[Proceedings of American Antiquarian Society, April 26, 1876.]
The most comprehensive and accurate map of Yucatan is that which has
been copied for this pamphlet. In the several volumes of travel,
descriptive of Maya ruins, are to be found plans more or less complete,
intended to illustrate special journeys, but they are only partial in
their treatment of this interesting country. The _Plano de Yucatan_,
herewith presented--the work of Sr. Dn. Santiago Nigra de San
Martin--was published in 1848, and has now become extremely rare. It is
valuable to the student, for it designates localities abounding in
ruins--those not yet critically explored, as well as those which have
been more thoroughly investigated--by a peculiar mark, thus [rectangular
box], and it also shows roads and paths used in transportation and
communication. Since its publication political changes have caused the
division of the Peninsula into the States of Yucatan and Campeachy,
which change of boundaries has called for the preparation of a new and
improved map. Such an one is now being engraved at Paris and will soon
be issued in this country. It is the joint production of Sr. Dn. Joaquin
Hubbe and Sr. Dn. Andres Aznar Pérez, revised by Dr. C. Hermann Berendt.
The early history of the central portions of the western hemisphere has
particularly attracted the attention of European archæologists, and
those of France have already formed learned societies engaged
specifically in scientific and antiquarian investigations in Spanish
America. It is to the French that credit for the initiative in this most
interesting field of inquiry is especially due, presenting an example
which can not fail to be productive of good results in animating the
enthusiasm of all engaged in similar studies.
The Société Américaine de France (an association, like our own, having
the study of American Antiquities as a principal object, and likely to
become prominent in this field of inquiry), has already been briefly
mentioned by our Librarian; but the reception of the _Annuaire_ for
1873, and a statement of the present condition of the Society in the
_Journal des Orientalistes_ of February 5, 1876, gives occasion for a
more extended notice. The Society was founded in 1857; and among those
most active in its creation were M. Brasseur de Bourbourg, M. Léon de
Rosny, and M. Alfred Maury. The objects of the association, as
officially set forth, were, first, the publication of the works and
collections of M. Aubin, the learned founder of a theory of American
Archæology, which it was hoped would throw much light upon the
hieroglyphical history of Mexico before the conquest;[4-*] second, the
publication of grammars and dictionaries of the native languages of
America; third, the foundation of professorships of History,
Archæology, and American Languages; and fourth, the creation, outside of
Paris, of four Museums like the Museum of Saint Germain, under the
auspices of such municipalities as encourage their foundation, as
follows:
A.--Musée mexicaine.
B.--Musée péruvienne et de l'Amérique du Sud.
C.--Musée ethnographique de l'Amérique du Nord.
D.--Musée des Antilles.
The list of members contains the names of distinguished archæologists in
Europe, and a foreign membership already numerous; and it is
contemplated to add to this list persons interested in kindred studies
from all parts of the civilized world. The publications of the Society,
and those made under its auspices, comprehend, among others, _Essai sur
le déchiffrement de l'Ecriture hiératique de l'Amérique Centrale_, by M.
Léon de Rosny, President of the Society, 1 vol. in folio, with numerous
plates: This work treats critically the much controverted question of
the signification of Maya characters, and furnishes a key for their
interpretation.[5-*] Also, _Chronologie hiéroglyphico phonétique des
Rois Aztéques de 1352 à 1522, retrouvée dans diverses mappes américaines
antiques, expliquée et précédée d'une introduction sur l'Écriture
mexicaine_, by M. Edouard Madier de Montjau. The archæology of the two
Americas, and the ethnography of their native tribes, their languages,
manuscripts, ruins, tombs and monuments, fall within the scope of the
Society, which it is their aim to make the school and common centre of
all students of American pre-Columbian history. M. Émile Burnouf, an
eminent archæologist, is the Secretary. The _Archives_ for 1875 contain
an article on the philology of the Mexican languages, by M. Aubin; an
account of a recent voyage to the regions the least known of Mexico and
Arizona, by M. Ch. Schoebel; the last written communication of M. de
Waldeck, the senior among travellers; an article by M. Brasseur de
Bourbourg, upon the language of the Wabi of Tehuantepec; and an essay by
M. de Montjau, entitled _Sur quelques manuscripts figuratifs mexicains_,
in which the translation of one of these manuscripts, by M. Ramirez of
Mexico, is examined critically, and a different version is offered. The
author arrives at the startling conclusion, that we have thus far taken
for veritable Mexican manuscripts, many which were written by the
Spaniards, or by their order, and which do not express the sentiments of
the Indians. Members of this Society, also, took an active part in the
deliberations of the _Congrès international des Américanistes_, which
was held at Nancy in 1875.
It was a maxim of the late Emperor Napoléon III., that France could go
to war for an idea. The Spanish as discoverers were actuated by the love
of gold, and the desire of extending the knowledge and influence of
christianity, prominently by promoting the temporal and spiritual power
of the mother church. In their minds the cross and the flag of Spain
were inseparably connected. The French, however, claim to be ready to
explore, investigate and study, for science and the discovery of truth
alone. In addition to the _Commission Scientifique du Mexique_ of 1862,
which was undertaken under the auspices of the French government, and
which failed to accomplish all that was hoped, the Emperor Maximilian I.
of Mexico projected a scientific exploration of the ruins of Yucatan
during his brief reign, while he was sustained by the assistance of the
French. The tragic death of this monarch prevented the execution of his
plans; but his character, and his efforts for the improvement of Mexico,
earned for this accomplished but unfortunate prince the gratitude and
respect of students of antiquity, and even of Mexicans who were
politically opposed to him.[7-*]
The attention of scholars and students of American Antiquities is
particularly turned to Central America, because in that country ruins of
a former civilization, and phonetic and figurative inscriptions, still
exist and await an interpretation. In Central America are to be found a
great variety of ruins of a higher order of architecture than any
existing in America north of the Equator. Humboldt speaks of these
remains in the following language: "The architectural remains found in
the peninsula of Yucatan testify more than those of Palenque to an
astonishing degree of civilization. They are situated between Valladolid
Mérida and Campeachy."[7-[+]] Prescott says of this region, "If the
remains on the Mexican soil are so scanty, they multiply as we descend
the southeastern slope of the Cordilleras, traverse the rich valleys of
Oaxaca, and penetrate the forests of Chiapas and Yucatan. In the midst
of these lonely regions, we meet with the ruins recently discovered of
several eastern cities--Mitla, Palenque, and Itzalana or Uxmal,--which
argue a higher civilization than anything yet found on the American
Continent."[8-*]
The earliest account in detail--as far as we know--of Mayan ruins,
situated in the States of Chiapas and Yucatan, is presented in the
narrative of Captain Antonio del Rio, in 1787, entitled _Description of
an ancient city near Palenque_. His investigation was undertaken by
order of the authorities of Guatemala, and the publication in Europe of
its results was made in 1822. In the course of his account he says, "a
Franciscan, Thomas de Soza, of Mérida, happening to be at Palenque, June
21, 1787, states that twenty leagues from the city of Mérida, southward,
between Muna, Ticul and Noxcacab, are the remains of some stone
edifices. One of them, very large, has withstood the ravages of time,
and still exists in good preservation. The natives give it the name of
Oxmutal. It stands on an eminence twenty yards in height, and measures
two hundred yards on each façade. The apartments, the exterior corridor,
the pillars with figures in medio relievo, decorated with serpents and
lizards, and formed with stucco, besides which are statues of men with
palms in their hands, in the act of beating drums and dancing, resemble
in every respect those observable at Palenque."[8-[+]] After speaking of
the existence of many other ruins in Yucatan, he says he does not
consider a description necessary, because the identity of the ancient
inhabitants of Yucatan and Palenque is proved, in his opinion, by the
strange resemblance of their customs, buildings, and acquaintance with
the arts, whereof such vestiges are discernible in those monuments which
the current of time has not yet swept away.
