_a._ Cordilleran Highland.
_b._ Appalachian Highland.
_c._ Atlantic Coastal Plain.
_d._ Great Central Plain.
_e._ Height of Land.
_f._ Influence and extent of glaciation.
_g._ Consequent lines of drainage:
(1) Arctic drainage. (2) Pacific drainage. (3) Atlantic
drainage.
(_i_) Direct. (_ii_) By St. Lawrence. (_iii_) By Gulf of
Mexico.
_C._ Coast line:
_a._ Compare east and west coast as to:
(1) General form. (2) Number of harbors. (3) Availability of
harbors. (4) Nearness to foreign ports.
_D._ Climate:
_a._ Position in reference to wind systems.
_b._ Summer and winter distribution and range of temperatures.
_c._ Relation to ocean and ocean currents.
_d._ Chief modifications due to surface.
_e._ Three climatic divisions: east coastal, west coastal, and
interior.
_f._ Rainfall in each as related to agriculture.
_g._ The growing season conditions in each.
_E._ Vegetation:
_a._ Chief vegetation regions as related to climate and surface.
_b._ Distribution and characteristic features of tundra, forests,
steppes, and deserts.
_c._ Significance of vegetation distribution.
_F._ Animals: Briefly as related to climate and vegetation.
_a._ Domestic.
_b._ Wild.
_G._ Mineral products: As related to surface.
_H._ People: Distribution of people as related to surface, climate,
drainage, coast line, and products. (Follow this by summary of
United States as related to North America, and then by New England,
following order given and extending to occupations and commerce.
Bring out location of leading cities causally.)
_I._ Summarize continents by comparative study of reasons for
commercial development of principal nations and of distribution of
great world products.
REFERENCES: Farnham, A. W., “Oswego Geography Course,” _Journal
of Geography_, v, p. 211. Hotchkiss, C. W., _Journal of School
Geography_, ii, p. 41. Reudiger, W. C., “Suggestions for Geography
Teaching in Upper Grades,” _Journal of Geography_, iv, p. 433.
IX. The Use of Maps and Textbooks
=1.= ADVANTAGES OF A TEXT:
_A._ Outlines a course of study when none better is available.
_B._ Gives clear definitions and summaries.
_C._ Gives second exposition of subject matter of value to pupils
who gain best impression through the eyes.
_D._ Shows relative values of different parts of subject.
_E._ Furnishes text, maps, and illustrations for study.
_F._ Gives chance for training in how to study.
_G._ Gives means of holding children responsible for certain work.
=2.= HOW TO USE TEXT:
_A._ Text should be servant of teacher, and not the teacher a slave
of text.
_B._ Text used _before_ recitation in association with outline
or series of map questions where nature of materials or other
conditions do not permit development. Advantages of assigning
lessons in certain grades.
_C._ Text used _in_ recitation to give training in how to study in
intermediate grades.
_D._ Text used _after_ recitation as means of summary and review
in much of home geography and in certain parts of upper grade
work. Teachers here use materials of book as “texts” or points of
departure.
=3.= THE USE OF MAPS.
_A._ Maps fundamental in geography.
_B._ Maps only clear and accurate means of representing certain
classes of facts. Examples of such facts.
_C._ Essential points to be kept in mind in map use.
_a._ Cardinal directions indicated by meridians and parallels.
_b._ Top of map is not necessarily north.
_c._ Scale is necessary for getting ideas of distance and area.
_d._ Each map has special symbols adapted to special purpose of
map.
_e._ First maps studied should be maps of local region shown in a
horizontal position and properly oriented.
_D._ Maps of most service in texts and classroom:
_a._ Political maps in all grades.
_b._ Physical maps of large areas only give relative conditions.
Cannot give exact representation of country. Dangers in physical
and relief maps.
_c._ Climatic maps: annual, seasonal, special. Winds and heat
belts.
_d._ Vegetation maps in upper grades.
_e._ Product and commercial maps as related to vegetation,
climate, and surface.
REFERENCES: Redway, J. W., _New Basis of Geography_, chap. ix.
Calkins, R. C., “The Text, the Course of Study and the Teacher,”
_Journal of Geography_, iv, p. 164. Brown, Robert M., “Map Reading,”
_Journal of Geography_, iv, pp. 273-288.
X. The Relation of Geography to Other Subjects in Curriculum
=1.= PLACE OF GEOGRAPHY.
_A._ Geography is considered by some as fundamental subject in
curriculum, as it gives basis for study of human activities.
_B._ Geography is rather an important subject to be studied in
connection with other subjects so as to produce best results from
curriculum as a whole.
_C._ Coöperation between subjects does not mean parallelism in
teaching or disorganization on one subject because of temporary
possible cross relations to other subjects.
_D._ Unity of course of study as whole in any subject of more value
than temporary mutual relations between subjects.
_E._ Geography closely related, in many ways, to nature study,
history, language, and arithmetic.
_F._ Geography may contribute to and receive help from industrial
subjects.
=2.= GEOGRAPHY AND NATURE STUDY.
_A._ Simpler elements of geography should be included sanely in
nature study of Grades I, II, and III.
_B._ Geography in Grade III and perhaps IV should be based on
nature study of earlier years. Simpler aspects of home geography
should be taught before Grade III.
_C._ Geography contributes to nature study knowledge of conditions
influencing distribution of plants and animals, elements of
weather, soils, slopes, drainage, simple land forms, distance, and
other conditions affecting problems of food, clothing, and shelter.
_D._ Geography gives application to nature study in upper grades,
summarizes distribution of animals and plants, and gives regional
basis to nature study.
_E._ Nature study contributes to geography knowledge of plants
and animals and their ecological relations, physics and chemistry
of soils, water, etc., as related to agriculture, grazing, and
lumbering.
_F._ Topics of doubtful value in nature study or elementary
geography.
_a._ Formation of coal, marble, and rocks, and similar topics.
_b._ Minerals, except in localities where minerals may be found.
_c._ Earth’s motions and similar large topics which cannot be
studied through observation.
=3.= GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY.
_A._ Geography finds its best applications in history.
_B._ Geographic influences _vs._ geographic controls in history.
_C._ Geography deals with the relation between physical environment
and life in all its phases. History deals with the interpretation
of human movements.
_D._ Hence history finds its basis largely in geography both in
reference to large facts and smaller details. Examples.
_E._ Suggested order of studying geography and history in the
different grades. History should aid in making political geography
understandable.
=4.= GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO ARITHMETIC.
_A._ Problems in area, distance, time, averages, proportion, etc.,
may well be developed through use of facts of geography.
_B._ Graphic method of representing comparisons in geography should
be developed in arithmetic.
_C._ Latitude and longitude to be developed in geography and
applied in arithmetic.
=5.= GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO LANGUAGE.
_A._ Geography finds much of its material in literature and its
largest means of expression in language.
_B._ Geography should give landscape setting to poetry and prose.
_C._ The study of literature should include material which is
geographically sound.
_D._ Much geography is not expressed in good literary form, and
much literature is geographically unsound.
REFERENCES: McMurry, C. A., _Special Method in Geography_, chap.
viii. Allen, L. R., “Correlation of Geography and History,” _Journal
of Geography_, ii, p. 404. Woodice, Florence A., and Brown, Robert
M., “An Experiment with Geography and History with a Sixth Grade,”
_Journal of Geography_, vii, pp. 1-7.
XI. Geography and Expression Work
=1.= EXPRESSION.
_A._ Chief and most important forms of expression are oral and
written expression.
_B._ Danger and unfairness of considering expression work to be
merely handwork.
