THE PROCESS OF DIAMOND MINING FROM START TO DATE.—THE “LONG TOM.”—THE
“CRADLE” AND THE “BABY.”—THE SORTING TABLE AND SCRAPERS.—VAN DOUSSA’S
INVENTION. THE SCENE IN THE KIMBERLEY MINE.—THE ROAD’S “STAGES.” “WHIMS”
AND “WHIPS.”—THE ROTARY WASHING MACHINE. THE CYLINDERS AND THE
ELEVATORS.—SINGULAR MISTAKES. STATISTICS OF LABOR EMPLOYED.—STEAM
POWER.—FUEL.—THE KIMBERLEY WATER-WORKS.
Very shortly after the discovery of diamonds on the banks of the Vaal
River the diggers set themselves to solve the important question: How
shall we win a maximum of diamonds with a minimum of labor? Sorting
without mechanical appliances of any kind was indeed a weary and
heart-sickening toil, especially when, as not very rarely happened,
weeks elapsed without a single diamond being found to reward the digger
for his almost ceaseless labor. Only the hope that “springs eternal in
the human breast” enabled the searcher after precious stones to endure
it; and so it was not long before inventions, which ingenuity brought to
bear upon the object of answering the question above propounded, came
into general use.
[Illustration:
DIAMOND WASHING MACHINE.
]
First of all came the “Long Tom,” a trough fitted with ripples, into the
head of which the gravel was thrown, and through which a constant flow
of water drawn from the river was maintained, while the gravel was raked
and the larger stones and pebbles removed, the fine gravel found behind
the ripples being taken away to the sorting tables. To this contrivance
succeeded the “cradle,” a wooden box placed upon rockers and pulsated
upon a flat piece of ground or rock by means of a handle. The cradle
contained three sieves, the first very coarse and the third extremely
fine. Into the first the mud and gravel were poured, a constant flow of
water being of course kept up. When the mud had disappeared the first
sieve was hand-sorted, and loud indeed were the shouts of acclamation
and universal was the adjournment to the nearest liquor tent when a
diamond was found in this receptacle. The contents of sieves Nos. 2 and
3 were then emptied on different ends of the sorting table.
Both these appliances were introduced by old gold diggers, and were
similar in construction to their Californian and Australian namesakes.
Third in order came the “baby,” so-called from its inventor, a Mr. Babe,
an American. Three screens, somewhat similar to those used by
bricklayers in making mortar, were suspended by reins (leather thongs)
almost horizontally to four posts, and were kept in agitation by hand,
the reins of course giving full play for “pulsation.” The subsequent
process was nearly identical with that above described in connection
with the cradle, which this machine indeed resembled in principle,
though a decided improvement, as much more work could be accomplished
with the aid of this invention than with the assistance of its
predecessor.
Fourth in order came the “cylinder,” constructed of either wire sieving
(10 inch mesh) or punched sheet iron fitted with lids, revolving on an
axle, kept moving by a handle immersed in a tub of water. The gravel
before being shut up in a cylinder was screened. This was found to be an
excellent contrivance for saving labor, and was highly popular, as
obviously the natives could have no opportunity of purloining diamonds
from it, as it was only opened for the pouring out of the contents under
the digger’s personal supervision, or perchance the observing eye of the
partner of his joys and sorrows. It is perhaps unnecessary to add that
after these machines had come into general use, many, especially the
impecunious diggers, amongst whom were many Dutchmen, with
overwhelmingly large families, did as best they could with a single
sieve, which served as pulsator and everything beside. To-day even, many
use this primitive appliance at the river.
Before passing on to the Dry Diggings and the systems that there
prevailed, it may be as well to briefly describe the “sorting table.”