The ruins of Yucatan, those of the state of Chiapas and of the Island of
Cozumel, are very splendid remains, and they are all of them situated in
a region where the Maya language is still spoken, substantially as at
the time of the Spanish discovery.[9-*]
Don Manuel Orosco y Berra, says of the Indian inhabitants, "their
revengeful and tenacious character makes of the Mayas an exceptional
people. In the other parts of Mexico the conquerors have imposed their
language upon the conquered, and obliged them gradually to forget their
native language. In Yucatan, on the contrary, they have preserved their
language with such tenacity, that they have succeeded to a certain point
in making their conquerors accept it. Pretending to be ignorant of the
Spanish, although they comprehend it, they never speak but in the Maya
language, obeying only orders made in that language, so that it is
really the dominant language of the peninsula, with the only exception
of a part of the district of Campeachy."[9-[+]]
In Cogolludo's Historia de Yucatan, the similarity of ruins throughout
this territory is thus alluded to: "The incontestable analogy which
exists between the edifices of Palenque and the ruins of Yucatan places
the latter under the same origin, although the visible progress of art
which is apparent assigns different epochs for their construction."[10-*]
So we have numerous authorities for the opinion, that the ruins in Chiapas
and Yucatan were built by the same or by a kindred people, though at
different periods of time, and that the language which prevails among the
Indian population of that region at the present day, is the same which was
used by their ancestors at the time of the conquest.
Captain Dupaix, who visited Yucatan in 1805, wrote a description of the
ruins existing there, which was published in 1834; but it was reserved
for M. Frédéric de Waldeck to call the attention of the European world
to the magnificent remains of the Maya country, in his _Voyage
pittoresque et archaeologique dans la province de Yucatan, pendant des
années 1834-1836_, Folio, with plates, Paris, 1838. This learned
centenarian became a member of the Antiquarian Society in 1839, and his
death was noticed at the last meeting. Following him came the celebrated
Eastern traveller, John L. Stephens, whose interesting account of his
two visits to that country in 1840 and 1841, entitled _Incidents of
travel in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan_, in two volumes, and
Incidents of travel in Yucatan, in two volumes, is too familiar to
require particular notice at this point. It may not be uninteresting to
record the fact, that Mr. Stephens' voyages and explorations in Yucatan
were made after the suggestion and with the advice of Hon. John R.
Bartlett, of Providence, R. I., a member of this Society, who obtained
for this traveller the copy of Waldeck's work which he used in his
journeyings. Désiré Charnay, a French traveller, published in 1863 an
account entitled _Cités et Ruines Américaines_, accompanied by a
valuable folio Atlas of plates.
The writer of this report passed the winter of 1861 at Mérida, the
capital of the Province of Yucatan, as the guest of Don David Casares,
his classmate, and was received into his father's family with a kindness
and an attentive hospitality which only those who know the warmth and
sincerity of tropical courtesy can appreciate.[11-*] The father, Don
Manuel Casares, was a native of Spain, who had resided in Cuba and in
the United States. He was a gentleman of the old school, who, in the
first part of his life in Yucatan, had devoted himself to teaching, as
principal of a high school in the city of Mérida, but was then occupied
in the management of a large plantation, upon which he resided most of
the year, though his family lived in the city. He was possessed of
great energy and much general information, and could speak English with
ease and correctness. Being highly respected in the community, he was a
man of weight and influence, the more in that he kept aloof from all
political cabals, in which respect his conduct was quite exceptional.
The Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg, in his _Histoire des nations civilizées
du Mexique_, acknowledges the valuable assistance furnished him by Señor
Casares, whom he describes as a learned Yucateco and ancient deputy to
Mexico.[12-*]
Perhaps some of the impressions received, during a five months' visit,
will be pardoned if introduced in this report. Yucatan is a province of
Mexico, very isolated and but little known. It is isolated, from its
geographical position, surrounded as it is on three sides by the waters
of the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean; and it is but little
known, because its commerce is insignificant, and its communication with
other countries, and even with Mexico, is infrequent. It has few ports.
Approach to the coast can only be accomplished in lighters or small
boats; while ships are obliged to lie off at anchor, on account of the
shallowness of the water covering the banks of sand, which stretch in
broad belts around the peninsula. The country is of a limestone
formation, and is only slightly elevated above the sea. Its general
character is level, but in certain districts there are table lands; and
a mountain range runs north-easterly to the town of Maxcanu, and thence
extends south-westerly to near the centre of the State. The soil is
generally of but little depth, but is exceedingly fertile.
There are no rivers in the northern part of the province, and only the
rivers Champoton, and the Uzumacinta with its branches, in the
south-western portion; but there are several small lakes in the centre
of Yucatan, and a large number of artificial ponds in the central and
southern districts. The scarcity of water is the one great natural
difficulty to be surmounted in most parts of the country; but a supply
can commonly be obtained by digging wells, though often at so great a
depth that the cost is formidable. The result is that the number of
wells is small, and in the cities of Mérida and Campeachy rain water is
frequently stored in large cisterns for domestic purposes. From the
existence of cenotes or ponds with an inexhaustible supply of water at
the bottom of caves, and because water can be reached by digging and
blasting, though with great effort and expense, the theory prevails in
Yucatan that their territory lies above a great underground lake, which
offers a source of supply in those sections where lakes, rivers and
springs, are entirely unknown.
A very healthful tropical climate prevails, and the year is divided into
the wet and the dry season, the former beginning in June and lasting
until October, the latter covering the remaining portions of the year.
During the dry season of 1861-2, the thermometer ranged from 75° to 78°
in December and January, and from 78° to 82° in February, March and
April. Early in the dry season vegetation is luxuriant, the crops are
ripening, and the country is covered with verdure; but as the season
progresses the continued drouth, which is almost uninterrupted, produces
the same effect upon the external aspect of the fields and woods as a
northern winter. Most of the trees lose their leaves, the herbage dries
up, and the roads become covered with a thick dust. During
exceptionally dry seasons thousands of cattle perish from the entire
lack of subsistence, first having exhausted the herbage and then the
leaves and shrubbery.
The population of the peninsula is now about 502,731, four-fifths of
which are Indians and Mestizos or half-breeds. The general business of
the country is agricultural, and the territory is divided into landed
estates or farms, called haciendas, which are devoted to the breeding of
cattle, and to raising jenniken or Sisal hemp, and corn. Cotton and
sugar are also products, but not to an extent to admit of exportation.
Some of the plantations are very large, covering an area of six or seven
miles square, and employing hundreds of Indians as laborers.
Farm houses upon the larger estates are built of stone and lime, covered
with cement, and generally occupy a central position, with private roads
diverging from them. These houses, which are often very imposing and
palatial, are intended only for the residence of the owners of the
estate and their major-domos or superintendents. The huts for the Indian
laborers are in close proximity to the residence of the proprietor, upon
the roads which lead to it, and are generally constructed in an oval
form with upright poles, held together by withes of bark; and they are
covered inside and out with a coating of clay. The roofs are pointed,
and also made with poles, and thatched with straw. They have no
chimneys, and the smoke finds its way out from various openings
purposely left. The huts have no flooring, are larger than the common
wigwams of the northern Indians, and ordinarily contain but a single
room. The cattle yards of the estate, called corrals, immediately join
the residence of the proprietor, and are supplied with water by
artificial pumping. All the horses and cattle are branded, and roam at
will over the estates, (which are not fenced, except for the protection
of special crops), and resort daily to the yards to obtain water. This
keeps the herds together. The Indian laborers are also obliged to rely
entirely upon the common well of the estate for their supply of water.
The Indians of Yucatan are subject to a system of péonage, differing but
little from slavery. The proprietor of an estate gives each family a
hut, and a small portion of land to cultivate for its own use, and the
right to draw water from the common well, and in return requires the
labor of the male Indians one day in each week under superintendence. An
account is kept with each Indian, in which all extra labor is credited,
and he is charged for supplies furnished. Thus the Indian becomes
indebted to his employer, and is held upon the estate by that bond.