=2.= CHIEF WAYS IN WHICH HAND WORK CAN BE USED IN GEOGRAPHY.
Through map drawing, map filling, sand or chalk modeling, and
freehand drawing.
_A._ Modeling:
_a._ A means to an end of value if done skillfully and easily.
_b._ Dangers in representing scale and slopes.
_c._ Should involve small area as to details or merely general
features of a large area. First work in modeling should be
devoted to features that children may observe as wholes.
_B._ Map Drawing:
_a._ Too time-consuming as a rule.
_b._ Difficulties of projection and scale.
_c._ Over-refined product should not be called for.
_d._ Children’s maps are a bad basis for visualization.
_C._ Map Filling:
_a._ Makes use of best base map available and same base map for
all.
_b._ Excellent means of review as test of knowledge gained.
_c._ Relative value of flat and relief outline maps.
_D._ Freehand Drawing:
_a._ An accessory to geography work, not a way of making confused
objects or relations clear.
_b._ Value of slope sketching, of simple landscape work, and of
map coloring.
_c._ Hand work may borrow ideas and details from geography but
adds little to value of geography as a subject.
XII. Equipment in Geography Teaching
=1.= NECESSITY OF EQUIPMENT.
Maps, globes, and illustrations. Costly single pieces of apparatus
to be avoided.
_A._ Maps:
_a._ Every schoolroom should contain the following wall maps:
(1) Mercator map of world. (2) Map of North America or United
States. (3) Map of continents to be studied.
_b._ Maps should be chosen for demonstration and recitation work
and not for study.
_c._ Hence should be clear, capable of being seen across the
room, not overcrowded with details: rivers and cities not
overemphasized.
_d._ Upper grades should have physical map of United States and
Europe for use in history and geography.
_e._ The use of United States Geological Survey Topographic Maps.
_f._ Use and means of securing weather maps.
_g._ Blackboard outline maps,—value and use.
_h._ Difficulties of securing certain much desired wall maps.
_B._ Globes:
_a._ One 10 or 12 inch political globe available in every room.
_b._ Globe to be of a size to be easily handled.
_c._ Political globe should be up-to-date; not overcrowded.
_d._ Blackboard globes,—how used.
_e._ Small physical or political globes for individual use.
_f._ The use of relief globes.
_C._ Apparatus:
_a._ Avoid large pieces and geographical diagrams.
_b._ Standard thermometer, barometer, compass, and wind vane to
be available.
_c._ Special pieces available for special purposes.
_D._ Illustrations:
_a._ Includes photographs, cuts from magazines, slides,
stereoscopic views.
_b._ Necessity of scheme for selection, classification, and
storage of materials.
_c._ Value of a few good illustrations as compared with a host of
poor illustrations.
_d._ Relative advantages of pictures, slides and stereoscope for
special purposes.
_e._ Mechanical difficulties incident to class use of
illustrations.
REFERENCES: Redway, J. W., _New Basis of Geography_, chap. xi.
“Equipment for Geography Teaching,” _Journal of Geography_, v, pp.
242-250. Whitbeck, R. H., “Practical Work in School Geography,”
_Journal of Geography_, iii, pp. 374-379. Emerson, P., “Field Work in
the Class-Room,” _Journal of Geography_, i, pp. 54-57, 81-98.
XIII. The Geographic Preparation of a Teacher of Geography
It is neither possible nor desirable to have every grade school
teacher a specialist in geography.
_A._ The scope of work analyzed.
_a._ Larger portion of work will be the geography of continents
in earlier or later grades.
_b._ Small portion of work will be development of principles of
physical and life geography.
_c._ The principles will be expected to be used in continental
work.
_B._ The requisite training of a teacher must then include:
_a._ Some study of larger principles so as to make these
principles usable in all grades.
_b._ Special study of one or more continents so as to give point
of view and method of studying a region causally.
_c._ Training in use of maps, especially atlas and text maps,
weather maps and United States Geological Survey Topographic Maps.
_d._ Knowledge of larger principles underlying geography teaching
in the grades and study of special difficulties in each phase
of elementary school work. Knowledge of subject matter is an
essential basis for study of methods of teaching.
_e._ These requisites suggest the necessary content and order of
procedure in geography courses in training classes.
_C._ Desirable training that teachers should be encouraged to
secure.
_a._ Knowledge of geography beyond the minimum outlined above
and sufficient to make them independent workers and possibly
investigators in some phase of geography.
_b._ Good knowledge of history of United States and Europe.
_c._ Knowledge of elements of anthropology, economics, and
biology, particularly along ecological lines.
_d._ Knowledge of modern industrial problems in the United
States, particularly along lines of agriculture, manufacturing,
commerce, and conservation of forests and water supply.
_D._ Opportunities for securing training in geography.
_a._ Larger and better normal schools and many colleges and
universities now include well planned courses in geography.
_b._ Teachers in service will find splendid opportunities for
geography work at the summer schools of colleges and normal
schools. Also in some cases in certain phases of the subject,
work may be secured in extension and correspondence courses.
_c._ Teachers seeking summer school opportunities should go to
institutions that have summer terms, and not, as a rule, merely
to summer institutions. Geography cannot be adequately taught
without equipment, and only those institutions which are in
operation the year round can have adequate equipment.
SELECTED REFERENCE LIST FOR TEACHERS
_General_:—
_Longman’s Gazetteer._ Longmans. The authoritative pronouncing
and spelling gazetteer of the world. Contains excellent brief
descriptions of all important places.
_Lippincott’s Gazetteer._ A recent authoritative volume containing
excellent brief descriptions of all places of any importance.
_Andree’s Hand Atlas._ Velhagen and Klasing, Leipsig. Recent
reference atlas containing excellent climatic maps and maps showing
distribution of peoples, religions, plants, animals, etc.
_Stieler’s Hand Atlas._ Perthes, Gotha. The leading reference atlas.
Mill, _International Geography_. Appleton. The best single volume
reference book on general and regional geography.
_Stanford’s Compendia_ (reissue). Stanford. The leading reference
books on the several continents. Two volumes each on Asia, Australia,
North America, Central and South America, Africa and Europe.
_Regional Geography._ Appleton. Accurate, readable, helpful volumes
of first importance. Includes volumes on Britain and the British
Seas, Central Europe, India, The Nearer East, and North America.
Herbertson, _Senior Geography_. A very useful volume summarizing
geography of several continents in a causal order. Especially helpful
for Europe.
Mill, _Hints to Teachers and Students on the Choice of Geographical
Books for Reference and Reading_. Longmans. A very helpful reference
list with brief comments on the individual references. Gives general
and special references. A new edition appeared early in 1909.
_The Teaching of Geography_:—
Geikie, _The Teaching of Geography_. Macmillan. A very suggestive
book on the essentials of good geography teaching.
McMurry, C. A., _Special Method in Geography_. Macmillan. Discusses
the scope of geography and outlines a course emphasizing the teaching
by types.
Redway, _New Basis of Geography_. Macmillan. Interesting and helpful
for teachers in upper grades who need to teach continents from the
practical standpoint.
_Physical Geography_:—
Mill, _Realm of Nature_. Scribners. A very valuable and simple book
on physical and mathematical geography and on biogeography.
Davis, _Physical Geography_. Ginn & Co. An authoritative secondary
school text, particularly helpful in reference to the land features.
Davis, _Elementary Meteorology_. Ginn & Co. The leading English book
on weather and climate.
Ward, _Practical Exercises in Elementary Meteorology_. Ginn & Co.
Very helpful to teachers who have to deal with weather phenomena.
Gilbert and Brigham, _Introduction to Physical Geography_. Appleton.
