necessary for a communication of ideas among rude nations, will be
obvious to any person who considers their manner of life, and the small
number of their necessary ideas. Their employments are war and hunting;
and indeed some tribes are so situated as to have no occupation but
that of procuring subsistence. How few must be the ideas of a people,
whose sole employment is to catch fish, and take wild beasts for food!
Such nations, and even some much farther advanced towards civilization,
use few or no prepositions, adverbs and conjunctions, in their
intercourse with each other, and very few adjectives. Some tribes of
savages in America use no adjectives at all; but express qualities by
a particular form of the verb; or rather blend the affirmation and
quality into one word.[86] They have, it is said, some connecting words
in their own languages, some of which have advanced towards copiousness
and variety. But when they attempt to speak English, they use nouns and
verbs long before they obtain any knowlege of the particles. They speak
in this manner, go, way---- sun, shine---- tree, fall---- give, Uncas,
rum; with great deliberation and a short pause between the words. They
omit the connectives and the abbreviations, which may be called the
"wings of Mercury." Thus it is evident, that, among such nations, a few
nouns and verbs will answer the purposes of language.
Many of this kind of expressions remain in the English language to
this day. _Go away_ is the savage phrase with the article _a_, derived
perhaps from _one_, or what is more probable, added merely to express
the sound, made in the transition from one word to the other, for if
we attend to the manner in which we pronounce these or two similar
words, we shall observe that we involuntarily form the sound expressed
by _a_ or _aw_. In some such manner are formed _astray_, _awhile_,
_adown_, _aground_, _ashore_, _above_, _abaft_, _among_, and many
others. They are usually called adverbs and prepositions; but they are
neither more nor less than nouns or verbs, with the prefix _a_.[87]
That all the words called adverbs and prepositions, are derived in like
manner, from the principal parts of language, the noun and verb, is not
demonstrable; but that _most_ of them are so derived, etymology clearly
proves.
HORNE TOOKE's THEORY _of the_ PARTICLES.
This theory derives great strength from analizing the words called
_conjunctions_. It will perhaps surprize those who have not attended to
this subject, to hear it asserted, that the little conjunction _if_, is
a _verb_ in the Imperative Mode. That this is the fact can no more be
controverted than any point of history, or any truth that our senses
present to the mind. _If_ is radically the same word as _give_; it was
in the Saxon Infinitive, _gifan_, and in the Imperative, like other
Saxon verbs, lost the _an_; being written _gif_. This is the word in
its purity; but in different dialects of the same radical tongue, we
find it written _gife_, _giff_, _gi_, _yf_, _yef_, and _yeve_. Chaucer
used _y_ instead of _g_.[88]
"Unto the devil rough and blake of hewe
_Yeve_ I thy body and my panne also."
Freres Tale, 7204.
But the true Imperative is _gif_, as in the Sad Shepherd. Act 2. Sc. 2.
----"My largesse
Hath lotted her to be your brother's mistress
_Gif_ she can be reclaimed; _gif_ not, his prey."
This is the origin of the conjunction _if_; and it answers, in sense
and derivation to the Latin _si_, which is but a contraction of _sit_.
Thus what we denominate the Subjunctive mode is resolvable into
the Indicative. "_If_ ye love me, ye will keep my commandments," is
resolvable in this manner; "Give, (give the following fact, or suppose
it) ye love me, ye will keep my commandments." Or thus, "Ye love me,
give that, ye will keep my commandments." But on this I shall be more
particular when I come to speak of errors in the use of verbs.
_An_ is still vulgarly used in the sense of _if_. "_An_ please your
honor," is the usual address of servants to their masters in England;
tho it is lost in New England. But a word derived from the same root,
is still retained; viz. the Saxon _anan_, to give; which is sometimes
pronounced _nan_, and sometimes _anan_. It is used for _what_, or _what
do you say_; as when a person speaks to another, the second person
not hearing distinctly, replies, _nan_, or _anan_; that is, _give_ or
_repeat_ what you said. This is ridiculed as a gross vulgarism; and it
is indeed obsolete except among common people; but is strictly correct,
and if persons deride the use of the word, it proves at least that they
do not understand its meaning.