The top of a packing-case balanced on a heap of gravel often had to
serve this purpose in the early days of the river diggings, and beside
it the digger knelt, crouched or sat, changing his position when it
became too wearisome. The more affluent had a sorting table supported by
legs, and covered with a sheet of iron, being slightly inclined from the
digger, so that the water might not flow into his lap when the gravel
was poured out in front of him. Those of my readers who visited the Cape
court in the “Colinderies” have seen a sorting table almost if not quite
identical with the best constructed of the early days. The “scraper,”
too, which, though small in size and inexpensive in material, is yet an
important instrument in diamond winning, has but little altered. This
little wonder is not much to look at, being simply a piece of tin or
iron about six to nine inches in width and three to four inches in
height, with a straight edge and pointed ends. With this the sorter
scrapes—scrapes—scrapes, pushing over the edge of his sorting table,
garnets, jaspers, carbons, agates, pyrites, crystals and pebbles, which,
however interesting to the scientist, are commercially valueless, until
at last a diamond is found, and then the precious stone, large or small,
is dropped into an unpretentious tin or perhaps a broken bottle, and the
process goes on as before.
At the dry diggings sieving and hand-sorting were at first the usual
methods employed, and it was long before even so much ingenuity as was
required to construct an improved or altered cradle was brought into
play. The processes named, however, being so wearisome and exhausting,
they were at last abandoned; and among other labor-saving appliances
one, for which much _kudos_ was gained by the inventor or adapter—a Mr.
Van Doussa—was largely used, but does not need detailed description, as
it was simply a combination of the Long Tom and the cradle.
Before describing the elaborate washing machines, etc., in vogue to-day,
I will proceed to give my readers some idea of the successive methods by
which the diamondiferous soil has been removed from the claims for
manipulation. The Kimberley mine attracting by its marvelous richness
diggers from other mines was, at the time of its opening, and indeed
still is, a wondrous hive of human industry. In the earliest days the
sorting tables were placed in the claims themselves, and marvelous were
the scenes that then might daily be observed. In a space of some dozen
acres were often gathered together as many as ten thousand people;
diggers with their wives, sisters and children, busily engaged in
sorting; natives shoveling the earth into buckets ceaselessly, the whole
scene dotted with myriad parasols and umbrellas of the most varied hues,
and awnings of the most gayly-colored blankets. The example of Horace’s
“magni formica laboris,” that insect to which Mr. Eugene Wrayburn
objected to King Solomon referring him, was closely followed by
thousands filled with sanguine hopes, some doomed to bitter
disappointment, but full many destined in greater or lesser degree to
have their realization.
After a time, however, as the claims were worked deeper, it was found
more convenient to have the sorting tables placed outside the mine. I
may here mention that in order to facilitate work, roads were reserved
running across the mine from north to south. They were some fourteen in
number, and 7½ feet being allowed from the claims on each side, were 15
feet broad. On these roads the native laborers tossed the ground, most
of which was conveyed to the sorting tables outside the mine, but some
to tables placed upon the sides of the road. The waste ground out of
which the diamonds had been sorted was of course deposited outside the
mine,[31] after having been conveyed along the roads in sacks or
buckets, or sometimes in wheelbarrows or carts, by the “boys,”[32] the
name by which the native employés were entitled.
As the mine became yet deeper the system of “benches” came into vogue.
There were levels or terraces cut in the side of a claim, and on each of
them was posted a native who shoveled up the ground thrown to him from
the level below, until at last the precious soil reached the roadway,
where a fourth or perhaps a fifth native was waiting to convey it to its
destination. Of course the number of benches varied with the depth of
the claim.
When yet more of the soil was excavated, another system had to be
adopted, and then a post with a pulley attached was driven firmly into
the road and the ground drawn up in buckets constructed of either hide
or iron, whence it was tossed into carts drawn by horses or oxen, some
of which, poor creatures, tumbled over into the claim, where they had to
be slaughtered in order that their misery might be ended as soon as
possible, while others were killed instantaneously. The loss of human
life in these cases was, however, comparatively small.
