A BRIEF GRAMMAR
OF THE
PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE
WITH
EXERCISES AND VOCABULARIES
BY
JOHN C. BRANNER, +Ph.D.+, LL.D.
_Vice-President and Professor of Geology
Leland Stanford Jr. University
Sometime Geologist of the Commissão Geologica do Brazil
and of the Serviço Geologico do Brazil_
[Illustration]
NEW YORK
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
1910
+Copyright+, 1910,
BY
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
TO
RICHARD CUTTS SHANNON
PREFACE
This little book has been prepared for the use of English-speaking
students who wish to get a practical knowledge of the Portuguese
language. The plan of Professor Edgren’s _Brief Spanish Grammar_ has
been followed, in many respects almost literally. Many Portuguese
grammars have been consulted, but the ones most freely drawn from are
the thirteenth edition of João Ribeiro’s _Grammatica Portugueza_,
published at Rio de Janeiro in 1907, and the twenty-sixth edition of
the _Nova Grammatica Portugueza_ by Bento José de Oliveira, published
at Coimbra in 1904.
It is not claimed that there is much that is new or original in the
work. The author has simply endeavored to follow the best Portuguese
grammarians, and his own observations and experience with the language,
in an effort to make it readily accessible to English-speaking students
and in as compact a form as possible. It has been kept in mind that
such a work, in order to be useful, must keep practical points in view
even at the expense of the erudite and more scholarly features of the
language. The book is purely elementary; those who require a thorough
knowledge of the philologic and philosophic features of the tongue
should consult the more pretentious works.
Near the end of the volume a few short examples are quoted from several
of the best Portuguese authors. These examples are taken partly from
Brazilian and partly from Portuguese writers.
It may be well to say here that the idea one often hears expressed to
the effect that the Portuguese of Brazil is not good Portuguese is
altogether erroneous. It is true that one hears purely local terms and
expressions in various parts of Brazil,[1] but so he does in Portugal
and, for that matter, in all languages and in every other part of the
world. The language used by the educated Brazilians is just as correct
in the main as that used by the educated Portuguese. The difference
between the Portuguese spoken in Brazil and that spoken in Portugal is
similar to the difference between the English of North America and the
English of England--one about which the foreigner need not seriously
concern himself.
Portuguese is a remarkably phonetic language, and one accustomed to the
difficulties of the English, or even of the French, must be impressed
with the comparative simplicity of its spelling. Examples of the chief
orthographic difficulties are given at paragraph 13, pages 21-22. Those
who are interested in this subject should consult the scholarly work
of A. R. Gonçalves Viana entitled _Ortografia Nacional_, published
at Lisbon in 1904. Of late years there has been some agitation in
favor of orthographic reform, and the Brazilian Academy promulgated
in 1907 certain rules which, if followed, would still further tend
to simplify spelling. These rules, however, do not appear to have
been taken seriously as yet. The Brazilian scholar who has given most
careful and most practical attention to this matter of Portuguese
spelling is Professor M. Said Ali, of Rio de Janeiro. He has published
a _Vocabulario orthographico_ in which rules for greater simplicity
are laid down, and the words about which there is any question are all
given. The spelling given by Professor Said Ali has been followed in
the present work. In cases where two spellings have been or are used,
cross-references are made in the vocabulary.
The chief object of this book is to encourage and facilitate the study
of the Portuguese language and literature by English-speaking people.
It is not a little remarkable that the language has not been cultivated
more by English and American scholars.[2] It is generally regarded as
the most Latin of all the Latin tongues, and it certainly is a virile
one, and has a “classic solemnity that distinguishes it from all
other living languages.”[3] In addition, the literary, historical, and
philological treasures of the Portuguese commend it to the thoughtful
attention of scholars the world over, while the increasing commercial
importance of Portuguese-speaking nations entitle it to respectful
consideration and study for commercial, political, and diplomatic
reasons.
For many corrections and valuable suggestions the author gratefully
acknowledges his indebtedness to the able Brazilian historian,
Capistrano de Abreu, and to the distinguished grammarian, Professor
Said Ali, who have kindly read the manuscript. For any errors,
oversights, or other shortcomings of the work, however, these gentlemen
are in no way responsible.
+J. C. Branner.+
+Stanford University, California.+
FOOTNOTES:
[1] As an example see “Colleção de vocabulos e frases usados na
Provincia de S. Pedro do Rio Grande do Sul” por Antonio Alvares Pereira
Coruja. _Revista do Instituto Historico e Geographico do Brazil_, XV,
210-240. Rio de Janeiro, 1852.
[2] Sir Richard Burton makes this comprehensive remark about the
popular Anglo-Saxon idea of the Portuguese: “As a rule we dislike
the language because it is nasal, and we have a deep-rooted and most
ignorant idea that Portuguese, the most Latin of all the neo-Latin
tongues, is a ‘bastard dialect of Spanish.’” (Burton’s _Highlands of
Brazil_, I, 15.)
[3] Almeida Garrett. _Obras Completas_, XXI, 7.