Unless, _lest_ and _else_, are all derivatives of the old Saxon verb
_lesan_, _to dismiss_, which we preserve in the word _lease_, and its
compounds. So far are these words from being conjunctions, that they
are, in fact, verbs in the Imperative mode; and this explanation serves
further to lay open the curious structure of our language. For example:
"Unless ye believe ye shall not understand," may be thus resolved;
"Ye believe; _dismiss_ (that fact) ye shall not understand." Or thus,
"_Dismiss_ ye believe, (that circumstance being away) ye shall not
understand." Thus by analizing the sentence we find no Subjunctive
mode; but merely the Indicative and Imperative.
"Kiss the Son, lest he be angry," is resolvable in the same manner:
"Kiss the Son, _dismiss_ (that) he will be angry." _Else_ is used
nearly in the same sense, as in Chaucer, Freres Tale, 7240:
"Axe him thyself, if thou not trowest me,
Or _elles_ stint a while and thou shalt see."
That is, "If thou dost not believe me, ask him thyself, or _dismissing_
(omitting that) wait and thou shalt be convinced."
_Though_, or _tho_, commonly called a conjunction, is also a verb in
the Imperative Mode. It is from the verb _thafian_ or _thafigan_,
which, in the Saxon, signified to _grant_ or _allow_. The word in its
purity is _thaf_ or _thof_; and so it is pronounced by many of the
common people in England, and by some in America.
"_Tho_ he slay me, yet will I trust in him," may be thus explained;
"_Allow_ (suppose) he should slay me, yet will I trust in him." That
this is the true sense of _tho_, is evident from another fact. The old
writers used _algife_ for _although_; and its meaning must be nearly
the same.
"----Whose pere is hard to find,
_Algife_ England and France were thorow saught."
Rel. An. Poet. 115.
_Since_ is merely a participle of the old verb _seon_, to see. In
ancient authors we find it variously written; as _sith_, _sithence_,
_sin_, _sithen_, &c. and the common people in New England still
pronounce it _sin_, _sen_ or _sence_. Of all these, _sin_ or _sen_,
which is so much ridiculed as vulgar, comes nearest to the original
_seen_.[89] This explanation of _since_ unfolds the true theory of
languages, and proves that all words are originally derived from those
which are first used to express ideas of sensible objects. Mankind,
instead of that abstract sense which we annex to _since_, if we have
any idea at all when we use it, originally said, _seen the sun rose,
it has become warm_; that is, after the sun rose, or that circumstance
being _seen_ or _past_. We use the same word now, with a little
variation; but the etymology is lost to most people, who still employ
the word for a precise purpose, intelligible to their hearers.
_But_ has two distinct meanings, and two different roots. This is
evident to any person who attends to the manner of using the word.
We say, "_But to proceed_;" that is, _more_ or _further_. We say
also, "All left the room, _but_ one;" that is, except one. These two
significations, which are constantly and insensibly annexed to the
word, will perhaps explain all its uses; but cannot be well accounted
for, without supposing it to have two etymologies. Happily the early
writers furnish us with the means of solving the difficulty. Gawen
Douglass the poet, was cotemporary with Chaucer, or lived near his
time, was Bishop of Dunkeld in Scotland, and probably wrote the
language in the purity of his age and country. As the Scots in the Low
Lands, are descendants of the Saxons, in common with the English, and
from their local situation, have been less exposed to revolutions,
they have preserved more of the Saxon idiom and orthography than their
southern brethren. In Douglass we find two different words to express
the two different meanings, which we now annex to one; viz. _bot_
and _but_. The first is used in the sense of _more_, _further_ or
_addition_; and the last in the sense of _except_ or _take away_.
"_Bot_ thy work shall endure in laude and glorie,
_But_ spot or falt condigne eterne memorie."
The first Mr. Horne derives from _botan_, _to boot, to give more_; from
which our English word _boot_, which is now for the most part confined
to jockeys, is also derived; and the other from _be utan_,[90] _to be
out or away_. That these etymologies are just is probable, both from
old writings and from the present distinct uses of the word _but_. This
word therefore is the blending or corruption of _bot_ and _beut_, the
Imperatives of two Saxon verbs, _botan_ and _beutan_.[91]
_And_ is probably a contraction of _anan_, to give, the verb before
mentioned; and _ad_, the root of the verb _add_, and signifying
_series_ or _remainder_. _An ad, give the remainder._
The word _with_, commonly called a preposition, is likewise a verb. It
is from the Saxon _withan_, to join; or more probably from _wyrth_, to
be, or the German _werden_, devenir, to be. The reason for this latter
conjecture, is that we have preserved the Imperative of _wyrth_ or
_werden_, in this ancient phrase, "woe _worth_ the day;" that is, woe
be to the day. The German verb, in its inflections, makes _wirst_ and
_wurde_; and is undoubtedly from the same root as the Danish _værer_,
to be. But whether _with_ has its origin in _withan_, to join, or in
_werden_, to be, its sense will be nearly the same; it will still
convey the idea of connection. This will plainly appear to any person
who considers, that _by_ is merely a corruption of _be_, from the old
verb _beon_; and that this word is still used to express connection or
nearness; "He lives _by_ me;" "He went _by_ me;" that is, he lives _be_
me.