While perfectly free to leave his master if he can pay this debt, he
rarely succeeds in obtaining a release. No right of corporal punishment
is allowed by law, but whipping is practiced upon most of the estates.
The highways throughout the country are numerous, but generally are
rough, and there is but little regular communication between the various
towns. From the cities of Mérida and Campeachy, public conveyances leave
at stated times for some of the more important towns; but travellers to
other points are obliged to depend on private transportation. A railroad
from Mérida to the port of Progreso, a distance of sixteen miles, was in
process of being built, but the writer is not aware of its completion.
The peninsula is now divided into the States of Yucatan, with a
population of 282,634, with Mérida for a capital, and Campeachy, with a
population of 80,366, which has the city of Campeachy as its capital.
The government is similar to our state governments, but is liable to be
controlled by military interference. The States are dependent upon the
central government at Mexico, and send deputies to represent them in the
congress of the Republic. In the south-western part of the country there
is a district very little known, which is inhabited by Indians who have
escaped from the control of the whites and are called Sublevados. These
revolted Indians, whose number is estimated at 139,731, carry on a
barbarous war, and make an annual invasion into the frontier towns,
killing the whites and such Indians as will not join their fortunes.
With this exception, the safety of life and property is amply protected,
and seems to be secured, not so much by the severity of the laws, as by
the peaceful character of the inhabitants of all races. The trade of the
country, except local traffic, is carried on by water. Regular steam
communication occurs monthly between New York and Progreso, the port of
Mérida, via Havana, and occasionally barques freighted with corn, hides,
hemp and other products of the country, and also carrying a small number
of passengers, leave its ports for Havana, Vera Cruz and the United
States. Freight and passengers along the coast are transported in flat
bottomed canoes. Occasional consignments of freight and merchandise
arrive by ship from France, Spain and other distant ports.
The cities of Mérida and Campeachy are much like Havana in general
appearance. The former has a population of 23,500, is the residence of
the Governor, and contains the public buildings of the State, the
cathedral--an imposing edifice,--the Bishop's palace, an ecclesiastical
college, fifteen churches, a hospital, jail and theatre. The streets are
wide and are laid out at right angles. The houses, which are generally
of one story, are large, and built of stone laid in mortar or cement;
and they are constructed in the Moorish style, with interior court yards
surrounded with corridors, upon which the various apartments open. The
windows are destitute of glass, but have strong wooden shutters; and
those upon the public streets often project like bow windows, and are
protected by heavy iron gratings. The inhabitants are exceedingly
hospitable, and there is much cultivated society in both Mérida and
Campeachy. As the business of the country is chiefly agricultural, many
of the residents in the cities own haciendas in the country, where they
entertain large parties of friends at the celebration of a religious
festival on their plantations, or in the immediate neighborhood. The
people are much given to amusements, and the serious duties of life are
often obliged to yield to the enjoyments of the hour. The Catholic
religion prevails exclusively, and has a very strong hold upon the
population, both white and Indian, and the religious services of the
church are performed with great ceremony, business of all kinds being
suspended during their observance.
The aboriginal ruins, to which so much attention has been directed, are
scattered in groups through the whole peninsula. Mérida is built upon
the location of the ancient town Tihoo, and the materials of the Indian
town were used in its construction. Sculptured stones, which formed the
ornamental finish of Indian buildings, are to be seen in the walls of
the modern houses.[18-*] An artificial hill, called "El Castillo," was
formerly the site of an Indian temple, and is curious as the only mound
remaining of all those existing at the time of the foundation of the
Spanish city. This mound is almost the only trace of Indian workmanship,
in that immediate locality, which has not been removed or utilized in
later constructions.[18-[+]] It appears that a large part of the
building material throughout the province was taken from aboriginal
edifices, and the great number of stone churches of considerable size,
which have been built in all the small towns in that country, is proof
of the abundance of this material.
The ruins of Uxmal, said to be the most numerous and imposing of any in
the province, were visited by the writer in company with a party of
sixteen gentlemen from Mérida, of whom two only had seen them before.
The expedition was arranged out of courtesy to the visitor, and was
performed on horseback. The direct distance was not more than sixty
miles in a southerly direction, but the excursion was so managed as to
occupy more than a week, during which time the hospitality of the
haciendas along the route was depended upon for shelter and
entertainment. Some of the plantations visited were of great extent, and
among others, that called Guayalké was especially noticeable for its
size, and also for the beauty and elegance of the farm house of the
estate, which was constructed entirely of stone, and was truly palatial
in its proportions. This building is fully described by Mr.
Stephens.[19-*] The works of this writer form an excellent hand-book for
the traveller. His descriptions are truthful, and the drawings by Mr.
Catherwood are accurate, and convey a correct idea of the general
appearance of ruins, and of points of interest which were visited; and
the personal narrative offers a great variety of information, which
could only be gathered by a traveller of much experience in the study of
antiquities. Such at least is the opinion of the people of that country.
His works are there quoted as high authority respecting localities which
he visited and described; and modern Mexican philologists and
antiquaries refer to Stephens' works and illustrations with confidence
in his representations, and with respect and deference for his opinions
and inferences.[19-[+]]
At various points along the route, portions of ruined edifices were seen
but not explored. The ruins of Uxmal are distant about a mile from the
hacienda buildings, and extend as far as the eye can reach. They belong
to Don Simon Peon, a gentleman who, though he does not reside there, has
so much regard for their preservation that he will not allow the ruins
to be removed or interfered with for the improvement of the estate, in
which respect he is an exception to many of the planters. Here it may be
remarked, that the inhabitants generally show little interest in the
antiquities of their country, and no public effort is made to preserve
them. The ruins which yet remain undisturbed have escaped destruction,
in most instances, only because their materials have not been required
in constructing modern buildings. Much of the country is thinly
inhabited, and parts of it are heavily wooded. It is there that the
remains of a prior civilization have best escaped the hand of man, more
to be dreaded than the ravages of time.
The stone edifices of Uxmal are numerous, and are generally placed upon
artificial elevations; they are not crowded together, but are scattered
about singly and in groups over a large extent of territory. The most
conspicuous is an artificial pyramidal mound, upon the top of which is a
stone building two stories in height, supposed to have been used as a
sacrificial temple. One side of this mound is perpendicular; the
opposite side is approached by a flight of stone steps. The building on
the top, and the steps by which the ascent is made are in good
preservation. Some of the large buildings are of magnificent
proportions, and are much decorated with bas reliefs of human figures
and faces in stone, and with other stone ornaments. The writer does not
recollect seeing any stucco ornamentation at this place, though such
material is used elsewhere. What are popularly called "House of the
Governor" and "House of the Nuns," are especially remarkable for their
wonderful preservation; so that from a little distance they appear
perfect and entire, except at one or two points which look as if struck
by artillery. The rooms in the ruins are of various sizes, and many of
them could be made habitable with little labor, on removing the rubbish
which has found its way into them.
The impression received from an inspection of the ruins of Uxmal was,
that they had been used as public buildings, and residences of officers,
priests and high dignitaries. Both Stephens and Prescott are of the
opinion that some of the ruins in this territory were built and occupied
by the direct ancestors of the Indians, who now remain as slaves upon
the soil where once they ruled as lords.[21-*] The antiquity of other
remains evidently goes back to an earlier epoch, and antedates the
arrival of the Spaniards. If the Indians of the time of the conquest
occupied huts like those of the Indians of to-day, it is not strange
that all vestiges of their dwellings should have disappeared. Mr.
