curious resemblance to a ship in full sail.[2553] There is a
shell-fish, he says, with a keel, just like that of the vessel which
we know by the name of acatium,[2554] with the poop curving inwards,
and a prow with the beak[2555] attached. In this shell-fish there
lies concealed also an animal known as the nauplius, which bears a
strong resemblance to the sæpia, and only adopts the shell-fish as
the companion of its pastimes. There are two modes, he says, which it
adopts in sailing; when the sea is calm, the voyager hangs down its
arms,[2556] and strikes the water with a pair of oars as it were; but
if, on the other hand, the wind invites, it extends them, employing
them by way of a helm, and turning the mouth of the shell to the wind.
The pleasure experienced by the shell-fish is that of carrying the
other, while the amusement of the nauplius consists in steering; and
thus, at the same moment, is an instinctive joy felt by these two
creatures, devoid as they are of all sense, unless, indeed, a natural
antipathy to man—for it is a well-known fact, that to see them thus
sailing along, is a bad omen, and that it is portentous of misfortune
to those who witness it.
CHAP. 50.—SEA-ANIMALS, WHICH ARE ENCLOSED WITH A CRUST; THE CRAY-FISH.
The cray-fish,[2557] which belongs to that class of animals which is
destitute of blood, is protected by a brittle crust. This creature
keeps itself concealed for five months, and the same is the case with
crabs, which disappear for the same period. At the beginning of spring,
however, they both[2558] of them, after the manner of snakes, throw
off old age, and renew their coverings. While other animals swim on the
water, cray-fish float with a kind of action like creeping. They move
onwards, if there is nothing to alarm[2559] them, in a straight line,
extending on each side their horns, which are rounded at the point
by a ball peculiar to them; but, on the other hand, the moment they
are alarmed, they straighten these horns, and proceed with a sidelong
motion. They also use[2560] these horns when fighting with each other.
The cray-fish is the only animal that has the flesh in a pulpy state,
and not firm and solid, unless it is cooked alive in boiling water.
(31.) The cray-fish frequents rocky places, the crab[2561] spots which
present a soft surface. In winter they both choose such parts of
the shore as are exposed to the heat of the sun, and in summer they
withdraw to the shady recesses of deep inlets of the sea. All fish
of this kind suffer from the cold of winter, but become fat during
autumn and spring, and more particularly during the full moon; for the
warmth of that luminary, as it shines in the night, renders[2562] the
temperature of the weather more moderate.
CHAP. 51.—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF CRABS; THE PINNOTHERES, THE SEA URCHIN,
COCKLES, AND SCALLOPS.
There are various kinds of crabs,[2563] known as carabi,[2564]
astaci,[2565] maiæ,[2566] paguri,[2567] heracleotici,[2568]
lions,[2569] and others of less note. The carabus differs[2570]
from other crabs, in having a tail: in Phœnicia they are called
hippoi,[2571] or horses, being of such extraordinary swiftness, that it
is impossible to overtake them. Crabs are long-lived, and have eight
feet, all of which are bent obliquely. In the female[2572] the first
foot is double, in the male single; besides which, the animal has two
claws with indented pincers. The upper part only of these fore-feet is
moveable, the lower being immoveable: the right claw is the largest in
them all.[2573] Sometimes they assemble together in large bodies;[2574]
but as they are unable to cross the mouth of the Euxine, they turn back
again and go round by land, and the road by which they travel is to be
seen all beaten down with their foot-marks.
The smallest crab of any is that known as the pinnotheres,[2575] and
hence it is peculiarly exposed to danger; its shrewdness, however, is
evinced by its concealing itself in the shell of the oyster; and as it
grows larger, it removes to those of a larger size.
Crabs, when alarmed, go backwards as swiftly as when moving forwards.
They fight with one another like rams, butting at each other with their
horns. They have[2576] a mode of curing themselves of the bites of
serpents. It is said,[2577] that while the sun is passing through the
sign of Cancer, the dead bodies of the crabs, which are lying thrown up
on the shore, are transformed into serpents.
To the same class[2578] also belongs the sea-urchin,[2579] which has
spines in place of feet;[2580] its mode of moving along is to roll
like a ball, hence it is that these animals are often found with their
prickles rubbed off. Those among them which have the longest spines of
all, are known by the name of echinometræ,[2581] while at the same time
their body is the very smallest. They are not all of them of the same
glassy colour; in the vicinity of Torone[2582] they are white,[2583]
with very short spines. The eggs[2584] of all of them are bitter, and
are five in number; the mouth is situate in the middle of the body,
and faces the earth.[2585] It is said[2586] that these creatures
foreknow the approach of a storm at sea, and that they take up little
stones with which they cover[2587] themselves, and so provide a sort
of ballast against their volubility, for they are very unwilling by
rolling along to wear away their prickles. As soon as seafaring persons
observe this, they at once moor their ship with several anchors.
(32.) To the same genus[2588] also belong both land and water[2589]
snails, which thrust the body forth from their abode, and extend or
contract two horns, as it were. They are without eyes,[2590] and have,
therefore, to feel their way, by means of these horns.
(33.) Sea-scallops[2591] are considered to belong to the same class,
which also conceal themselves during severe frosts and great heats; the
onyches,[2592] too, which shine in the dark like fire, and in the mouth
even while being eaten.
CHAP. 52.—VARIOUS KINDS OF SHELL-FISH.
Let us now pass on to the murex[2593] and various kinds of shell-fish,
which have a stronger shell, and in which Nature, in her sportive
mood, has displayed a great variety—so many are the various hues of
their tints, so numerous are their shapes, flat,[2594] concave,[2595]
long,[2596] crescent-shaped,[2597] rounded into a globe, cut[2598]
through into a semi-globe, arched in the back, smooth, rough, indented,
streaked, the upper part spirally wreathed, the edge projecting in
a sharp point, the edge wreathed outwards,[2599] or else folding
inwards.[2600] And then, too, there are the various distinctions[2601]
of rayed shells, long-haired[2602] shells, wavy-haired shells,
channelled shells, pectinated shells, imbricated shells, reticulated
shells, shells with lines oblique or rectilinear, thick-set shells,
expanded shells, tortuous shells, shells the valves of which are united
by one small knot, shells which are held together all along one side,
shells which are open as if in the very act of applauding,[2603] and
shells which wind,[2604] resembling a conch. The fish of this class,
known as the shells of Venus,[2605] are able to navigate the surface
of the deep, and, presenting to the wind their concave side, catch the
breeze, and sail along on the surface of the sea. Scallops are also
able to leap[2606] and fly above the surface of the water, and they
sometimes employ their shell by way of a bark.
CHAP. 53. (34.)—WHAT NUMEROUS APPLIANCES OF LUXURY ARE FOUND IN THE SEA.
But why mention such trifles as these, when I am sensible that no
greater inroads have been made upon our morals, and no more rapid
advances have been made by luxury, than those effected through the
medium of shell-fish? Of all the elements that exist, the sea is the
one that costs the dearest to the belly; seeing that it provides so
many kinds of meats, so many dishes, so many exquisite flavours
derived from fish, all of which are valued in proportion to the danger
undergone by those who have caught them.
(35.) But still, how insignificant is all this when we come to think
of our purple, our azure,[2607] and our pearls; it was not enough,
forsooth, for the spoils of the sea to be thrust down the gullet—but
they must be employed as well to adorn the hands, the ears, the head,
the whole body, in fact, and that of the men pretty nearly as much
as the women. What has the sea to do with our clothes?[2608] What is
there in common between waves and billows and a sheep’s fleece? This
one element ought not to receive us, according to ordinary notions,
except in a state of nakedness. Let there be ever so strong an alliance
between it and the belly, on the score of gluttony, still, what can it
possibly have to do with the back? It is not enough, forsooth, that we
are fed upon what is acquired by perils, but we must be clothed, too,
in a similar way; so true it is, that for all the wants of the body,
that which is sought at the expense of human life, is sure to please us
the most.