An interesting, authoritative, and well illustrated secondary text on
physical geography.
Tarr, _New Physical Geography_. The Macmillan Company. One of the
newest and best high school books.
Salisbury, _Physiography_. Henry Holt & Company. Most inclusive and
best illustrated volume available. An indispensable library reference
volume.
Harrington, Mark W., _About the Weather_. Appleton. Very helpful for
teachers in elementary grades.
Dodge, _Reader in Physical Geography for Beginners_. Longmans. Small
volume on physical geography, available as an introduction to the
subject.
_Biogeography_:—
Ratzel, _History of Mankind_ (3 vols.). Macmillan. A very
comprehensive book on the races of mankind, the first volume being
particularly valuable for its consideration of the problems of race
distribution.
Wallace, _Island Life_. Macmillan. Classic book on animal
distribution from geographic standpoint.
Guyot, _Earth and Man_. Scribners. One of the older books, and hence
not written from a modern standpoint: but still invaluable for
presenting the relation of earth features to life.
Herbertson, _Man and His Work_. A. and C. Black. A very usable and
interesting small volume, showing the manner of life of people living
in different vegetation regions and amid different surface conditions.
Lyddeker, Hutchinson and Gregory, _Living Races of Mankind_.
Hutchinson & Co. Two splendidly illustrated volumes on the races of
men, simple, and popularly written.
_Commercial Geography_:—
Adams, _Commercial Geography_. Appleton. An accurate, well ordered,
and almost indispensable book on commercial geography. Maps and
diagrams are very numerous and helpful for the teacher.
Chisholm, _Commercial Geography_. Longmans. The most inclusive volume
in the English language. Contains excellent abstracts of general
geography of each country in a good causal order.
_Periodicals_:—
_Journal of Geography._ Published by Teachers College, New York City.
Only journal in the country devoted to teaching of geography.
_Geographical Teacher._ Phillips, London. Similar in scope to above
journal and contains much of value to American teachers.
_National Geographic Magazine._ Washington, D. C. Leading popular
journal of geography in country.
_Geographical Journal._ London. Leading strictly geographical journal
in English-speaking world.
IV. THE TEACHING OF HISTORY
BY HENRY JOHNSON, A.M.
I. What History is
=1.= THE WORD “HISTORY” MAY DENOTE:
_a._ Past facts themselves.
_b._ Traces left by past facts.
_c._ The study which investigates such traces.
_d._ The knowledge thus obtained.
_e._ An account or narrative in which such knowledge is embodied.
=2.= THE SOURCES OF HISTORICAL KNOWLEDGE.
_a._ Primary sources.
1. Material remains—roads, buildings, tools, weapons, clothing,
any material object shaped by man or associated with his life on
the earth.
2. Reports of conditions and events made by actual observers.
Such reports may be oral, written or printed, pictorial.
_b._ Secondary sources—reports or accounts based upon primary
sources.
_c._ Accounts based upon other accounts in varying degrees of
removal even from secondary sources.
_d._ Existing sources relate to fragments only of man’s total
experience in the world.
=3.= HISTORICAL CRITICISM—THE FOUNDATION FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
PARTICULAR FACTS RELATING TO THE PAST.
_a._ External criticism—investigation of the origin and
transmission of sources; a study of form, language, writing. Is the
material remaining authentic? Who was the author of the document?
What did he say?
_b._ Internal criticism—investigation of the content of sources.
What did the author mean? Are his statements true?
_c._ The need of historical criticism finds daily illustration in
the schoolroom, in ordinary conversation, in the newspapers.
_d._ Historical criticism first formally applied by the Greeks. Not
fully developed until modern times.
=4.= HISTORICAL SYNTHESIS—PUTTING THE FACTS TOGETHER INTO A BODY OF
ORGANIZED KNOWLEDGE.
_a._ The chronological order—facts arranged according to time of
occurrence.
_b._ The geographical order—facts arranged according to place of
occurrence.
_c._ The logical order—facts arranged according to their intrinsic
nature.
_d._ One order used exclusively.
=5.= HISTORY AS AN ACCOUNT OR NARRATIVE.
_a._ The subject embraced.
1. A single person.
2. A single people—whole known period or a part of it.
3. The whole world—universal history.
_b._ General conceptions of history writing.
1. A narrative of memorable events. Aim, mainly to please.
Content determined by taste of authors and their public. Epic
poets and story-tellers early contributors. Classical type fixed
by Herodotus, the “father of history.”
2. A collection of precedents supposed to be useful to statesmen,
generals, and others. Aim, didactic. Content determined by the
kind of examples or lessons needed. But these, according to
early conceptions, to be valuable must be true to the facts.
Facts largely political and military. A conception introduced by
Thucydides and developed by Polybius.
3. Scientific history. Aim, to exhibit the past as it was and
to explain how it came to be what it was. Content determined
by what is regarded as significant in illustrating the idea of
development in human affairs.
_c._ These general conceptions correspond roughly to stages of
human culture.
_d._ History generally regarded merely as a branch of literature up
to 1850.
_e._ Side by side with scientific histories, works of the older
types are still being produced.
REFERENCES: Langlois and Seignobos, _Introduction to the Study of
History_, pp. 63-70, 211-231, 296-321. Bernheim, _Einleitung in die
Geschichtswissenschaft_, pp. 5-13, 33-43, 72-78. Fling, _Outline
of Historical Method_, pp. 5-124. Robinson, _History_, Columbia
University Press, 1908. Rhodes, in _Atlantic Monthly_, Vol. LXXXV,
pp. 158-169. Winsor, in _Atlantic Monthly_, Vol. LXVI, pp. 289-297.
II. The Problem of Adapting History to Children
=1.= SPECIAL GUIDANCE SOUGHT IN THE “NATURAL” TASTES AND INTERESTS OF
CHILDREN.
_a._ These determined by experiment.
_b._ Sometimes regarded as a final criterion.
_c._ Reinforced by the culture epoch theory.
_d._ Conclusion: “The childhood of history for the child, the
boyhood of history for the boy, the youthhood of history for the
youth, the manhood of history for the man.”
_e._ The conclusion interpreted.
1. Facts to be selected and arranged according to their cultural
stages and not according to time or place of occurrence.
2. Manner of treatment to accord in general with the conception
of history first developed by the race.
3. Scientific history thus excluded.
_f._ General comment: Important to distinguish between the natural
tastes and interests of children and the cultivated intelligence of
children.
=2.= APPROACH FROM THE SIDE OF HISTORY.
_a._ Kinds of historical facts.
1. Facts relating to physical appearance of men and their
material environment.
_a._ Possibility of direct appeal to the senses.
_b._ The simplest illustration of change in the world.
_c._ Material aspects of the past sufficiently unlike those
of the present to be interesting.
2. Facts relating to what men did.
_a._ Direct sense appeal not applicable.
_b._ Only actions now in progress can be observed.
_c._ With these as a basis actions in progress in the past
more or less readily imaged.
_d._ That action appeals to children an axiom of history
teaching.
3. Facts relating to thoughts and feelings of men, the motives
that moved them to do or to say.
_a._ Known only through deeds and words.
_b._ Real understanding of the past measured by pupil’s
ability to enter this inner life of history.
_c._ Important to recognize difficulties and limitations.
_d._ The mental states of a Clovis, a Charlemagne, a
Napoleon, or even of a cave-man, an Indian, a pioneer,
largely beyond the experience of children and of most adults.
4. In each of these groups the simplest facts relate to
particular objects, particular acts, thoughts, feelings.
5. Collective facts, facts relating to social groups, to
institutions, to general causes that act in history, much more
difficult.