Stephens gives an interesting notice of the first formal conveyance of
the property of Uxmal, made by the Spanish government in 1673, which was
shown him by the present owner, in which the fact that the Indians,
then, worshipped idols in some of the existing edifices on that estate,
is mentioned. Another legal instrument, in 1688, describes the livery of
seizin in the following words, "In virtue of the power and authority by
which the same title is given to me by the said governor, and complying
with its terms, I took by the hands the said Lorenzo de Evia, and he
walked with me all over Uxmal and its buildings, opened and shut some
doors that had several rooms (connected), cut within the space several
trees, picked up fallen stones and threw them down, drew water from one
of the aguadas (artificial ponds) of the said place of Uxmal, and
performed other acts of possession."[21-[+]] These facts are interesting
as indicating actual or recent occupation; and a careful investigation
of documents relating to the various estates, of which the greater part
are said to be written in the Maya language, might throw light upon the
history of particular localities.
The Maya Indians are shorter and stouter, and have a more delicate
exterior than the North American Savages. Their hands and feet are
small, and the outlines of their figures are graceful. They are capable
of enduring great fatigue, and the privation of food and drink, and bear
exposure to the tropical sun for hours with no covering for the head,
without being in the least affected. Their bearing evinces entire
subjection and abasement, and they shun and distrust the whites. They do
not manifest the cheerfulness of the negro slave, but maintain an
expression of indifference, and are destitute of all curiosity or
ambition. These peculiarities are doubtless the results of the treatment
they have received for generations. The half-breeds, or Mestizos, prefer
to associate with the whites rather than with the Indians; and as a rule
all the domestic service throughout the country is performed by that
class. Mestizos often hold the position of major-domos, or
superintendents of estates, but Indians of pure blood are seldom
employed in any position of trust or confidence. They are punctilious in
their observance of the forms and ceremonies of the Catholic religion,
and a numerous priesthood is maintained largely by the contributions of
this race. The control exercised by the clergy is very powerful, and
their assistance is always sought by the whites in cases of controversy.
The Indians are indolent and fond of spectacles, and the church offers
them an opportunity of celebrating many feast days, of which they do not
fail to avail themselves.
When visiting the large estate of Chactun, belonging to Don José
Dominguez, thirty miles south-west of Mérida, at a sugar rancho called
Orkintok, the writer saw a large ruin similar to that called the "House
of the Nuns" at Uxmal. It was a building of a quadrangular shape, with
apartments opening on an interior court in the centre of the quadrangle.
The building was in good preservation, and some of the rooms were used
as depositories for corn. The visiting party breakfasted in one of the
larger apartments. From this hacienda an excursion was made to Maxcanu,
to visit an artificial mound, which had a passage into the interior,
with an arched stone ceiling and retaining walls.[23-*] This passage was
upon a level with the base of the mound, and branched at right angles
into other passages for hundreds of feet. Nothing appeared in these
passages to indicate their purpose. The labyrinth was visited by the
light of candles and torches, and the precaution of using a line of
cords was taken to secure a certainty of egress. A thorough exploration
was prevented by the obstructions of the _débris_ of the fallen roof.
Other artificial mounds encountered elsewhere had depressions upon the
top, doubtless caused by the falling in of interior passages or
apartments. There is no account of the excavation of Yucatan mounds for
historical purposes, though Cogolludo says there were other mounds
existing at Mérida in 1542, besides "El grande de los Kues," which,
certainly, have now disappeared; but no account of their construction
has come down to us.[23-[+]] The same author also says, that, with the
stone constructions of the Indian city churches and houses were built,
besides the convent and church of the Mejorada, and also the church of
the Franciscans, and that there was still more material left for others
which they desired to build.[24-*] It is then, certainly, a plausible
supposition that the great mounds were many of them constructed with
passages like that at Orkintok, and that they have furnished from their
interiors worked and squared stones, which were used in the construction
of the modern city of Mérida by the Spanish conquerors.
When the Spanish first invaded Mexico and Yucatan they brought with them
a small number of horses, which animals were entirely unknown to the
natives, and were made useful not only as cavalry but also in creating a
superstitious reverence for the conquerors, since the Indians at first
regarded the horse as endowed with divine attributes. Cortez in his
expedition from the city of Mexico to Honduras in 1524, passed through
the State of Chiapas near the ruins called Palenque,--of which ancient
city, however, no mention is made in the accounts of that
expedition,--and rested at an Indian town situated upon an island in
Lake Peten in Guatemala. This island was then the property of an
emigrant tribe of Maya Indians; and Bernal Diaz, the historian of the
expedition, says, that "its houses and lofty teocallis glistened in the
sun, so that it might be seen for a distance of two leagues." According
to Prescott, "Cortez on his departure left among this friendly people
one of his horses, which had been disabled by an injury in the foot. The
Indians felt a reverence for the animal, as in some way connected with
the mysterious power of the white men. When their visitors had gone they
offered flowers to the horse, and as it is said, prepared for him many
savory messes of poultry, such as they would have administered to their
own sick. Under this extraordinary diet the poor animal pined away and
died. The affrighted Indians raised his effigy in stone, and placing it
upon one of their teocallis, did homage to it as to a deity."[25-*] At
the hacienda of Don Manuel Casares called Xuyum, fifteen miles
north-east from Mérida, a number of cerros, or mounds, and the ruins of
several small stone structures built on artificial elevations, were
pointed out to the writer; and his attention was called to two
sculptured heads of horses which lay upon the ground in the neighborhood
of some ruined buildings. They were of the size of life, and
represented, cut from solid limestone, the heads and necks of horses
with the mane clipped, so that it stood up from the ridge of their necks
like the mane of the zebra. The workmanship of the figures was artistic,
and the inference made at the time was, that these figures had served as
bas reliefs on ruins in that vicinity. On mentioning the fact of the
existence of these figures to Dr. Carl Hermann Berendt, who was about to
revisit Yucatan, in 1869, he manifested much interest in regard to them,
and expressed his intention to visit this plantation when he should be
in Mérida. But later inquiries have failed to discover any further trace
of these figures. Dr. Berendt had never seen any representation of
horses upon ruins in Central America, and considered the existence of
the sculptures the more noteworthy, from the fact that horses were
unknown to the natives till the time of the Spanish discovery. The
writer supposes that these figures were sculptured by Indians after the
conquest, and that they were used as decorations upon buildings erected
at the same time and by the same hands.
At the town of Izamal, and also at Zilam, the writer saw gigantic
artificial mounds, with stone steps leading up to a broad level space on
the top. There are no remains of structures on these elevations, but it
seems probable that the space was once occupied by buildings. At Izamal,
which was traditionally the sacred city of the Mayas, a human face in
stucco is still attached to the perpendicular side of one of the smaller
cerros or mounds. The face is of gigantic size, and can be seen from a
long distance. It may have been a representation of Zamna, the founder
of Mayan civilization in Yucatan, to whose worship that city was
especially dedicated.
From this slight glance at the remains in the Mayan territory we are led
to say a few words about their history. In the absence of all authentic
accounts, the traditions of the Mayas, and the writings of Spanish
chroniclers and ecclesiastics, offer the only material for our object.
M. L'Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg, the learned French traveller and
Archæologist, in his _Histoire des Nations Civilisées du Mexique et de
l'Amérique Centrale durant les siècles antérieurs à Christophe Columb_,
has given a very voluminous and interesting account of Mayan history
prior to the arrival of Europeans. It was collected by a careful study
of Spanish and Mayan manuscripts, and will serve at least to open the
way for further investigation to those who do not agree with its
inferences and conclusions. The well known industry and enthusiasm of
this scholar have contributed very largely to encourage the study of
American Archæology in Europe, and his name has been most prominently
associated with the later efforts of the French in the scientific study
of Mexican antiquities. A brief notice of some of the marked epochs of
Mayan history, as he presents them, will not perhaps be out of place in
this connection.