CHAP. 54.—PEARLS; HOW THEY ARE PRODUCED, AND WHERE.
The first rank then, and the very highest position among all valuables,
belongs to the pearl. It is the Indian Ocean that principally sends
them to us: and thus have they, amid those monsters so frightful and
so huge which we have already described,[2609] to cross so many seas,
and to traverse such lengthened tracts of land, scorched by the ardent
rays of a burning sun: and then, too, by the Indians themselves they
have to be sought in certain islands, and those but very few in number.
The most productive of pearls is the island of Taprobane, and that of
Stoïdis, as already mentioned[2610] in the description of the world;
Perimula,[2611] also, a promontory of India. But those are most highly
valued which are found in the vicinity of Arabia,[2612] in the Persian
Gulf, which forms a part of the Red Sea.
The origin[2613] and production of the shell-fish is not very different
from that of the shell of the oyster. When the genial season of the
year[2614] exercises its influence on the animal, it is said that,
yawning, as it were, it opens its shell, and so receives a kind of
dew, by means of which it becomes impregnated; and that at length it
gives birth, after many struggles, to the burden of its shell, in the
shape of pearls, which vary according to the quality of the dew. If
this has been in a perfectly pure state when it flowed into the shell,
then the pearl produced is white and brilliant, but if it was turbid,
then the pearl is of a clouded colour also; if the sky should happen
to have been lowering when it was generated, the pearl will be of a
pallid colour; from all which it is quite evident that the quality of
the pearl depends much more upon a calm state of the heavens than of
the sea, and hence it is that it contracts a cloudy hue, or a limpid
appearance, according to the degree of serenity of the sky in the
morning.
If, again, the fish is satiated in a reasonable time, then the pearl
produced increases rapidly in size. If it should happen to lighten at
the time, the animal shuts its shell, and the pearl is diminished in
size in proportion to the fast that the animal has to endure: but if,
in addition to this, it should thunder[2615] as well, then it becomes
alarmed, and closing the shell in an instant, produces what is known
as a physema,[2616] or pearl-bubble, filled with air, and bearing a
resemblance to a pearl, but in appearance only, as it is quite empty,
and devoid of body; these bubbles are formed by the abortion of the
shell-fish. Those which are produced in a perfectly healthy state
consist of numerous layers, so that they may be looked upon, not
inappropriately, as similar in conformation to the callosities on the
body of an animal; and they should therefore be cleaned by experienced
hands. It is wonderful, however, that they should be influenced thus
pleasurably by the state of the heavens, seeing that by the action
of the sun the pearls are turned of a red colour, and lose all their
whiteness, just like the human body. Hence it is that those which
keep their whiteness the best are the pelagiæ, or main-sea pearls,
which lie at too great a depth to be reached by the sun’s rays; and
yet these even turn yellow with age, grow dull and wrinkled, and it
is only in their youth that they possess that brilliancy which is so
highly esteemed in them. When old, too, the coat grows thick, and they
adhere to the shell,[2617] from which they can only be separated with
the assistance of a file.[2618] Those pearls which have one surface
flat and the other spherical, opposite to the plane side, are for that
reason called tympania,[2619] or tambour-pearls. I have seen pearls
still adhering to the shell; for which reason the shells were used as
boxes for unguents. In addition to these facts, we may remark that the
pearl is soft[2620] in the water, but that it grows hard the instant it
is taken out.
CHAP. 55.—HOW PEARLS ARE FOUND.
The fish, as soon as ever it perceives the hand,[2621] shuts its shell
and covers up its treasures, being well aware that it is for them that
it is sought; and if it happens to catch the hand,[2622] it cuts it
off with the sharp edge of the shell. And no punishment is there that
could be more justly inflicted. There are other penalties added as
well, seeing that the greater part of these pearls are only to be found
among rocks and crags, while on the other hand, those which lie out
in the main sea are generally accompanied by sea-dogs.[2623] And yet,
for all this, the women will not banish these gems from their ears!
Some writers say,[2624] that these animals live in communities, just
like swarms of bees, each of them being governed by one remarkable for
its size and its venerable old age;[2625] while at the same time it is
possessed of marvellous skill in taking all due precautions against
danger; the divers, they say, take especial care to find these, and
when once they are taken, the others stray to and fro, and are easily
caught in their nets. We learn also that as soon as they are taken they
are placed under a thick layer of salt in earthen-ware vessels; as
the flesh is gradually consumed, certain knots,[2626] which form the
pearls, are disengaged[2627] from their bodies, and fall to the bottom
of the vessel.
CHAP. 56.—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF PEARLS.
There is no doubt that pearls wear with use, and will change their
colour, if neglected. All their merit consists in their whiteness,
large size, roundness, polish, and weight; qualities which are not
easily to be found united in the same; so much so, indeed, that no
two pearls are ever found perfectly alike; and it was from this
circumstance, no doubt, that our Roman luxury first gave them the name
of “unio,”[2628] or the unique gem: for a similar name is not given
them by the Greeks; nor, indeed, among the barbarians by whom they
are found are they called anything else but “margaritæ.”[2629] Even
in the very whiteness of the pearl there is a great difference to be
observed. Those are of a much clearer water that are found in the Red
Sea,[2630] while the Indian pearl resembles in tint the scales[2631]
of the mirror-stone, but exceeds all the others in size. The colour
that is most highly prized of all, is that of those which are thence
called alum-coloured[2632] pearls. Long pearls also have their peculiar
value; those are called “elenchi,” which are of a long tapering shape,
resembling our alabaster[2633] boxes in form, and ending in a full
bulb.[2634] Our ladies quite glory in having these suspended from their
fingers, or two or three of them dangling from their ears. For the
purpose of ministering to these luxurious tastes, there are various
names and wearisome refinements which have been devised by profuseness
and prodigality; for after inventing these ear-rings, they have given
them the name of “crotalia,”[2635] or castanet pendants, as though
quite delighted even with the rattling of the pearls as they knock
against each other; and now, at the present day, the poorer classes
are even affecting them, as people are in the habit of saying, that “a
pearl worn by a woman in public, is as good as a lictor[2636] walking
before her.” Nay, even more than this, they put them on their feet,
and that, not only on the laces of their sandals, but all over the
shoes;[2637] it is not enough to wear pearls, but they must tread upon
them, and walk with them under foot as well.
Pearls used formerly to be found in our sea, but more frequently
about the Thracian Bosporus;[2638] they were of a red colour, and
small,[2639] and enclosed in a shell-fish known by the name of “myes.”
In Acarnania there is a shell-fish called “pina,”[2640] which produces
pearls; and from this it is quite evident that it is not one kind of
fish only that produces them. Juba states also, that on the shores
of Arabia there is a shell-fish which resembles a notched comb, and
covered all over with hair[2641] like a sea-urchin, and that the pearl
lies imbedded in its flesh, in appearance bearing a strong resemblance
to a hailstone.[2642] No such shell-fish, however, as these are ever
brought to Rome. Nor yet are any pearls of value found in Acarnania,
being shapeless, rough, and of a marble hue; those are better which are
found in the vicinity of Actium; but still they are small, which is
the case also with those found on the coast of Mauritania. Alexander
Polyhistor and Sudines[2643] are of opinion that as they grow old their
tints gradually fade.
CHAP. 57.—REMARKABLE FACTS CONNECTED WITH PEARLS—THEIR NATURE.
It is quite clear that the interior of the pearl is solid, as no fall
is able to break it. Pearls are not always found in the middle of the
body of the animal, but sometimes in one place, and sometimes another.
Indeed, I have seen some which lay at the edge of the shell, just as
though in the very act of coming forth, and in some fishes as many as
four or five. Up to the present time, very few have been found which
exceeded half an ounce in weight, by more than one scruple. It is a
well-ascertained fact, that in Britannia[2644] pearls are found, though
small, and of a bad colour; for the deified Julius Cæsar[2645] wished
it to be distinctly understood,[2646] that the breast-plate which he
dedicated to Venus Genetrix, in her temple, was made of British pearls.
