mentioned in the note, page 50, that the primitive inhabitants of
Britain were denominated Guydelians, and the Cymri or Welsh were
another branch of the Celtic Cimbri, who came from the North, settled
in Britain and gave name to the language.
[132] It is commonly observed, that different climates, airs and
aliments, do very much diversify the tone of the parts and muscles
of human bodies; on some of which the modulation of the voice much
depends. The peculiar moisture of one country, the drought of another
(other causes from food, &c. concurring) extend or contract, swell or
attenuate, the organs of the voice, that the sound made thereby is
rendered either shrill or hoarse, soft or hard, plain or lisping, in
proportion to that contraction or extension. And hence it is, that the
Chinese and Tartars have some sounds in their language, that Europeans
can scarcely imitate: And it is well known in Europe itself, that an
Englishman is not able agreeably to converse with a stranger, even in
one and the same Latin; nay, even in England, it is noted by Mr. Camden
and Dr. Fuller, that the natives of Carleton Curlew in Leicestershire,
by a certain peculiarity of the place, have the turn of their voice
very different from those of the neighboring villages.
[133] _JILD Teka_, thou art my son. Psalm ii. 7.
[134] _MEREDUTH_ is the same with _Merad_, a British name.
[135] It has this sound in most of the ancient tongues.
[136] The armorial ensign of Carthage was a _horse_.
[137] It is remarkable that the Germans pronounce this word _wollen_,
and _woll_, like the Roman _volo_, pronounced _wolo_. Many old people
in America retain this pronunciation to this day; I _woll_, or _wool_,
for _will_.
The Roman pronunciation of _v_ is still preserved in England and
America; _veal_, weal; _vessel_, wessel; and _w_ is often changed into
_v_ or _f_; _wine_, vine, or even fine.
The Romans often pronounced _t_ where we use _d_; as _traho_, draw.
[138] In teaching English to a Spaniard, I found that in attempting to
pronounce words beginning with _w_, he invariably began with the sound
of _gu_; _well_, he would pronounce _guell_.
[139] This word is found in most of the branches of the Gothic.
[140] Allusive to the ancient custom of pardoning by giving permission
to depart.
[141] Frontier settlement; so called, because the Romans _passed thro_
this territory, in going to or from Rome.
[142] The French and Spanish rarely or never aspirate an _h_; and in
this word they have omitted it mostly in writing.
[143] The above specimen of the ancient Irish is judged to be a
thousand years old. See O'Conner's Dissertation on the History of
Ireland. Dublin, 1766, 8 vo.
[144] Feichneinibh.
[145] "Hunc sonum (gh) Anglos in vocibus _light_, _might_, &c. olim
protulisse sentio; at nunc dierum, quamvis scripturam retineant, sonum
tamen fera penitus omittunt. Boreales tamen, presertim Scoti, fere
adhuc retinent seu potius ipsius loco sonum _b_ substituunt."----Wallis.
[146] The Runic excepted. The Runic letters were sixteen in number, and
introduced very early into the North; but they went into disuse about
the tenth or eleventh century.
[147] _BENJAMIN is son of the right hand._
[148] Their.
[149] Mixture; an old French word, now written _melange_.
[150] corrupted.
[151] These words represent barbarity and roughness in speaking.
[152] Corruption of the native tongue.
[153] hear
[154] since
[155] know. The Germans preserve the verb _koennen_, to be able. The
pronouns _hir_ and _hire_ for _their_, still remain in the German _ihr_.
[156] Country-people, so called from, their living on the mountains or
high lands; hence _outlandish_.
[157] attempt with eagerness.
[158] time.
[159] _sithe_ is the origin of _since_.
[160] _Del_ signifies a _part_ or division; it is from the verb
_dæler_ to divide, and the root of the English word _deal_. _Dæler_ is
preserved in the Danish.
[161] learning.
[162] their.
[163] In the original these words are obscure.
[164] This is from the verb _sollen_, implying obligation, duty.
[165] their.
[166] foreign; Lat. _advena_.
[167] realm.
[168] divided.
[169] Scarcely.
[170] hardly.
[171] dwelleth.
[172] far.