Modern investigations, in accord with the most ancient traditions, make
Tobasco and the mouths of the Tobasco river, and the Uzumacinta, the
first cradle of civilization in Central America. At the epoch of the
Spanish invasion, these regions, and the interior provinces which
bordered on them, were inhabited by a great number of Indian tribes.
There was a time when the major part of the population of that region
spoke a common language, and this language was either the Tzendale,
spoken to-day by a great number of the Indians in the State of Chiapas,
or more likely the Maya, the only language of the peninsula of Yucatan.
When the Spaniards first appeared, the native population already
occupied the peninsula, and a great part of the interior region of that
portion of the continent. Learned Indians have stated, that they heard
traditionally from their ancestors, that at first the country was
peopled by a race which came from the east, and that their God had
delivered them from the pursuit of certain others, in opening to them a
way of escape by means of the sea. According to tradition, Votan, a
priestly ruler, came to Yucatan many centuries before the Christian era,
and established his first residence at Nachan, now popularly called
Palenque. The astonishment of the natives at the coming of Votan was as
great as the sensation produced later at the appearance of the
Spaniards. Among the cities which recognized Votan as founder, Mayapan
occupied a foremost rank and became the capital of the Yucatan
peninsula; a title which it lost and recovered at various times, and
kept until very near to the date of the arrival of the Spaniards. The
ruins of Mayapan are situated in the centre of the province, about
twenty-four miles from those of Uxmal. Mayapan, Tulha--situated upon a
branch of the Tobasco river,--and Palenque, are considered the most
ancient cities of Central America.
Zamna however was revered by the Mayas as their greatest lawgiver, and
as the most active organizer of their powerful kingdom. He was a ruler
of the same race as Votan, and his arrival took place a few years after
the building of Palenque. The first enclosure of Mayapan surrounded only
the official and sacred buildings, but later this city was much
extended, so that it became one of the largest of ancient America. Zamna
is said to have reigned many years, and to have introduced arts and
sciences which enriched his kingdom. He was buried at Izamal, which
became a shrine where multitudes of pilgrims rendered homage to this
benefactor of their country. Here was established an oracle, famous
throughout that whole region, which was also resorted to for the cure of
diseases.
Mayan chronology fixes the year 258 of the Christian era as the date
when the Tutul-Xius, a princely family from Tulha, left Guatemala and
appeared in Yucatan. They conciliated the good will of the king of
Mayapan and rendered themselves vassals of the crown of Maya. The
Tutul-Xius founded Mani and also Tihoo, afterwards the modern city of
Mérida. The divinity most worshipped at Tihoo was Baklum-Chaam, the
Priapus of the Mayas, and the great temple erected as a sanctuary to
this god was but little inferior to the temple of Izamal. It bore the
title "_Yahan-Kuna_," most beautiful temple. A letter from Father
Bienvenida to Philip II., speaks of this city in these terms, "The city
is 30 leagues in the interior, and is called Mérida, which name it
takes on account of the beautiful buildings which it contains, because
in the whole extent of country which has been discovered, not one so
beautiful has been met with. The buildings are finely constructed of
hammered stone, laid without cement, and are 30 feet in height. On the
summit of these edifices are four apartments, divided into cells like
those of the monks, which are twenty feet long and ten feet wide. The
posts of the doors are of a single stone, and the roof is vaulted. The
priests have established a convent of St. Francis in the part which has
been discovered. It is proper that what has served for the worship of
the demon should be transformed into a temple for the service of
God."[29-*]
Later in history a prince named Cukulcan arrived from the west and
established himself at Chichen-Itza. Owing to quarrels in the Mayan
territory, he was asked to take the supreme government of the empire,
with Mayapan as the capital city. By his management the government was
divided into three absolute sovereignties, which upon occasion might act
together and form one. The seven succeeding sovereigns of Mayapan
embellished and improved the country, and it was very prosperous. At
this time the city of Uxmal, governed by one of the Tutul-Xius, began to
rival the city of Mayapan in extent of territory and in the number of
its vassals. The towns of Noxcacab, Kabah, Bocal and N[)o]hpat were
among its dependencies.
The date of the foundation of Uxmal has been fixed at A. D. 864. At this
epoch, great avenues paved with stone, were constructed, the most
remarkable of which appeared to have been that which extends from the
interior to the shores of the sea opposite Cozumel, upon the North-East
coast, and the highway which led to Izamal constructed for the
convenience of pilgrims. A long peace then reigned between the princes
of the several principal cities, which was brought to an end by an
alliance formed against the King of Mayapan. The rulers of Chichen and
Uxmal dared openly to condemn the conduct of the king of Mayapan,
because he had employed hirelings to protect himself against his own
people, who were provoked by his tyrannical exactions, and had
transferred his residence to Kimpech, upon which town and neighborhood,
alone, he bestowed his royal favors. His people were especially outraged
by the introduction of slavery, which had been hitherto unknown to them.
A change of rulers at Mayapan failed to allay the troubles in the
empire, and by a conspiracy of the independent princes, the new tyrant
of Mayapan was deposed, and he was defeated in a three days battle at
the city of Mayapan. The palace was taken, and the king and his family
were brutally murdered. The city was then given to the flames and was
left a vast and desolate heap of ruins.
Then one of the Tutul-Xius, prince of Uxmal, on his return, was crowned
and received the title of supreme monarch of the Mayas. This king
governed the country with great wisdom, extending his protection over
the foreign mercenaries of the former tyrant, and offering them an
asylum not far from Uxmal, where are now the remains of the towns
Pockboc, Sakbache and Lebna. It is believed that the city of Mayapan was
then rebuilt, and existed shorn of some of its former greatness, but
later it was again the cause of dissension in the kingdom, and was again
destroyed. This event is said to have occurred in A. D. 1464. Peace then
reigned in Yucatan for more than twenty years, and there was a period of
great abundance and prosperity. At the end of this time the country was
subjected to a series of disasters. Hurricanes occurred, doing
incalculable damage; plagues followed with great destruction of life;
and thus began the depopulation of the peninsula. Then the Spaniards
arrived, and the existence of Indian power in Yucatan came to an end.
The foregoing is necessarily an abridged, hastily written, and very
imperfect sketch of some of the more prominent facts connected with the
supposed early history of Mayan civilization, which have been brought
together with care, labor, and great elaboration, by the Abbé Brasseur
de Bourbourg. Much of this history is accepted as correct from the
weight of the authorities which support and corroborate it, but the
whole subject is still an open one in the opinion of scholars and
archæologists.
The learned Abbé is now no more, but the record of his labors exists in
his published works, and in the impulse which he gave to archæological
investigations. We receive the first notice of his death from Mr. Hubert
Howe Bancroft, who pays the following eloquent tribute to his memory:
"Brasseur de Bourbourg devoted his life to the study of American
primitive history. In actual knowledge pertaining to his chosen
subjects, no man ever equalled or approached him. Besides being an
indefatigable student, he was an elegant writer. In the last decade of
his life, he conceived a new and complicated theory respecting the
origin of the American people, or rather the origin of Europeans and
Asiatics from America, made known to the world in his '_Quatre
Lettres_.' His attempted translation of the manuscript _Troano_ was made
in support of this theory. By reason of the extraordinary nature of the
views expressed, and the author's well-known tendency to build
magnificent structures on a slight foundation, his later writings were
received, for the most part by critics utterly incompetent to understand
them, with a sneer, or what seems to have grieved the writer more, in
silence. Now that the great Americanist is dead, while it is not likely
that his theories will ever be received, his zeal in the cause of
antiquarian science, and the many valuable works from his pen will be
better appreciated. It will be long ere another shall undertake, with
equal devotion and ability, the well nigh hopeless task."[32-*]
Among the historical records relating to the aborigines of Spanish
America, there is none more valuable than the manuscript of Diego de
Landa--Second Bishop of Yucatan, in 1573,--which was discovered and
published by M. de Bourbourg. It contains an account of the manners and
customs of the Maya Indians, a description of some of their chief towns;
and more important than all besides, it furnishes an alphabet, which is
the most probable key that is known to us for reading the hieroglyphics
which are found upon many of the Yucatan ruins. The alphabet, though
imperfect in itself, may at some future time explain, not only the
inscriptions, but also the manuscripts of this ancient period. Although
an attempt of its discoverer, to make use of the alphabet for
interpreting the characters of the manuscript _Troano_, has failed to
satisfy scholars, its study still engages the attention of other learned
archæologists and antiquaries.