CHAP. 58.—INSTANCES OF THE USE OF PEARLS.
I once saw Lollia Paulina,[2647] the wife of the Emperor Caius[2648]—it
was not at any public festival, or any solemn ceremonial, but only at
an ordinary wedding entertainment[2649]—covered with emeralds and
pearls, which shone in alternate layers upon her head, in her hair, in
her wreaths, in her ears, upon her neck, in her bracelets, and on her
fingers, and the value of which amounted in all to forty millions[2650]
of sesterces; indeed[2651] she was prepared at once to prove the fact,
by showing the receipts and acquittances. Nor were these any presents
made by a prodigal potentate, but treasures which had descended to
her from her grandfather, and obtained by the spoliation of the
provinces. Such are the fruits of plunder and extortion! It was for
this reason that M. Lollius[2652] was held so infamous all over the
East for the presents which he extorted from the kings; the result of
which was, that he was denied the friendship of Caius Cæsar, and took
poison;[2653] and all this was done, I say, that his grand-daughter
might be seen, by the glare of lamps, covered all over with jewels
to the amount of forty millions of sesterces! Now let a person only
picture to himself, on the one hand, what was the value of the habits
worn by Curius or Fabricius in their triumphs, let him picture to
himself the objects displayed to the public on their triumphal
litters,[2654] and then, on the other hand, let him think upon this
Lollia, this one bit[2655] of a woman, the head of an empire, taking
her place at table, thus attired; would he not much rather that the
conquerors had been torn from their very chariots, than that they had
conquered for such a result as this?
Nor, indeed, are these the most supreme evidences of luxury. There were
formerly two pearls, the largest that had been ever seen in the whole
world: Cleopatra, the last of the queens of Egypt, was in possession
of them both, they having come to her by descent from the kings of the
East. When Antony had been sated by her, day after day, with the most
exquisite banquets, this queenly courtesan, inflated with vanity and
disdainful arrogance, affected to treat all this sumptuousness and
all these vast preparations with the greatest contempt; upon which
Antony enquired what there was that could possibly be added to such
extraordinary magnificence. To this she made answer, that on a single
entertainment she would expend ten millions[2656] of sesterces. Antony
was extremely desirous to learn how that could be done, but looked
upon it as a thing quite impossible; and a wager was the result. On
the following day, upon which the matter was to be decided, in order
that she might not lose the wager, she had an entertainment set before
Antony, magnificent in every respect, though no better than his usual
repast. Upon this, Antony joked her, and enquired what was the amount
expended upon it; to which she made answer that the banquet which he
then beheld was only a trifling appendage[2657] to the real banquet,
and that she alone[2658] would consume at the meal to the ascertained
value of that amount, she herself would swallow the ten millions of
sesterces; and so ordered the second course to be served. In obedience
to her instructions, the servants placed before her a single vessel,
which was filled with vinegar, a liquid, the sharpness and strength of
which is able[2659] to dissolve pearls. At this moment she was wearing
in her ears those choicest and most rare and unique productions of
Nature; and while Antony was waiting to see what she was going to do,
taking one of them from out of her ear, she threw it into the vinegar,
and directly it was melted, swallowed it. Lucius Plancus,[2660] who
had been named umpire in the wager, placed his hand upon the other at
the very instant that she was making preparations to dissolve it in a
similar manner, and declared that Antony had lost—an omen which,[2661]
in the result, was fully confirmed. The fame of the second pearl is
equal to that which attends its fellow. After the queen, who had thus
come off victorious on so important a question, had been seized, it was
cut asunder, in order that this, the other half of the entertainment,
might serve as pendants for the ears of Venus, in the Pantheon at Rome.
CHAP. 59.—HOW PEARLS FIRST CAME INTO USE AT ROME.
Antony and Cleopatra, however, will not bear away the palm of
prodigality in this respect, and will be stripped of even this boast in
the annals of luxury. For before their time, Clodius, the son of the
tragic actor Æsopus,[2662] had done the same at Rome; having been left
by his father heir to his ample wealth and possessions. Let not Antony
then be too proud, for all his triumvirate, since he can hardly stand
in comparison with an actor; one, too, who had no wager to induce him—a
thing which adds to the regal munificence of the act—but was merely
desirous of trying, by way of glorification to his palate, what was the
taste of pearls. As he found it to be wonderfully pleasing, that he
might not be the only one to know it, he had a pearl set before each
of his guests for him to swallow. After the surrender of Alexandria,
pearls came into common and, indeed, universal use at Rome; but they
first began to be used about the time of Sylla, though but of small
size and of little value, Fenestella says—in this, however, it is quite
evident that he is mistaken, for Ælius Stilo tells us, that it was in
the time of the Jugurthine war, that the name of “unio” was first given
to pearls of remarkable size.
CHAP. 60.—THE NATURE OF THE MUREX AND THE PURPLE.
And yet pearls may be looked upon as pretty nearly a possession of
everlasting duration—they descend from a man to his heir, and they
are alienated from one to another just like any landed estate. But
the colours that are extracted from the murex[2663] and the purple
fade from hour to hour; and yet luxury, which has similarly acted as
a mother to them, has set upon them prices almost equal to those of
pearls.
(36.) Purples live mostly seven[2664] years. Like the murex, they keep
themselves in concealment for thirty days, about the time of the rising
of the Dog-star; in the spring season they unite in large bodies, and
by rubbing against each other, produce a viscous spittle, from which a
kind of wax is formed. The murex does the same; but the purple[2665]
has that exquisite juice which is so greatly sought after for the
purpose of dyeing cloth, situate in the middle of the throat. This
secretion consists of a tiny drop contained in a white vein, from which
the precious liquid used for dyeing is distilled, being of the tint of
a rose somewhat inclining to black. The rest of the body is entirely
destitute of this juice. It is a great point to take the fish alive;
for when it dies, it spits out this juice. From the larger ones it is
extracted after taking off the shell; but the small fish are crushed
alive, together with the shells, upon which they eject this secretion.
In Asia the best purple is that of Tyre, in Africa that of Meninx[2666]
and the parts of Gætulia that border on the Ocean, and in Europe that
of Laconia. It is for this colour that the fasces and the axes[2667]
of Rome make way in the crowd; it is this that asserts the majesty
of childhood;[2668] it is this that distinguishes the senator[2669]
from the man of equestrian rank; by persons arrayed in this colour are
prayers[2670] addressed to propitiate the gods; on every garment[2671]
it sheds a lustre, and in the triumphal vestment[2672] it is to be
seen mingled with gold. Let us be prepared then to excuse this frantic
passion for purple, even though at the same time we are compelled to
enquire, why it is that such a high value has been set upon the produce
of this shell-fish, seeing that while in the dye the smell of it is
offensive, and the colour itself is harsh, of a greenish hue, and
strongly resembling that of the sea when in a tempestuous state?
The tongue of the purple is a finger[2673] in length, and by means of
this it finds subsistence, by piercing other shell-fish,[2674] so hard
is the point of it. They die in fresh water, and in places where rivers
discharge themselves into the sea; otherwise, when taken, they will
live as long as fifty days on their saliva. All shell-fish grow very
fast, and purples more especially; they come to their full size at the
end of a year.
CHAP. 61.—THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF PURPLES.