CONTENTS
PAGE
+Preface+ v
+The Portuguese Language+ 1
I. +Sounds and Accents+ 4
Alphabet 4
Pronunciation 5
Vowels 5
Diphthongs 6
Nasal sounds 7
Consonants 7
Dialectical 11
Accent marks 12
Tone accent 13
Quantity 19
Syllabication 19
Capital letters 20
Orthography 21
II. +Articles+ 23
Definite article 23
Contractions 23
Syntax 24
Indefinite article 25
Syntax 26
III. +Nouns+ 26
Inflection 26
Plural formation 27
Plurals only 28
Compound words 28
Varied meanings 29
Gender 30
Masculine 30
Feminine 31
Common terminations 32
Nouns of opposite sexes 34
Related 35
Unrelated 35
Identical 35
Closely similar related nouns 35
Similar unrelated nouns 37
Qualifying suffixes 38
Augmentatives 41
Diminutives 41
IV. +Adjectives+ 43
Plural 43
Feminine 43
Comparison 44
Irregular comparisons 47
Augmentatives and diminutives 47
Syntax of nouns and adjectives 48
V. +Numerals+ 50
Cardinals 50
Ordinals 51
The fractions 52
Multiplication 53
Numeral substantives 54
Idioms with the numerals 54
VI. +Pronouns+ 56
Personals 56
Use of the third person 57
Reflexive 58
Duplication 58
Syntax of the personal pronoun 59
Possessives 61
Demonstratives 63
Determinatives 64
Interrogatives 65
Relatives 66
Indefinite 67
VII. +Verbs+ 69
Conjugations 69
Terminations of the regular verbs 70
Model verbs 72
Observations on the regular verbs 75
Auxiliary verbs 76
Conjugation of the auxiliary verbs 79
Irregular verbs 81
Reference list of irregular verbs 82
Variable participles of regular verbs 88
List of verbs having participles of two forms 89
Defective verbs 91
Subjects of verbs 91
Impersonal verbs 93
Prepositions required by verbs 94
Objects of verbs 96
Special uses of verbs 97
Periphrastic verb phrases 98
Reflexive verbs 99
Imperative and subjunctive 100
The subjunctive and the indicative 101
Personal infinitive 102
VIII. +The Indeclinables+ 103
Adverbs 103
Special cases 105
Negation 107
Double negative 107
Interrogation 108
Prepositions 108
Conjunctions 113
Interjections 114
Abbreviations 115
Similarity of words 117
IX. +Exercises+ 119
Examples of style 157
Os Santos Evangelhos 157
Alexandre Herculano 159
Almeida Garrett 162
Joaquim Nabuco 163
Julia Lopes d’Almeida 165
Gonçalves Dias 169
Marquez de Maricá 170
Luis de Camões 173
+Vocabularies+ 177
Portuguese-English Vocabulary 179
English-Portuguese Vocabulary 210
PORTUGUESE GRAMMAR
THE PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE
The Portuguese language[4] was evolved principally from the popular
Latin spoken in the Portuguese part of the Spanish peninsula after the
Roman conquest in the second century before Christ. Only a few words
of the former Celtic dialects spoken there were preserved in the later
Portuguese. The subsequent Gothic invasion also introduced a few words
of Germanic origin, while the religious life of the people led to the
introduction of certain words of Greek origin.
In the eighth century the Moors invaded the Spanish peninsula, and
for several hundred years occupied portions of that region. This
long contact of the Moors with the inhabitants of Portugal naturally
resulted in the introduction into the Portuguese language of a good
many words of Semitic origin; most of these words have as a prefix the
Arabian article =al=, such as =algodão=, _cotton_; =alfinete=, _pin_.
It was during the long Gothic and Arabian occupancy that the Latin
spoken in western Spain appears to have gradually taken on the form of
a distinct language that was spoken the whole length of the region now
known as Portugal.
The oldest-known documents in the Portuguese language date from the
last quarter of the twelfth century--about the time the Portuguese
monarchy was founded. It was only in the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries, however, that it became a literary language, and took on
permanent form.
A few words were introduced from the French and others from the
Provençal, while translations from the Latin introduced many words and
idioms from that language, partly, it is supposed, through the pedantry
of the translators. The Spanish language, on account of its literary
vogue, and on account of the proximity of its people and the similarity
of the two tongues, necessarily reacted upon the Portuguese. This vogue
was so marked that during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries many
Portuguese authors wrote in Spanish. The explorations of the Portuguese
navigators into the newly discovered parts of the world led to the
importation of some foreign words, and, at the same time, carried
colonists and established the language in Asia, Africa, and South
America.
In the sixteenth century the first Portuguese grammars were published
by Fernão de Oliveira and João de Barros, and these works materially
helped to fix the language.
It is said that of the living languages of Latin origin the Portuguese
most closely resembles the Latin. This is due to the fact that
Portugal, on account of its geographic position, has not been affected
by contact with the rest of the world so much as Italy, France, and
Spain.
In recent years, however, the increased facilities for international
communication, the demands of commerce and the requirements of various
enterprises and technical industries, and the spread of interest in
certain sports have caused the introduction of words from various
foreign tongues. In many cases the foreign words themselves have been
adopted but in others the words have been more or less modified.
FOOTNOTES:
[4] Condensed chiefly from the _Grammatica historica da lingua
Portuguesa_ por Antonio G. R. de Vasconcelloz. Lisboa, 1900.
I. SOUNDS AND ACCENTS
ALPHABET
=1.= The Portuguese alphabet is the same as the English except that it
contains no _w_.
Following are the Portuguese names of the letters together with their
approximate pronunciations.
LETTERS PORTUGUESE NAMES PRONUNCIATIONS WITH ENGLISH VALUES
=a= _a_ ah
=b= _be_ bay (short)[5]
=c= _ce_ say (short)[5]
=d= _de_ day (short)[5]
=e= _é_ ay (as _ea_ in health)
=f= _effe_ or _fê_ éffe _or_ fay
=g= _ge_ or _ji_ hjay (_hj_ = French _j_)[5]
=h= _agá_ agáh
=i= _i_ ee
=j= _jóta_ hjóta (_hj_ = French _j_) or _zh_
=k= _ka_ kah
=l= _elle_ or _lê_ élle[6] _or_ lay
=m= _emme_ or _mê_ émme[6] _or_ may
=n= _enne_ or _nê_ énne[6] _or_ nay
=o= _ó_ o (as in nor)
=p= _pe_ pay (short)[5]
=q= _que_ kay (short)[5]
=r= _erre_ or _rê_ érre[6] _or_ ray
=s= _esse_ or _si_ ésse[6] _or_ see
=t= _te_ tay (short)[5]
=u= _u_ oo (as in poor)
=v= _ve_ vay (short)[5]
=x= _xiz_ or _xê_ shiz _or_ shay
=y= _ypsilon_ ypsilon
=z= _ze_ zay (short)[5]
+Note.+--The letter =w= is only used in the foreign words in which it
occurs. It is called =dobleú=, very much as in English.
PRONUNCIATION
=2.= =Vowels.=--For the most part the vowels are pronounced separately,
so that each one forms a syllable. The only exceptions to this rule are
the nasal diphthongs.
The sounds of the vowels are characterized as _long_, _short_, _open_,
_close_, and _nasal._
+Sounds of the Vowels+
+PHONETIC APPROXIMATING THE
VALUES ENGLISH+ +EXAMPLES+
{ long _a_ in farther =sofá=
=a= { short _u_ in but =boca, festa=
{ nasal =manso=
The =a=-sounds differ in quantity rather than quality.