_a._ How represent a wave of prosperity? a panic? a
revolution? society itself?
_b._ Such expressions made intelligible by resolving them, so
far as possible, into their concrete elements.
_b._ The kinds of facts enumerated common to literary, didactic,
and scientific history.
_c._ Degree of difficulty presented by a given type of facts not
essentially different for different kinds of history.
_d._ A principle of grading thus suggested as applicable to one
kind of history as to another.
1. Any facts readily visualized possible material for school
history.
2. Clear visualization a factor in stimulating interest.
3. Clear visualization of the man, the act, the situation, a
necessary key to his mental states.
4. Elementary history, therefore, to be largely descriptive
and narrative, to be made up of concrete examples rather than
generalized knowledge.
_e._ Time and place relations essential to the conception of any
fact as historical. As difficult for one kind of history as for
another.
_f._ Special conditions imposed by scientific history.
1. Facts in palpable conflict with present knowledge not to be
regarded as historical.
2. Facts to be characteristic of persons, peoples, places,
periods; not exceptional, abnormal, bizarre.
3. Facts to be so presented as to exhibit relations, cause and
effect, continuity.
4. Facts to be so presented as to arouse some consciousness of
how we know what we know about the past and why we do not know
more.
5. These conditions quite possible to meet within the limits
suggested by the principle of grading already set forth.
REFERENCES: _Teachers College Record_, November, 1908, pp. 1-25.
Bernheim, in _Neue Bahnen_, Vol. X, pp. 265-300, 337-357. Seignobos,
_L’Histoire dans l’Enseignement secondaire_, pp. 3-25. Muzzy, in
_Association of History Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland_,
1906, pp. 13-28, especially 17-19. Channing, in _North Central
History Teachers’ Association_, 1907, pp. 14-18. Laurie, in _School
Review_, Vol. IV, pp. 655-660. Salmon, in _Year Book Society for
Scientific Study of Education_, 1902, pp. 47-54; McMurry, in same,
1903, pp. 47-51. _American Historical Association_, 1905, pp.
135-145. Hinsdale, _How to Study and Teach History_, pp. 42-52,
67-74. Rice, in _Educational Review_, Vol. XII, pp. 169-179; Burnham,
in same, Vol. XXVII, pp. 521-528. Peabody, in _National Education
Association_, 1893, pp. 284-285. Barnes, _Studies in Historical
Method_, pp. 57-105. Mace, _Method in History_, pp. 255-308.
Suzzallo, in _Teachers College Record_, May, 1904, pp. 11-19; Marker,
in same, pp. 20-33.
III. The Question of Aims and Values
=1.= THE FAITH OF EDUCATORS IN THE UTILITY OF HISTORY ATTESTED BY
PROGRAMS IN THE SUBJECT FOR EVERY GRADE OF INSTRUCTION FROM THE
KINDERGARTEN TO THE UNIVERSITY.
=2.= CURRENT DISCUSSIONS CONFUSING.
_a._ Aims sometimes defined without reference to the nature of
history. History then repudiated wherever it happens to interfere
with “the uses of history.”
_b._ Aims sometimes inconsistent with each other.
_c._ Little to indicate that one of the aims of historical
instruction is to teach history.
=3.= AIMS COMMONLY PROPOSED.
_a._ Discipline—training of the memory, the imagination, the
judgment.
_b._ Culture—“enriching the humanity of the pupil.”
_c._ Inspiration—furnishing ideals of conduct, patriotism, social
service.
_d._ Practical knowledge—teaching pupils how to act in the present.
_e._ The illumination of other studies, especially literature and
geography.
_f._ The cultivation of a taste for historical reading.
_g._ The explanation of the present—nothing in the world to-day
really intelligible apart from its history.
=4.= SPECIAL MODERN EMPHASIS UPON THE SOCIAL VALUE OF HISTORY.
_a._ An application of a general point of view in education.
_b._ Special demands upon history.
1. Must show in the form of concrete examples what society is and
how it works.
2. Must “give a vivid and intense realization of social duties
and obligations.”
=5.= PERTINENT QUESTIONS.
_a._ Are the aims proposed in fact promoted by a given kind of
instruction?
_b._ Are they promoted as effectively as they might be by some
other kind of instruction?
_c._ Are they the most useful of the possible ends that history
might serve?
=6.= OBSERVATIONS AND EXPERIMENT NEEDED TO FURNISH DATA FOR ANSWERS.
REFERENCES: McMurry, _Special Method in History_, pp. 1-17. Kemp,
_Outline of Method in History_, pp. 104-113. Barnes, _Studies in
Historical Method_, pp. 106-121. Lloyd, in Spencer, _Aims and
Practice of Teaching_, pp. 141-148. Rice, _History and Literature_,
pp. 3-26, 149-166. Woodward, in _Essays on Teaching of History_ by
Maitland and others, pp. 69-78. Hinsdale, _How to Study and Teach
History_, pp. 2-17. Bourne, _Teaching of History and Civics_, pp.
77-92. _Year Book, Herbart Society_, 1898, pp. 25-56. Snedden, in
_Journal of Pedagogy_, Vol. XIX, pp. 259-268. _Proceedings, National
Education Association_, 1892, pp. 348-352; 1894, pp. 397-412; 1895,
pp. 139-142, 306-308; 1896, pp. 410-413. Report, _Committee of
Seven_, pp. 158-162. Kirk, in _Education_, Vol. XVI, pp. 15-18;
Crawford, in same, Vol. XXII, pp. 281-286; McMahon; in same, Vol.
XXIII, pp. 109-114. Langlois and Seignobos, _Introduction to the
Study of History_, p. 331. Lea, in _American Historical Review_, Vol.
IX, pp. 233-246. Harrison, _Meaning of History_, pp. 1-23. _Teachers
College Record_, November, 1909, pp. 55-56.
IV. The History Program for the Elementary School
=1.= THE PREPARATORY PERIOD—THE FIRST THREE OR FOUR YEARS.
_a._ Myths, fairy tales, fables, Oriental, Greek, Roman, later
European. Some use of American folk lore.
_b._ Simple biographies from American or world history. May or may
not be arranged chronologically.
_c._ Stories connected with anniversaries, birthdays, Thanksgiving,
Christmas.
_d._ Stories from the Bible.
_e._ Stories of primitive life.
_f._ Stories of inventions.
_g._ Stories from local history.
_h._ Various studies of a geographical or sociological character.
_i._ Several or all of these types of material may be represented
in a single program.
_j._ Some schools carry this kind of work into higher grades.
=2.= THE INTERMEDIATE STAGE—FIFTH AND SIXTH YEARS.
_a._ Beginnings of textbook instruction.
_b._ More attention to chronological order and geological setting.
_c._ Subject: ancient history, the Middle Ages, English history,
American history. Chief emphasis on American history.
_d._ Material usually biographical.
_e._ Some schools begin this stage of work in the fourth year.
=3.= THE LAST TWO YEARS.
_a._ Subject usually the United States.
_b._ The subject often divided.
1. Colonial period for the seventh year.
2. Later period for the eighth year.
_c._ Some schools have English history in the seventh year.
_d._ Civics frequently combined with history, especially in the
eighth year.
_e._ Occasionally some Greek and Roman or general European history
in one or both of these years.
=4.= THE PROGRAM PROPOSED BY THE COMMITTEE OF EIGHT.
First grade: Indian life. Explanation of holidays.
Second grade: Indian life. Holidays. Local history.
Third grade: Heroes of other times. Holidays.
Fourth grade: Historical scenes and persons in American history,
colonial period.
Fifth grade: Historical scenes and persons in American history
continued. Great industries of the present.