Were I at this point to pass on to other subjects, luxury, no
doubt would think itself defrauded of its due, and so accuse me of
negligence; I must therefore make my way into the very workshops even,
so that, just as among articles of food the various kinds and qualities
of corn are known, all those who place the enjoyment of life in these
luxuries, may have a still better acquaintance with the objects for
which they live.[2675]
There are two kinds of fish that produce the purple colour; the
elements in both are the same, the combinations only are different;
the smaller fish is that which is called the “buccinum,” from its
resemblance to the conch by which the sound of the buccinus or trumpet
is produced, and to this circumstance it owes its name: the opening in
it is round, with an incision in the margin.[2676] The other fish is
known as the “purpura,” or purple, and has a grooved and projecting
muzzle, which being tubulated on one side in the interior, forms a
passage for the tongue;[2677] besides which, the shell is studded with
points up to the very apex, which are mostly seven in number, and
disposed[2678] in a circle; these are not found on the buccinum, though
both of them have as many spirals as they are years old. The buccinum
attaches itself only to crags, and is gathered about rocky places.
(37.) Purples also have another name, that of “pelagiæ”[2679] there
are numerous kinds of them, which differ only in their element and
place of abode. There is the mud[2680] purple, which is nurtured upon
putrid mud; and the sea-weed[2681] purple, which feeds on sea-weed;
both of which are held in the very lowest esteem. A better kind is
the reef-purple,[2682] which is collected on the reefs or out at sea;
still, however, the colour extracted from this is too light and thin.
Then, again, there is the variety known as the pebble-purple,[2683]
so called from the pebbles of the sea, and wonderfully well adapted
for dyeing; and, better than any of them, that known by the name of
“dialutensis,”[2684] because of the various natures of the soil on
which it feeds. Purples are taken with a kind of osier kipe[2685] of
small size, and with large meshes; these are cast into the sea, and in
them cockles are put as a bait, that close the shell in an instant,
and snap at an object, just as we see mussels do. Though half dead,
these animals, as soon as ever they are returned to the sea, come to
life again, and open their shells with avidity; upon which the purples
seek them, and commence the attack, by protruding their tongues. The
cockles, on the other hand, the moment they feel themselves pricked,
shut their shells, and hold fast the object that has wounded them: in
this way, victims to their greediness, they are drawn up to the surface
hanging by the tongue.
CHAP. 62. (38.)—HOW WOOLS ARE DYED WITH THE JUICES OF THE PURPLE.
The most favourable season for taking these fish is after the
rising of the Dog-star, or else before spring; for when they have
once discharged[2686] their waxy secretion, their juices have no
consistency: this, however, is a fact unknown in the dyers’ workshops,
although it is a point of primary importance. After it is taken,
the vein is extracted, which we have[2687] previously spoken of, to
which it is requisite to add salt, a sextarius[2688] about to every
hundred pounds of juice. It is sufficient to leave them to steep for
a period of three days, and no more, for the fresher they are, the
greater virtue there is in the liquor. It is then set to boil in
vessels of tin,[2689] and every hundred amphoræ[2690] ought to be
boiled down to five hundred pounds of dye, by the application of a
moderate heat; for which purpose the vessel is placed at the end of a
long funnel, which communicates with the furnace; while thus boiling,
the liquor is skimmed from time to time, and with it the flesh, which
necessarily adheres to the veins. About the tenth day, generally, the
whole contents of the cauldron are in a liquified state, upon which a
fleece, from which the grease has been cleansed, is plunged into it
by way of making trial; but until such time as the colour is found to
satisfy the wishes of those preparing it, the liquor is still kept on
the boil. The tint that inclines to red is looked upon as inferior to
that which is of a blackish hue. The wool is left to lie in soak for
five hours, and then, after carding it, it is thrown in again, until it
has fully imbibed the colour. The juice of the buccinum is considered
very inferior if employed by itself, as it is found to discharge its
colour; but when used in conjunction with that of the pelagiæ, it
blends[2691] with it very well, gives a bright lustre to its colour,
which is otherwise too dark, and imparts the shining crimson hue of
the kermes-berry, a tint that is particularly valued. By the admixture
of their respective virtues these colours are thus heightened or
rendered sombre by the aid of one another. The proper proportions for
mixing are, for fifty pounds of wool, two hundred pounds of juice of
the buccinum and one hundred and eleven of juice of the pelagiæ. From
this combination is produced the admirable tint known as amethyst
colour.[2692] To produce the Tyrian hue the wool is soaked in the juice
of the pelagiæ while the mixture is in an uncooked and raw state; after
which its tint is changed by being dipped in the juice of the buccinum.
It is considered of the best quality when it has exactly the colour of
clotted blood, and is of a blackish hue to the sight, but of a shining
appearance when held up to the light; hence it is that we find Homer
speaking of “purple blood.”[2693]
CHAP. 63. (39.)—WHEN PURPLE WAS FIRST USED AT ROME: WHEN THE LATICLAVE
VESTMENT AND THE PRÆTEXTA WERE FIRST WORN.
I find that, from the very first, purple has been in use at Rome, but
that Romulus employed it for the trabea.[2694] As to the toga prætexta
and the laticlave[2695] vestment, it is a fact well ascertained, that
Tullus Hostilius was the first king who made use of them, and that
after the conquest of the Etruscans. Cornelius Nepos, who died in the
reign of the late Emperor Augustus, has left the following remarks: “In
the days of my youth,” says he, “the violet purple was in favour, a
pound of which used to sell at one hundred denarii; and not long after,
the Tarentine[2696] red was all the fashion. This last was succeeded
by the Tyrian dibapha,[2697] which could not be bought for even one
thousand denarii per pound. P. Lentulus Spinther, the curule ædile, was
the first who used the dibapha for the prætexta, and he was greatly
censured for it; whereas now-a-days,” says he, “who is there that does
not have purple hangings[2698] to his banqueting-couches, even?”
This Spinther was ædile in the consulship of Cicero, and in the year
from the Building of the City, 691. “Dibapha” was the name given to
textures that had been doubly dyed, and these were looked upon as a
mighty piece of costly extravagance; while now, at the present day,
nearly all the purple cloths that are reckoned of any account are dyed
in a similar manner.
CHAP. 64.—FABRICS CALLED CONCHYLIATED.
Fabrics that are called conchyliated are subjected to the same process
in all other respects, but without any admixture of the juice of the
buccinum; in addition to which, the liquid is mixed with water and
human urine in equal parts,[2699] one-half[2700] only of the proportion
of dye being used for the same quantity of wool. From this mixture a
full colour is not obtained, but that pale tint, which is so highly
esteemed; and the clearer[2701] it is, the less of it the wool has
imbibed.
(40.) The prices of these dyes vary in proportion to the quantity
produced by the various shores; still, however, those who are in the
habit of paying enormous prices for them, may as well be informed that
on no occasion ought the juice of the pelagiæ to exceed fifty,[2702]
and that of the buccinum one hundred sesterces for one hundred
pounds.[2703]
CHAP. 65.—THE AMETHYST, THE TYRIAN, THE HYSGINIAN, AND THE CRIMSON
TINTS.
But no sooner have we finished with one branch of this subject than we
have to begin upon another, for we find that it is made quite a matter
of sport to create expense; and not only this, but the sport must be
doubled by making new mixtures and combinations, and falsifying over
again what was a falsification of the works of Nature already; such,
for instance, as staining tortoise-shell,[2704] alloying gold with
silver for the purpose of making electrum,[2705] and then adding copper
to the mixture to make Corinthian metal.[2706]
(41.) It was not sufficient to have borrowed from a precious stone the
name of “amethyst” for a dye, but when we have obtained this colour
we must drench it over again with Tyrian tints,[2707] so that we may
have an upstart name[2708] compounded of both, and at the same moment a
two-fold display of luxury; for as soon as ever people have succeeded
in obtaining the conchyliated colour, they immediately begin to think
that it will do better as a state of transition to the Tyrian hues.
There can be little doubt that this invention is due to some artist
who happened to change his mind, and alter a tint with which he was
not pleased: hence a system has taken its rise, and spirits, ever on
the rack for creating wonders, have transformed what was originally
a blunder into something quite desirable; while, at the same time, a
double path has been pointed out to luxury, in thus making one colour
carry another, and thereby become, as they say, softer and more mellow.