This verb _be_ was formerly used in this phrase; _be my faith, be
my troth_; that is, _by my faith_, as in Chevy Chace.[92] We still
find the same verb in a multitude of compounds, _be-come_, _be-yond_,
_be-tween_, _be-side_, _be-fore_. Thus we see what are called
_prepositions_, are mere combinations or corruptions of verbs; they are
not a primitive part of language, and if we resolve this phrase, _he
went beyond me_, we shall find it composed of these words, _he went_,
_be_, _gone_, _me_; _yond_ being nothing but the participle of _go_.
Will my grammatical readers believe me, when I assert that the
affirmation _yea_, or _yes_, is a verb? That it is so, is undeniable.
The English _yea_, _yes_, and the German _ja_, pronounced _yaw_, are
derived from a verb in the Imperative Mode; or rather, they are but
corruptions of _aye_, the Imperative of the French _avoir_, to have.
The pure word _aye_, is still used in English. The affirmation _yea_ or
_yes_, is _have_, an expression of assent, _have what you say_.[93]
That all the words, called _adverbs_, are abbreviations or
combinations of nouns, verbs and adjectives, cannot perhaps be proved;
for it is extremely difficult to trace the little words, _when_,
_then_, _there_, _here_, &c. to their true origin.[94] But excepting a
few, the whole class of words, denominated _adverbs_, can be resolved
into other parts of speech. The termination _ly_, which forms a large
proportion of these words, is derived from the Saxon _liche_, _like_.
"And as an angel heaven_lich_ she sung."
Chaucer, Cant. Tales, 1057.
We have in a few words retained the original pronunciation, as
_Godlike_; but in strictness of speech, there is no difference between
_Godlike_ and _Godly_.[95]
Notwithstanding it is evident that conjunctions, prepositions, and
adverbs are not original and necessary parts of speech, yet as species
of abbreviations, or compound terms to express assemblages of ideas,
they may be considered as very useful, and as great improvements in
language. Every person, even without the least knowlege of etymology,
acquires a habit of annexing a certain idea, or certain number of
ideas to _unless_, _lest_, _yes_, _between_, and the other particles;
he uses them with precision, and makes himself understood by his
hearers or readers. These words enable him to communicate his ideas
with greater facility and expedition, than he could by mere names
and affirmations. They have lost the distinguishing characteristics
of verbs, person, time, and inflection. It is therefore convenient
for grammatical purposes, to assign them distinct places and give
them names, according to their particular uses. Such of these old
verbs as exhibit some connection between the members of a discourse,
may be properly denominated _conjunctions_. Others, that are used to
show certain relations between words and are generally prefixed to
them, may be well called _prepositions_. A third species, which are
employed to qualify the sense of other words, may, from their position
and uses in a discourse, be denominated _adverbs_. But the foregoing
investigation is necessary to unfold the true principles on which
language is constructed, and the philosophical enquirer is referred for
a more general view of the subject, to Mr. Horne Tooke's _Diversions of
Purley_.
The _verb_ or _word_ is so called by way of eminence; the ancient
grammarians having considered it as the principal part of speech. The
_noun_ is however entitled to the precedence; it is of equal importance
in language, and undoubtedly claims priority of origin. Philosophy
might teach us that the _names_ of a few visible objects would be first
formed by barbarous men, and afterwards the words which express the
most common actions. But with respect to names of abstract ideas, as
they are usually called, they not only precede the formation of the
verbs which represent the action, but it often happens that the same
word is used, with a prefix to denote the action of the object to which
the name is given. For example, _love_ and _fear_ are the names of
certain passions or affections of the mind. To express the action or
exertion of these affections, we have not invented distinct terms; but
custom has for this purpose prefixed the word _do_ or _to_, which, in
its primitive sense, is _to act_, _move_, or _make_.[96] Thus I _do
love_, or _do fear_, are merely, I _act, love_, or _act, fear_; and _to
love_ and _to fear_ in the Infinitive, are _act, love_, and _act, fear_.