Sixth grade: European background of American history.
Seventh grade: American history to the Revolution. European
background continued.
Eighth grade: The United States since the Revolution. Great events
in European history.
REFERENCES: Bourne, _Teaching of History and Civics_, pp. 72-74,
106-114, 353-365. Reports of Committees: _Committee of Ten_, pp. 163,
177-181; _of Fifteen_, pp. 62-67; _of Twelve_, pp. 171, 174-175; _of
Seven_, pp. 162-172; _of Eight_, pp. 1-91; Salmon, in _Year Book,
Society for Scientific Study of Education_, 1902, pp. 31-60. McMurry,
_Special Method in History_, pp. 18-33, 238-268. Kemp, _Outline of
Method in History_, pp. 133-263. _Elementary School Record_, Vol.
I, No. 8, pp. 199-216. Rice, _History and Literature_, pp. 27-74.
Magnusson, in _New York Teachers Monographs_, March, 1903, pp. 90-97.
Greene, _History in the Kindergarten. Warfield, in Education, Vol.
XIV, pp. 1-5. Gordy and Twitchell, Pathfinder in American History_,
Part I, pp. 43-50; Part II, pp. 5-20. _Proceedings, National
Education Association_, 1892, pp. 310-316; 1905, pp. 304-308,
360-370; 1897, pp. 58-67. Payne, _Elementary School Curricula_, pp.
22, 24-39, 50.
V. General Methods of Instruction
=1.= THE PREPARATORY PERIOD—THE FIRST THREE OR FOUR YEARS.
_a._ Presentation of material usually oral.
1. Reading the story.
2. Telling the story.
3. Developing the story by questions.
4. Pointing the moral.
_b._ The children’s part in the lesson.
1. Telling the story.
2. Writing the story.
3. Solving problems suggested by the story.
_c._ Stories of the preparatory period may be so managed as to form
a real basis for later history—training in putting things together,
in seeing simple relations, in developing a sense of continuity.
=2.= THE INTERMEDIATE STAGE—THE FIFTH AND SIXTH YEARS.
_a._ Some oral presentation along the lines indicated for the
preparatory period.
_b._ The general tendency toward textbook work.
1. Regular lessons assigned and recited.
2. The lesson read with the class during the history period.
_c._ Character of the textbooks.
1. Rarely the work of historical experts.
2. Aim to tell a story rather than history.
3. Accuracy a minor consideration.
4. Show little sense of historical proportion.
5. Their merit is that children can understand them.
6. Some recent books conceived in a more serious spirit and much
better as history.
_d._ The use of maps, pictures, and other special aids to
visualization increasing. Still much to be desired.
=3.= THE LAST TWO YEARS.
_a._ Textbook work becomes more formal.
_b._ Types of textbook recitations.
1. “Hearing” the lesson.
_a._ Teacher announces the heading of paragraph or opening
words of sentence.
_b._ Pupil carries the story forward until relieved by “next.”
_c._ A test of memory.
2. The question and answer method.
_a._ Teachers’ questions suggest analysis of text.
_b._ Short answers by pupil.
_c._ Memory test prominent.
3. A good general plan.
_a._ Teacher announces topic.
_b._ Pupil tells what he knows about it.
_c._ Corrections, additions, and questions by other members
of class.
_d._ Corrections and additions by teacher.
_e._ Questions by teacher designed to apply what has been
learned.
1. Comparison with other topics previously studied.
2. Comparison with conditions in the present.
_c._ The use of two or more textbooks.
1. The pupil prepares his lesson from two or more different books.
2. Different pupils have different books.
3. Aim to bring out difference in point of view or in statement
of facts with a view to making pupils think.
_d._ Outside reading.
1. Other textbooks.
2. Poems and novels.
3. Some references to standard histories and to simpler primary
sources.
_e._ Notebooks.
1. Making and keeping outlines.
2. Reports of outside reading.
3. Reports of class discussions.
_f._ The use of maps, pictures, and other special aids increasing.
_g._ Character of the textbooks.
1. A number of recent books written by competent students of
history.
2. Reasonably good as history.
3. Inferior to more elementary books as apparatus for teaching.
4. Responsibility for the “whole story” tends to reduce textbooks
to outlines and tempts to generalizations which are largely
meaningless to children.
5. The class recitation thus in danger of becoming an exercise in
mere words.
REFERENCES: Bryant, _How to Tell Stories to Children_, pp. 13-21,
83-109. McMurry, _Special Method in History_, pp. 50-85. Hinsdale,
_How to Study and Teach History_, pp. 53-66. Bourne, _Teaching of
History and Civics_, pp. 148-168. Gordy and Twitchell, _Pathfinder in
American History_. Foltz, _zur Methode des Geschichtsunterrichts_,
pp. 174-216. _Teachers College Record_, November, 1908, pp. 26-32.
VI. The Biographical Approach to History
=1.= WHAT THE BIOGRAPHICAL METHOD IS.
_a._ The study of individual men and women as individuals.
_b._ The study of individual men and women as representatives of
movements, periods, social groups.
_c._ The persons selected for study usually great or famous.
=2.= REASONS FOR PREVALENCE OF THE METHOD.
_a._ Offers units that are simple, concrete, interesting.
_b._ Satisfies ethical demands made upon historical instruction.
_c._ German experience a potent example.
_d._ Supported by “great man theory” of history.
1. “The history of what man has accomplished in this world
is at bottom the history of the great men who have worked
here.”—CARLYLE.
2. “Great men sum up and represent humanity.”—RENAN.
=3.= THE KINDS OF PERSONS THAT INTEREST CHILDREN.
_a._ Men of primitive instincts—cave-men, Indians.
_b._ Men who “did things”—especially brigands, pirates,
adventurers, generals, kings.
_c._ These types fully exploited in books for children. Possibly
cause as well as effect of children’s tastes.
_d._ Relatively few tests of children’s attitude toward scholars,
writers, artists.
=4.= GENERAL CRITICISM.
_a._ Personal element essential to school history.
_b._ Events can to some extent be grouped about individuals.
_c._ But “great man theory” not well applied.
1. Persons selected for study often not representative. May be
exceptional. Often at best merely picturesque.
2. Historical characters often distorted for moral ends.
3. Doubtful anecdotes used to excess.
_d._ The “great man theory” not generally accepted by historians.
_e._ Individuals often more easily grouped about events than events
about individuals.
_f._ The general tendency of the biographical method is to leave a
series of disconnected impressions.
REFERENCES: Kemp, _Outline of Method in History_, pp. 264-295.
Hinsdale, _How to Study and Teach History_, pp. 30-31, 44-45. Bourne,
_Teaching of History and Civics_, pp. 18-20, 86, 356. Mace, _Method
in History_, pp. 289-294. Lawless, in _Nineteenth Century_, Vol. L,
pp. 790-798. Bernheim, in _Neue Bahnen_, Vol. X, pp. 338-342.
VII. The Social and Economic Point of View
=1.= GREAT MEN NOT EXCLUDED, BUT THE “MASSES” INCLUDED.
=2.= EMPHASIS UPON SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS,—
Occupations, industries, inventions, commerce, manners and customs,
education, amusements, food, dress, upon whatever serves to
illustrate the common life.
=3.= THE POINT OF DEPARTURE.
_a._ The daily life and material environment of the community in
which the school is situated.
_b._ The development of some special invention, trade, art,
industry, related to the immediate neighborhood.
_c._ The constructive activities of children—sewing, weaving,
cooking, making furniture.
_d._ Local history.
=4.= APPLICATION TO HISTORY IN GENERAL.
_a._ Limited by the nature of the material available.