And what is even more than this, human ingenuity has even learned to
mingle with these dyes the productions of the earth, and to steep
in Tyrian purple fabrics already dyed crimson with the berry of the
kermes, in order to produce the hysginian[2709] tint. The kermes of
Galatia, a red berry which we shall mention when we come to speak[2710]
of the productions of the earth, is the most esteemed of all, except,
perhaps, the one that grows in the vicinity of Emerita,[2711] in
Lusitania. However, to make an end, once for all, of my description of
these precious dyes, I shall remark, that the colour yielded by this
grain[2712] when a year old, is of a pallid hue, and that if it is more
than four years old, it is quickly discharged: hence we find that its
energies are not developed either when it is too young or when old.
I have now abundantly treated of an art, by means of which men, just as
much as women, have an idea that their appearance may be set off to the
greatest possible advantage.
CHAP. 66. (42.)—THE PINNA, AND THE PINNOTHERES.
Belonging to the shell-fish tribe there is the pinna[2713] also: it is
found[2714] in slimy spots, always lying upright, and never without a
companion, which some writers call the pinnotheres,[2715] and others,
again, pinnophylax, being a small kind of shrimp, or else a parasitical
crab. The pinna,[2716] which is destitute of sight, opens its shell,
and in so doing exposes its body within to the attacks of the small
fish, which immediately rush upon it, and finding that they can do so
with impunity, become bolder and bolder, till at last they quite fill
the shell. The pinnotheres, looking out for the opportunity, gives
notice to the pinna at the critical moment by a gentle bite, upon which
the other instantly closes its shell, and so kills whatever it has
caught there; after which, it divides the spoil with its companion.
CHAP. 67.—THE SENSITIVENESS OF WATER ANIMALS; THE TORPEDO, THE
PASTINACA, THE SCOLOPENDRA, THE GLANIS, AND THE RAM-FISH.
Upon[2717] reflecting on such facts as these, I am the more inclined
to wonder at the circumstance that some persons have been found who
were of opinion that the water animals are devoid of all sense. The
torpedo[2718] is very well aware of the extent of its own powers, and
that, too, although it experiences no benumbing effects from them
itself. Lying concealed in the mud, it awaits the approach of the
fish, and, at the moment that they are swimming above in supposed
security, communicates the shock, and instantly darts upon them: there
is no delicate[2719] morsel in existence that is preferred to the liver
of this fish. And no less wonderful, too, is the shrewdness[2720]
manifested by the sea-frog,[2721] which is known by us as the “fisher.”
Stirring up the mud, it protrudes from the surface two little horns,
which project from beneath the eyes, and so attracts the small fish
which are sporting around it, until at last they approach so close that
it is able to seize them. In a similar manner, too, the squatina and
the rhombus[2722] conceal themselves, but extend their fins, which,
as they move to and fro, resemble little worms; the ray also does the
same. The pastinaca,[2723] too, lies lurking in ambush, and pierces
the fish as they pass with the sting with which it is armed. Another
proof of instinctive shrewdness is the fact, that although the ray is
the very slowest of all the fish in its movements, it is found with the
mullet in its belly, which is the swiftest of them all.
(43.) The scolopendra,[2724] which bears a strong resemblance[2725]
to the land insect which we call a centipede, if it chances to swallow
a hook, will vomit forth all its intestines, until it has disengaged
itself, after which it will suck them in again. The sea-fox[2726] too,
when exposed to a similar peril, goes on swallowing the line until it
meets with a weak part of it, and then with its teeth snaps it asunder
with the greatest ease. The fish called the glanis[2727] is more
cautious; it bites at the hooks from behind, and does not swallow them,
but only strips them of the bait.
(44.) The sea-ram[2728] commits its ravages just like a wary robber; at
one time it will lurk in the shadow of some large vessel that is lying
out at sea, and wait for any one who may be tempted to swim; while at
another, it will raise its head from the surface of the water, survey
the fishermen’s boats, and then slily swim towards them and sink them.
CHAP. 68. (45.)—BODIES WHICH HAVE A THIRD NATURE, THAT OF THE ANIMAL
AND VEGETABLE COMBINED—THE SEA-NETTLE.
Indeed, for my own part, I am strongly of opinion that there is sense
existing in those bodies which have the nature[2729] of neither animals
nor vegetables, but a third which partakes of them both:—sea-nettles
and sponges, I mean. The sea-nettle[2730] wanders to and fro by night,
and at night changes its locality. These creatures are by nature a sort
of fleshy branch,[2731] and are nurtured upon flesh. They have the
power of producing an itching, smarting pain,[2732] just like that
caused by the nettle found on land. For the purpose of seeking its
prey, it contracts and stiffens itself to the utmost possible extent,
and then, as a small fish swims past, it will suddenly spread out its
branches, and so seize and devour[2733] it. At another time it will
assume the appearance of being quite withered away, and let itself be
tossed[2734] to and fro by the waves like a piece of sea-weed, until
it happens to touch a fish. The moment it does so, the fish goes to
rub itself against a rock, to get rid of the itching; immediately upon
which, the nettle pounces upon it. By night also it is on the look-out
for scallops and sea-urchins. When it perceives a hand approaching it,
it instantly changes its colour, and contracts itself; when touched it
produces a burning sensation, and if ever so short a time is afforded,
makes its escape. Its mouth is situate, it is said, at the root or
lower part,[2735] and the excrements[2736] are discharged by a small
canal situated above.
CHAP. 69.—SPONGES; THE VARIOUS KINDS OF THEM, AND WHERE THEY ARE
PRODUCED: PROOFS THAT THEY ARE GIFTED WITH LIFE BY NATURE.
We find three[2737] kinds of sponges mentioned; the first are thick,
very hard, and rough, and are called “tragi:”[2738] the second, are
thick, and much softer, and are called “mani;”[2739] of the third,
being fine and of a closer texture, tents for sores are made; this last
is known as “Achillium.”[2740] All of these sponges grow on rocks, and
feed upon[2741] shell- and other fish, and slime. It would appear that
these creatures, too, have some intelligence; for as soon as ever they
feel[2742] the hand about to tear them off, they contract themselves,
and are separated with much greater difficulty: they do the same also
when the waves buffet them to and fro. The small shells that are found
in them, clearly show that they live upon food: about Torone[2743] it
is even said that they will survive after they have been detached, and
that they grow again from the roots which have been left adhering to
the rock. They leave a colour similar to that of blood upon the rock
from which they have been detached, and those more especially which are
produced in the Syrtes of Africa.[2744]
The manos is the one that grows to the largest size, but the softest
of all are those found in the vicinity of Lycia. Where the sea is
deep and calm, they are more particularly soft, while those which are
found in the Hellespont are rough, and those in the vicinity of Malea
coarse.[2745] When lying in places exposed to the sun, they become
putrid: hence it is that those which are found in deep water are the
best. While they are alive, they are of the same blackish colour that
they are when saturated with water. They adhere to the rock not by
one part only, nor yet by the whole body: and within them there are a
number of empty tubes, generally four or five in number, by means of
which, it is thought, they take their food. There are other tubes also,
but these are closed at the upper extremity; and a sort of membrane
is supposed to be spread beneath the roots by which they adhere. It
is well known that sponges are very long-lived. The most inferior
kind of all are those which are called “aplysiæ,”[2746] because it is
impossible to clean them: these have large tubes, while the other parts
of them are thick and coarse.
CHAP. 70. (46.)—DOG-FISH.[2747]
Vast numbers of dog-fish infest the seas in the vicinity of the
sponges, to the great peril of those who dive for them. These persons
say that a sort of dense cloud gradually thickens over their[2748]
heads, bearing the resemblance of some kind of animal like a
flat-fish,[2749] and that, pressing downward upon them, it prevents
them from returning to the surface. It is for this reason that they
carry stilettos with them,[2750] which are very sharp at the point,
and attached to them by strings; for if they did not pierce the object
with the help of these, it could not be got rid of. This, however,
is entirely the result, in my opinion, of the darkness and their own
fears; for no person has ever yet been able to find, among living
creatures, the fish-cloud or the fish-fog, the name which they give to
this enemy of theirs.