+PHONETIC VALUES+ +APPROXIMATING THE ENGLISH+ +EXAMPLES+
{ open _ea_ in health =café= (so accented)
{ close _a_ in table =sello= (sometimes
=e= { accented, as =mercê=)
{ short (or mute)[7] _e_ in winter =caracter=
{ nasal _ai_ in paint =pente=[8]
{ long _ee_ in bee =frío=
=i= { short _i_ in it =quási=
{ nasal _i_ in pin =injusto=
{ open _o_ in not =pó= (so accented)
=o= { close _o_ in note =boa, avô= (so accented)
{ short (or mute)[9] _o_ in block =locação, cravo=
{ nasal _o_ in long =pómpa=
{ long _ue_ in blue =perú=
=u= { short _oo_ in boot =tríbu=
{ (only shorter)
{ nasal _oo_ in room =túmba=
=u= is silent when preceded by =q= and followed by =e= or =i=: =aqui=
(pr. =akee=).
=y= is pronounced =ee= as if it were =i= long; it is nasal when
followed by =m=, as =tympano=. =Y= is much used in Brazil in words of
Tupy origin, as =Ivahy=, =Apody=.
=3.= =Diphthongs.=--It is customary to regard as pure diphthongs such
vowel combinations as =ae= in =pae=, =ai= in =vai=, =au= in =pau=,
=ei= in =lei=, =eo= in =deo=, =eu= in =breu=, =oe= in =heroe=, =iu= in
=viu=, =oi= in =boi=, =ui= in =fui=. It is to be noted, however, that
these combinations are pronounced, not as single sounds, but as if the
letters were sounded separately yet with a slight abbreviation from the
full values of the separate vowels.
The true diphthongs are known in Portuguese as the _nasal diphthongs_.
These are =ãe= as in =mãe=, =ão= as in =mão=, =õe= as in =põe=, =ũi= as
in =muito=. (=Muito=, however, is a unique case.)
=4.= =Nasal Sounds.=--There are nasal sounds for most of the vowels.
These are indicated either by the nasal diphthongs or by the single
vowels followed by =m= or =n=, as =tão= or =tam=, =bem=, =sim=, =bom=,
=um=. These words are pronounced as if they ended with an English _ng_
in which the _g_ is not heard. =Tão= is pronounced nearly as if written
=towng= with the =ng= sound omitted or cut short. =Bem= is pronounced
as if written =beng=, but without the =g= being sounded; =um= as if
written =oong= but omitting the =g= sound.
All syllables ending in =em=, =en=, =im=, =in=, =õ=, =om=, =on=, =um=,
and =un= have the nasal sound whether at the end of a word or followed
by a consonant.
=5.= =Consonants.=--The consonants not mentioned here are pronounced as
in English.
=b= is silent in =subdito=, _subject_ (pronounced as if written
=súdito=), and in =subjeitar=, an old form of =sujeitar=.
=ç= with the cedilla (=cedílha=) is soft as in French. The cedilla is
used to soften the sound of =c= before =a=, =o=, and =u=: =calças=
(pr. as if written =cálsas=).
=c= is silent when followed by =t= or =c=: =activo= (pr. as if
written =ativo=), =acção= (pr. as =ação=). Except =convicto=,
=pacto=, =fricção=, =convicção=.
=ch= has the sound of _sh_ in _she_: =chá= (pr. as if written
=shah=); before consonants and in words of Greek origin it has the
sound of _k_: =Christo= (pr. as =Krísto=).
=g= is hard before =a=, =o=, and =u= in all cases; before =e=, =i=,
and =y= it has the sound of the French =j=: =gelo= (pr. as if written
_hjelo_).
When =g= would ordinarily precede =e= or =i=, =u= is added
before those vowels in order to give or preserve the hard sound:
=entregar=, _to deliver_, has =entregue= for the past participle,
thus preserving the hard =g= sound.
=g= when followed by =n= is silent: in the words =signal= (as if
=sinal=) and =signalar= and words beginning with =assign=: as
=assignar=, =assignatura=.
=h= has no sound of its own in Portuguese; it is not a letter,
properly speaking, but an etymological mark or sign. It has a value,
however, in connection with =c=, =l=, =n=, and =p=, which see.
=j= is pronounced as in French, like _g_ in _midge_.
=lh= is pronounced like _lli_ in _million_. In writing and printing
these two letters belong to the syllable whose vowel follows
and must be kept together. The syllables of =cordilheira= are
=cor-di-lhei-ra=; of =filha= they are =fi-lha=.
=m= at the end of a word or syllable is nasal. =Bem= is pronounced as
if spelled =beng=, but without the final =g=-sound; =bemdito= (pr.
=bengdeeto=, but with the =g= silent).
In some words the =m= is apparently silent on account of the nasal
sound: =damno= (pr. as if written =dánno=).
=n= never ends a word in Portuguese except =irman=, _sister_, =iman=,
_magnet_, =hyphen=, =colon=, and certain antiquated forms like
=christan= for =christã=;[10] when it precedes final =s= it is nasal.
=nh= is sounded like _ni_ in _union_, that is like the Spanish _ñ_,
the Italian _gn_, or the French _gn_: =banho=, _bath_, =lenha=,
_fire-wood._ In syllabication these two letters, when so pronounced,
always belong with the vowel that follows them: =lenha= is divided
=le-nha.=
There are a few words, however, which are compounded of the prefix
=an= or =in=, in which the =nh= is not so pronounced or written:
such as =anhydro=, =inhabil=, =inhalar=, =inhibir=, =inhumano=.
=p= is silent before =t=: =prompto= (pr. as if spelled =prónto=);
=escripto= (pr. as if written =escríto=). Except that the =p= is
pronounced in =captar=, =raptar=, =optar=, =repto=, and =mentecapto=.
In =exempção= also the =p= is silent (pr. =izenssão=).
=ph= is pronounced like _f_: =photographia= (pr. as if spelled
=fotografía=).
=q= is always followed by =u=, and always has the sound of _k_. =Qu=
varies somewhat: before =a= and =o= the =u= is sounded, as =quando=
(pr. =kwándo=); but before =e= and =i= the =u= is used with the =q=
only for the purpose of producing or preserving the _k_ sound and is
therefore not heard: =quer= (pr. =ker=); =aqui= (pr. =akee=).
+Exceptions+: the =u= is sounded in =consequencia=, =frequente=,
=equestre=, =antiquíssimo=. It is also allowable to sound the =u=
in =questão=.
=r= has two sounds: when it begins a word, or is double, it is rolled
as in French or Spanish: =río=, =érro=; in other positions it is
pronounced by striking the tongue lightly against the roof of the
mouth almost as if pronouncing the letter =d=: =arara= (pr. nearly
as if spelled =adada= but with the =d= approaching the English
_r_-sound). Except: that the single =r= is rolled after =l=, =m=,
=n=, =s=: =honrar=, =tenro=, =genro=, =Henrique=, =melro=, =chilrar=.