_b._ Difficult to arrange a connected narrative.
_c._ German experience—Biedermann’s _Kulturbilder_. The conditions
of German life at selected stages described, compared, and
contrasted.
=5.= A GROWING RECOGNITION OF THE GENERAL POINT OF VIEW.
_a._ Influence of democratic ideals.
_b._ Industrial education an important factor in securing change of
emphasis.
_c._ An enlarged view of history.
1. Carlyle’s protest against the older historians.
2. Macaulay’s theory of history.
3. The work of John Richard Green.
4. McMaster’s _People of the United States_.
_d._ The economic interpretation of history.
_e._ Material supplied by _Documentary History of American
Industrial Society_, 10 volumes, to be published, 1909-1910.
REFERENCES: Dopp, _Place of Industries in Education_, pp. 97-260.
Rice, in _Year Book, Society for Scientific Study of Education_,
1903, pp. 9-14. Wood, _Report on Teaching History_, pp. 11-17.
Lamprecht, _What is History?_ pp. 3-35. Dodd, in _Popular Science
Monthly_, Vol. LXIII, pp. 418-424. Seligman, _Economic Interpretation
of History_. Biedermann, _Geschichtsunterricht ... nach
Kulturgeschichtlicher Methode_, pp. 5-45. Bernheim, in _Neue Bahnen_,
Vol. X, pp. 285-300.
VIII. Making the Past Real
=1.= WHERE THE TEXTBOOKS FAIL.
_a._ Reading matter usually insufficient for clear images of
material aspects of the past or for definite impressions of past
mental states.
_b._ Within certain limits definiteness and simplicity secured by
brevity of statement.
_c._ But the principle of making a thing elementary by not saying
much about it carried too far.
_d._ Stories inherently simple often expanded; those inherently
difficult often abridged. School history would be more intelligible
if the conditions were reversed.
=2.= SPECIAL AIDS TO VISUALIZATION.
_a._ Material remains in vicinity of school. Visits to historic
places.
_b._ Casts, models, pictures, visualization charts, maps.
_c._ The stereoscope, lantern, and other similar apparatus. Moving
pictures.
_d._ Illustrations in textbooks.
_e._ Historical albums.
=3.= “LIVING THE PAST.”
_a._ Exaggerated views illustrated by demand that pupil “identify
himself completely with the thought, passion and resolution of the
time” under consideration.
1. Such a demand scarcely met by the most expert historians.
2. Realism of this type not attainable by children and not even
desirable.
_b._ Some impression of how men thought and felt essential.
_c._ Special aids.
1. A man’s own words expressed in letters, diaries, personal
reminiscences, speeches, state papers.
_a._ Value varies with character of person and circumstances
of utterance.
_b._ Words often no clue to real sentiments of author.
2. Characteristic stories and anecdotes.
3. Dramatization of history.
_a._ Plays composed by children. May be based on good
historical material.
_b._ Ready-made plays less effective.
_c._ Historical pageants.
_d._ Historical drama of the professional stage.
4. Imaginary letters, diaries, speeches, prepared by pupils.
Answering the questions: “How should I have felt?” “What should I
have said or done?”
5. Historical poems and novels.
_a._ Value for history easily exaggerated.
_b._ A distinction to be made between those that ate
contemporary with scenes represented and those that are
merely later attempts at reconstruction.
_c._ General use in school due in part to tradition which so
long made history a mere branch of literature, in part to
more general acquaintance with this kind of material than
with material more distinctly historical.
6. Material supplied by detailed histories.
REFERENCES: _Teachers College Record_, November, 1908, pp. 12-25.
Wilson, _Mere Literature_, pp. 161-186. Crothers, _Gentle Reader_,
pp. 167-200. Stephens, in _California University Chronicle_, Vol.
VI, pp. 159-168; _French Revolution_, Vol. II, p. 361. Matthews, in
_Forum_, Vol. XXIV, pp. 79-91. Langlois and Seignobos, _Introduction
to the Study of History_, pp. 215-225, 301, 319, note. Seignobos,
_L’Histoire dans l’Enseignement secondaire_, pp. 15-19.
IX. Time and Place Relations
=1.= TIME SENSE IN CHILDREN.
_a._ Rudimentary at age of entering school. “Yesterday,” “last
week,” “last month,” have a meaning. “One hundred years ago” has
not.
_b._ The sense develops slowly. Even children of twelve or thirteen
often measure short periods of time vaguely.
_c._ From this an argument advanced against dating any events in
distant past for children. Can mean only “a long time ago.”
_d._ The difficulty in part removed by objective assistance—chart,
rolls, knotted cords, and other devices.
_e._ Dates properly introduced at least as early as the fifth year.
=2.= DATES TO BE REMEMBERED.
_a._ Famous events.
_b._ Important events.
_c._ A few in each year fixed as a permanent possession.
_d._ Evidence at present of recovery from extreme reaction against
learning dates.
=3.= THE PLACE RELATION.
_a._ The way prepared by geography.
_b._ Maps to be introduced as soon as children have learned to read
them.
_c._ Two kinds of historical geography.
1. Contemporary maps.
2. Modern maps.
_d._ School history should show how events were influenced by
geographic conditions. Natural features of the earth determine in
great part:
1. Climate, productions, physical development, employments,
habits.
2. Facilities for commerce.
3. Advantages for military and naval defense or aggression.
4. Intellectual tendencies, but to a less extent.
_e._ Place relation to be fixed under same conditions as time
relation.
REFERENCES: Hinsdale, _How to Study and Teach History_, pp.
75-100; 111-126. Vaughan, in _Contemporary Review_, Vol. V, pp.
29-49. Turner, in _Year Book, Herbart Society_, 1899, pp. 7-41.
Semple, _American History and its Geographic Conditions_. Brigham,
_Geographic Influence in American History Report, New England History
Teachers’ Association_, 1907.
X. School History and the Historical Method
=1.= HISTORY FOR SCHOOL PURPOSES USUALLY TREATED AS A BODY OF ASSURED
KNOWLEDGE.
_a._ The problem of elementary instruction held to be
interpretation and not criticism.
_b._ Controversial matters omitted so far as possible.
_c._ Little to indicate varying degrees of probability in
historical facts.
_d._ Uncertainties covered by dogmatism of textbooks.
=2.= RAISING THE QUESTION OF HOW WE KNOW.
_a._ Makes for more intelligent view of history.
_b._ Often adds to interest in the subject.
_c._ Affords material for exercise of reasoning power.
_d._ Directly related to everyday problems.
_e._ The question usually excluded from elementary history on
ground of the difficulties involved.
=3.= A SIMPLE APPROACH SUGGESTED.
_a._ When anything has happened we may know about it because:
1. We were present when it happened—direct observation.
2. Some one has told us—oral tradition.
3. We have read about it—written or printed tradition.
4. We have seen a picture of it—pictorial tradition.
_b._ In how many ways may we know
1. That John was absent from school yesterday?
2. That Lincoln delivered an address at Gettysburg in 1863?
3. That the “Mayflower” crossed the Atlantic in 1620?
_c._ Which is the best way to know about a thing that has happened?
Is that way always possible? Why? How do we get most of our
knowledge of things that have happened?
_d._ Application to material remains.
In how many ways may we know about
1. The spelling-books of our grandfathers?
2. The bows and arrows used by Indians?
3. The house that George Washington lived in at Mount Vernon?
=4.= SOME SIMPLE ILLUSTRATIONS OF PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH HISTORICAL
METHOD.
_a._ The story of how the Egyptians found out that they were not
the oldest people in the world. Herodotus, Book II, chapter 2.
