following definitions:
1. A vocal sound, formed by opening the mouth, and by a single position
of the organs of speech, is a simple sound or vowel. Most of the vowels
in English are capable of being prolonged at pleasure, without varying
the position of the organs.
2. No more than one simple sound can be formed by one aperture of the
mouth, and one position of the organs of speech. The only difference
that can be made with the same position of the organs, is, to prolong
and shorten the same sound.
3. Two simple sounds, closely united in pronunciation, or following
each other so rapidly that the distinction is scarcely perceptible,
form a dipthong. In pronouncing a dipthong, two positions of the parts
of the mouth are required.
4. Those letters which are not marks of articulate sounds, but
represent indistinct sounds, formed by some contact of the parts of the
mouth, or by compressing those parts, check all sound, are denominated
consonants.
By the first definition we ascertain the number of vowels in English.
In pronouncing each of the letters [1a], [4a], [3a], [1e], [1o], [6o],
[2u], we observe but one position or aperture of the mouth; the sounds
are therefore simple, and the letters are called _vowels_. The six
first sounds are capable of being prolonged at pleasure.
By the second definition, we determine which sounds are the same in
quality, and different only in the time of being pronounced. Thus _i_
in _fit_ has the same quality of sound as _ee_ in _feet_, for both are
pronounced with the same disposition of the organs; but the first is
the shortest articulation of the sound, and the last, a long or grave
articulation. The other vowels have also their short or abrupt sounds;
_a_ in _late_ has its short sound in _let_; _a_ in _cart_ has its
short sound in _carry_; _a_ in _fall_ has its short sound in _folly_;
_oo_ in _fool_ its short sound in _full_. _O_ is sometimes shortened
in common parlance, as in _colt_; but the distinction between _o_
in _coal_ and _colt_, seems to be accidental or caused by the final
consonant, and not sufficiently settled or important to require a
separate consideration.
By the third definition we are enabled to ascertain the dipthongs
in our language. The letters _i_, _u_ and _y_ are usually classed
among the vowels; but the first or long sound of each requires, in
pronunciation, two positions of the organs of speech, or rather a
transition from the position necessary to form one simple sound, to the
position necessary to form another simple sound. We begin the sound of
_i_ nearly with the same aperture of the glottis, as we do the broad
_a_ or _aw_: The aperture however is not quite so great: We rapidly
close the mouth to the position where we pronounce _ee_, and there stop
the sound. This letter is therefore a dipthong. _Y_ has no property but
what belongs to _i_.
_U_ also is not strictly a vowel; nor is it, as it is commonly
represented, composed of _e_ and _oo_. We do not begin the sound
in the position necessary to sound _ee_, as is obvious in the words
_salute_, _salubrious_, _revolution_; but with a greater aperture of
the mouth and with a position perfectly easy and natural. From that
position we pass to the position with which we pronounce _oo_, and
there close the sound.
It must however be observed that when these letters, _i_, _u_, are
followed by a consonant, the two sounds of the dipthong are not clearly
distinguishable. We do not, in _fight_, hear the sound of _ee_; nor the
sound of _oo_ in _cube_. The consonant compresses the organs and closes
the sound of the word so suddenly, that the ear can distinguish but a
simple vocal sound: And notwithstanding these letters are dipthongs,
when considered by themselves, yet in combination with consonants, they
are often marks of simple sounds or vowels.
The short sound of _i_ and _y_, is merely short _ee_. The sound of _u_
in _tun_, is a separate vowel, which has no affinity to any other sound
in the language.[H]
The sound of _oi_ or _oy_ is dipthongal, composed of the third or
broad _a_, and _ee_. The sound of _ou_ or _ow_ is also dipthongal,
compounded of third _a_ and _oo_. The sound however does not require
quite so great an aperture of the mouth as broad _a_; the position is
more natural, and the articulation requires less exertion.