=s= has the soft or hissing =s=-sound, and that of soft =z=. It has
the =z=-sound when it stands between vowels: =rosa=, =casa= (pr. as
if spelled =róza=, =cáza=). Except in cases of compound words where
it has the =s=-sound.
It has the soft =s=-sound in most other cases.
=th= has the sound of =t=: =theoria= is pronounced as if written
=teoria=.
=w= is used only in foreign words and should be pronounced as in the
language from which those words are taken.
=x= has several sounds as follows:
1. like the English _ks_ in words ending in =ex=, =ix=, and =ux=,
=fixar= and its compounds and derivatives, =flexão= and related
words such as =flexibilidade= and =sexo=, =fluxo=, =maximo=, and
=lexicologia= (=index= and =appendix= are pronounced =índes= and
=appéndes= in addition).
+Note.+--There are, however, some local differences in the
pronunciation of some of these words: =flexão= properly pronounced
=fleksão=, in Bahia is pronounced =flechão=.
2. like =s= when followed by =c=, =t=, or =p=: =extenso=, =excepto=
(pr. as if =esténso=, =escépto=).
3. like =z= when preceded by =e= and followed by a vowel or by =h=
and a vowel: =exemplo= (pr. =ezémplo=); =exercito= (pr. =ezército=);
=exhausto= (pr. =ezausto=).
4. It is like =ss= or =ç= in =trouxe=, =anxiedade=, =syntaxe=,
=defluxo=.
5. At the beginning of words, and in places other than those mentioned
above, it is pronounced like the English _sh_; most cases fall under
this rule: =xarope= (pr. as if =sharópe=); =exministro= (pr. as if
written =eijminístro=); =baixo= (pr. =báisho=); =lixo= (pr. =leesho=).
DIALECTICAL
=6.= In certain parts of Portugal one hears many pronunciations that
are purely dialectical. In Minho for example the people generally say
=binho= instead of =vinho=, _wine_, and =sordado= instead of =soldado=,
_soldier_. In Traz-os-Montes they say =tchapeo= for =chapeo=, _hat_,
=tchave= for =chave=, _key_, =djente= for =gente=, _folks_; the
=caipiras= or backwoodsmen of the state of São Paulo in Brazil have a
similar pronunciation which was probably introduced from Portugal.[11]
See the example quoted in the exercise at page 166.
In Portugal as a rule the quantity of the short syllables is
perceptibly shorter than in Brazil. =Sobrado=, =perigo=, and =pessoa=
are so pronounced in full in the latter country, while in Portugal they
are commonly pronounced =s’brado=, =p’rigo=, and =p’ssoa=. The =d= is
pronounced in Brazil nearly as it is in the English language, but in
Portugal it frequently has a strong resemblance to the English _th_ in
_these_, so that =desde= in Portugal sounds very like =thézthy=, and
=dedo=, like =dáytho=, the _th_ being soft like that in _though_.
=7.= =Slang.=--Like other languages Portuguese has its slang words or
expressions; such words and expressions are called =calão=, =gíria=,
or =geringónça=. Some of them are not Portuguese but simply fantastic
expressions; for the most part, however, they are the ordinary words
of the language used in some figurative or special sense. For example,
=estar na bagagem= literally means _to be in the baggage_, but it is a
slang expression used in regard to a person who is _behindhand_, or who
is _a slow coach_. =Mandachuva=, _one who orders the rain_, is slang
equivalent to the American expression _political boss_.[12]
ACCENT MARKS
=8.= The cedilla is used with =c= to show that that letter has the soft
=c= sound.
The tilde (~) is used to show that the vowel over which it is placed is
a nasal. It is only used over =a= and =o=.
The acute accent (´) and the circumflex (^) are used:
1. To show the position of the tonic accent, especially in homonyms
where there is a chance of mistaking one word for another, as =esta=,
_this_, and =está=, _it is_; =séria=, _serious_, and =sería=, _would
be_.
2. To indicate contractions: =em relação á= (for =a a=) =idéa=, _with
regard to the idea_.
+Note.+--The omission of the accent sometimes entirely changes the
meaning of a sentence; for example, =matar a sede= means _to quench
one’s thirst_, while =matar á sede= means _to kill with thirst_. In
the second sentence the =á= is a contraction of the preposition =a=,
_by_ or _with_, and the article =a=, _the_.
3. To indicate what are called open (´) and close (^) sounds of the
vowels =e= and =o=: =café=, =mercê=, =paletó=, =avô=.
TONE ACCENT
(See Exercise III, page 121)
=9.= Tone accent is a matter of so much importance in Portuguese that
it is often quite impossible to understand the spoken language when
the accents are improperly placed. Take as an illustration the word
=sabia=: the accent may make it =sábia=, a learned woman, =sabía=, _I
knew_ or _he knew_, or =sabiá=, _the Brazilian robin_.
This kind of a case is not exceptional. In speaking the language,
therefore, it is of the utmost importance that the accent be properly
placed.
The tone accent always falls on one of the last three syllables. There
is an apparent exception to this rule in the enclitic monosyllables
which are joined to certain other words, as =digo-lhe=, _I tell you_;
=gosta-lo=, _to like it_. In these instances the addition of this
enclitic does not change the position of the accent even when it falls
on the syllable preceding the antepenult. Example: =fála-se-lhes=.
_a._ There are no short and compact rules for guidance in the placing
of the tone accent, and to almost every rule formulated there are many
exceptions. The greatest number of words have it on the penult; fewest
have it on the antepenult. The following suggestions may be found
useful. For the accents of verbs see the models at § 107, pages 72-75.
_b._ The following words take the accent on the _final syllable_:
1. Those ending in the nasal diphthongs:
=ão=,[13] except =bénção=, =frángão=, =órfão=, and =órgão=;
=ãos=;
=ães=;
=ões=.
2. Words ending in
=i=, except =álcali=, =espermacéti=, =quási=;
=l=, except words of Latin origin ending in =ilis=, as =dócil=,
=fácil=, =hábil=, =útil=, and those ending in =vel=: =amável=,
=agradável=, =crível=, =nível=;
=im=;
=r=, except =assúcar=, =cadáver=, =cáncer=, =carácter=, =éther=,
=júnior=, =mártyr=, =néctar=, =súlphur=, and a few foreign words like
=repórter= and =revólver=;
=u=, except =tríbu=;
=y=, except =júry=, =tílbury=;
=z=.