Bishop Landa gives the following description of Mayan manuscripts or
books: "They wrote their books on a large, highly decorated leaf,
doubled in folds and enclosed between two boards, and they wrote on both
sides in columns corresponding to the folds. The paper they made of the
roots of a tree, and gave it a white varnish on which one could write
well. This art was known by certain men of high rank, and because of
their knowledge of it they were much esteemed, but they did not practice
the art in public. This people also used certain characters or letters,
with which they wrote in their books of their antiquities and their
sciences: and by means of these, and of figures, and by certain signs in
their figures, they understood their writings, and made them understood,
and taught them. We found among them a great number of books of these
letters of theirs, and because they contained nothing which had not
superstitions and falsities of the devil, we burned them all; at which
they were exceedingly sorrowful and troubled."[33-*]
In Cogolludo's Historia de Yucatan, there is an account of a destruction
of Indian antiquities by Bishop Landa, called an auto-dä-f[=e], of which
we give a translation: "This Bishop, who has passed for an illustrious
saint among the priests of this province, was still an extravagant
fanatic, and so hard hearted that he became cruel. One of the heaviest
accusations against him, which his apologists could not deny or justify,
was the famous auto-dä-f[=e], in which he proceeded in a most arbitrary
and despotic manner. Father Landa destroyed many precious memorials,
which to-day might throw a brilliant light over our ancient history,
still enveloped in an almost impenetrable chaos until the period of the
conquest. Landa saw in books that he could not comprehend, cabalistic
signs, and invocations to the devil. From notes in a letter written by
the Yucatan Jesuit, Domingo Rodriguez, in 1805, we offer the following
enumeration of the articles destroyed and burned.
5000 Idols, of distinct forms and dimensions.
13 Great stones, that had served as altars.
22 Small stones, of various forms.
27 Rolls of signs and hieroglyphics, on deer skins.
197 Vases, of all dimensions and figures.
Other precious curiosities are spoken of, but we have no description of
them."[34-*]
Captain Antonio del Rio gives an account of another destruction of Mayan
antiquities, at Huegetan: "The Bishop of Chiapas, Don Francisco Nunez de
la Vega, in his _Diocesan Constitution_, printed at Rome in 1702, says,
that the treasure consisted of some large earthen vases of one piece,
closed with covers of the same material, on which were represented in
stone the figures of the ancient pagans whose names are in the calendar,
with some _chalchihuitls_, which are solid hard stones of a green color,
and other superstitious figures, together with historical works of
Indian origin. These were taken from a cave and given up, when they
were publicly burned in the square Huegetan, on our visit to that
province in 1691."[35-*]
Prescott also mentions the destruction of manuscripts and other works of
art in Mexico: "The first Arch-Bishop of Mexico, Don Juan de Zumarraga,
a name that should be as immortal as that of Omar, collected these
paintings from every quarter, especially from Tescuco, the most
cultivated capital of Anahuac, and the great depository of the national
archives. He then caused them to be piled up in a mountain heap, as it
was called by the Spanish writers themselves, in the market place of
Tlatelolco, and reduced them all to ashes."[35-[+]]
It is not then to be wondered at, that so few original Mayan manuscripts
have escaped and are preserved, when such a spirit of destruction
animated the Spanish priests at the time of the conquest. Mr. Hubert
Howe Bancroft, whom we are happy to recognize as a member of this
Society, in a systematic and exhaustive treatment of the history and
present condition of the Indians of the Pacific States, has presented a
great amount of valuable information, much of which has never before
been offered to the public; and in his wide view, he comprehends
important observations on Central American antiquities. He gives this
account of existing ancient Maya manuscripts or books. "Of the
aboriginal Maya manuscripts, three specimens only, so far as I know,
have been preserved. These are the _Mexican Manuscript No. 2_, of the
Imperial Library at Paris; the _Dresden Codex_, and the _Manuscript
Troano_. Of the first, we only know of its existence, and the
similarity of its characters to those of the other two, and of the
sculptured tablets. The _Dresden Codex_ is preserved in the Royal
Library of Dresden. The _Manuscript Troano_ was found about the year
1865, in Madrid, by the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg. Its name comes from
that of its possessor in Madrid, Sr. Tro y Ortolano, and nothing
whatever is known of its origin. The original is written on a strip of
_maguey_ paper, about fourteen feet long, and nine inches wide, the
surface of which is covered with a whitish varnish, on which the figures
are painted in black, red, blue and brown. It is folded fan-like into
thirty-five folds, presenting when shut much the appearance of a modern
large octavo volume; The hieroglyphics cover both sides of the paper,
and the writing is consequently divided into seventy pages, each about
five by nine inches, having been apparently executed after the paper was
folded, so that the folding does not interfere with the written
matter."[36-*]
It is probable that early manuscripts, as well as others of less
antiquity than the above mentioned, but of great historical importance,
yet remain buried among the archives of the many churches and convents
of Yucatan; and it is also true that a systematic search for them has
never been prosecuted. A thorough examination of ecclesiastical and
antiquarian collections in that country, would be a service to the
students of archæology which ought not to be longer deferred.
The discovery of the continent of America was made near this Peninsula,
and the accounts of early Spanish voyagers contain meagre but still
valuable descriptions of the country, as it appeared at the time it was
first visited by Europeans. It may be interesting to call to mind some
of the circumstances connected with their voyages, and with the first
settlement of Yucatan by the Spaniards, and also to notice briefly some
of the difficulties met with in obtaining a foot-hold in the new world.
Columbus on his fourth and last voyage, in 1502, left the Southern coast
of Cuba, and sailing in a South-westerly direction reached Guanaja, an
island now called Bonacca, one of a group thirty miles distant from
Honduras, and the shores of the western continent. From this island he
sailed southward as far as Panama, and thence returned to Cuba on his
way to Spain, after passing six months on the Northern coasts of Panama.
In 1506 two of Columbus' companions, De Solis and Pinzon, were again in
the Gulf of Honduras, and examined the coast westward as far as the Gulf
of Dulce, still looking for a passage to the Indian Ocean. Hence they
sailed northward, and discovered a great part of Yucatan, though that
country was not then explored, nor was any landing made.
The first actual exploration was made by Francisco Hernandez de Cordova
in 1517, who landed on the Island Las Mugeres. Here he found stone
towers, and chapels thatched with straw, in which were arranged in order
several idols resembling women--whence the name which the Island
received. The Spaniards were astonished to see, for the first time in
the new world, stone edifices of architectural beauty, and also to
perceive the dress of the natives, who wore shirts and cloaks of white
and colored cotton, with head-dresses of feathers, and were ornamented
with ear drops and jewels of gold and silver. From this island,
Hernandez went to Cape Catoche, which he named from the answer given
him by some of the natives, who, when asked what town it was, answered,
"Cotohe," that is, a house. A little farther on the Spaniards asked the
name of a large town near by. The natives answered "Tectatan,"
"Tectatan," which means "I do not understand," and the Spaniards thought
that this was the name, and have ever since given to the country the
corrupted name Yucatan. Hernandez then went to Campeachy, called Kimpech
by the natives. He landed, and the chief of the town and himself
embraced each other, and he received as presents cloaks, feathers, large
shells, and sea crayfish set in gold and silver, together with
partridges, turtle doves, goslings, cocks, hares, stags and other
animals, which were good to eat, and bread made from Indian corn, and an
abundance of tropical fruits. There was in this place a square stone
tower with steps, on the top of which there was an idol, which had at
its side two cruel animals, represented as if they were desirous of
devouring it. There was also a great serpent forty-seven feet long, cut
in stone, devouring a lion as broad as an ox. This idol was besmeared
with human blood. Champoton was next visited, where the Spaniards were
received in a hostile manner, and were defeated by the natives, who
killed twenty, wounded fifty, and made two prisoners, whom they
afterwards sacrificed. Cordova then returned to Cuba, and reported the
discovery of Yucatan, showed the various utensils in gold and silver
which he had taken from the temple at Kimpech, and declared the wonders
of a country whose culture, edifices and inhabitants, were so different
from all he had previously seen; but he stated that it was necessary to
conquer the natives in order to obtain gold, and the riches which were
in their possession.