[173] I find in an "Essay on the language and versification of Chaucer"
prefixed to Bell's edition of his works, part of this extract copied
from a Harlein manuscript, said to be more correct than the manuscript
from which Dr. Hickes copied it. But on comparing the extracts in both,
I find none but verbal differences; the sense of both is the same.
[174] In a charter of Edward III. dated 1348, _yeven_ is used for
_given_. _Yave_ for _gave_ is used by Chaucer.--Knight's Tale, line
2737. "And _yave_ hem giftes after his degree." In a charter of Edward
the Confessor, _gif_ is used in its Saxon purity. In the same charter,
_Bissop his land_, is used for a genitive. The Scotch wrote _z_ for
_y_; _zit_ for _yet_; _zeres_ for _years_.--Douglass. I do not find,
at this period, the true Saxon genitive in use: The _Bissop his land_,
is deemed an error. This mode of speaking has however prevailed, till
within a few years, and still has its advocates. But it is certain the
Saxons had a proper termination for the genitive or possessive, which
is preserved in the two first declensions of the German.
Example of the declension of nouns among the Saxons.
A WORD.
_Sing._ _Plu._
Nom. Word word
Gen. Wordes worda
Dat. Worde wordum
Acc. Word word
Voc. Eala thu word eala ge word
Abl. Worde wordum
Hickes Sax. Gram.
[175] CUSTODES in castellis strenuos viros ex Gallis collocavit, et
opulenta beneficia, pro quibus labores et pericula libenter tolerâ
rent, distribuit.--Orderic. Vital. lib. 4.
[176] The word _ax_ for _ask_ is not a modern corruption. It was an
ancient dialect, and not vulgar.
[177] So Gillies, in his Hist. of Greece, chap. II. talks about the
death of the "_friend_ of Achilles;" but leaves the reader to discover
the person--not having once mentioned the name of _Patroclus_. I
would observe further that such appellations as the _son of Leda_ are
borrowed from the Greek; but wholly improper in our language. The
Greeks had a distinct ending of the name of the father to signify son
or descendants; as _Heraclidæ_. This form of the noun was known and had
a definite meaning in Greece; but in English the idiom is awkward and
embarrassing.
[178] Readers of the last description are the most numerous.
[179] _Czar_, the Russian appellation or Emperor, is a contraction of
_Cæsar_. It is pronounced in the Russian, _char_ or _tshar_.
[180] In ancient inscription, and the early Roman authors, _v_ was
written _u_, and pronounced _oo_ or _w_. The following extracts from
the laws of Romulus, &c. will give the reader an idea of the early
orthography of the Latin tongue:--
1 DEOS patrios colunto: externas superstitiones aut fabulas ne
admiscento.
3 NOCTURNA sacrificia peruigiliaque amouentor.
8 VXOR farreatione viro iuncta, in sacra et bona eius venito--ius
deuortendi ne esto.
13 SI pater filiom ter venumduit, filius a patre liber esto.
_A law of Numa._
5 QUI terminum exarasit, ipsus et boues sacrei sunto.
_A law of Tullius Hostillius._
2 NATI trigemini, donicum puberes esunt, de publico aluntor.
[Illustration]
_APPENDIX._
AN
ESSAY
_On the_ NECESSITY, ADVANTAGES _and_ PRACTICABILITY _of_ REFORMING
_the_ MODE _of_ SPELLING, _and of_ RENDERING _the_ ORTHOGRAPHY _of_
WORDS CORRESPONDENT _to the_ PRONUNCIATION.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
It has been observed by all writers on the English language, that
the orthography or spelling of words is very irregular; the same
letters often representing different sounds, and the same sounds often
expressed by different letters. For this irregularity, two principal
causes may be assigned:
1. The changes to which the pronunciation of a language is liable, from
the progress of science and civilization.
2. The mixture of different languages, occasioned by revolutions in
England, or by a predilection of the learned, for words of foreign
growth and ancient origin.