The union of _a_ and _w_ in _law_, has been very erroneously considered
a dipthong. Whatever might have been the ancient pronunciation of these
letters (and it is probable that good reasons operated to produce their
union) they now exhibit but one simple vocal sound. The same may be
observed of _ee_, _oo_, _au_, _ai_, _ea_, _ei_, _ie_, _eo_, _oa_, and
perhaps some other combinations, each of which actually exhibits the
sound of one letter only, which sound is as simple as that of _a_ or
_o_.[38]
Under the head of dipthongs we may perhaps range _wa_, _we_, _wo_,
_wi_, &c. _W_ has nearly the short sound of _oo_; for _will_, _dwell_
are pronounced as if written _ooill_, _dooell_. It is a controverted
point, whether _w_ should be classed with the vowels or consonants. I
shall only observe, that it is pronounced by opening the mouth, without
a contact of the parts; altho, in a rapid pronunciation, it approaches
to a consonant.[I] It is however very immaterial, whether we class it
with the vowels or consonants; as all grammarians agree that its sound
is that of _oo_ short. It ought to be named _oo_ or _we_; which would
save children much of the trouble they now experience, in learning its
proper sound from that awkward name _double u_.
The sound of _y_ in the beginning of words, is, by some writers, called
a vowel, but by most of them a consonant. Lowth has asserted, that it
has every property of a vowel and not one of a consonant. Sheridan
considers _y_ in _youth_, _year_, &c. as the short _ee_. But if these
writers would attend to the manner in which we pronounce _yes_, _ye_,
they would acknowlege that _y_ has some property different from _ee_;
for it is very evident that they are not pronounced _ee-es_, _ee-e_.
The fact is, that in the American pronunciation of _y_, the root of
the tongue is pressed against the upper part of the mouth, above the
palate, more closely than it is in pronouncing _ee_, and not so closely
as in pronouncing _g_ hard. The transition however from _y_ to _ee_ or
to _g_, is extremely easy, and hence the mistake that _y_ is short
_ee_, as also the convertibility of _y_ with _g_.[J] It appears to me
that _y_ in the beginning of words, is more clearly a consonant than
_w_.
In many words, _i_ has the power of _y_ consonant; particularly after
_l_ and _n_; as _filial_, _union_.
The vowels therefore in English are all heard in the following words;
late, half, hall, feet, pool, note, tun, fight, truth. The five first
have short sounds or duplicates; which may be heard in let, hat, hot,
fit, pull; and the letters _i_ and _u_ are but accidentally vowels. The
pure primitive vowels in English are therefore seven.
The dipthongs may be heard in the following words; lie or defy, due,
voice or joy, round or now. To these we may add _ua_ in _persuade_; and
perhaps the combinations of w and the vowels, in _well_, _will_, &c.
The consonants in English are nineteen; but for want of proper
characters, five of them are expressed or marked by double letters. We
annex two sounds to _th_; one to _sh_; one to _ng_; and one to _si_
or _su_, as may be heard in the following words; think, this, shall,
bring, confusion or pleasure. These characters should be called _eth_,
_esh_, _eng_, _ezh_; and _th_ should have two names, the aspirate as
in _think_, and the vocal as in _this_; the latter sound might be
distinguished by a small mark drawn thro _th_. This improvement is so
obvious and easy, and would be so convenient for the learners of the
language, that I must believe it will soon be introduced.
The consonants may be divided into _mutes_ and _semivowels_. When a
consonant compresses the lips, or the tongue and roof of the mouth, so
closely as to check all sound, it is called a _perfect mute_: Such are
_p_, _k_, and _t_, as may be perceived by pronouncing the syllables,
_ep_, _ek_, _et_. When the compression of the organs is more gentle
and does not stop all sound immediately, the letters are called mutes;
such are _b_, _d_, and _g_, as may be perceived by pronouncing the
syllables, _eb_, _ed_, _eg_. When a consonant has an imperfect sound,
or hissing, which may be continued, after a contact of the organs, it
is denominated a semivowel. Of this kind are ef, el, em, en, er, es,
ev, ez, eth,[39] eth,[39] esh, ezh, ing. Of these, four are aspirates,
ef, es, eth, and esh. The others are vocal, having an imperfect sound.
The whole may be thus arranged.
Perfect mutes---p, k, t.
Mutes-----------b, d, g.
vocal, } l, m, n, r, v, z, th,
Semivowels-- } zh, ng,
aspirate,} f, s, th, sh.
They may also be classed according to the manner in which they are
formed by the organs: Thus, those formed
By the lips, are called labials--b, p, f, v.