Neither Kimpech nor Champoton were under Mexican rule, but there was
frequent traffic between the Mayas and the subjects of the empire of
Anahuac. Diégo Vélasquez de Leon was at that time governor of Cuba, and
he planned another expedition into the rich country just discovered.
Four ships, equipped and placed under the command of Juan de Grijalva,
sailed, in 1518, and first stopped at the Island of Cozumel, which was
then famous with the Yucatan Indians, by reason of an annual pilgrimage
of which its temples were the object. In their progress along the coast,
the navigators saw many small edifices, which they took for towers, but
which were nothing less than altars or teocallis, erected to the gods of
the sea, protectors of the pilgrims. On the fifth day a pyramid came in
view, on the summit of which there was what appeared to be a tower. It
was one of the temples, whose elegant and symmetrical shape made a
profound impression upon all. Near by they saw a great number of Indians
making much noise with drums. Grijalva waited for the morrow before
disembarking, and then setting his forces in battle array, marched
towards the temple, where on arriving he planted the standard of
Castile. Within the sanctuary he found several idols, and the traces of
sacrifice. The chaplain of the fleet celebrated mass before the
astonished natives. It was the first time that this rite had been
performed on the new continent, and the Indians assisted in respectful
silence, although they comprehended nothing of the ceremonies. When the
priest had descended from the altar, the Indians allowed the strangers
peaceably to visit their houses, and brought them an abundance of food
of all kinds. Grijalva then sailed along the coast of Yucatan. The
astonishment of the Spaniards at the aspect of the elegant buildings,
whose construction gave them a high idea of the civilization of the
country, increased as they advanced. The architecture appeared to them
much superior to anything they had hitherto met with in the new world,
and they cried out with their commander that they had found a New Spain,
which name has remained, and from Yucatan has been applied to the
neighboring regions in that part of the American continent. Grijalva
found the cities and villages of the South-western coast like those he
had already seen, and the natives resembled those of the north and east
in dress and manners. But at Champoton the Indians were, as before,
hostile, and were ready to use their arms to repel peaceful advances as
well as aggressions. The Spaniards succeeded however, after a bloody
struggle, in gaining possession of Champoton and putting the Indians to
flight. Thence Grijalva went southward to the river Tobasco, and held an
interview with the Lord of Centla, who cordially received him, and
presents were mutually exchanged.
Still the native nobles were not slow in showing that they were troubled
at the presence of the strangers. Many times they indicated with the
finger the Western country, and repeated with emphasis the word, at that
time mysterious to Europeans, Culhua, signifying Mexico. The fleet then
sailed northward, exploring the coast of Mexico as far as Vera Cruz,
visiting several maritime towns. Francisco de Montejo, afterwards so
celebrated in Yucatan history, was the first European to place his foot
upon the soil of Mexico. Here, Grijalva's intercourse with the natives
was of the most friendly description, and a system of barter was
established, by which in exchange for articles of Spanish manufacture,
pieces of native gold, a variety of golden ornaments enriched with
precious stones, and a quantity of cotton mantles and other garments,
were obtained. Intending to prosecute his discoveries further, Grijalva
despatched these objects to Vélasquez at Cuba, in a ship commanded by
Pedro de Alvarado, who also took charge of the sick and wounded of the
expedition. Grijalva himself then ascended the Mexican coast as far as
Panuco (the present Tampico), whence he returned to Cuba. By this
expedition the external form of Yucatan was exactly ascertained, and the
existence of the more powerful and extensive empire of Mexico was made
known.
Upon the arrival of Alvarado at Cuba, bringing wonderful accounts of his
discoveries in Yucatan and Mexico, together with the valuable
curiosities he had obtained in that country, Vélasquez was greatly
pleased with the results of the expedition; but was still considerably
disappointed that Grijalva had neglected one of the chief purposes of
his voyage, namely, that of founding a colony in the newly discovered
country. Another expedition was resolved on for the purpose of
establishing a permanent foot-hold in the new territory, and the command
was intrusted to Hernando Cortez. This renowned captain sailed from
Havana, February 19, 1519, with a fleet of nine vessels, which were to
rendezvous at the Island of Cozumel. On landing, Cortez pursued a
pacific course towards the natives, but endeavored to substitute the
Roman Catholic religion for the idolatrous rites which prevailed in the
several temples of that sacred Island. He found it easier to induce the
natives to accept new images than to give up those which they had
hitherto worshipped. After charging the Indians to observe the religious
ceremonies which he had prescribed, and receiving a promise of
compliance with his wishes, Cortez again sailed and doubled cape
Catoche, following the contour of the gulf as far south as the river
Tobasco. Here, disembarking, notwithstanding the objections of the
Indians, he took possession of Centla, a town remarkable for its extent
and population, and a centre of trade with the neighboring empire of
Mexico, whence were obtained much tribute and riches. After remaining
there long enough to engage in a sanguinary battle, which ended in a
decisive victory for the Spaniards, Cortez reëmbarked and went forward
to his famous conquest of Mexico.
From the time when Cortez left the river Tobasco, his mind was fixed
upon the attractions of the more distant land of Mexico, and not upon
the prosecution of further discoveries upon the Western shores of
Yucatan; and until 1524, for a period of more than five years, this
peninsula remained unnoticed by the Spaniards. Then Cortez left Mexico,
which he had already subjugated, for a journey of discovery to Honduras,
and for the purpose of calling to account, for insubordination and
usurpation of authority, Cristoval de Olid, whom he had previously sent
to that region from Vera Cruz. He received from the princes of Xicalanco
and Tobasco maps and charts, giving the natural features of the country,
and the limits of the various States. His march lay through the Southern
boundaries of the great Mayan empire. Great were the privations of this
overland march, which passed through a desolate and uninhabited region,
and near the ruins of Palenque, but none of the historians of the
expedition take notice of the remains. When Cortez finally arrived at
Nito, a town on the border of Honduras, he received tidings of the death
of Cristoval de Olid, and that his coming would be hailed with joy by
the Spanish troops stationed there, who were now without a leader. From
the arrival of Cortez at Nito, the association of his name with the
province of Yucatan is at an end, and the further history of that
peninsula was developed by those who afterwards undertook the conquest
of that country.
Francisco de Montejo was a native of Salamanca, in Spain, of noble
descent and considerable wealth. He had been among the first attracted
to the new world, and accompanied the expedition of Grijalva to Yucatan
in 1518, and that of Cortez in 1519. By Cortez this captain was twice
sent to Spain from Mexico, with despatches and presents for the Emperor,
Charles V. In the year 1527, Montejo solicited the government of
Yucatan, in order to conquer and pacificate that country, and received
permission to conquer and people the islands of Yucatan and Cozumel, at
his own cost. He was to exercise the office of Governor and Captain
General for life, with the title of Adelantado, which latter office at
his death should descend to his heirs and successors forever. Montejo
disposed of his hereditary property, and with the money thus raised
embarked with about four hundred troops, exclusive of sailors, and set
sail from Spain for the conquest of Yucatan. Landing at Cozumel, and
afterwards at some point on the North-eastern coast of the peninsula,
Montejo met with determined resistance from the natives; and a battle
took place at Aké, in which one hundred and fifty Spaniards were killed,
and nearly all the remainder were wounded, or worn out with fatigue.