_c._ The following have the accent on the _penult_:
1. Erudite forms from the Greek ending in =ia=: as =democracía=,
=geología=, =philosophía=, =autopsía=,[14] etc. Except the following
which take it on the antepenult: =comédia=, =polícia=, =encyclopédia=,
=geodésia=, =estratégia=, =necrománcia=, =pharmácia=.
2. Words ending as follows:[15]
+List of Words having the Accent on the Penult+
ENDING EXAMPLE
=-aco-a= velhaco
=-aço-a= bagaço
=-acho-a= despacho
=-acto-a= contacto
=-ado-a= delgado
=-ade= idade
=-ago-a= estrago
=-age-em= estalagem
=-aldo= ribaldo
=-alo-a= _exc._ escándalo, sándalo
=-alho-a= soalho
=-ama= panorama
=-ame= arame
=-ampo-a= estampa
=-ança= balança
=-anco-a= alavanca
=-ando-a= contrabando
=-anho-a= campanha
=-ano-a= porcelana
=-anto-a= adianta
=-ante= abundante
=-arco-a= comarca
=-ardo-a= mostarda
=-argo= amargo
=-aro= amparo, _exc._ pássaro
=-arro-a= cigarro
=-asso-a= devasso
=-asto-a= nefasto
=-aste= contraste
=-ato-a= combata
=-ate= abacate
=-avo-a= escravo
=-axo-a= (_see_ =acho=)
=-eço-a= aconteça
=-edo-a= brinquédo
=-ego-a= _exc._ tráfego
=-eiro= ferreiro
=-eite= leite
=-eito= respeito
=-ejo-a= gracejo
=-elho= evangelho
=-ello-a= cancello-a
=-elo= cogumelo
=-emo= extremo
=-eme= leme, _exc._ íngreme
=-ença= nascença
=-endo-a= legenda
=-enho-a= engenho
=-enso-a= imprensa
=-ense= cearense
=-ento-a= alimenta
=-ente= presente
=-erso-a= conversa
=-erto-a= concerto
=-essa= impressa
=-esto= modesto
=-eto-a= completo
=-ete= canivete
=-exa= perplexa
=-eza= baroneza
=-ice= velhice, _exc._ ápice, vertice, obice
=-icho= rabicho
=-iço-a= roliço
=-ife= recife
=-igo-a= _exc._ código, pródigo
=-ilho-a= quartilho
=-ilo-a= crocodilo
=-imba= cacimba
=-indo-a= tamarindo
=-ingo-a= domingo
=-ino-a= pepino
=-into-a= precinto-a
=-inte= ouvinte
=-ique= alambique
=-ira= caipira
=-isco-a= marisco
=-ismo-a= fatalismo
=-iso= paraiso
=-isto-a= revista
=-istro= registro
=-ite= limite, _exc._ trámite
=-ivo-a= objectivo
=-ixo-a= suffixo
=-izo-a= prejuizo
=-oa= canoa, _exc._ nódoa, névoa
=-oço-a= almoço
=-ode= pagode
=-ogo-a= fogo
=-oito-a= biscoito
=-olho-a= escolho
=-olo-a= viola, _exc._ frívolo, malévolo
=-olto-a= revolta
=-olvo= revolvo
=-oma= diploma
=-ombo-a= quilombo
=-ona= azeitona
=-onça= geringonça
=-ondo-a= redondo
maribondo
=-onga= oblonga
=-onha= vergonha
risonha
=-ono= abandono
=-onto-a= affronta
=-onte= horizonte
=-oque= reboque
=-ora= espora, _exc._ víbora, ámphora, cánfora
=-orço-a= esforça
=-orma= reforma
=-orme= conforme
=-orno-a= contorno
=-orro-a= cachorro
=-orto-a= morto
=-orte= consorte
=-oso= caprichoso
=-osso= colosso
=-osto-a= desgosta
=-oto-a= gafanhoto
terremoto
=-ote= serrote
=-uco-a= caduco
maluco
=-udo-a= agudo
=-ude= altitude
saude
=-ugem= ferrugem
=-uega= Noruega
=-ulho-a= embrulho
=-umo-a= resumo
=-ume= betume
=-uno-a= gatuno
=-umno-a= alumno
=-undo-a= fecunda
=-unho-a= testemunho
=-uncto-a= defuncta
=-upo-a= chalupa
=-uque= batuque
=-uro-a= figura
=-urro-a= empurra
=-uso-a= confusa
abuso
=-usto-a= robusta
arbusto
=-uto-a= enxuto
=-ucto= fructo
=-upto= corrupto
d. The following take the accent on the _antepenult_:
1. Masculine nouns from the Greek such as =astrónomo=, =geólogo=,
=philósopho=.
2. Absolute superlatives in =-imo=: =illustríssimo=, =óptimo=.
3. Words ending as in the following:
+List of Words having the Accent on the Antepenult+
ENDING EXAMPLE
=-acio= palacio
=-aculo= espectaculo
=-afico= biografico
=-aia= praia
=-alo= (_few_) escandalo, _exc._ badálo
=-ancia= abundancia
=-andega= alfandega
=-ania= subterrania
=-anico= vulcanico
=-antico= romantico
=-astico-a= elastica
=-atico-a= aquatico
=-eio-a= passeio
=-elico= evangelico
=-encia= corpulencia
=-enito= congenito
=-erico-a= generica
=-erio-a= materia, _exc._ bateria
=-errimo= miserrimo
=-etico-a= magnetico
=-etrico-a= geometrico
=-fugo= centrifugo
=-geno-a= indigena
=-icio-a= sacrificio
=-icie= superficie
=-iculo-a= agricola
=-idio-a= suicidio
=-ifero= montifero
=-ifico= magnifico
=-igero= belligero
=-ilio= exilio
=-inio-a= dominio
=-irio-a= delirio
=-itico-a= politica
=-itimo-a= legitimo
=-ivoro= carnivoro
=-odico= methodico
=-ogico= logico
=-ogio= relogio, _exc._ elogío
=-ographo= geographo
=-olico-a= diabolico
=-oloio= espolio
=-ologo= geologo
=-onico-a= carbonico
=-onio-a= demonio
=-onymo-a= enonymo
=-ore= arvore, marmore
=-orico-a= categorico
=-orio-a= historia, _exc._ categoría
=-otico-a= narcotico
=-uncio-a= pronuncio
=-undio-a= gerundio
=-unio= importunio
=-uo= melifluo, _exc._ amúo
=-uria= penuria
=-usculo= maiusculo
_e._ There is a natural tendency in Portuguese to avoid placing
the accent as far back as the antepenult; so much so that words
thus accented are called =esdrúxulos=, a word of Italian origin
(=sdrúcciolo=, _slippery_) which is used figuratively in Portuguese
to mean _odd_, _strange_, _extravagant_. The =esdrúxulos= are few in
number and are nearly all erudite forms.