To the first cause, may be ascribed the difference between the spelling
and pronunciation of Saxon words. The northern nations of Europe
originally spoke much in gutturals. This is evident from the number of
aspirates and guttural letters, which still remain in the orthography
of words derived from those nations; and from the modern pronunciation
of the collateral branches of the Teutonic, the Dutch, Scotch and
German. Thus _k_ before _n_ was once pronounced; as in _knave_, _know_;
the _gh_ in _might_, _though_, _daughter_, and other similar words; the
_g_ in _reign_, _feign_, &c.
But as savages proceed in forming languages, they lose the guttural
sounds, in some measure, and adopt the use of labials, and the more
open vowels. The ease of speaking facilitates this progress, and
the pronunciation of words is softened, in proportion to a national
refinement of manners. This will account for the difference between the
ancient and modern languages of France, Spain and Italy; and for the
difference between the soft pronunciation of the present languages of
those countries, and the more harsh and guttural pronunciation of the
northern inhabitants of Europe.
In this progress, the English have lost the sounds of most of the
guttural letters. The _k_ before _n_ in _know_, the _g_ in _reign_,
and in many other words, are become mute in practice; and the _gh_ is
softened into the sound of _f_, as in _laugh_, or is silent, as in
_brought_.
To this practice of softening the sounds of letters, or wholly
suppressing those which are harsh and disagreeable, may be added a
popular tendency to abbreviate words of common use. Thus _Southwark_,
by a habit of quick pronunciation, is become _Suthark_; _Worcester_ and
_Leicester_, are become _Wooster_ and _Lester_; _business_, _bizness_;
_colonel_, _curnel_; _cannot_, _will not_, _cant_, _wont_.[181] In this
manner the final _e_ is not heard in many modern words, in which it
formerly made a syllable. The words _clothes_, _cares_, and most others
of the same kind, were formerly pronounced in two syllables.[182]
Of the other cause of irregularity in the spelling of our language,
I have treated sufficiently in the first Dissertation. It is here
necessary only to remark, that when words have been introduced from a
foreign language into the English, they have generally retained the
orthography of the original, however ill adapted to express the English
pronunciation. Thus _fatigue_, _marine_, _chaise_, retain their French
dress, while, to represent the true pronunciation in English, they
should be spelt _fateeg_, _mareen_, _shaze_. Thus thro an ambition to
exhibit the etymology of words, the English, in _Philip_, _physic_,
_character_, _chorus_, and other Greek derivatives, preserve the
representatives of the original ~Ph~ and ~Ch~; yet these words are
pronounced, and ought ever to have been spelt, _Fillip_, _fyzzic_ or
_fizzic_, _karacter_, _korus_.[183]
But such is the state of our language. The pronunciation of the words
which are strictly _English_, has been gradually changing for ages, and
since the revival of science in Europe, the language has received a
vast accession of words from other languages, many of which retain an
orthography very ill suited to exhibit the true pronunciation.
The question now occurs; ought the Americans to retain these faults
which produce innumerable in conveniencies in the acquisition and use
of the language, or ought they at once to reform these abuses, and
introduce order and regularity into the orthography of the AMERICAN
TONGUE?
Let us consider this subject with some attention.
Several attempts were formerly made in England to rectify the
orthography of the language.[184] But I apprehend their schemes failed
of success, rather on account of their intrinsic difficulties, than
on account of any necessary impracticability of a reform. It was
proposed, in most of these schemes, not merely to throw out superfluous
and silent letters, but to introduce a number of new characters. Any
attempt on such a plan must undoubtedly prove unsuccessful. It is not
to be expected that an orthography, perfectly regular and simple,
such as would be formed by a "Synod of Grammarians on principles of
science," will ever be substituted for that confused mode of spelling
which is now established. But it is apprehended that great improvements
may be made, and an orthography almost regular, or such as shall
obviate most of the present difficulties which occur in learning our
language, may be introduced and established with little trouble and
opposition.
The principal alterations, necessary to render our orthography
sufficiently regular and easy, are these:
1. The omission of all superfluous or silent letters; as _a_ in
_bread_. Thus _bread_, _head_, _give_, _breast_, _built_, _meant_,
_realm_, _friend_, would be spelt, _bred_, _hed_, _giv_, _brest_,
_bilt_, _ment_, _relm_, _frend_. Would this alteration produce any
inconvenience, any embarrassment or expense? By no means. On the
other hand, it would lessen the trouble of writing, and much more, of
learning the language; it would reduce the true pronunciation to a
certainty; and while it would assist foreigners and our own children in
acquiring the language, it would render the pronunciation uniform, in
different parts of the country, and almost prevent the possibility of
changes.