This system, with the exception that many diggers used windlasses
instead of posts and pulleys, prevailed until 1874, by which time the
roads had fallen. This had long been foreseen, as isolated portions had
long before crumbled away, the chasms being spanned by bridges erected
at enormous expense. An entirely new system, therefore, had now to be
introduced, and this took the form of “stayings.” They were, as a rule,
three in number if the base or ground be counted, and may best be
described as floors stoutly constructed, the first stage proper being
placed at a height of about eight feet from the ground, the second about
sixteen feet. Numerous standing wires were stretched from the claims and
along these were drawn buckets containing the diamondiferous soil, one
perchance bearing a fortune in its narrow space, literally a _multum in
parvo_. The ground was hauled by windlasses worked by natives. So
numerous were the wires that the mine seemed a yawning pit over which
some Titanic spider had woven its web, while the noise of the wires was
as loud as the din of the traffic in Cheapside or the Strand, the rattle
of the machinery in a Lancashire factory, or, to be more imaginative,
the roar of angry waves buffeting a rock-bound coast.
In their turn the stages were abandoned, for, as may be imagined, the
process of hauling out ground by windlasses worked by hand was a slow
process when the claims were worked to a depth of eighty feet or more.
“Whims,”[33] worked by horses or mules, were substituted, and they were
in general use until the reign of steam, which still continues.
In other chapters the geological characteristics of the diamonds are
dealt with, and the best authorities quoted at considerable length; in
this connection, therefore, it will suffice to say that the “yellow
ground” only extends to a certain depth; this is friable, and was easily
broken up by means of shovels and clubs known as “beaters.” Beneath this
ground lies the hard blue, the discovery of which, as I mention
elsewhere, caused no small consternation amongst the diggers, who feared
when reaching it that they had come to what in alluvial gold digging
would be called the “bed-rock.” This blue ground requires careful
manipulation, and 1875 witnessed the general adoption of the “rotary”
already introduced for the quicker manipulation of the blue. The machine
in question may be thus briefly described: A species of “pay mill,” a
round, stationary pan with two concentric rings of sheet iron about nine
inches in height; in the centre an upright spindle driving six or eight
arms, in which are fixed a number of flattish tynes, not unlike the
prongs of a trident, placed in a diagonal direction. Into the circular
trough formed by the concentric rings the ground was poured, water was
supplied, and the mud kept in agitation by means of the tynes, the
overflow passing through a small door or opening in the inner ring. This
opening could be regulated by a slide according to the nature of the
ground manipulated, rapidity of the revolution of the tynes, etc., etc.
The machine was kept in work by means of cog-wheels at the top of the
spindle. At opposite points of the circumference of the machine Kafirs
were stationed to supply the motive power, and stood there turning and
turning all day long. Later on horse power was used for turning the
rotaries, which were much enlarged, and now are almost universally
driven by steam power. These machines, originally about four feet in
diameter, and capable of washing some forty loads per diem, are now made
as much as fourteen feet in diameter and from 400 to 800 loads,
according to the nature of the ground manipulated, can be washed daily
by a single machine. A highly important adjunct to the washing machine
proper is the cylinder, which was introduced after the discovery of the
blue ground. This was frequently found to be too insufficiently
disintegrated, even after long exposure on the depositing floors, to
allow of its being rapidly washed without more or less serious loss of
diamonds.[34] To prevent this loss the contrivance to which I allude was
invented. It is a rotatory cylinder, fixed at an angle of some ten
degrees, upon which a stream of water plays from a perforated tube
directly above it. The upper part of the cylinder is of fine mesh,
through which the finer particles of the wetted ground or mud fall upon
a table, in the centre of which is an inclined trough leading to the
washing machine, and along this the “magma” or slush mentioned flows by
natural gravitation. The lower half of the cylinder is of coarser or
more open mesh, allowing stones and larger lumps to fall upon the table
to be swept off by sorters with watchful eyes for any large diamonds
which may be present. This stuff is then generally treated as worthless
and thrown away, but the yet larger lumps that issue from the mouth of
the cylinder are, as a rule, taken back to the depositing sites for
further exposure.