1. How did Herodotus know?
2. Is the story true?
_b._ Petrarch’s troubles in getting books copied. Robinson and
Rolfe, _Petrarch_, p. 28.
_c._ The adventures of the manuscript of Bradford’s _History of
Plymouth Plantation_. Introduction to edition published by the
State of Massachusetts.
_d._ The boundary provisions of a colonial charter. _Teachers
College Record_, November, 1908, pp. 40-43.
=5.= SUCH EXERCISES NECESSARILY LIMITED IN NUMBER.
REFERENCES: _Teachers College Record_, November, 1908, pp. 33-44.
_Historical Sources in Schools, Report to New England History
Teachers’ Association_, pp. 1-17. Bourne, _Teaching of History and
Civics_, pp. 169-187.
XI. Historical Reading for Children
=1.= BOOKS DESIGNED ESPECIALLY FOR CHILDREN.
_a._ Principles of grading not well defined.
_b._ Many books needlessly inaccurate.
_c._ Literary style often bad.
_d._ Some unnecessary “writing down” to children.
=2.= THE USE OF STANDARD HISTORIES.
_a._ Availability of historical works for school purposes not in
inverse ratio to size and scientific value.
1. Treatment of special topics often simpler and more concrete
than treatment of same topics in textbooks.
2. Many passages in detailed histories and biographies of special
interest to children.
_a._ Some of these can be read by children.
_b._ Some can be read to children.
_c._ A factor in cultivating taste for history.
_d._ Talks about writers of important works stimulate
interest in the works.
3. Real obstacles to more general use.
_a._ Cost of standard histories.
_b._ Lack of acquaintance with such works on the part of
elementary teachers.
4. Much good material available in abridgments and volumes of
extracts.
=3.= TEACHING CHILDREN HOW TO USE BOOKS.
_a._ Indexes and tables of contents.
_b._ Attention to marginal references and footnotes.
_c._ Special questions to give facility in finding and using books.
_d._ The number of books need not be large.
4. MANAGEMENT OF COLLATERAL READING.
_a._ Class divisions.
_b._ Special library periods.
_c._ Books used outside of library periods.
_d._ Books taken home.
_e._ References to be exact.
_f._ References to be posted in library.
_g._ Pupil’s record of readings.
1. Full name of author.
2. Full title of book.
3. Publishers, place, and date of publication.
4. Number of pages read.
5. Personal impression.
REFERENCES: Andrews, Gambrill and Tall, _Bibliography of History
for Schools and Libraries; Report of the Committee of Eight_;
_Teachers College Record_, November, 1908, pp. 45-50. Parsons in
_Educational Review_, Vol. XXIII, pp. 400-406. McMurry, _Special
Method in History_, pp. 271-291. Rice, _History and Literature_, pp.
167-187. Mace, _Method in History_, pp. 309-311. Gordy and Twitchell,
_Pathfinder in American History_, Part I, pp. 101-102; Part II, pp.
235-251. Sullivan, in _Metropolitan Teacher_, November, 1904, pp.
193-198.
INDEX
Accuracy in practice, 46, 98.
Adenoids, signs of, 141.
Adjustment, types of, 32, 33, 34.
Aim in inductive lesson, 55.
Aim of education, 1.
Allen, W. H., quoted, 141.
Application, 63.
Appreciation and emotion, 80.
In relation to study, 87, 88.
Lesson for, 78-84.
Other than that involving the æsthetic emotions, 82, 83, 84.
Power of, 79.
Assignments, 172.
Association, importance of in recall, 101.
Attention, types of, 35.
Means of holding, 45.
Bagley, W. C., referred to, 164.
Baldwin, W. A., referred to, 135.
Cautions concerning the inductive lesson, 63, 64, 65.
Class Management, 157.
As a means, 158.
As an end, 159.
Comparison and abstraction, 59.
Concrete work, 57.
Constructiveness, 17.
Contagious and infectious diseases, 140.
Contribution by children to discussion, 134.
Coöperation, illustrations of, 132, 133.
Of parents, 136, 142.
Course of Study, 232.
Making of, 233.
Creative work, 81.
Criticism of teachers’ work, 225.
Criticism, types of, 225, 226.
Cubberley, E. P., referred to, 252.
Curiosity, 20.
Daily program, 161.
Data, collection of by children, 88, 89, 90.
Deductive lesson, 70.
Demonstration, 229.
Dewey, John, quoted, 26.
Referred to, 65.
Direct instruction in morals, 150.
Discussion by pupils, 131.
Drill lesson, 41.
Earhart, Lida B., referred to, 87.
Eliot, Charles W., referred to, 64.
Elliott, E. C., referred to, 252.
Emulation, 19.
Examination lesson, 101.
Examinations, 228.
As measure of teachers’ work, 104.
Best type of, 103, 104.
Excursions, 58.
Experience of children, 14.
Reconstructed, 32.
Experimentation by teachers, 254.
Experts, children as, 64.
Expression slovenly, 111.
Formal discipline, 235.
Generalization, 62.
Group instruction, 162.
Habit formation, 43.
Habits, teaching children how to form, 97.
Heating and ventilating, 140.
Heck, W. H., referred to, 235.
Heredity, 27.
Hygiene and morality, 149.
Ideals, 9.
Illustrative material, 171.
Imitation, 18.
Independent work, 9, 13.
Indirect instruction in morals, 150.
Individual and society, 2.
Individual differences, 239.
Individual instruction, 163.
Individualistic attitude, 111.
Inductive lesson, the, 51.
Industrial arts, 236.
Opportunity in, for coöperation, 132.
Inference, 75.
Instincts, 15-24.
Institutes, 230.
Intellectual education, 5.
Interest, and effort, 24, 25, 26, 27.
As an end, 8.
Interpreter, teacher as, 81.
Jackman, W. S., referred to, 137.
James, William, quoted, 6.
Judgments, tentative, 67, 90.
Language, in relation to reasoning, 61-62.
Vague, 111.
Leisure, training for, 6.
Lesson Plans, 167.
Deductive lesson in arithmetic, 181.
Deductive lesson in geography, 197.
For a drill lesson, 180.
For appreciation, 202, 212.
In arithmetic, 177.
In history, 183.
In nature study, 195.
On irrigation, 175.
Reasons for, 167, 168.
Lighting schoolrooms, 139.
McMurry, C. A. and F. M., referred to, 54.
McMurry, F. M., quoted, 7.
Referred to, 87, 169.
And Smith, D. E., referred to, 103.
Measuring results in education, 247.
Memorization, 92, 93.
By wholes, 93, 94, 95.
Moral-social education, 5.
Moral training, 145.
Motives, 42, 130, 136, 236, 237, 238.
Notes and annotating, 89.
Objective work, 57.
Observations, 58.
Organization of material, 168, 169.
Outline prepared by pupils, 108.
Ownership, 21.
Physical condition and morality, 149.
Physical education, 5.
Physical welfare of children, 139.
Play, 16.
Preparatory step, 51-56.
Presentation, 56.
Principles in deductive lesson, 74.
Problems, 118.
Children’s, 53, 169.
In deductive lesson, 74.
In recitation lesson, 108.
Pugnacity, 20.
Punishments, 154.
Pupil participation in school government, 160.
Pyle, W. H., and Snyder, J. C., quoted, 94.
Questioning, 114.
Direct, 114.
Alternative, 114.
Suggestive, 115.
Large scope, 116.
Planning, 116.
Novelty of form, 117.
Technique of, 119, 120.
By children, 130, 131.
Questions, pivotal, 170.
Preparation of, 171.
Pupils, 120.
Recitation lesson, the, 107.