The divers, however, have terrible combats with the dog-fish, which
attack with avidity the groin, the heels, and all the whiter parts
of the body. The only means of ensuring safety, is to go boldly to
meet them, and so, by taking the initiative, strike them with alarm:
for, in fact, this animal is just as frightened at man, as man is at
it; and they are on quite an equal footing when beneath the water.
But the moment the diver has reached the surface, the danger is much
more imminent; for he loses the power of boldly meeting his adversary
while he is endeavouring to make his way out of the water, and his
only chance of safety is in his companions, who draw him along by a
cord that is fastened under his shoulders. While he is engaging with
the enemy, he keeps pulling this cord with his left hand, according
as there may be any sign of immediate peril, while with the right he
wields the stiletto, which he is using in his defence. At first they
draw him along at a moderate pace, but as soon as ever they have got
him close to the ship, if they do not whip him out in an instant, with
the greatest possible celerity, they see him snapped asunder; and
many a time, too, the diver, even when already drawn out, is dragged
from their hands, through neglecting to aid the efforts of those who
are assisting him, by rolling up his body in the shape of a ball. The
others, it is true, are in the meantime brandishing their pronged
fish-spears; but the monster has the craftiness to place himself
beneath the ship, and so wage the warfare in safety. Consequently,
every possible care is taken by the divers to look out[2751] for the
approach of this enemy.
(47.) It is the surest sign of safety to see flat-fish, which never
frequent the spots where these noxious monsters are found: and it is
for this reason that the divers[2752] call them sacred.
CHAP. 71.—FISHES WHICH ARE ENCLOSED IN A STONY SHELL—SEA ANIMALS WHICH
HAVE NO SENSATION—-OTHER ANIMALS WHICH LIVE IN THE MUD.
Those animals, however, it must be admitted, which lie enclosed in
a stony shell, have no sensation whatever—such as the oyster,[2753]
for instance. Many, again, have the same nature as vegetables; such
as the holothuria,[2754] the pulmones,[2755] and the sea-stars.[2756]
Indeed, I may say that there is no land production which has not its
like in the sea;[2757] no, not even those insects which frequent our
public-houses[2758] in summer, and are so troublesome with their nimble
leaps, nor yet those which more especially make the human hair their
place of refuge; for these are often drawn up in a mass[2759] collected
around the bait. This, too, is supposed to be the reason why the sleep
of fish is sometimes so troubled in the night. Upon some fish, indeed,
these animals breed[2760] as parasites: among these, we find the fish
known as the chalcis.[2761]
CHAP. 72. (48.)—VENOMOUS SEA-ANIMALS.
Nor yet are dire and venomous substances found wanting in the sea:
such, for instance, as the sea-hare[2762] of the Indian seas, which
is even poisonous by the very touch, and immediately produces vomiting
and disarrangement of the stomach. In our seas it has the appearance
of a shapeless mass, and only resembles the hare in colour; in India
it resembles it in its larger size, and in its hair, which is only
somewhat coarser: there it is never taken alive. An equally deadly
animal is the sea-spider,[2763] which is especially dangerous for a
sting which it has on the back: but there is nothing that is more
to be dreaded than the sting which protrudes from the tail of the
trygon,[2764] by our people known as the pastinaca, a weapon five
inches in length. Fixing this in the root of a tree, the fish is able
to kill it; it can pierce armour too, just as though with an arrow, and
to the strength of iron it adds all the corrosive qualities of poison.
CHAP. 73. (49.)—THE MALADIES OF FISHES.
We do not find it stated that all kinds of fishes are subject to
epizoötic diseases,[2765] like other animals of a wild nature: but it
is evidently the fact that individuals[2766] among them are attacked by
maladies, from the emaciated appearance that many present, while at the
same moment others of the same species are taken quite remarkable for
their fatness.
CHAP. 74. (50.)—THE GENERATION OF FISHES.
The curiosity and wonder which have been excited in mankind by this
subject, will not allow me any longer to defer giving an account
of the generation of these animals. Fishes couple by rubbing their
bellies[2767] against one another; an operation, however, that is
performed with such extraordinary celerity as to escape the sight.
Dolphins[2768] also, and other animals of the cetaceous kind, couple
in a similar manner, though the time occupied in so doing is somewhat
longer. The female fish, at the season for coupling, follows the
male, and strikes against its belly with its muzzle; while the male
in its turn, when the female is about to spawn, follows it and
devours[2769] the eggs. But with them, the simple act of coupling is
not sufficient[2770] for the purposes of reproduction; it is necessary
for the male to pass among the eggs which the female has produced,
in order to sprinkle them with its vitalizing fluid. This does not,
however, reach all the eggs out of so vast a multitude; indeed, if it
did, the seas and lakes would soon be filled, seeing that each female
produces these eggs in quantities innumerable.[2771]
(51.) The eggs[2772] of fishes grow in the sea; some of them with the
greatest rapidity, those of the muræna, for instance; others, again,
somewhat more slowly. Those among the flat fishes,[2773] whose tails or
stings are not in the way, as well as those of the turtle kind, couple
the one upon the other: the polypus by attaching one of its feelers to
the nostrils[2774] of the female, the sæpia and loligo, by means of
the tongue; uniting the arms, they then swim contrary ways; these last
also bring forth at the mouth. The polypi,[2775] however, couple with
the head downwards towards the ground, while the rest of the soft[2776]
fish couple backwards in the same manner as the dog; cray-fish and
shrimps do the same, and crabs employ the mouth.
Frogs leap the one upon the other, the male with its fore-feet clasping
the armpits of the female, and with its hinder ones the haunches. The
female produces tiny pieces of black flesh, which are known by the
name of gyrini,[2777] and are only to be distinguished by the eyes
and tail; very soon, however, the feet are developed, and the tail,
becoming bifurcate, forms the hind legs. It is a most singular thing,
but, after a life of six months’ duration, frogs melt away[2778] into
slime, though no one ever sees how it is done; after which they come
to life again in the water during the spring, just as they were[2779]
before. This is effected by some occult operation of Nature, and
happens regularly every year.
Mussels, also, and scallops are produced in the sand by the
spontaneous[2780] operations of nature. Those which have a harder
shell, such as the murex and the purple, are formed from a viscous
fluid like saliva, just as gnats are produced from liquids turned
sour,[2781] and the fish called the apua,[2782] from the foam of the
sea when warm, after the fall of a shower.
Those fish, again, which are covered with a stony coat, such as the
oyster, are produced from mud in a putrid state, or else from the
foam that has collected around ships which have been lying for a long
time in the same position, about posts driven into the earth, and
more especially around logs of wood.[2783] It has been discovered, of
late years, in the oyster-beds,[2784] that the animal discharges an
impregnating liquid,[2785] which has the appearance of milk. Eels,
again, rub themselves against rocks, upon which, the particles[2786]
which they thus scrape from off their bodies come to life, such being
their only means of reproduction. The various kinds of fishes do not
couple out of their own kind, with the exception of the squatina and
the ray.[2787] The fish that is produced from the union of these two,
resembles a ray in the fore part, and bears a name among the Greeks
compounded of the two.[2788]
Certain animals are produced only at certain seasons of the year, both
in water and on the land, such, for instance, as scallops, snails,
and leeches, in the spring, which also disappear at stated periods.
Among fishes, the wolf-fish[2789] and the trichias[2790] bring forth
twice in the year, as also do all kinds of rock-fish; the mullet and
the chalcis[2791] thrice in the year, the cyprinus[2792] six times,
the scorpæna[2793] twice, and the sargus in spring and autumn. Among
the flat-fish, the squatina brings forth twice a year, being the
only[2794] one that does so at the setting of the[2795] Vergiliæ in
autumn. Most fish spawn in the three months of April, May, and June.