The mud which flows from the opening in the inner ring of the rotary is
raised by small buckets (called elevators) on an endless chain to a
height of some twenty-five feet, when it is ejected, the more solid
portion flowing down screens, either to run down in “tailings” on the
spot or into trucks to be emptied elsewhere. The uninitiated who visit a
washing machine and elevator occasionally get an unpleasant surprise
when their curiosity leads them to wander any distance from their guide,
for the tailings, though solid enough at a distance from the flow from
the elevator, are there almost liquid, though to the sight, by reason of
the dry film at the surface, they appear literally _terra firma_. One
unwary step and the too inquisitive visitor is up to his knees, waist,
or even his neck, in a “slough of despond,” whence he is rescued
possibly minus a boot or shoe by his apparently sympathizing though
really much amused friends, a spectacle for gods or men.
I may here interpolate a few remarks as to the mistakes that were made,
especially by the early diggers, as to the nature of the stone
unearthed. Men unused to digging came and took out claims, especially in
the Du Toit’s Pan mine, a mine which has from the first been renowned
for large diamonds, and also for a considerable output of “crystals,”
which are of no commercial value. A large crystal, showing all the
angularity of the diamond and otherwise closely resembling it, often
raises hopes soon doomed to be disappointed. A Boer (a true story for
which I can vouch) arriving with his wagon, in which rode his wife and
children, acquired a claim, and shouldering his pick, with shovel in
hand, he started to work, and _mirabile dictu_, in an hour he discovered
a huge stone. Delighted beyond measure at his glorious find, he yet
deemed it prudent to conceal it from every one.
Packing up his goods and inspanning his oxen, he started for Port
Elizabeth, where he had heard that the highest prices were paid for
diamonds. A six weeks’ “trek” found him safely arrived at the bay, and
with his gem in his pocket he sallied forth to the office of a
well-known firm of buyers. He explained how he had become possessed of
the priceless brilliant, how he had not shown it to a living soul and so
forth, but when he produced the marvel of beauty, the merchant
mercilessly shattered all his six weeks’ dreams by telling him that it
was a “crystal,” and of no value whatever save as a curio!
To return to the subject of machinery. It was not, however, until after
the share mania of 1880 and 1881, when many companies were floated, that
much large machinery was imported from England. The small six and
eight-horse power engines nevertheless began to give way to those of
sixteen, twenty-four, and even sixty-horse power. The “blue” which had
frightened the early diggers, too, and which had to be spread out on
floors for miles around the various camps to disintegrate, at the great
loss of time and money, about this period attracted considerable
attention, it being thought possible that some other means of rendering
it sufficiently pulverized for washing purposes might be discovered. A
Mr. Cowan, a large digger at the time, spent several thousands of pounds
in experimenting with steam, but to no avail. In releasing this “blue”
from the mines, large quantities of gunpowder were used, until dynamite,
of the estimated yearly value of £100,000, has been introduced into the
system of mining within the last eighteen months or two years.
In consequence of the fall of reef in the Kimberley and De Beer’s mines,
underground working has been resorted to, the open diggings in many
instances having become practically unworkable in consequence of the
enormous cost of hauling out the fallen reef. The diggings in the open
unincumbered workings of the Kimberley mine before the disastrous fall
of reef had attained to a depth of some 420 feet. By a system of
“underground” mining the main difficulty in reaching the diamondiferous
ground has been overcome, shafts have been sunk, tunnels made, and the
precious “blue” again reached and hauled out. The richness of this
“blue,” at the depth from which it has been brought, has again lifted
the shareholders out of the mire of financial trouble in which they
found themselves by reason of the great reef fall. From that time to the
present, the Kimberley mine has been, comparatively speaking, relieved
of its troubles. Shares in the various companies have risen, dividends
have and are being paid regularly, and to human ken it would appear that
the future of this mine, with still further improved working, which the
exigencies of circumstances will suggest, is one of hope virtually
assured.