To confirm these remarks, let it be considered that formerly _do_ and
_did_ were almost invariably used with the verb; as _I do fear_, _he
did love_; and the omission of these words in affirmative declarations
is of a modern date. They are still preserved in particular modes
of expression; as in the negative and interrogative forms, and in
emphatical assertions.
The present hypothesis will derive additional strength from another
circumstance. Grammarians allege that the termination of the regular
preterit tense, _ed_, is a corruption of _did_. If so, it seems to
have been originally optional, either to place the word _did_, which
expressed the _action_ of the object, before or after the _name_. Thus,
_he feared_, is resolvable into _he fear did_, and must be a blending
of the words in a hasty pronunciation. But it was also a practice to
say _he did fear_, which arrangement is not yet lost nor obscured; but
in no case are both these forms used, _he did feared_; a presumptive
evidence of the truth of the opinion, that _ed_ is a contraction of
_did_. Indeed I see no objection to the opinion but this, that it is
not easy on this supposition, to account for the formation of _did_
from _do_. If _did_ is itself a contraction of _doed_, the regular
preterit, which is probable, whence comes _ed_ in this word? To derive
_ed_ in other words from _did_ is easy and natural; but this leaves us
short of the primary cause or principle, and consequently in suspense,
as to the truth of the opinion. Yet whatever may be the true derivation
of the regular ending of the past time and perfect participle of
English verbs, the use of _do_, _did_ and _to_ before the verb, is a
strong evidence, that at least one class of affirmations are formed by
the help of _names_, with a prefix to denote the action of the objects
expressed by the names. _I fear_, therefore, is a phrase, composed of
the pronoun _I_, and the noun _fear_; and the affirmation, contained
in the phrase, is derived from the single circumstance of the position
of the name after _I_. _I fear_ is a modern substitute for _I do fear_;
that is, _I act, fear_; all originally and strictly _nouns_. But by a
habit of uniting the personal name _I_ with the name of the passion
_fear_, we instantly recognize an affirmation that the passion is
exerted; and _do_, the primitive name of _act_, has become superfluous.
EXAMINATION _of_ PARTICULAR PHRASES.
Having made these few remarks on the formation of our language, I shall
proceed to examin the criticisms of grammarians on certain phrases,
and endeavor to settle some points of controversy with respect to the
use of words; and also to detect some inaccuracies which prevail in
practice.
NOUNS.
Writers upon the subject of propriety in our language, have objected to
the use of _means_, with the article _a_ and the definitive pronouns
singular, _this_ and _that_. The objection made is, that as this word
ends in _s_, it must be plural, and cannot be joined in construction
with words in the singular. This objection supposes that all nouns
ending with _s_ are plural; but this would perhaps prove too much,
and make it necessary to consider all nouns, _not_ ending in _s_, as
singular, which cannot be true, even on the principles of those who
bring the objection. The supposition in both cases would be equally
well founded.
It appears to me however, that the sense of the word, and particularly
the universal practice of the English nation, ought to have induced
the critical grammarian, who wished to reduce the language to some
certainty, to suppress the objection. The word _means_, applied to a
single instrument of action, or cause, conveys a _single_ idea; and
I presume, was generally used for this purpose, till Bishop Lowth
questioned the propriety of the practice; at least _mean_ is scarcely
used as a noun, in any author from Chaucer to Lowth. On the contrary,
the best writers have used _means_ either in the singular or plural
number, according as they had occasion to express by it an idea of one
cause or more.
"By _this means_, it became every man's interest, as well as his duty
to prevent all crimes."----Temple, Works, vol. 3. p. 133.
"And by _this means_ I should not doubt," &c.---- Wilkins Real
Character, book 1.
"And finding themselves by _this means_ to be safe."----Sidney on Gov.
chap. 3. sect. 36.
"For he hopeth by _this means_ to acquit himself."----Rawley's Sylva
Sylvarum.
"And by _that means_ they lost their barrier."----Moyle on the
Lacedem. Gov.
"Clodius was now quæstor and by _that means_ a senator."----Middleton
L. of Cic. vol. 1. p. 261.
"By _this means_ however, there was nothing left to the Parliament of
Ireland."----Blackstone's Com. vol. 1. p. 102.
