meaning of, 436-9;
for accidents, 458-60;
for carelessness and negligence, 463-5;
as affected by modern economic conditions, 500-3, 519 f.
Reverence, 30 n., 59, 71, 140, 407
Revolution, American, 152;
English, 151;
French, 152;
Industrial, 159, 591
Riehl, W., 595
Right, as subject of ethics and moral judgments, 1-3, 37 f., 201-3,
215, 218, 224, 307 ff.;
meaning of, 7 f., 177, 182 f., 224 f.;
as standard, 7, 69, 89, 97;
among Hebrews as righteousness, 102-4, 109;
among Greeks as justice, 113 f., 140;
see also Jural, Justice, Law, Reason, Standard
Righteousness, typical theme in Hebrew morality, 91 f., 99, 101,
102 ff., 109, 188;
as justice, 414;
see Right, Justice
Rights, development of, 83 ff., 151 ff.;
natural, 152 f.;
modern assertion of, 186;
and freedom, 440;
and obligations, 441;
physical, 442-4;
mental, 445-9;
civil, 452;
contract, 452;
of association, 453;
to use of courts, 454;
development of civil, 456-66;
political, 473-4
Ritual, 55
Romanticists, on art and morality, 155
Rome, government and law, contribution to modern morality of, 142,
152, 218, 222;
patriarchal family, 572, 574 f.
Ross, E. A., 520
Rousseau, 152 f., 221
Rules, general, 325-35;
and casuistry, 326-8;
and legalism, 328-9;
utilitarian view of, 329-32;
distinguished from principles, 333-4
Sanctions, Bentham's theory of, 354;
internal, 359
Sceptics, 135, 218
Schiller, 42;
on Kant, 349
Schopenhauer, 82
Schurtz, 33
Science, as agency in effecting the transition from custom to
conscience, 78-80;
in Greek development, 114-9;
in modern period, 155, 167 f.;
influence on morals, 469, 473-6;
as promoting justice, 557-9;
and family problems, 593 f., 601-3
Seager, Henry R., programme of social legislation, 566 ff.
Secret societies, 33
Seebohm, F., 29, 61
Self, higher and lower, 5, 347 f.;
social, how built up, 11, 86 ff.;
individual and tribal or clan, 23 f.;
Greek conception of, 138-41;
the twofold, 310;
Arnold on, 338;
Kant on, 347;
as social, 294, 345;
fictitious theory of, 221, 361;
theories regarding its nature, see Chapter XVIII.;
self-denial, 364-8;
self-assertion, 368-74;
self-love and benevolence, 375-91;
self-realization, 391-4;
see Individual, Self-sacrifice
Self-sacrifice, 366-8; cf. 102, 298-304, 380-2, 388-91, 393-5
Seneca, 140
Sense, moral, 317-22
Sex, groups on the basis of, 32 f.;
as a socializing agency, 47 f.;
as prompting to self-assertion, 82;
taboos, 55, 60, 65;
in Hebrew conceptions, 98, 107;
in different standards for men and women, 142 ff.;
vices, 82, 189;
psychology of, 578-81;
differences between the sexes, 584-8
Shakspere, 23, 62, 97, 154, 197
Shop, open _vs._ closed, 559
Simmons and Wigmore, 18
Sidgwick, H., 265 n., 286
Sin, 98, 103 f., 108
Slav groups, 20, 24 f., 60, 83
Slavery, 84
Smith, Adam, on the formation of conscience, 141;
on sympathy, 160;
_Theory of Moral Sentiments_, 166;
as individualist, 525, 527
Smith, Arthur, 69
Smith, H. P., 106
Smith, J. A., 555
Smith, Munroe, 555 f.
Smith, W. Robertson, 29 f.
Social Ends, of utilitarianism, 287 (see Chapter XV.), 296;
and happiness, 302-3;
and rationality, 314;
and duties, 338, 345;
and altruism, 389-90;
and individuality, 430
Socialism, doctrine of, 162, 523, 525 f., 535;
on production, 537 ff.;
in decision of U. S. Supreme Court, 556;
see Public Agency, Collectivism, Individualism
Socializing Process and Agencies, 11, 33, 42 f., 47 f., 57 ff., 186,
191
Socrates, 5, 116, 118
Sophocles, 35, 112, 118, 139 f.
Spahr, C. B., 545
Spargo, John, 543
Speech, freedom of, 446
Spencer (Baldwin), and Gillen (F. B.), 22, 58 f.
Spencer, Herbert, on primitive morality, 70;
on nature and morality, 52, 53;
on conduct as indifferent and as ethical, 205-6;
on feeling as ultimate end, 225;
on consequences, 234 n.;
on happiness 265 n.;
on duty, 358-60;
on aesthetic ingredients of happiness, 374 n.;
on reward and merit, 515;
on voluntary limitation of competition, 532
Spinoza, 82, 253 n., 397, 410 n.
Standard, right as, 7;
in group morality, 34;
custom as, 38, 51 f., 61, 69 f.;
law of deity as, 95-7, 103;
measure as, 112;
popular, in Greece, 116 f.;
felt necessity of in Greece, 118, 124;
for pleasure, 132 f.;
the "mean" as, 135 f.;
importance of, 138;
utilitarians confuse with object of desire, 266-9;
why necessary, 274;
happiness as, 275-80;
general happiness as, Chapter XV.;
the rational, 307;
revision of, 422;
of political action, 482-5
Standard of living, 503, 504 n., 522, 540-2;
Professor Seager's programme for, 566-70
State, the, early group as germ of, 26-30, 61 f.;
as bearer of moral ideals in Israel, 92 f., 100, 108 f.;
in Greece, 127;
authority challenged, 118-24;
Plato and Aristotle on, 127-30;
and Church, 146 f., 150;
moral effect of organization of, 194 f.;
moral value of, 434-6;
defined, 451;
see Chapter XXI.