The De Beer’s mine, the greater portion of which is now in the hands of
a powerful company, with a capital of considerably over a million
sterling, is fast coming to the fore. Large dividends have been paid,
and tests made as to the future output. At a depth of 750 feet “blue”
ground continues to be found in the shaft sunk for the purpose. Here
also “underground” workings are going on apace with every probability of
yielding for years to come handsome returns to investors.
In the Du Toit’s Pan and Bulfontein mines, companies which a short few
years ago were non-dividend paying are forging to the front and their
shares quietly approaching “par.” In the Du Toit’s Pan mine a test shaft
of 450 feet below the open workings has been sunk, which proves that the
dreaded reef is not increasing, and that the future is in a measure
guaranteed.
The native labor of the diamond fields is drawn from an enormous extent
of country, and includes nearly twenty different tribes, such as Zulus,
Swazies, Basutos, Shangaans, Amatongas, Bechuanas, Metabélés, Mashonas,
Makalolos, Korannas, Griquas, Fingoes, Pondos, Pondomise, Hottentots,
etc. These number at the present time about 15,000, while the white
employés can be estimated at about 3,000.[35]
Although no census has been taken it is estimated that the population
consists of some 20,000 Kafirs, Malays, Indians, Arabs, Chinamen and
other colored races, and about 6,000 whites, Colonials, English, French,
German and Italians.
The number of steam engines at work in and around the four mines is
computed at 350 with a nominal horse power of 5,000. Tramways of nearly
200 miles in the aggregate extent are in use, the trucks upon which are
drawn by fully 3,000 horses and mules. To quote from the “Cape Official
Handbook,” published in 1886, the annual expenditure in labor, material,
etc., is not less than £2,000,000 sterling, distributed somewhat as
follows:
Wages, salaries, etc. £1,000,000
Fuel and water 250,000
Mining material and stores 250,000
Explosives 100,000
Forage and stable expenses 125,000
Rates, taxes, general expenses 275,000
——————————
£2,000,000
It will be remembered that the item of fuel is a most important one.
Before the completion of the railway in 1885 and the consequent
availability of coal at comparatively moderate rates, firewood for
engine and household purposes was so greatly in demand that for a
wagon-load weighing from 8,000 to 10,000 pounds as much as £45 was
frequently paid, and a proportionate amount for smaller loads. Coal
having now entered into competition by reason of cheaper transport the
price of fuel has been greatly reduced, as may be readily imagined.
Through the wholesale consumption of growing timber, to which I have
alluded, the country around has been denuded of wood, and the natural
result of de-arborization has followed in continual droughts of frequent
occurrence, nor has any effort been made so far to plant a new growth.
This is greatly to be deplored; at the present moment fuel is brought by
ox-wagons as far as 200 miles to the Kimberley market, which means some
thirty-five days’ journey for the incoming and outgoing trips.
Water, too, is a most vital question on the fields. When the early
diggers first came, as much as a shilling a bucket was given for that
necessity, which had to be brought into the camp from springs four miles
away. It soon became evident, however, that nature had stored an
abundant reservoir. Wells were sunk, and a supply insured, which more or
less sufficed many years afterward for all the purposes of manipulating
the diamondiferous ground, as well as for household purposes. By the
foresight of a respected citizen, Mr. Thomas Lynch, a scheme was started
five years ago, which I successfully guided through the legislative
council of Griqualand West, and which culminated in the floating of the
Kimberley Waterworks Co., Limited. This company now brings in the water
from the Vaal River, twenty miles away, and supplies not only most of
the mining companies but also the private residences of Kimberley and
the surrounding neighborhood. This company has had practically a
monopoly, and the management of its affairs has been most judicious, but
an opposition is now on foot for the separate supply of water to Du
Toit’s Pan, Beaconsfield, and Bulfontein.
From the above particulars, which I have endeavored as far as possible
to condense, my readers will, I trust, be able to form a tolerably
adequate idea of the manner in which the mines of Griqualand West are
worked.
[Illustration]