2. A substitution of a character that has a certain definite sound, for
one that is more vague and indeterminate. Thus by putting _ee_ instead
of _ea_ or _ie_, the words _mean_, _near_, _speak_, _grieve_, _zeal_,
would become _meen_, _neer_, _speek_, _greev_, _zeel_. This alteration
could not occasion a moment's trouble; at the same time it would
prevent a doubt respecting the pronunciation; whereas the _ea_ and
_ie_ having different sounds, may give a learner much difficulty. Thus
_greef_ should be substituted for _grief_; _kee_ for _key_; _beleev_
for _believe_; _laf_ for _laugh_; _dawter_ for _daughter_; _plow_ for
_plough_; _tuf_ for _tough_; _proov_ for _prove_; _blud_ for _blood_;
and _draft_ for _draught_. In this manner _ch_ in Greek derivatives,
should be changed into _k_; for the English _ch_ has a soft sound,
as in _cherish_; but _k_ always a hard sound. Therefore _character_,
_chorus_, _cholic_, _architecture_, should be written _karacter_,
_korus_, _kolic_, _arkitecture_; and were they thus written, no person
could mistake their true pronunciation.
Thus _ch_ in French derivatives should be changed into sh; _machine_,
_chaise_, _chevalier_, should be written _masheen_, _shaze_,
_shevaleer_; and _pique_, _tour_, _oblique_, should be written _peek_,
_toor_, _obleek_.
3. A trifling alteration in a character, or the addition of a point
would distinguish different sounds, without the substitution of a new
character. Thus a very small stroke across _th_ would distinguish its
two sounds. A point over a vowel, in this manner, _[.a]_ or _[.e]_, or
_[.i]_, might answer all the purposes of different letters. And for the
dipthong _ow_, let the two letters be united by a small stroke, or both
engraven on the same piece of metal, with the left hand line of the _w_
united to the _o_.
These, with a few other inconsiderable alterations, would answer every
purpose, and render the orthography sufficiently correct and regular.
The advantages to be derived from these alterations are numerous, great
and permanent.
1. The simplicity of the orthography would facilitate the learning
of the language. It is now the work of years for children to learn
to spell; and after all, the business is rarely accomplished. A few
men, who are bred to some business that requires constant exercise in
writing, finally learn to spell most words without hesitation; but most
people remain, all their lives, imperfect masters of spelling, and
liable to make mistakes, whenever they take up a pen to write a short
note. Nay, many people, even of education and fashion, never attempt to
write a letter, without frequently consulting a dictionary.
But with the proposed orthography, a child would learn to spell,
without trouble, in a very short time, and the orthography being very
regular, he would ever afterwards find it difficult to make a mistake.
It would, in that case, be as difficult to spell _wrong_, as it is now
to spell _right_.
Besides this advantage, foreigners would be able to acquire the
pronunciation of English, which is now so difficult and embarrassing,
that they are either wholly discouraged on the first attempt, or
obliged, after many years labor, to rest contented with an imperfect
knowlege of the subject.
2. A correct orthography would render the pronunciation of the
language, as uniform as the spelling in books. A general uniformity
thro the United States, would be the event of such a reformation as I
am here recommending. All persons, of every rank, would speak with some
degree of precision and uniformity.[185] Such a uniformity in these
states is very desireable; it would remove prejudice, and conciliate
mutual affection and respect.
3. Such a reform would diminish the number of letters about one
sixteenth or eighteenth. This would save a page in eighteen; and a
saving of an eighteenth in the expense of books, is an advantage that
should not be overlooked.
4. But a capital advantage of this reform in these states would be,
that it would make a difference between the English orthography and the
American. This will startle those who have not attended to the subject;
but I am confident that such an event is an object of vast political
consequence. For,
The alteration, however small, would encourage the publication of
books in our own country. It would render it, in some measure,
necessary that all books should be printed in America. The English
would never copy our orthography for their own use; and consequently
the same impressions of books would not answer for both countries.
The inhabitants of the present generation would read the English
impressions; but posterity, being taught a different spelling, would
prefer the American orthography.
Besides this, a _national language_ is a band of _national union_.
Every engine should be employed to render the people of this country
_national_; to call their attachments home to their own country; and
to inspire them with the pride of national character. However they may
boast of Independence, and the freedom of their government, yet their
_opinions_ are not sufficiently independent; an astonishing respect
for the arts and literature of their parent country, and a blind
imitation of its manners, are still prevalent among the Americans.
Thus an habitual respect for another country, deserved indeed and once
laudable, turns their attention from their own interests, and prevents
their respecting themselves.
OBJECTIONS.
1. "This reform of the Alphabet would oblige people to relearn the
language, or it could not be introduced."
But the alterations proposed are so few and so simple, that an hour's
attention would enable any person to read the new orthography with
facility; and a week's practice would render it so familiar, that a
person would write it without hesitation or mistake. Would this small
inconvenience prevent its adoption? Would not the numerous national
and literary advantages, resulting from the change, induce Americans
to make so inconsiderable a sacrifice of time and attention? I am
persuaded they would.
But it would not be necessary that men advanced beyond the middle stage
of life, should be at the pains to learn the proposed orthography. They
would, without inconvenience, continue to use the present. They would
read the _new_ orthography, without difficulty; but they would write in
the _old_. To men thus advanced, and even to the present generation in
general, if they should not wish to trouble themselves with a change,
the reformation would be almost a matter of indifference. It would be
sufficient that children should be taught the new orthography, and
that as fast as they come upon the stage, they should be furnished
with books in the American spelling. The progress of printing would
be proportioned to the demand for books among the rising generation.
This progressive introduction of the scheme would be extremely easy;
children would learn the proposed orthography more easily than they
would the old; and the present generation would not be troubled with
the change; so that none but the obstinate and capricious could
raise objections or make any opposition. The change would be so
inconsiderable, and made on such simple principles, that a column in
each newspaper, printed in the new spelling, would in six months,
familiarize most people to the change, show the advantages of it, and
imperceptibly remove their objections. The only steps necessary to
ensure success in the attempt to introduce this reform, would be, a
resolution of Congress, ordering all their acts to be engrossed in the
new orthography, and recommending the plan to the several universities
in America; and also a resolution of the universities to encourage and
support it. The printers would begin the reformation by publishing
short paragraphs and small tracts in the new orthography; school books
would first be published in the same; curiosity would excite attention
to it, and men would be gradually reconciled to the plan.
2. "This change would render our present books useless."
This objection is, in some measure, answered under the foregoing
head. The truth is, it would not have this effect. The difference of
orthography would not render books printed in one, illegible to persons
acquainted only with the other. The difference would not be so great
as between the orthography of Chaucer, and of the present age; yet
Chaucer's works are still read with ease.
3. "This reformation would injure the language by obscuring etymology."
This objection is unfounded. In general, it is not true that the
change would obscure etymology; in a few instances, it might; but it
would rather restore the etymology of many words; and if it were true
that the change would obscure it, this would be no objection to the
reformation.
It will perhaps surprize my readers to be told that, in many particular
words, the modern spelling is less correct than the ancient. Yet
this is a truth that reflects dishonor on our modern refiners of
the language. Chaucer, four hundred years ago, wrote _bilder_ for
_builder_; _dedly_ for _deadly_; _ernest_ for _earnest_; _erly_ for
_early_; _brest_ for _breast_; _hed_ for _head_; and certainly his
spelling was the most agreeable to the pronunciation.[186] Sidney wrote
_bin_, _examin_, _sutable_, with perfect propriety. Dr. Middleton wrote
_explane_, _genuin_, _revele_, which is the most easy and correct
orthography of such words; and also _luster_, _theater_, for _lustre_,
_theatre_. In these and many other instances, the modern spelling is
a corruption; so that allowing many improvements to have been made in
orthography, within a century or two, we must acknowlege also that many
corruptions have been introduced.