In this manner was the word used by the elegant writers in Queen Anne's
reign.
But we have not only the authority of almost every good writer in the
language, for this use of _means_ in the singular as well as plural
number, but we have the authority of almost unanimous national
practice in speaking. It is rare to hear _mean_ used as a noun, and by
those only who are fettered by the arbitrary rules of grammarians. I
question whether the word, in the singular form, has obtained such an
establishment, as to be entitled to a place among the English nouns.
The use of it appears like pedantry. No man, whatever may be his rank
and abilities, has a right to reject a mode of speech, established by
immemorial usage and universal consent. Grammars should be formed on
_practice_; for practice determines what a language is. I do not mean
a _local_ practice, for this would subject us to perpetual variety
and instability; but _national_ or _general_ practice. The latter, it
has been remarked, is the standard of propriety, to which all local
idioms and private opinions should be sacrificed. The business of
a grammarian is not to examin whether or not national practice is
founded on philosophical principles; but to _ascertain_ the national
practice, that the learner may be able to weed from his own any local
peculiarities or false idioms.
If _this means_ and _a means_ are now, and have immemorially been, used
by good authors and the nation in general, neither Johnson, Lowth, nor
any other person, however learned, has a right to say that the phrases
are not _good English_. That this is the fact, every person may satisfy
himself, by consulting the good authors and observing the universal
practice in discourse.
Besides, the general practice of a nation is not easily changed, and
the only effect that an attempt to reform it can produce, is, to make
_many_ people doubtful, cautious, and consequently uneasy; to render
a _few_ ridiculous and pedantic by following nice criticisms in the
face of customary propriety; and to introduce a distinction between the
learned and unlearned, which serves only to create difficulties for
both.
Dr. Priestley is the only writer upon this subject who seems to have
been guided by just principles. He observes, with great propriety,
that "Grammarians have leaned too much to the analogies of the Latin
language, contrary to our mode of speaking and to the analogies of
other languages, more like our own. It must be allowed, that the custom
of speaking, is the original and only just standard of any language."
Pref. to Gram. page 9. His criticisms are exceedingly judicious, and
are entitled to the consideration of the student, in preference to
those of Lowth, or any other English author. He considers _means_ as
belonging "to that class of words which do not change their termination
on account of number." It is used in both numbers, _a means_, or _these
means_, with equal propriety.
To the same class of words belong _pains_, _news_, and perhaps some
others. Every person who has read good English authors, or lived where
the language is spoken in purity, must have observed that the word
_pains_ is usually preceded by _much_, and followed by a verb in the
singular number; _much pains was taken_. If the word is a plural noun,
it should neither be followed by a singular verb, nor preceded by
_much_; for we never prefix _much_ to plurals. The most untutored ear
would be offended at _much papers_, _much labors_. But do we not always
say _much pains_? Do we ever say _many pains were_ taken? I confess I
never yet heard or saw the expression. Yet Lowth contends that _pains_
is plural. This criticism upon the word is an authority in vindication
of an erroneous practice of using it with a plural verb, even when it
is preceded by _much_. So in Sheridan's Art of Reading, we observe
these words; "If so _much pains were_ thought necessary among them,"
&c. Temple indulges the same mistake; "I know how _much pains have
been_ taken to deduce the words _Baro_ and _feudum_ from the Latin and
Greek, and even from the Hebrew and Egyptian tongue." Works, vol. 3. p.
365.
Might not these writers have used, _much sheep were killed_, with the
same propriety?
The sense of the word _pains_ does not require that we should
consider it as a plural; for it signifies _labor_ or _fatigue_, in
contradistinction to those uneasy sensations, each of which singly is
called a _pain_, and to express a number of which _pains_ is used as a
plural. On the other hand we have the authority of general practice for
uniting with it _much_, which can in no case be used with a plural, and
also a verb in the singular number.
--"And taken _much pains_ so to proportion the powers of the several
magistrates."----Sidney on Gov. sect. I.
"I found _much art_ and _pains_ employed."----Middleton.
"He will assemble materials with _much pains_."----Bolling. on Hist.
letter 4.
"As to our own language, several persons have taken _much pains_ about
the orthography of it."----Wilkins Real Char. book I. chap. 5.
There are a few instances in which good authors have considered _news_
as a plural; as