By the teeth, are called dentals--d, t, th, z, s, sh, zh.
By the palate, are called palatine--g, k, l, r.
By the nose, are called nasal--m, n, ng.
On the subject of the alphabet, I have this remark further; that for
want of a proper knowlege of the powers of _sh_ and _th_, some material
errors in printing have obtained in common practice. _Sh_ are usually
united in printing, and generally with propriety, for the combination
represents a simple consonant. But in several compound words _s_
and _h_ have been improperly united, where one is silent or where
each retains its own power, as in dishonor, dishonest, dishabille,
hogshead, household, falsehood, and some others. The union of _sh_ in
these words, is embarrassing, especially to children, who are led to
pronounce them _dish-onor_, _dish-onest_. This error still prevails
in printing, except in the last mentioned word, which is sometimes
correctly printed _falsehood_.
_Th_, tho not united in character, have a tendency to produce, in some
words, a wrong pronunciation. For instance, we are very apt to say
_Wren-tham_ instead of _Wrent-ham_. _Hotham_ is also ambiguous; there
is nothing in the orthography to direct us, whether to pronounce it
_Hot-ham_ or _Ho-tham_, altho custom decides in favor of the latter.
These remarks show the propriety of attending to our orthography, and
of attempting to remove causes of error, when it can be done without
much trouble or danger of giving offence.
RULES _of_ PRONUNCIATION.
Having briefly explained the English alphabet, I proceed to the rules
of pronunciation.
In pronunciation, two things demand our notice; the proper sounds of
the vowels and consonants, and the accent.
In pronouncing both vowels and consonants, the general rule is, _that
similar combinations of letters should be pronounced alike, except
when general custom has decided otherwise_. Thus if _i_ in the words,
_bind_, _find_, _mind_, has its first sound, it ought to have the same
sound in other similar combinations, _kind_, _blind_, _grind_. This is
the rule of _analogy_, the great leading principle that should regulate
the construction of all languages. But as languages are not formed at
once by system, and are ever exposed to changes, it must necessarily
happen that there will be in all languages, some exceptions from any
general rule; some departures from the principle of uniformity.
The practice of a nation, when universal or ancient, has, in most
cases, the force and authority of law; it implies mutual and general
consent, and becomes a rule of propriety. On this ground, some
deviations from the analogy of construction and pronunciation must be
admitted in all languages. Thus from the analogy already mentioned,
_wind_ is an exception; for general practice has determined that _i_
should, in this word, have its second or short sound.[40] Whether this
deviation was admitted at first to distinguish this word from the
verb _to wind_, or whether there were other good reasons which cannot
now be explored, or whether it was merely the work of ignorance or
accident, it is unnecessary to enquire; the common consent of a nation
is sufficient to stamp it with propriety.
Another rule in English, which admits of no exception, is, when the
accent falls on a vowel, it is long, as _o_ in ho´-ly; but when the
accent falls on a consonant, the preceding vowel is short, as in
_flat´-ter_.
It is also a general rule, that when a consonant closes a syllable, the
preceding vowel is short, as in _fan-cy_, _habit_; altho this rule has
its exceptions, as _Cam-bridge_, _dan-ger_, and perhaps _man-ger_.
From this rule, the English except also _[2a]ngel_, _[2a]ncient_. In
this all the standard authors agree, except Kenrick and Burn, who
mark _a_ in _ancient_ both long and short. The English pronunciation
is followed in the middle and southern states; but the eastern
universities have restored these words to the analogy of the language,
and give _a_ its second sound. It is presumed that no reason can be
given for making these words exceptions to the general rule, but
practice; and this is far from being universal, there being many of the
best speakers in America, who give _a_, in the words mentioned, the
same sound as in _anguish_, _annals_, _angelic_, _antiquity_.
The practice of the eastern universities therefore should be
encouraged, rather than discountenanced; as it diminishes the number
of anomalies. I shall only remark further, that _a_ in these words
must formerly have had its third or fourth sound; which is evident
from the old orthography; for angel, at least, was spelt like _grant_,
_command_, &c. _aungel_, _graunt_, _commaund_. In giving _a_ its first
sound therefore, the modern English have not only infringed the rule of
analogy, but have deviated from former practice.