QUANTITY
=10.= The tonic or accented vowels are always long; the atonic or
unaccented ones are generally short: =útil=, =agradável=.[16]
SYLLABICATION
(See Exercise IV, page 123)
=11.= In syllabication,
_a._ Diphthongs cannot be separated.
_b._ Monosyllables cannot be divided.
_c._ The consonant combinations =lh=, =nh=, =rh=, and =ph= cannot be
separated from each other or from the following vowels with which they
form syllables: =ma-nhã=, =ba-ta-lha=, =phi-lo-so-phí-a=.
_d._ A consonant between vowels belongs with the second one: =na-ríz=,
=bár-ba-ro=.
_e._ =G= and =q= followed by =u= remain with the vowel that follows:
=guin-das-te=, =qual-quer=.
_f._ Double consonants are separated: =bel-lo=, =af-fli-cto=.
_g._ Mute letters, =c= in =ch=, =t= in =th=, =g= in =gn=, =t= in
=ct=, =t= in =pt=, go with the following vowel: =ar-chi-tec-tu-ra=,
=pan-the-is-mo=, =si-gnal=, =fru-cto=, =ca-pti-vo=, =ex-em-pto=.
_h._ In nasal syllables =m= and =n= generally belong with the preceding
vowel: =bem-di-to=, =man-so=, =dan-sar=.
_i._ But when =m= is followed by =n= both of these letters belong with
the following vowel: =so-mno=, =da-mno=.
_j._ Compound words are divided according to their elements:
=sub-stan-ti-vo=.
CAPITAL LETTERS
=12.= The rules for capitals are the same in general as in English;
except that adjectives derived from proper names and =eu=, _I_, are
not written with capitals save for some other reason such as at the
beginning of a sentence: =francez=, _French_; =inglez=, _English_. This
rule is not invariable, however, and one sees the proper adjectives
sometimes with the capital and sometimes without. The use of the
capital in such cases is regarded by some authors as more strictly the
Portuguese custom.
In addressing persons as =Senhor=, =Senhora=, =Vossa Senhoria=, =Vossa
Santidade=, etc., it is the custom to begin these words with capitals.
But capitals are not used when a person is referred to without the
name, as =o sr. engenheiro tomou conta da estrada=.
ORTHOGRAPHY
=13.= Portuguese orthography is remarkably phonetic, and after a little
practise one can usually spell correctly words heard for the first
time. The etymology of the words, however, is not lost sight of, though
some writers adhere more closely to the etymology while others tend
toward phonetic simplification.
The only exceptions to the phonetic writing of vowel sounds are:
1. That unaccented =o= is generally pronounced like =u= short, as
=bonito= (pr. as if =bonítu=).
2. Unaccented =e= is often pronounced like =i= short, as =doce= (pr. as
if =dóci=).
_a._ The following will serve as examples of words spelled in different
ways. For present purposes either spelling may be regarded as correct.
ETYMOLOGICAL PHONETIC
SPELLING SPELLING MEANING
=apprender= =aprender= to learn
=approximar= =aproximar= to approach
=charidade= =caridade= charity
=commigo= =comigo= with me
=dicto= =dito= said
=edade= =idade= age
=egreja= =igreja= church
=eschola= =escola= school
=escripto= =escrito= written
=logar= =lugar= place
There are also many antiquated forms found in old books such as:
=he= for =é= is
=hum=, =huma= for =um=, =uma= a _or_ one
=sam= for =são= are
_b._ It is to be expected that the spelling of the present day should
differ considerably from that of the sixteenth century, but aside from
these differences one finds certain variations (called syncretic forms)
that often puzzle the beginner. These come chiefly from the equivalence
of the diphthongs =ou= and =oi=. The following is a list of the most
common syncretic forms. Either form is allowable.
+List of Common Syncretic Forms+
=açoute= =açoite= whip-lash
=cousa= =coisa= thing
=couro= =coiro= leather
=doudo= =doido= crazy
=dous= =dois= two
=lousa= =loisa= paving slate
=mouta= =moita= coppice
=noute= =noite= night
=ouro= =oiro= gold
=thesouro= =thesoiro= treasure
=vindouro= =vindoiro= future
_c._ On the whole the tendency is toward the phonetic spelling, a
tendency that has lately received much fresh impulse. These variations,
however, are not to be regarded as license to spell words in any
way.[17]
FOOTNOTES:
[5] In these words the =ay= is not drawn out; for example the =day= has
the sound of _day_ in Friday.
[6] These words take the tonic accent on the first syllable; the final
=e= is short.
[7] Unaccented =e= at the beginning or end of a word and before =s= and
=a= has the phonetic value of =i= short: =bréve= = =brevi=; =estíma= =
=istíma=; =egual= = =igual=; =veádo= = =viádo=; =leão= = =lião=.
[8] The =e= is nasal when followed by =n=, as in =desenho=, =tenha=,
=bens=; it also sounds as if written =ei= when followed by =j=, as
=desejo=, =igreja=, =seja=, =veja=, etc., which are pronounced as if
written =deseijo=, etc.
[9] Unaccented =o= at the end of a word is equivalent to =u= short:
=póvo= = =póvu=.
[10] It has lately been proposed in favor of orthographical reform
that short final syllables now ending in =ã= shall be written =an=, as
=iman=, =firman=, =orphan=, and the long ones shall end with the =ã=,
as =irmã=, =manhã=, and =allemã=.
[11] Julio Ribeiro, _Grammatica Portugueza_, 9-10.
[12] _A giria Brazileira_, “Brazilian Slang,” is the title of an
interesting little book published at Bahia in 1899 by an able Brazilian
scholar.
[13] It was formerly the custom to write the final syllable of the
third person plural of the first conjugation =ão=, thus =ámão=,
=amávão=, =amarão=, =amaríão=. In these cases the accent does not fall
on the final =ão= except in the future =amarão=. It is now the custom
to end these words in =am=, reserving the =ão=, for the future which is
accented according to the rule.
[14] In Rio de Janeiro they say =autópsia=.
[15] This list might be extended, but the exceptions become too
numerous for convenience.
[16] Professor Said Ali kindly adds the following important note
regarding this rule: When the tonic vowel is followed by =c=, =f=,
=p=, =rr=, =ss=, or =t=, it is short. Compare =bote=, =bode=; =mato=,
=medo=; =faca=, =vaga=.