Fortunately, the Indians did not follow the retreating survivors into
their entrenchments, or they would have exterminated the Spaniards. The
remnants of this force next appeared at Campeachy, where they
established a precarious settlement, and were at last obliged to
withdraw, so that in 1535 not a Spaniard remained in Yucatan.
Don Francisco de Montejo, son of the Adelantado, was sent by his father
from Tobasco, in 1537, to attempt again the conquest of Yucatan. He made
a settlement at Champoton, and after two years of the most disheartening
experiences at this place, a better fortune opened to the Spaniards. The
veteran Montejo made over to his son all the powers given to him by the
Emperor, together with the title of Adelantado; and the new governor
established himself at Kimpech in 1540, where he founded a city, calling
it San Francisco de Campeachy. From thence an expedition went northward
to the Indian town Tihoo, and a settlement was made, which was attacked
by an immense body of natives. The small band of Spaniards, a little
more than two hundred in all, were successful in holding their ground,
and, turning the tide of battle, pursued their retreating foes, and
inflicted upon them great slaughter. The Indians were completely routed,
and never again rallied for a general battle. The conquerors founded the
present city of Mérida on the site of the Indian town, with all legal
formalities, in January, 1542.[44-*]
But though conquered the Indians were not subjugated. They cherished an
inveterate hatred of the Spaniards, which manifested itself on every
possible occasion, and it required the utmost watchfulness and energy
to suppress the insurrections which from time to time broke out; and the
complete pacification of Yucatan was not secured before the year 1547.
Hon. Lewis H. Morgan, in an interesting article in the North American
Review, entitled "_Montezuma's Dinner_," makes the statement that
"American aboriginal history is based upon a misconception of Indian
life which has remained substantially unquestioned to the present hour."
He considers that the accounts of Spanish writers were filled with
extravagancies, exaggerations and absurdities, and that the grand
terminology of the old world, created under despotic and monarchial
institutions, was drawn upon to explain the social and political
condition of the Indian races. He states, that while "the histories of
Spanish America may be trusted in whatever relates to the acts of the
Spaniards, and to the acts and personal characteristics of the Indians;
in whatever relates to Indian society and government, their social
relations and plan of life, they are wholly worthless, because they
learned nothing and knew nothing of either." On the other hand, we are
told that "Indian society could be explained as completely, and
understood as perfectly, as the civilized society of Europe or America,
by finding its exact organization."[45-*] Mr. Morgan proposes to
accomplish this result by the study of the manners and customs of Indian
races whose histories are better known. In the familiar habits of the
Iroquois, and their practice as to communism of living, and the
construction of their dwellings, Mr. Morgan finds the key to all the
palatial edifices encountered by Cortez on his invasion of Mexico: and
he wishes to include, also, the magnificent remains in the Mayan
territory. He would have us believe, that the highly ornamental stone
structures of Uxmal, Chichen-Itza, and Palenque, were but joint tenement
houses, which should be studied with attention to the usages of Indian
tribes of which we have a more certain record, and not from
contemporaneous historical accounts of eye witnesses.
In answer to Mr. Morgan's line of argument, it may be said, that the
agreement of early voyagers and chroniclers, of whom there is so large a
number, as to the main facts, is strong evidence that their impressions,
as stated, were founded upon what they saw, and not on pictures of the
imagination. Moreover, the existing undecyphered manuscripts, together
with the hieroglyphical and symbolical inscriptions upon buildings,
traced in characters similar to those found in aboriginal manuscripts,
prove that there was a literature among the Mayan and Aztec races, which
places them in a grade of civilization far above that of communistic
Indian tribes of which we have any record. More than all, the manuscript
of Bishop Landa, an eye witness of expiring Mayan civilization, with its
detailed account of the political and social relations of the Indians of
that country, is strong testimony to the correctness of the generally
accepted theories regarding their social and political systems. The
truthfulness of Bishop Landa's account is attested by its conformity to
other accounts, and to the customs and usages of the Yucatan Indians of
to-day, as described by recent travellers. We are obliged to consider
the argument of Mr. Morgan insufficient to destroy the common opinions
of three centuries and a half, in so far as relates to the Maya
Indians.
Mr. Morgan also says that "the Aztecs had no structures comparable with
those of Yucatan." If the only grounds for this statement are, that
almost no ruins now remain in that country, and that the early accounts
of Spanish writers, of what they themselves saw, are considered, by him,
untrustworthy, the weight of probability seems, to the writer of this
paper, on the contrary, to lie in quite the other direction. When Cortez
left Havana, in 1519, he visited Cozumel, famous for its beautiful
temples, and Centla, and certain other towns in Central America, on his
way to Mexico. Having thus seen the wonderful structures of Central
America, is it not strange, that the historians of that expedition, and
Cortez himself, should be filled with wonder and amazement at what they
found in Mexico, to a degree that disposed them to give a much more
particular account of the Aztec palaces than of Yucatan buildings, if
they were inferior to them in point of architecture? Mexico has since
that time been more populous than Yucatan, and its ruins have naturally
disappeared more rapidly in the construction of modern buildings; but
the records of its former civilization exist in the accounts of the
discoverers, and in the numerous relics of antiquity contained in the
museums of Mexico, and scattered about in the archæological collections
of Europe and America. The celebrated calendar stone found buried in the
_Plaza Mayor_ of Mexico, and now preserved in that city, demonstrates
the astronomical advancement of the Aztecs in an incontrovertible
manner, and that monument alone would establish their advanced position.
The observations and conclusions of a traveller and archæologist of
large experience, as to the condition of Central America at the time of
its discovery and settlement by the Spaniards, are contained in the
valuable monograph of Dr. C. Hermann Berendt, the discoverer of the site
of ancient Centla, who having made a special study of the antiquities of
that country in five expeditions, each of several years duration, is
entitled to special consideration as one who knows whereof he
speaketh.[48-*] This writer, while he concedes the insufficiency of
consulting the records of Spanish writers alone, thinks that archæology
and linguistics will at length furnish us the means of reading these
records with positive results, as well as help us to a better
understanding of the early history of this continent. He says "Central
America was once the centre, or rather the only theatre of a truly
American, that is to say, indigenous, development and civilization. It
was suggested by Humboldt half a century ago, that more light on this
subject is likely to be elicited, through the examination and comparison
of what palpably remains of the ancient nations, than from dubious
traditions, or a still more precarious speculation. And such palpable
remains we have, in their antiquities and in their languages. Thus
linguistic science has begun to invade the field of American ethnology:
and let it not be forgotten that this science is as little bound, as it
is qualified, to perform the whole task alone: archæology must lend a
helping hand. We must have museums, in which the plastic remains of the
ancient American civilizations, either original, or in faithful
imitations, shall, in as large numbers as possible, be collected, and
duly grouped and labelled, according to the place and circumstances of
their discovery."
The plan for the study of Mayan and Central American ethnology, as
indicated by Dr. Berendt, seems to agree most fully with the views
entertained by some of the later writers in the publications of the
Société Américaine de France, and may be thus stated in brief. _First_,
The Study of Native Languages. _Second_, The Study of the Antiquities
themselves. _Third_, The formation of Museums, where materials for
archæological research may be brought together, and made accessible and
available. From the study of aboriginal American history in this
practical way, the most satisfactory results can not fail to be reached.
In this brief hour, it would be impossible to describe and elucidate
this interesting subject, if the ability were not wanting; but it may be
accepted as a welcome service, that draws the attention of this Society
to an important field, which the Société Américaine de France, and other
European archæologists, are regarding with increased interest.