Stephen, on love of happiness, 273;
on egoism, 378 n.;
also 265 n.
Stevenson, Mrs. M. C., 66
Stoics, the "wise man" of, 135;
on following nature, 136;
on inner self, 140;
natural law, 136, 142, 152, 222;
on conflict between the moral and the actual order, 185;
cosmopolitanism, 187;
on control of passions, 217
Sumner, on "mores," 51;
on luck, 53;
on taboo, 55;
on Ethos, 175;
gladiatorial shows, 189;
on relation between goodness and happiness, 396 n.
Sutherland, 48
Sympathetic Resentment, 44, 49, 70;
see Sympathy
Sympathy, as factor in socialization, 11, 35, 44;
fostered by art, 45 f.;
and family life, 47 f.;
and hospitality, 68;
when moral, 49, 70;
in the moral judgment, 141 n.;
modern development of, 160 f.;
Bentham's view of, 291-2;
Mill's view of, 293-4;
importance of, 298-9;
principle of knowledge, 334;
and duty, 348-9;
and efficiency, 370-3;
and thoughtfulness, 465;
see Sympathetic Resentment
Taboos, 55, 60 f.;
Hebrew, 96;
survival of, in modern life, 174
Tariff, protective, 560
Taxation, 555
Teleological, types of moral theory, 224;
see Good, Value
Temperance, 405-10;
Greek view of, 117, 406;
Roman, 407;
Christian, 408
Theodorus, 126
Theory, relation to practice, 4, 212, 606;
types of, classified and discussed, 224-39;
see also Problems
Thomas, W., 584
Thoreau, 489
Totem groups, 30
Torts, 455
Toynbee, A., 492
Trades Unions, see Labor Union
Unearned Increment, 510 f., 564 f.
United States, individualism in, 554;
Supreme Court decisions, 555 f.
Utilitarianism, relation of, to modern civilization, 169;
theory of intention, 246-52;
theory of the good, Chapters XIV. and XV.;
method of, 275;
introduction of the idea of quality, 279;
its social standard, Chapter XV.;
theory of general rules, 329-31;
theory of duty, 353-61;
see also Bentham, Mill
Valuation, changed basis of, 508-11;
see Value
Value, as "higher and lower," 6, 197;
the good as, 7 f., 12;
measure of, among Hebrews, 107 f.;
question and standard of, among the Greeks, 116, 119, 125 ff.;
in modern civilization, 153-7, 169, 194;
transformation of, 186 f., 558;
moral, and incompatible ends, 207-9;
and teleological theories, 224;
of Good Will, 241
Veblen, T. B., 488, 515, 592
Vices, of reflective stage of morality, 189 ff.
Virtue, 230, 397, Chapter XIX.;
origin of term, 156, 176;
general meaning, 230, 397;
in Greek popular usage, 117 f.;
as "mean," 134;
as wisdom, 135;
highmindedness as, 135;
meaning in group morality, 176;
"old-fashioned," 188;
defined, 399-402;
classified, 402-3;
aspects of, 403-4;
cardinal, 405
Voltaire, 166, 195
Voluntary Action, its nature, 9 f., 201 f.;
essential to morality, 12 f., 39, 49 f., 73, 89;
agencies tending to evoke, 57, 75 ff.;
covenant as implying, 95;
fundamental, in Hebrew morality, 91, 105 f.;
relation to moral theories, 227;
divided into "inner" and "outer," 227-30; 237-9, 261, 432;
place of motive and endeavor, 243-6;
place of disposition, 254-8;
and accident, 459-60;
see Conduct
War, as agency in development, 42, 44, 66, 84;
and right to life, 442 f.;
and organized humanity, 482
Wealth, in Israel, 93 f.;
in Greece, 119 ff.;
and property, 487 f.;
subordinate to personality, 514;
should depend on activity, 514 f.;
implies public service, 515-7;
distribution of, 521 f., 545 ff.;
see Property
Welsh, kin group, 29, 61
Wergild, 30, 62
Westermarck, 67, 70, 459
"What," the, meaning of, 5-8;
in group morality, 71;
in Hebrew morality, 102 ff.;
in Greek theory, 125 ff.;
relation to the "how" as outer to inner, 228-39;
see Attitude, Consequences, "How"
Wilamowitz-Moellendorf, 18
Windelband, 126
Wisdom, as chief excellence or virtue with Plato, 118;
Aristotle, 135;
Sceptics, Epicureans, and Stoics, 135;
as standard for pleasure, 133;
nurse of all the virtues, 405;
as conscientiousness, 418-23
Woman, as "leisure class," 157, 188;
as laborer, protection for, 489, 540;
and the family, 572 ff.;
subordination of, 574 f.;
her temperamental and occupational distinction from man, 584 ff.;
effect of industrial revolution upon, 591 f.;
and occupations, 594 ff.;
determines consumption, 598 f.;
use of higher training for, 599, 602;
see Family, Marriage, Sex
Work, see Industry, Labor
Worth, see Value
Wyclif, 150
Xenophon, 115 f.
Zuni ceremonies, 66
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Transcriber's note:
1. Obvious errors in spelling and punctuation have been corrected
without comment.
2. The original text includes Greek characters. For this text version
these letters have been replaced with transliterations.
3. Certain words use oe ligature in the original.
4. Footnotes have been renumbered and moved from the middle of a
paragraph to the end of chapters.
5. Other than that, every effort has been made to represent the text
as close to the original as possible.