[17] The most comprehensive study of modern Portuguese orthography is
_Ortografia nacional, simplificação e uniformização sistematica das
ortografias portuguesas_. Por A. R. Gonçalvez Viana. Lisboa, 1904.
II. ARTICLES
DEFINITE ARTICLE
(See Exercise V, page 125)
=14.= The definite article has gender and number to agree with its noun.
MASCULINE FEMININE ENGLISH
_Singular_ =o= =a= the
_Plural_ =os= =as= the
The Spanish form of the definite article is used in two instances:
=El-Rei=, _the King_, and =Eldorado=.
=15.= =Contractions.=--The articles combine with certain prepositions
as follows:
_a._ =a=, _to_, combines with the different forms of the article making
=ao=, =á=, =aos= and =ás=, _to the_.
_b._ =de=, _of_, combines with them forming =do=, =da=, =dos=, and
=das=, _of the_.
_c._ =em=, _in_, combines with them to form =no=, =na=, =nos=, and
=nas=, _in the_ (instead of =em o=, =em a=, etc.).
_d._ =per=, _by_, combines with them forming =pelo=, =pela=, =pelos=,
and =pelas=, _by the_. =Polo= and =pola= are antiquated forms.
+Use of the Definite Article with Prepositions+
_Singular_ _Plural_
MASC. FEM. MASC. FEM.
=a= to =ao= =á= =aos= =ás= to the
=de= of =do= =da= =dos= =das= of the
=em= in =no= =na= =nos= =nas= in the
=per= by =pelo= =pela= =pelos= =pelas= by the
=16.= =Syntax of the Definite Article.=--The definite article is used
as a determinative: =o menino=, _the boy_; =o bom=, _the good_.
It is used before certain proper geographical names, especially those
of rivers, mountains, seas, etc.: =a França=, _France_; =o Téjo=, _the
Tagus_; =o Andes=, _the Andes_; =o Atlantico=, _the Atlantic_.
In Brazil this rule is not universally followed. The names of the
states of Parahyba and Bahia are used with the feminine article, while
the article is not generally used with the names of the states of
Pernambuco, Alagôas, Sergipe, São Paulo, Santa Catherina, Minas Geraes,
and Mato Grosso.
It is used familiarly before the names of persons: =onde está o João?=
_where is John?_; =o Guimarães chegou=, _Guimarães has come_.
It is used before pronouns and possessive adjectives: =o meu chapeo=,
_my hat_; =a tua vontade=, _thy will_. In this case the article may
be omitted in familiar style. It is also omitted in speaking of one’s
kin, as =meu pai=, _my father_, not =o meu pai=, unless emphasis is
required, when it is used.
It is inserted before nouns used in a general sense where _in general,
all, every_ may be understood: =o ouro é mais precioso que a prata=,
_gold is more precious than silver_.
It is used to indicate time and season: =ás duas horas=, _at two
o’clock_; =no inverno=, _in winter_.
It is used before nouns of weight and measure: =dois milreis o kilo=,
=o metro=, _two milreis a kilo_, _a meter_.
It is used before the names of languages: =estudando o portuguez=,
_studying Portuguese_; =entendo o francez=, _I understand French_.
It is used after verbs denoting possession: =estou com as mãos sujas=,
_my hands are soiled_; =tem os olhos pretos=, _he_ (or _she_) _has
black eyes_.
It is used after =todo= in both numbers: =todo o homem é mortal= or
=todos os homens são mortaes=, _all men are mortal_.
It is used before certain titles: =O Senhor Costa=, =O Coronel Sampaio=.
It is omitted before the titles =Sua Majestade=, _His Majesty_; =Vossa
Alteza=, _Your Highness_; =Vossa Senhoria=.
It is omitted before numerals used as titles: =Carlos quinto=, _Charles
the fifth_.
It is omitted with appositional nouns: =é filho do Coronel=, _he is the
son of the colonel_.
(For demonstrative pronouns having the same forms as the definite
articles see § 65_c_. and § 87.)
INDEFINITE ARTICLE
(See Exercise VI, page 126)
=17.= The indefinite article has gender and number to agree with its
noun.
MASCULINE FEMININE ENGLISH
_Singular_ =um= =uma= a, an[18]
_Plural_ =uns= =umas= some
=18.= =Contractions.=--The indefinite article combines with =em= _in_
forming =num=, =numa=, =nuns=, and =numas= (in place of =em um=, etc.).
It also combines with =de=, _of_, forming =dum=, though this is
generally written =d’um=.
The old form of the indefinite article was =hum=, =huma=, etc. The
indefinite article has a negative form =nenhum=, _none_, which still
retains the =h= that one often sees in the old forms.
_a._ =Syntax of the Indefinite Article.=--The indefinite article always
precedes its noun or its substantive adjective, as =uma pessoa=, _a
person_; =um desconhecido=, _an unknown person_.
_b._ The indefinite article is omitted:
1. Before predicative nouns denoting what a person is: =seu amigo
é general=, _his friend is a general_; =elle assentou praça=, _he
enlisted_.
2. After verbs of possession or denoting condition: =estou com fome=,
_I am hungry_; =tenho bom apetite=, _I have a good appetite_.
3. After various indefinites, =outro=, =tal=, =certo=, =tanto=,
=semelhante=, etc.: =tal dia=, =tal noite=, _such a day_, _such a
night_; =foi sem dizer palavra=, _he went without saying a word_.
4. After an exclamatory =que=: =que bella noite=, _what a fine night_.
FOOTNOTES:
[18] The indefinite article =um=, =uma=, should not be confused with
the cardinal number which has the same form in the singular (see page
50) but has no plural.
III. NOUNS
INFLECTION
=19.= Portuguese nouns have no case forms; they distinguish in form
only between singular and plural.
PLURAL FORMATION
(See Exercise VII, page 127)
=20.= The plural is formed by adding =s= to the singular: =amigo=,
_friend_, pl. =amigos=; =casa=, _house_, pl. =casas=.
To this rule there are the following exceptions:
1. Final =m= changes to =n= before the final =s=: =homem=, _man_, pl.
=homens=.
2. Final =ix= and =ex= change to =ice= before the final =s=: =index=,
pl. =indices=; =appendix=, pl. =appendices=.
3. Final =r= and =z= add =e= before the final =s=: =mar=, _sea_, pl.
=mares=; =cruz=, _cross_, pl. =cruzes=.