The salpa brings forth in the autumn, the sargus, the torpedo, and
the squalus[2796] about the time of the autumnal equinox. The soft
fishes[2797] bring forth in spring, the sæpia every month in the year;
its eggs adhere together with a kind of black glutinous substance, in
appearance like a bunch of grapes, and the male is very careful to go
among them and breathe[2798] upon them, as otherwise they would be
barren. The polypi couple in winter, and produce eggs in the spring
twisted in spiral clusters, in a similar manner to the tendrils of
the vine; and so remarkably prolific are they, that when the animal
is killed in a state of pregnancy, the cavities of the head are quite
unable to contain the multitude[2799] of eggs enclosed therein. They
bring forth these eggs at the fiftieth day, but in consequence of
the vast number of them, great multitudes perish. Cray-fish, and
other sea-animals with a thinner crust, lay their eggs one upon the
other, and then sit upon them. The female polypus sometimes sits upon
its eggs, and at other times closes the entrance of its retreat by
spreading out its feelers, interlaced like a net. The sæpia brings
forth on dry land, among reeds or such sea-weed as it may find growing
there, and hatches its eggs on the fifteenth day. The loligo produces
its eggs out at sea, clustered together like those of the sæpia. The
purple,[2800] the murex, and other fishes of the same kind, bring forth
in the spring. Sea-urchins have their eggs at full moon during the
winter; sea-snails[2801] also are produced during the winter season.
CHAP. 75.—FISHES WHICH ARE BOTH OVIPAROUS AND VIVIPAROUS.
The torpedo is known to have as many as eighty young ones. It
produces within itself[2802] very soft eggs, which it then transfers
to another place in the uterus, and from that part ejects them. The
same is the case with all those fish to which we have given the name
of cartilaginous; hence it is, that these alone of all the fishes are
at once viviparous and oviparous. The male silurus[2803] is the only
fish among them all that watches the eggs after they are brought forth,
often for as long a period as fifty days, that they may not be devoured
by other fish. The females of other kinds bring forth their eggs in the
course of three days, if the male has only touched them.
CHAP. 76.—FISHES THE BELLY OF WHICH OPENS IN SPAWNING, AND THEN CLOSES
AGAIN.
The sea-needle,[2804] or the belone, is the only fish in which the
multitude of its eggs, in spawning, causes the belly to open asunder;
but immediately after it has brought forth, the wound heals again: a
thing which, it is said, is the case with the blind-worm as well. The
sea-mouse[2805] digs a hole in the earth, deposits its eggs there, and
then covers them up. On the thirtieth day it opens the hole, and leads
its young to the water.
CHAP. 77. (52.)—FISHES WHICH HAVE A WOMB; THOSE WHICH IMPREGNATE
THEMSELVES.
The fishes called the erythinus[2806] and the channe[2807] are said to
have a womb; and those which by the Greeks are called trochi,[2808] it
is said, impregnate themselves. The young of all aquatic animals are
without sight at their birth.[2809]
CHAP. 78. (53.)—THE LONGEST LIVES KNOWN AMONGST FISHES.
We have lately heard of a remarkable instance of length of life in
fish. Pausilypum[2810] is the name of a villa in Campania, not far
from Neapolis; here, as we learn from the works of M. Annæus Seneca, a
fish is known to have died sixty years after it had been placed in the
preserves of Cæsar[2811] by Vedius Pollio; while others of the same
kind, and its equals in age, were living at the time that he wrote.
This mention of fish-preserves reminds me that I ought to mention a
few more particulars connected with this subject, before we leave the
aquatic animals.
CHAP. 79. (54.)—THE FIRST PERSON THAT FORMED ARTIFICIAL OYSTER-BEDS.
The first person who formed artificial oyster-beds was Sergius
Orata,[2812] who established them at Baiæ, in the time of L. Crassus,
the orator, just before the Marsic War. This was done by him, not
for the gratification of gluttony, but of avarice, as he contrived
to make a large income by this exercise of his ingenuity. He was the
first, too, to invent hanging baths,[2813] and after buying villas and
trimming them up, he would every now and then sell them again.[2814]
He, too, was the first to adjudge the pre-eminence for delicacy of
flavour to the oysters of Lake Lucrinus;[2815] for every kind of
aquatic animal is superior in one place to what it is in another. Thus,
for instance, the wolf-fish of the river Tiber is the best that is
caught between the two bridges,[2816] and the turbot of Ravenna is the
most esteemed, the murena of Sicily, the elops of Rhodes; the same,
too, as to the other kinds, not to go through all the items of the
culinary catalogue. The British[2817] shores had not as yet sent their
supplies, at the time when Orata thus ennobled the Lucrine oysters: at
a later period, however, it was thought worth while to fetch oysters
all the way from Brundisium, at the very extremity of Italy; and in
order that there might exist no rivalry[2818] between the two flavours,
a plan has been more recently hit upon, of feeding the oysters of
Brundisium in Lake Lucrinus, famished as they must naturally be after
so long a journey.
CHAP. 80.—WHO WAS THE FIRST INVENTOR OF PRESERVES FOR OTHER FISH.
In the same age, also, Licinius Murena[2819] was the first to form
preserves for other fish; and his example was soon followed by the
noble families of the Philippi and the Hortensii. Lucullus had a
mountain pierced near Naples, at a greater outlay even, than that which
had been expended on his villa; and here he formed a channel,[2820] and
admitted the sea to his preserves; it was for this reason that Pompeius
Magnus gave him the name of “Xerxes in a toga.”[2821] After his
death, the fish in his preserves was sold for the sum of four million
sesterces.
CHAP. 81. (55.)—WHO INVENTED PRESERVES FOR MURENÆ.
C. Hirrus[2822] was the first person who formed preserves for the
murena; and it was he who lent six thousand of these fishes for the
triumphal banquets of Cæsar the Dictator; on which occasion he had them
duly weighed, as he declined to receive the value of them in money or
any other commodity. His villa, which was of a very humble character in
the interior, sold for four millions[2823] of sesterces, in consequence
of the valuable nature of the stock-ponds there. Next after this, there
arose a passion for individual fish. At Bauli,[2824] in the territory
of Baiæ, the orator Hortensius had some fish-preserves, in which there
was a murena to which he became so much attached, as to be supposed
to have wept on hearing of its death.[2825] It was at the same villa
that Antonia,[2826] the wife of Drusus, placed earrings upon a murena
which she had become fond of; the report of which singular circumstance
attracted many visitors to the place.
CHAP. 82. (56.)—WHO INVENTED PRESERVES FOR SEA-SNAILS.
Fulvius Lupinus[2827] first formed preserves for sea-snails,[2828] in
the territory of Tarquinii, shortly before the civil war between Cæsar
and Pompeius Magnus. He also carefully distinguished them by their
several species, separating them from one another. The white ones
were those that are produced in the district of Reate;[2829] those of
Illyria were remarkable for the largeness of their size; while those
from Africa were the most prolific; those, however, from the Promontory
of the Sun[2830] were the most esteemed of all. For the purpose,
also, of fattening them, he invented a mixture of boiled wine,[2831]
spelt-meal, and other substances; so that fattened periwinkles even
became quite an object of gastronomy; and the art of breeding them
was brought to such a pitch of perfection, that the shell of a single
animal would hold as much as eighty quadrantes.[2832] This we learn
from M. Varro.
CHAP. 83. (57.)—LAND FISHES.