In the word _chamber_, _a_ has its fourth sound. It is necessary to
remark this; as there are many people in America, who give _a_ its
first sound, which is contrary to analogy and to all the English
authorities.
With regard to accent, that particular stress of voice which should
distinguish some syllable of a word from others, three things are to be
considered; the importance of the syllable; the derivation of the word;
and the terminating syllable.
The importance of a syllable is discovered by resolving a word into the
parts which compose it, or reducing it to its radicals. Thus _sensible_
is derived from _sensus_ in Latin or _sense_ in English. The first
syllable therefore is that on which the meaning of the word principally
depends; the others being an accessary termination.
The first syllable then is the most important and requires the accent.
For the same reason, _admire_, _compare_, _destroy_, &c. have the
accent on the second syllable in preference to the first; the last
syllables being all derived from verbs, and the first being mere
particles.[41]
Another rule for laying the accent of words arises from derivation.
Thus all words that take the terminations _ing_, _ful_, _less_, _ness_,
_ed_, _est_, _ist_, _ly_, retain the accent on the syllable where it
is laid in their primitives; as _proceed_, _proceeding_, _wonder_,
_wonderful_, &c.
But the most important article to be considered in the accentuation of
words, is the terminating syllable. From the different terminations of
words arise various analogies, the most of which are enumerated in the
first part of my Institute. The principle which has operated to produce
these analogies, is the ease of speaking or the harmony of enunciation.
Consequently this principle must take place of all others; and we
find that it frequently interferes with the two foregoing rules, and
regulates practice in opposition to both.
The general rule, grounded on this principle, is, that words, having
the _same_ terminating syllable, have the accent at the _same_ distance
from that termination. Thus all words ending in _tion_, _sion_, _cion_,
_cial_, _cian_, have the accent on the last syllable but one;[42] and
this without any regard to derivation or to the number of syllables in
the word.
Thus most words in _ty_, if they consist of more syllables than
two, have the accent on the antepenult; as _probity_, _absurdity_,
_probability_. I recollect but two exceptions, viz. _commonalty_,
_admiralty_; the accent of which is laid upon the first syllable, as in
their primitives.[43]
But let us observe the force of the last rule, in opposition to the
others. _Mortal_ has the accent on the first syllable. Here the first
rule takes place, for the first syllable, having _mors_, death, for its
root, is the most important. But the derivative, _mortality_, conforms
to the analogy of words ending in _ty_ and has the accent on the last
syllable but two. That the ease or harmony of pronunciation, is the
cause of this change of accent, will be evident to any person who shall
attempt to pronounce words of this class, with the accent on any other
syllable than the antepenult.
Most of these rules admit a few exceptions, which are to be learnt by
practice. Custom has made some inroads upon the rules of uniformity,
and caprice is ever busy in multiplying anomalies. Still, rules will be
of great service in ascertaining and fixing our language; for tho they
may not root out _old_ errors, they may prevent the introduction of
_others_.
But besides the principal accent, there is, in most polysyllables,
an inferior accent laid on the third or fourth syllable from the
principal. Indeed in some words, the two accents are so nearly equal,
as to be scarcely distinguishable.
It is denied by some critics that there are more accents than one, in
any word. But the composition of words, and the ease of speaking, both
require a plurality of accent in a very great number of instances; and
our ears inform us that such a plurality actually exists in practice.
If a man will assert that in such words as _designation_, _exaltation_,
there is but one syllable distinguished from the others by a superior
stress of voice, he must deny the evidence of sense, and would not
listen to argument.
I must however remark that most, if not all syllables, derived from
some important word, have some degree of accent:[44] So that in
compounds, there are usually as many accents as radicals. Thus in
_sanctify_, which is composed of two radicals, _sanctus_ and _fio_,
we observe two accents; the strongest on the first syllable. The same
may be observed in _magnanimity_, from _magnus_ and _animus_, in
_promogeniture_, &c. except that in these the principal accent is on
the third syllable.