Reflection, 72, 91.
Repetition, 44.
Responsibility, increased, of school, 146.
Review for perspective, 102.
Review lesson, 101.
Review, purpose of, 101.
Rugh, C. E., quoted, 153.
Russell, Jas. E., referred to, 235.
Scales or units of measurement, 253.
School exhibits, 226.
School, the, its functions, 12.
Scientific work in education, 249.
Scott, C. A., referred to, 137.
Seat work, 164.
Smith, D. E., and McMurry, F. M., referred to, 103.
Snyder, J. C., and Pyle, W. H., quoted, 94.
Social instinct, 22.
Social phases of the recitation, 129.
Standards in education, 105.
Stevenson’s _Bed in Summer_, quoted, 94, 95.
Stone, C. W., quoted, 255.
Referred to, 105.
Study lesson, the, 86-99.
Study, methods of, in relation to methods of teaching, 86-91.
Summaries, in plans, 171.
Supervision, the teacher in relation to, 224.
Supplementing the textbook, 110.
Suzzallo, Henry, referred to, 61.
Teacher, influence of, 154.
Teachers’ meetings, 229.
Technique involved in creation related to appreciation, 79.
Textbooks, use of, 108-109.
Thinking in relation to memorization, 94.
Thorndike, E. L., referred to, 27, 28, 105, 235, 252.
Titchener, referred to, 35.
Topical outlines, 102.
Topical recitation, 107.
Types, teaching by, 66.
Verification, 75, 97.
The habit of, 92.
Visiting, school, 227.
Vocational education, 5.
Wonder, 23.
Printed in the United States of America.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] James, _Talks to Teachers_, p. 66.
[2] F. M. McMurry, “Advisable Omissions from the Elementary
Curriculum,” _Ed. Rev._, May, 1904.
[3] Dewey, _Interest in Relation to Will_, p. 12.
[4] Thorndike, _Principles of Teaching_, Chapter V.
[5] For statistics and further argument concerning individual
difference, see Thorndike, _Educational Psychology_, Chapter VIII.
[6] For this classification of attention, see Titchener, _Primer of
Psychology_, Chapter V.
[7] McMurry, _Method of the Recitation_, Chapter VI.
[8] Suzzallo, in _California Education_, June, 1906.
[9] For a full discussion of this point, see Eliot, _Educational
Reform_, the essay on “The Function of Education in a Democratic
Society.”
[10] See Dewey, “The Relation of Theory to Practice in the Education
of Teachers,” _The Third Year Book of the National Society for the
Scientific Study of Education_.
[11] For a discussion of this and other aspects of the problem, see
Earhart, _Teaching Children to Study_; McMurry, _How to Study_, and
_Teaching How to Study_.
[12] W. H. Pyle and J. C. Snyder, “The Most Economical Unit for
Committing to Memory,” _Journal of Educational Psychology_, Vol. II,
pp. 133-142.
[13] D. E. Smith and F. M. McMurry, “Mathematics in the Elementary
School,” _Teachers College Record_, Vol. IV, No. 2; D. E. Smith, “The
Teaching of Arithmetic,” _Teachers College Record_, Vol. X, No. 1.
[14] E. L. Thorndike, “Handwriting,” _Teachers College Record_, Vol.
XI, No. 2; Stone, _Arithmetical Abilities and Some of the Factors
Determining them_.
[15] Quoted by Johnson in a monograph on “The Problem of Adapting
History to Children in the Elementary School,” _Teachers College
Record_, Vol. IX, p. 319.
[16] _Teachers College Record_, Vol. IX, pp. 319-320.
[17] “Stenographic Reports of High School Lessons,” _Teachers College
Record_, September, 1910, pp. 18-26.
[18] Baldwin, _Industrial School Education_. A most helpful
discussion of industrial work.
[19] W. S. Jackman, “The Relation of School Organization to
Instruction,” _The Social Education Quarterly_, Vol. I, pp. 55-69;
Scott, _Social Education_.
[20] Allen, _Civics and Health_, p. 53.
[21] Dewey, _Moral Principles in Education_.
[22] See chapter on Social Phases of the Recitation.
[23] _Moral Training in the Public Schools_, p. 41. The essay by
Charles Edward Rugh.
[24] Bagley, _Classroom Management_, Chapter XIV.
[25] See discussion of the study lesson, _ante_.
[26] McMurry, _How to Study_, Chapter III.
[27] See _ante_, Chapter XI.
[28] Adapted from a plan prepared by Lida B. Earhart, Ph.D., for the
author’s syllabus on _Theory and Practice of Teaching._
[29] Some discussion of the course of study as an instrument in
supervision is given in the chapter on “The Teacher in Relation to
the Course of Study.”
[30] For a discussion of the doctrine of formal discipline, and for
bibliography, see Thorndike, _Educational Psychology_, 1903 edition,
Chapter VIII; Heck, _Mental Discipline_.
[31] James E. Russell, “The School and Industrial Life,” _Educational
Review_, Vol. XXXVIII, pp. 433-450.
[32] E. L. Thorndike, “Handwriting,” _Teachers College Record_, Vol.
XI, No. 2.
[33] Cubberley, _School Funds and their Apportionment_; Elliott,
_Fiscal Aspects of Education_; Strayer, _City School Expenditures_.
[34] In proceeding to the part of the study that is necessarily
largely composed of tables, it may be well to state the position
of the author regarding the partial interpretations offered in
connection with the tables. It is that the _entire tables_ give by
far the best basis for conclusions; that for a thorough comprehension
of the study they should be read quite as fully as any other part;
and that they should be regarded as the most important source of
information rather than the brief suggestive readings which are
liable to give erroneous impressions, both because of the limitations
of a single interpretation and the lack of space for anything like
full exposition.
[35] _M_ = _Median_, which is the representation of central tendency
used throughout this study. It has the advantages over the average of
being more readily found, of being unambiguous, and of giving less
weight to extreme or erroneous cases.
[36] For reliability of measures of reasoning ability, see Appendix,
p. 100.
[37] As stated in Part I, p. 17, a _score_ is arbitrarily set at
_one_. The fact that the zero point is unknown in both reasoning and
fundamentals makes these scores less amenable to ordinary handling
than they might at first thought seem. Hence, entire distributions
are either printed or placed on file at Teachers College.
[38] For the data from which these calculations were made, see first
column of table XXI, p. 52, and the first columns of tables III and
IV, p. 21. The absence of known zero points makes such computations
inadvisable except in connection with the more reliable evidence of
the preceding table.
[39] And it is the opinion of the author that the chances are much
better that one would get a school with a superior product in
_education_.
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TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
the text and consultation of external sources.
Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added,
when a predominant preference was found in the original book.
Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,
and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.
Pg 69: ‘a singe problem’ replaced by ‘a single problem’.
Pg 113: ‘Professon Johnson’ replaced by ‘Professor Johnson’.
Pg 136: ‘find situtions’ replaced by ‘find situations’.
Pg 150: ‘actally demanded’ replaced by ‘actually demanded’.
Pg 189: ‘was comformable’ replaced by ‘was conformable’.
Pg 236: ‘genuine motive’ replaced by ‘genuine motives’.
Pg 244: ‘I. _Abstract._’ replaced by ‘II. _Abstract._’.
Pg 258: The note ‘Footnotes on opposite page.’ has been removed
from the bottom of TABLE III.
Pg 260: ‘XXII’ (first row in the table) replaced by ‘XXIII’.
Pg 272: ‘Syntax of etymology’ replaced by ‘Syntax or etymology’.
Pg 273: ‘c.’ inserted in front of ‘The Influence of the’.