Besides these, there are still some wonderful kinds of fishes[2833]
which we find mentioned by Theophrastus: he says, that when the waters
subside, which have been admitted for the purposes of irrigation in the
vicinity of Babylon, there are certain fish which remain in such holes
as may contain water; from these they come forth for the purpose of
feeding, moving along with their fins by the aid of a rapid movement of
the tail. If pursued, he says, they retreat to their holes, and, when
they have reached them, will turn round and make a stand. The head is
like that of the sea-frog, while the other parts are similar to those
of the gobio,[2834] and they have gills like other fish. He says also,
that in the vicinity of Heraclea and Cromna,[2835] and about the river
Lycus, as well as in many parts of the Euxine, there is one kind of
fish[2836] which frequents the waters near the banks of the rivers, and
makes holes for itself, in which it lives, even when the water retires
and the bed of the river is dry; for which reason these fishes have to
be dug out of the ground, and only show by the movement of the body
that they are still alive. He says also, that in the vicinity of the
same Heraclea, when the river Lycus ebbs, the eggs are left in the mud,
and that the fish, on being produced from these, go forth to seek their
food by means of a sort of fluttering motion,—their gills being but
very small, in consequence of which they are not in need of water; for
this reason it is that eels also can live so long out of water;[2837]
and that their eggs come to maturity on dry land, like those of the
sea-tortoise[2838]. In the same regions also of the Euxine, he says,
various kinds of fishes are overtaken by the ice, the gobio more
particularly, and they only betray signs of life, by moving when they
have warmth applied by the saucepan. All these things, however, though
very remarkable, still admit of some explanation. He tells us also,
that in Paphlagonia, land fishes are dug up that are most excellent
eating; these, he says, are found in deep holes or spots where there
is no standing water whatever, and he expresses his surprise at their
being thus produced without any contact with moisture, stating it as
his opinion, that there is some innate virtue in these holes,[2839]
similar to that of wells; as if, indeed, fishes really were to be found
in wells.[2840] However this may be, these facts, at all events, render
the life of the mole under ground less a matter for surprise; unless,
perhaps, these fishes mentioned by Theophrastus are similar in nature
to the earth-worm.
CHAP. 84. (58.)—THE MICE OF THE NILE.
But all these things, singular as they are, are rendered credible by
a marvel which exceeds them all, at the time of the inundation of the
Nile; for, the moment that it subsides, little mice[2841] are found,
the first rudiments of which have been formed by the generative powers
of the waters and the earth: in one part of the body they are already
alive, while in that which is of later formation, they are still
composed of earth.
CHAP. 85. (59.)—HOW THE FISH CALLED THE ANTHIAS IS TAKEN.
Nor would it be right to omit what is said about the fish called
anthias, and which I find is looked upon as true by most writers. I
have already mentioned[2842] the Chelidoniæ, certain islands off the
coast of Asia; they are situate off a promontory there, in the midst
of a sea full of crags and reefs. These parts are much frequented by
this fish, which is very speedily taken by the employment of a single
method of catching it. A fisherman pushes out in a little boat, dressed
in a colour resembling that of his boat; and every day, for several
days together, at the same hour, he sails over the same space, while
doing which he throws a quantity of bait into the sea. Whatever is
thrown from the boat is an object of suspicion to the fish, who keep
at a distance from what causes them so much alarm; but after this
has been repeated a considerable number of times, one of the fish,
reassured by becoming habituated to the scene, at last snaps at the
bait. The movements of this one are watched with the greatest care and
attention, for in it are centred all the hopes of the fishermen, as
it is to be the means of securing them their prey; nor, indeed, is it
difficult to recognize it, seeing that for some days it is the only one
that ventures to come near the bait. At last, however, it finds some
others to follow its example, and by degrees it is better and better
attended, till at last it brings with it shoals innumerable. The older
ones, at length becoming quite accustomed to the fisherman, easily
recognize him, and will even take food from his hands. Upon this, the
man throws out, a little way beyond the tips of his fingers, a hook
concealed in a bait, and smuggles them out one by one, rather than
catches them, standing in the shadow of the boat and whipping them out
of the water with a slight jerk, that the others may not perceive it;
while another fisherman is ready inside to receive them upon pieces of
cloth, in order that no floundering about or other noise may scare the
others away. It is of importance to know which has been the betrayer
of the others, and not to take it, otherwise the shoal will take to
flight, and appear no more for the future.[2843] There is a story that
a fisherman, having quarrelled once with his mate, threw out a hook
to one of these leading fishes, which he easily recognized, and so
captured it with a malicious intent. The fish, however, was recognized
in the market by the other fisherman, against whom he had conceived
this malice; who accordingly brought an action against him for
damages;[2844] and, as Mucianus adds, he was condemned to pay them on
the hearing of the case. These anthiæ, it is said, when they see one of
their number taken with a hook, cut the line with the serrated spines
which they have on the back, the one that is held fast stretching it
out as much as it can, to enable them to cut it. But among the sargi,
the fish itself, that is held fast, rubs the line asunder against the
rocks.
CHAP. 86. (60.)—SEA-STARS.
In addition to what I have already stated, I find that authors,
distinguished for their wisdom, express surprise at finding a star in
the sea—for such, in fact, is the form of the animal, which has but
very little flesh[2845] within, and nothing but a hard skin without. It
is said that in this fish there is such a fiery heat, that it scorches
everything it meets with in the sea, and instantaneously digests its
food. By what experiments[2846] all this came to be known, I cannot so
easily say; but I am about to make mention of one fact which is more
remarkable still, and which we have the opportunity of testing by every
day’s experience.
CHAP. 87. (61.)—THE MARVELLOUS PROPERTIES OF THE DACTYLUS.
Belonging also to the class of shell-fish is the dactylus,[2847] a fish
so called from its strong resemblance to the human nails. It is the
property of these fish to shine brightly in the dark, when all other
lights are removed, and the more moisture they have, the brighter is
the light they emit. In the mouth even, while they are being eaten,
they give forth their light, and the same too when in the hands; the
very drops, in fact, that fall from them on the ground, or on the
clothes, are of the same nature. Hence it is beyond a doubt, that it is
a liquid that possesses this peculiar property, which, even in a solid
body, would be a ground for considerable surprise.
CHAP. 88. (62.)—THE ANTIPATHIES AND SYMPATHIES THAT EXIST BETWEEN
AQUATIC ANIMALS.
There are also marvellous instances to be found of antipathies and
sympathies existing between them. The mullet and the wolf-fish[2848]
are animated with a mutual hatred; and so too, the conger and the
murena gnaw each other’s[2849] tails. The cray-fish has so great
a dread of the polypus, that if it sees it near, it expires in an
instant: the conger dreads the cray-fish; while, again, the conger
tears the body of the polypus. Nigidius informs us that the wolf-fish
gnaws the tail of the mullet, and yet that, during certain months, they
are on terms of friendship; all those, however, which thus lose their
tails, survive their misfortune. On the other hand, in addition to
those which we have already mentioned as going in company together, an
instance of friendship is found in the balæna and the musculus,[2850]
for, as the eye-brows of the former are very heavy, they sometimes fall
over its eyes, and quite close them by their ponderousness, upon which
the musculus swims before, and points out the shallow places which are
likely to prove inconvenient to its vast bulk,[2851] thus serving it
in the stead of eyes. We shall now have to speak of the nature of the
birds.
* * * * *
Summary.—Remarkable facts, narratives, and observations, 650.
* * * * *
Roman authors quoted.—Turranius Gracilis,[2852] Trogus,[2853]
Mæcenas,[2854] Alfius Flavus,[2855] Cornelius Nepos,[2856] Laberius the
Mimographer,[2857] Fabianus,[2858] Fenestella,[2859] Mucianus,[2860]
Ælius Stilo,[2861] Statius Sebosus,[2862] Melissus,[2863]
Seneca,[2864] Cicero,[2865] Æmilius Macer,[2866] Messala
Corvinus,[2867] Trebius Niger,[2868] Nigidius.[2869]
* * * * *
Foreign authors quoted.—Aristotle,[2870] King Archelaus,[2871]
Callimachus,[2872] Democritus,[2873] Theophrastus,[2874]
Thrasyllus,[2874] Hegesidemus,[2875] Cythnius,[2876] Alexander
Polyhistor.[2877]