Notwithstanding it is a general rule, that there are as many accents
in a word, as radicals, yet one of them at least is frequently removed
from the principal syllable, by the analogy of termination, which
prevails over all other reasons. Thus in _mathematics_, the two
accents lie on the proper syllables; but in _mathematician_, the last
accent is removed to a less important place. In _imperceptible_, the
principal accent, with propriety, lies on the third syllable, which
being derived from a verb (_capio_) is the most important. The particle
_im_, being the privative, or that syllable which changes the meaning
of the whole word from affirmative to negative, becomes important and
has some degree of accent. But in the derivative _imperceptibility_,
while the first and third syllables retain an accent, the analogy of
termination carries the principal accent to the fifth syllable, which
is adventitious and less important than the others.[45]
In many compounds, as, _earth-quake_, _rain-bow_, each syllable is
pronounced with the stress that belongs to accented syllables; and
there is little or no distinction of accent. The reason is obvious:
There is no difference in the importance of the syllables; both are
equally necessary to convey the idea. By giving one syllable the
whole accent, such a word loses its original meaning, or at least
its force, as may be observed in the word _hussy_, a corruption of
_house-wife_; which, from an affectation of a unity of accent, and a
hasty pronunciation, has sunk into a low word. From the same ridiculous
affectation, _work-house_ is, by some people, pronounced _work-us_.
On this head, I shall only observe further, that some words of
many syllables have three accents; of which we have an example in
_val'etu'dina'rian_.
It has been already remarked that the composition of words, and the
ease of speaking, require a plurality of accent. The reason why words
of many syllables have two or three accents, is plain to any man that
attempts to pronounce them without an accent.
We cannot pronounce more than two unaccented syllables with perfect
ease; but four or five can hardly be articulated without an intervening
accent. We glide over the unaccented syllables with such rapidity, that
we have hardly time to place the organs in a position to articulate
them. The difficulty is in proportion to the number: So that after
passing over two or three, the voice very naturally rests or falls
forceably upon a particular syllable. Hence the words most difficult
to be pronounced, are those of four syllables, accented on the first;
as _figurative_, _literature_, _applicable_. The difficulty is very
great, when the middle syllables abound with consonants, even in
trissyllables, as _ag'grandize_; but is itself a sufficient reason for
not accenting the first syllable of such words as _acceptable_ and
_refractory_. When one of the words which have the accent on the first,
and three succeeding unaccented syllables, is followed by two or three
particles, the passage is weak and often occasions hesitation in a
speaker; as "_applicable to the affairs of common life_."
A remarkable instance of this, we find in Priestley's Preface to
Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever; "Whether of a _pleasureable or
of a_ painful nature." In this example there are six weak syllables
following each other without interruption, and such passages are not
reduceable to any kind of poetic feet. This assemblage of unimportant
syllables makes a hiatus in language, which should, as far as possible,
be avoided by a writer; for the melody of prose consists in a proper
mixture of important and unimportant syllables.[46][K]
DIFFERENCES _of_ PRONUNCIATION _and_ CONTROVERTED POINTS EXAMINED.
Having laid down some general rules reflecting pronunciation, I
proceed to examin local differences, and the most material points of
controversy on this subject.
In the eastern states, there is a practice prevailing among the body of
the people, of prolonging the sound of _i_ in the termination _ive_.
In such words as _motive_, _relative_, &c. the people, excepting the
more polished part, give _i_ its first sound. This is a local practice,
opposed to the general pronunciation of the English on both sides
of the Atlantic, sometimes to the rules of accent, and always to
derivation. In dissyllables, as _motive_, _active_, the genius of our
language requires that the accent should be laid on _one_ syllable, and
that the other should be short.[47] But by prolonging _i_ in the last,
the distinction of accent is totally destroyed.
In polysyllables, which often have two accents, this reason has less
force, but the derivation, which is from the French _motif_, _relatif_,
always requires that _i_ in the termination _ive_ should have the sound
of _ee_ short, as in _live_, _give_. This is merely the short sound
of the French _i_, and the consequence of the English accent on the
first syllable. These reasons, with the authority of the most approved
practice, should operate to discountenance the singular drawling
pronunciation of the eastern people.[48]
The same reasons are opposed to another local practice of a similar
nature in the middle states; where many people pronounce _practise_,
_prejudice_, with _i_ long. I know of no authority for this beyond the
limits of two or three states; and it is clear that the practice is not
warranted by any principle in the language.