4. Final =al=, =ol=, and =ul= are changed to =aes=, =oes=, and =ues=:
=sal=, _salt_, pl. =saes=; =dedal=, _thimble_, pl. =dedaes=; =anzol=,
_fish-hook_, pl. =anzoes=; =paul=, _swamp_, pl. =paues=.
Except that =consul=, =mal=, =cal=, =real= (_money_) have for plurals
=consules=, =males=, =cales=, and =reis=.
5. Final =el= is changed to =eis=: =papel=, _paper_, pl. =papeis=;
=annel=, _ring_, pl. =anneis=. =Mel=, _honey_, becomes either =meis= or
=meles=.
6. Final =il=, when the word has the acute accent, is changed to =is=:
=barril=, _barrel_, pl. =barris=; =funil=, _funnel_, pl. =funis=.
When, however, the word has the grave accent the final =il= is changed
to =eis=: =dócil=, _docile_, pl. =doceis=; =fóssil=, _fossil_, pl.
=fósseis=.
_a._ Nouns ending in =ão= form the plural in three ways:
1. Most nouns ending in =ão= change =ão= to =ões=: =acção=, =acções=.
2. A few add =s= to the singular: these are =mão=, =irmão=, =pagão=,
=orfão=, =orgão=, =sotão=, =temporão=, =vão=, =zangão=.
3. A few others change =ão= to =ães=: =escrivão=, _notary_, pl.
=escrivães=. These are =allemão=, =cão=, =capellão=, =capitão=,
=catalão=, =charlatão=, =deão=, =ermitão=, =escrivão=, =guardião=,
=pão=, =sacristão=, =tabellião=.
_b._ Nouns ending in =s= have the same form in the plural: =o pires=,
=os pires=, _the saucers_; =o caes=, =os caes=, _the quays_. Except
=Deus=, =cos=, and =simples= (_drug_) become =deuses=, =coses=,
=simplices=.
_c._ When the accent of a word ending in =ão= is grave, the plural
is always in =ãos=: =órgão=, _organ_, pl. =orgãos=; and similarly
=benção=, _blessing_; =accordão=, _sentence of a court_; =sotão=,
_attic_.
=21.= =Plurals Only.=--Many nouns are used only in the plural. Such are
=algemas=, fetters
=alviçaras=, rewards
=annaes=, annals
=arredores=, environs
=calças=, trousers
=calendas=, calends
=ceroulas=, drawers
=confins=, confines
=completas=, complin
=exequias=, funeral rites
=expensas=, costs
=ferias=, holidays
=manes=, shades
=matinas=, matins
=nonas=, nones
=nupcias=, nuptials
=trevas=, darkness
=viveres=, provisions
=22.= =Compound Words.=--Compound words generally have the
plural form for the final word when one of the components has an
adverbial sense: =salvo-conducto=, pl. =salvo-conductos=; =linguas
neo-latinas=, _neo-Latin languages_; =jornaes luso-brasileiros=,
_Portuguese-Brazilian journals_; =guarda-sol=, _sunshade_, pl.
=guarda-soes=; =contra-veneno=, _antidote_, pl. =contra-venenos=.
_a._ Compound words take the plural in both parts when they both
represent functions belonging to the noun: =surdo-mudo=, _deaf-mute_,
pl. =surdos-mudos=.
_b._ As in English some nouns are plural but are used only in a
singular sense: =Montes Claros fica na planicie=, _Montes Claros is on
the plain_.
Compound words united by =de= usually take the plural in the first part
only: =flor-de-lis=, pl. =flores-de-lis=.
_c._ Plural nouns that take the article, however, are used in the
plural: =os Alpes ficam na Suissa=, _the Alps are in Switzerland_; =os
Estados Unidos fizeram guerra=, _the United States made war_.
=23.= =Varied Meanings.=--Some names change their meaning with the
change of number. These correspond to similar changes that take place
in the English language as illustrated by the words _iron_ and _irons_,
_liberty_ and _liberties_.
SINGULAR MEANING PLURAL MEANING
=bem= well, good =bens= property
=côrte= court =côrtes= congress, tribunals
=dote= dowery =dotes= accomplishments
=ferro= iron =ferros= shackles
=filho= son =filhos= children (_or_ sons)
=honra= honor =honras= solemnities
=letra= letter =letras= literature
=liberdade= liberty =liberdades= impertinence
=molhado= wet =molhados= groceries
=pai= father =pais= parents
=parte= part =partes= parties (_judicial_)
=secco= dry =seccos= dry-goods
=zelo= zeal =zelos= jealousy
GENDER OF NOUNS
(See Exercise VIII, page 128)
=24.= Gender is grammatical, and all nouns are either masculine or
feminine.[19]
The gender of words is sometimes determined by meaning and at other
times by termination.
There are no rules covering all cases, and there are many exceptions to
those given below.
=25.= =Masculine.=--The following are _masculine_:
1. Nouns denoting males and their offices and occupations: =o homem=,
_the man_; =o cavallo=, _the horse_; =juiz=, _judge_; =pai=, _father_.
+Note.+--In the names of animals having two genders the masculine
form is generally used to designate the species: =o lobo=, _the wolf_.
2. Nouns not implying sex distinction and ending in
=á= (=a= with acute accent) =sofá=, =tafetá=, =chá= (except =a pá=,
_shovel_ or _spade_).
=é= (except =chaminé=, =fé=, =galé=, =maré=, =ré=, =sé=).
=i= (except =lei=, _law_, =grei=, _flock_).
=o= (short or mute). This does not refer to the ending =ão=.
=ó= (accented =o=) for the most part. The following, however, are
feminine: =enxó=, _adz_; =mó=, _millstone_; =avó=, _grandmother_;
=filhó=, _cake_; =ilhó=, _eyelet_.
=l= (except =cal=, _lime_, =cathedral=, =moral=, =pastoral=).
=m= (except =ordem=, _order_, and those ending in =gem=).
=r= (except =colher=, _spoon_; =côr=, _color_; =dôr=, _pain_; =flôr=,
_flower_).
=s= (except those used only in the plural and ending in =as=:
=andas=, =arrhas=, =cocegas=, and a few in =es=: =preces=,
=ephemerides=).
3. Nouns ending in =ote= and =ume= are generally masculine.
Examples: =dote=, =chicote=, =lume=, =costume=, =betume=.
4. Infinitive verbs are masculine when used as substantives: =o andar
do cavallo=, _the gait of the horse_.
5. Masculine are the names of seas, rivers, lakes, and mountains, of
the letters of the alphabet, of the numbers, the months, the points of
the compass, and the notes in music.
=26.= =Feminine.=--The following are _feminine_: