have followed the Latin grammars in their divisions of time and mode;
but in particular the latter. By this means, we often find _may_,
_can_, _should_ and _must_ in a conditional mode, when they are
positive declarations and belong to the indicative. All unconditional
declarations, whether of an action, or of a _right_, _power_ or
_necessity_ of doing an action, belong to the _indicative_; and the
distinction between the _indicative_ and _potential_ is totally
useless. _Should_ is commonly placed in the imperfect time of the
subjunctive; yet is frequently used to express an unconditional
obligation, as _he should go_; and belongs to the present time of the
indicative, as much as _he ought_, or the French _il faut_ or _il doit_.
_Would_ is sometimes employed in a declaratory sense to express a
present volition, and then belongs to the indicative. In the past time,
_should_, _would_, _might_, _could_, often express unconditional ideas,
and belong to the indicative. In short, the usual arrangement of the
English verbs and auxiliaries in our grammars is calculated to perplex
and mislead a learner; and I have never found a foreigner who could use
them with tolerable propriety.
NUMBER _and_ PERSON.
Under this head, I shall remark on a single article only, the use of
_you_ in the singular number, with a plural verb. The use of the plural
_nos_ and _vos_, for _ego_ and _tu_ in Latin; of _nous_ and _vous_
for _je_ and _tu_ in French; seems to have been very ancient, and to
have been originally intended to soften the harshness of egotism, or
to make a respectful distinction in favor of great personages. But
the practice became general in the French nation, was introduced by
them into England, and gradually imitated by the English in their own
tongue. _You_, in familiar discourse, is applied to an individual,
except by a single sect of Christians; the practice is general and
of long standing; it has become correct English, and ought to be
considered, in grammar, as a pronoun in the singular number. It may
be objected, that we unite with it a verb in the plural number, _you
are_, _you have_; this is true, but the verb, in these instances,
becomes singular; and both the pronoun and verb should be placed in the
singular number.
In the union of _you_ with a plural verb in the present time, we are
all unanimous; but in the past time, there is a difference between
books and common practice in a single instance. In books, _you_
is commonly used with the plural of the verb _be_, _you were_; in
conversation, it is generally followed by the singular, _you was_.
Notwithstanding the criticisms of grammarians, the antiquity and
universality of this practice must give it the sanction of propriety;
for what but practice forms a language? This practice is not merely
vulgar; it is general among men of erudition who do not affect to
be fettered by the rules of grammarians, and some late writers have
indulged it in their publications. I should therefore inflect the
verb _be_ in the past time after this manner; _I was_, _thou wast_,
or _you was_, _he was_, &c. Whatever objections may be raised to this
inflection, _it is the language of the English_, and rules can hardly
change a general practice of speaking; nor would there be any advantage
in the change, if it could be effected.
AUXILIARIES.
There are several verbs in English, which, from the necessity of their
union with other verbs, have obtained the name of _auxiliaries_.
Originally they were principal verbs, with regular Saxon infinitives,
and the usual inflections; as may be observed by any person, who has
the smallest acquaintance with the modern German, which retains more of
the ancient structure, than any other branch of the primitive language.
The verbs, called _auxiliaries_ or _helpers_, are _do_, _be_, _have_,
_shall_, _will_, _may_, _can_, _must_. The three first are often
employed alone, and are therefore acknowleged to be sometimes principal
verbs. That the others were so, will be made obvious by a specimen
from the German, with the corresponding English.
_German._ _English._
Inf. _Wollen_, to will.
Ind. Pref. Ich will, I will.
Wir wollen,[109] we will.
Imper. Ich wolte, I would.
Preterit. Ich habe gewolt, I have would, or willed.
Plup. Ich hatte gewolt, I had would.
Fut. Ich werde wollen, I shall will.
Imp. Wolle du, will thou.
Subj. _Ich wolle_, (if) I would, &c.
Inf. Wollen, to will.
Gewolte haben, to have would, or willed.
Part. Wollend, willing.
Gewollte, having would, or willed.
_Sollen_, to shall, is inflected in the same manner. _Koennen_, to can,
or be able, is inflected much in the same manner. _Ich kann_, I can,
&c. Imperfect, _Ich konnte_, I could. Preterit, _Ich habe gehonnt_,
I have could (or been able.) Participle, _Kænnend_, _canning_, being
able. Thus _mægen_, to may, makes, in the past tenses, _Ich mochte_,
I might or mought, as the vulgar sometimes pronounce it; _Ich habe
gemocht_, _I have might_. _Must_ also, which in English has lost all
inflection, is varied in the German; _mussen_, to must, or be obliged;
Imperfect, _Ich muste_, I must, or was obliged.
But whatever these verbs may have once been, yet from their loss of
several inflections and the participles, with their singular use
in combination with other verbs, they may very well be denominated
_auxiliary verbs_. Their true force in English should be ascertained
and explained in grammars for the benefit of learners, and particularly
for the assistance of foreigners;[110] yet in resolving sentences, each
should be considered as a verb or distinct part of speech.
For want of a clear and accurate knowlege of the English auxiliaries,
foreigners are apt to fall into material errors in constructing
sentences. The most numerous errors appear in the use of _will_ and
_shall_, and their inflections. The Scots and Irish, even of the first
rank, generally use _will_ for _shall_ in the first person; by which
means, they substitute a _promise_ for an intended _prediction_.
Several errors of this kind have escaped the notice of the most
celebrated writers.
"Without having attended to this, we _will_ be at a loss in
understanding several passages in the classics, which relate to
the public speaking, and the theatrical entertainments of the
ancients."----Blair's Lectures, p. 48. Philad. edit.
"In the Latin language, there are no two words, we _would_ more readily
take to be synonimous, than _amare_ and _diligere_."----The same, p.
83.
In these and several other instances which occur in Blair's writings,
the words _will_ and _would_ are used very improperly, for _shall_ and
_should_. The author means only to _foretell_ certain events, and has
employed words which carry, to an English ear, the full force of a
_promise_.
English writers have rarely fallen into this error; yet a few instances
may be found in authors of reputation.
"If I draw a catgut or any other cord to a great length between my
fingers, I _will_ make it smaller than it was before," &c.----
Goldsmith's Survey of Experimental Philosophy, book 2. chap. 2.
In the middle and southern states of America, this error is frequent,
both in writing and conversation.
"Let us suppose the charter repealed and the bank annihilated; _will_
we be better situated?"----Argument against repealing the charter of
the Bank of North America.
This is very incorrect; there is hardly a possible case, in which
_will_ can be properly employed to ask a question in the first person.
"As soon as the diploma is made out, I _will_ have the honor to
transmit it to you."----Letter to Count Rochambeau.
Is not this _promising_ to have the honor of a communication, an
engagement which delicacy forbids? It is impossible for a foreigner to
have a just idea of the absurdity of using _will_ in this manner; but a
correct English ear revolts at the practice.
Dr. Priestley observes very justly, that the form of the auxiliaries,
_shall_, _will_, which is generally conditional, viz. _should_ and
_would_, is elegantly used to express a slight assertion, with modest
diffidence.
"The royal power, _it should seem_, might be intrusted in their
hands."----Hume's History, vol. 3. p. 383.
We say also, "I _would_ not choose any." In these cases, the verbs are
not conditional; they modestly declare a fact, and therefore properly
belong to the indicative mode. But in the following passage, _should_
is improperly employed:
"In judging only from the nature of things, and without the surer aid
of divine revelation, one _should_ be apt to embrace the opinion of
Diodorus Siculus," &c.---- Warburton's Divine Legation, vol. 2. p. 81.
_Should_, in the second and third persons, expresses _duty_, and the
idea of the author was, to express an event, under a condition, or a
modest declaration; he _should_ have used _would_.
"There is not a girl in town, but let her have her will in going to a
mask, and she _shall_ dress as a shepherdess."----Spect. No. 9.
_Shall_, in this example, expresses _command_, an idea very different
from the author's meaning.
"Think what reflection _shall_ most probably arise."----Blair, Serm. 9.
"A person, highly entertained at a play, _shall_ remember perfectly the
impression made on him by a very moving scene."----Nugent's Trans. of
Condillac, p. 1. s. 1.
I would just remark here, that the errors in the use of the auxiliary
verbs before mentioned, are not English; that they are little known
among the inhabitants of South Britain, and still less among their
descendants in New England. This is a new proof of the force of
national customs. I do not remember to have heard once in the course
of my life, an improper use of the verbs _will_ and _shall_, among the
unmixed English descendants in the eastern states.
But of all the errors or inaccuracies in speaking or writing the
English language, the most numerous class appear in the improper use of
verbs in the subjunctive mode. Not only illiterate men, but authors of
the first rank, often use the present tense for the future, the future
for the present, and the past for both.
"If any member _absents_ himself, he shall forfeit a penny for the use
of the club, unless in case of sickness and imprisonment."----Rules of
the Two Penny Club, Spect. No. 9.
"If thou _neglectest_ or _dost_ unwillingly what I command, I'll rack
thee with old cramps."----Temp. act 1. s. 4.
In both these examples, the events mentioned in the verbs are _future_;
"if any member _shall_ absent himself;" "if thou _shalt_ neglect;"
therefore the auxiliary verb _shall_ should have been employed, or
the sentences should have been elliptical, "if any member _absent_
himself;" "if thou _neglect_;" where _shall_ is understood and easily
supplied by the reader.
Numberless examples of the same kind of inaccuracy may be found in good
authors. Thus in Haley's Happy Prescription, act 2.
"And if my scheme _prospers_, with joy I'll confess,
What a whimsical trifle produced our success."
The idea is, "if my scheme _shall_ prosper;" and this is obvious by the
subsequent part of the sentence, where the future is employed, "with
joy _I'll_ confess."
"If Punch _grows_ extravagant, I shall reprimand him very freely; if
the stage _becomes_ a nursery of folly and impertinence, I shall not be
afraid to animadvert upon it."----Spect. No. 35.
These should have been _grow_ or _should grow_; _become_ or _should
become_.
"If any thing _offers_ (shall offer) from Dublin, that may serve either
to satisfy or divert you, I will not fail," &c.---- Swift's Corresp.
letter 2.
In the following passage, the same writer is much more correct.
"If any one matter in it _prove_ (that is, _shall prove_) false, what
do you think will become of the paper?"----Letter 8.
But the use of the future for the present is much more frequent.
"If reverence, gratitude, obedience and confidence _be_ our duty."----
Priestley, let. 7 to a Phil. Unbeliever.
"If he _have_ any knowlege of actual existence, he must be
satisfied."----Same, letter 8.
The author doubtless intended these sentences to be strictly
grammatical, by placing the verbs in the present tense of the
subjunctive. But in the first example, _be_ is wrong even on Lowth's
principles. The rule of the Bishop, with respect to the use of the
indicative and subjunctive modes, is this: That when something
conditional, hypothetical, or doubtful, is expressed, the verb should
be in the subjunctive mode; but when the fact is certain, or taken for
granted, the verb should be in the indicative. He gives for examples
of the former, several passages from scripture: "If thou _be_ the
son of God." Matth. iv. 3. "Tho he _slay_ me, yet will I trust in
him." Job xiii. 15. "Unless he _wash_ his flesh." Lev. xxii. 6. "No
power except it _were_ given from above." John xix. 11. "Whether it
_were_ I or they, so we preach." 1 Cor. xv. 11. "The subjunctive in
these instances," says the Bishop, "implies something contingent or
doubtful; the indicative would express a more absolute and determinate
sense." To illustrate the latter part of his rule, he quotes a passage
from Atterbury's Sermons. "Tho he _were_ divinely inspired, and spake
therefore as the oracles of God, with supreme authority; tho he _were_
endued with supernatural powers," &c. That our Savior was divinely
inspired, and endued with supernatural powers, are positions that are
here taken for granted, as admitting not of the least doubt; they would
therefore have been better expressed in the indicative mode; "tho he
_was_ divinely inspired," &c. Even on these principles, the verb in
the first example from Priestley, just quoted, should have been in the
indicative; for there is no doubt that reverence, gratitude, &c. _are_
our duty to the Supreme Being.
But I apprehend, that however just Lowth's distinction between the
modes, may have formerly been, it is not warranted by the present
idiom of the language. Indeed I cannot think the rule just. In the
_first_, _fourth_ and _fifth_ examples quoted by the Bishop, the
indicative might be substituted for the subjunctive, and the passages
rendered more correct, according to the present practice of speaking
and writing. "If thou _art_ the son of God." "No power except it _was_
given from above." "Whether it _was_ I, or they, so we preach." Every
English ear must acknowlege that these expressions are more agreeable
to our present practice, than those employed by the translators of the
Bible, and they convey an idea of condition or doubt, as fully as the
other form. But why did the translators deviate from the original? In
the Greek, the verbs, in the two first examples, are in the indicative
mode; and in the last, the verb is not expressed. ~Ei huios ei tou
Theou~, literally, If thou _art_ the son of God. ~Ouk echeis exousian
oudemian kat' emou, ei mê ên soi dedomenon anôthen~; literally, Thou
hast no power (or authority) against me, except it _was_ given thee
from above. In the last instance the verb is omitted; ~Eite de egô,
eite ekeinoi~; Whether I or they. In these instances therefore the
translators of the Bible, and Bishop Lowth have evidently mistaken the
true structure of the English verbs. The translators deviated from the
original Greek, in changing the modes; and the Bishop has taken their
error, as the foundation of a distinction which does not exist in the
language. The indicative mode is employed to express conditional ideas,
more frequently than the subjunctive, even by the best English writers.
Take the following examples.
"And if the same accident _is_ able to restore them to us."----
Bolingbroke, Reflec. on Exile.
"If this being, the immediate maker of the universe, _has_ not existed
from all eternity, he must have derived his being and power from one
who has."----Priestley, let. 4 to Phil. Unb.
"If there _is_ one, I shall make two in the company."----Merry Wives
of Windsor, act 3. sc. II.
"If thou _lovest_ me then
Steal forth thy father's house tomorrow night."
Midsum. Night's Dream, act 1. s. 2.
"If thou _beest_[111] Stephano, touch me and speak to me;
If thou _beest_ Trinculo, come forth."
Tempest, act 2. s. 3.
"If thou _art_ any thing besides a name."
Cowley's Request.
"For if he _lives_ that hath you doen despight."
Spenser's Fairy Queen, book 2. chap. 1.
"If any one _imagines_."----Moyle.
"Why did Caligula wish that the people had but one neck, that he might
strike it off at a blow, if their welfare _was_ thus reciprocal."----
Sidney on Gov. sect. 5.
"If Governments _are_ constituted."----Sidney.
"Well, keep your own heart, if silence _is_ best,
Tho a woman, for once, I'll in ignorance rest."
Haley's Happy Prescription.
"If she _has_ stolen the color of her ribbons from another."----Spect.
No. 4.
"If we _are_ rightly informed."----Same, No. 8.
"If she _is_ tall enough, she is wife enough."----No. 66.
"If you _are_ in such haste, how came you to forget the
miscellanies?"----Swift's Letter to Mr. Tooke.
"If men's highest assurances _are_ to be believed."----Same.
Shall we say that the use of the indicative after _if_ in the foregoing
examples is improper or ungrammatical? By no means. Yet the verbs
express something conditional or doubtful; and therefore Lowth's rule
cannot be well founded.
Let the foregoing passages be contrasted with the following.
"But if he _say_ true, there is but one government in the world that
can have any thing of justice in it."----Sidney, sect. 1.
"If he _have_ any knowlege of actual existence, he must be
satisfied."----Priestley, let. 8.
"But tho criticism _be_ thus his only declared aim, he will not
disown," &c.---- Introd. to Elements of Criticism.
"But if a lively picture, even of a single emotion, _require_ an
effort of genius, how much greater the effort to compose a passionate
dialogue, with as many different tones of passion as there are
speakers?"----Elements of Criticism, vol. 1. chap. 16.
"Here we must also observe, that tho THOU _be_ long in the first part
of the verse, it becomes short when repeated in the second."----
Sheridan's Art of Reading.
The Scotch writers, who learn the English language grammatically,
are the most particular in the use of this subjunctive form of the
verb; in consequence of which their stile generally appears stiff and
fettered. In all the foregoing examples, and in every instance where
the affirmation respects present time, the indicative form is the most
correct, and the only form that corresponds with the actual present
state of the language. _If he says_, _if he has_, _if he requires_, are
the true expressions universally used in speaking; and grammars should
exhibit and enforce this practice, rather than amend it.
There are few or no English writers, who seem to have adhered
uniformly to any rule in the use of the verbs after the conjunctions.
In consequence, either of ignorance or inattention, the most correct
writers have fallen into inconsistencies, even in the same sentence.
This will appear by the following examples.
"If life and health enough _fall_ to my share, and I _am_ able to
finish what I meditate."----Bolingbroke, let. 4, on History.
The author intended the verbs, _fall_ and _am_, to be in the present
time; but this would make him write nonsense; for the events were
future at the time of writing. The first part of the sentence, to make
sense, must be considered as elliptical, "if life and health enough
_shall_ or _should fall_ to my share;" in the last part therefore _be_
should be substituted for _am_, _if I shall be able_: This would make
the whole sentence correct and consistent.
"Whether our conduct _be_ inspected, and we _are_ under a righteous
government, or under no government at all."----Priestley's Pref. to
Let. to a Phil. Unb.
What a confusion of modes! or rather of tenses!
"Tho THOU _be_ long, in the first part of the verse," says Sheridan, in
the passage just quoted; yet soon after uses the indicative in a phrase
precisely similar; "And tho it _is_ impossible to prolong the sound
of this word." Can this great critic give a reason for this change of
modes? Such examples serve to show at least the necessity of studying
our language with more attention, than even many eminent scholars are
willing to bestow.
It has been remarked by Lowth, and many other writers on this subject,
that "the verb itself in the present, and the auxiliary both of the
present and past imperfect times, often carry with them somewhat of a
future sense."[112] Thus, _if he_ _come tomorrow_, _if he should or
would come tomorrow_, carry _somewhat of a future sense_. The writer
should have gone farther, and said that these expressions are in future
time; for they form the English future, and belong to no other tense.
This would have been the truth, and have prevented the numberless
errors which have proceeded from his arranging them in the present
tense of the subjunctive. Let us attend to the following passages.
"This can never happen till patriotism _flourish_ more in
Britain."--Home's Sketches, book 2. s. 9.
"Pray heaven, he _prove_ so, when you come to him."----Two Gent. of
Verona, act 2. s. 10.
"But if thou _linger_ in my territories."----Same, act 3. s. 2.
"Lest, growing ruinous, the building _fall_."----Same, act 5. s. 6.
"If the second _be_ pronounced thus, the verse will be degraded into
hobbling prose."----Sheridan's Art of Reading.
It is needless to multiply similar passages; the same use of the verb,
without the personal termination, occurs in almost every page of our
best writings, and it is perfectly correct.
But will any person contend that the verbs in these passages are in
the present tense? The sense is entirely future, and could not be
translated into Latin or French, without employing the future tense.
The expressions are elliptical, and cannot be clearly understood,
without inserting _shall_ or _should_ before the verbs. This pretended
present tense of the subjunctive is therefore the real future of
the indicative. To confirm this remark, let us attend to some other
passages.
"Tho he _slay_ me, yet will I trust in him."
"Unless he _wash_ his flesh, he shall not eat of the holy thing."
In the original Hebrew these verbs are in the future tense; and so are
most similar expressions.[113]
Matth. vii. 10.--Or if he _ask_ a fish, will he give him a serpent?
~Kai ean ichthyn aitêsê mê ophin epidôsei autô?~
Rom. xiv. 15.--But if thy brother _be_ grieved with thy meat. ~Ei gar
dia brôma ho adelphos sou lupeitai~.
Luke xvii. 3.--If thy brother _trespass_ against thee. ~Ean hamartêsê ho
adelphos sou~. 4. And seven times in a day _turn_ again to thee. ~Kai
heptakis tês hêmêras epistrepsê~.
Luke xvi. 28.--Lest they also _come_ into this place of torment. ~Mê
kai autos elthôsin eis touton ton topon tês basanou~.[114]
Is not the sense of the foregoing verbs _future_? Are not the verbs
in the original, either in the future tense, or in the indefinite
tenses, which, in the subjunctive mode, _usually_ have the sense of
the future, and perhaps _never_ the sense of the present? Why then
should we consider the English verbs as in the present time? Either
the translators made a mistake, and placed the verbs in a wrong tense;
or Lowth and his followers have mistaken the tense, and called that
present which is really future.
That the fault is, in some measure, to be ascribed to the translators,
is evident from their using the same form of the verb, after a
conjunction, when the original Greek is in the present of the
indicative.
1 Cor. xvi. 22.--If any man _love_ not the Lord Jesus Christ, let him
be, &c. ~Ei tis ou philei ton Kyrion Iêsoun Christon, êtô~, &c.
1 Cor. xiv. 37.--If any man think himself a prophet. ~Ei de tis dokei
prophêtês einai~. 38.--If any man _be_ ignorant, let him be ignorant
still. ~Ei de tis agnoei, agnoeitô~.
In these instances, the verbs express conditional facts in the present
time. In the original they are in the indicative present; and on what
authority did the translators introduce a different mode in English?
Can they be justified by the idioms of the language at the time when
they lived? Was the subjunctive always used after a conjunction? By no
means: Their own translation of other passages proves the contrary.
1 Cor. xv. 13.--And if there _is_ no resurrection of the dead. ~Ei de
anastasis nekrôn ouk estin~.
Here is the present tense of the indicative used, where the fact
mentioned is supposed, by the argument, to be at least doubtful. In
other places the present time of the same mode is used, where the
future would have been more accurate.
Prov. ii. 3, 4.--"Yea if thou _criest_ after knowlege, and _liftest_
up thy voice for understanding; if thou _seekest_ for her as for hid
treasures, then shalt thou understand," &c.