HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY

A capacity to understand the nature of maps is possessed even by peoples

whom we are in the habit of describing as "savages." Wandering tribes

naturally enjoy a great advantage in this respect over sedentary ones.

Our arctic voyagers--Sir E. W. Parry, Sir J. Ross, Sir F. L. MacClintock

and others--have profited from rough maps drawn for them by Eskimos.

Specimens of such maps are given in C. F. Hall's _Life with the

Esquimaux_ (London, 1864). Henry Youle Hind, in his work on the Labrador

Peninsula (London, 1863) praises the map which the Montagnais and

Nasquapee Indians drew upon bark. Similar essays at map-making are

reported in connexion with Australians, Maoris and Polynesians. Tupaya,

a Tahitian, who accompanied Captain Cook in the "Endeavour" to Europe,

supplied his patron with maps; Raraka drew a map in chalk of the Paumotu

archipelago on the deck of Captain Wilkes's vessel; the Marshall

islanders, according to Captain Winkler (_Marine Rundschau_, Oct. 1893)

possess maps upon which the bearings of the islands are indicated by

small strokes. Far superior were the maps found among the semi-civilized

Mexicans when the Spaniards first discovered and invaded their country.

Among them were cadastral plans of villages, maps of the provinces of

the empire of the Aztecs, of towns and of the coast. Montezuma presented

Cortes with a map, painted on Nequen cloth, of the Gulf coast. Another

map did the Conquistador good service on his campaign against Honduras

(Lorenzana, _Historia de nueva España_, Mexico, 1770; W. H. Prescott,

_History of the Conquest of Mexico_, New York, 1843). Peru, the empire

of the Incas, had not only ordinary maps, but also maps in relief, for

Pedro Sarmiento da Gamboa (_History of the Incas_, translated by A. R.

Markham, 1907) tells us that the 9th Inca (who died in 1191) ordered

such reliefs to be produced of certain localities in a district which he

had recently conquered and intended to colonize. These were the first

relief maps on record. It is possible that these primitive efforts of

American Indians might have been further developed, but the Spanish

conquest put a stop to all progress, and for a consecutive history of

the map and map-making we must turn to the Old World, and trace this

history from Egypt and Babylon, through Greece, to our own age.

The ancient Egyptians were famed as "geometers," and as early as the

days of Rameses II. (Sesostris of the Greeks, 1333-1300 B.C.) there had

been made a cadastral survey of the country showing the rows of pillars

which separated the nomens as well as the boundaries of landed estates.

It was upon a map based upon such a source that Eratosthenes (276-196

B.C.) measured the distance between Syene and Alexandria which he

required for his determination of the length of a degree. Ptolemy, who

had access to the treasures of the famous library of Alexandria was

able, no doubt, to utilize these cadastral plans when compiling his

_geography_. It should be noted that he places Syene only two degrees to

the east of Alexandria instead of three degrees, the actual meridian

distance between the two places; a difference which would result from an

error of only 7° is the orientation of the map used by Ptolemy. Scarcely

any specimens of ancient Egyptian cartography have survived. In the

Turin Museum are preserved two papyri with rough drawings of gold mines

established by Sesostris in the Nubian Desert.[11] These drawings have

been commented upon by S. Birch, F. Chabas, R. J. Lauth and other

Egyptologists, and have been referred to as the two most ancient maps in

existence. They can, however, hardly be described as maps, while in age

they are surpassed by several cartographical clay tablets discovered in

Babylonia. On another papyrus in the same museum is depicted the

victorious return of Seti I. (1366-1333) from Syria, showing the road

from Pelusium to Heroopolis, the canal from the Nile with crocodiles,

and a lake (mod. Lake Timsah) with fish in it. Apollonius of Rhodes who

succeeded Eratosthenes as chief librarian at Alexandria (196 B.C.)

reports in his _Argonautica_ (iv. 279) that the inhabitants of Colchis

whom, like Herodotus (ii., 104) he looks upon as the descendants of

Egyptian colonists, preserved, as heirlooms, certain graven tablets

([Greek: kurbeis]) on which land and sea, roads and towns were

accurately indicated.[12] Eustathius (since 1160 archbishop of

Thessalonica) in his commentary on Dionysius Periegetes, mentions

route-maps which Sesostris caused to be prepared, while Strabo (i., 1.

5) dwells at length upon the wealth of geographical documents to be

found in the library of Alexandria.

A cadastral survey for purposes of taxation was already at work in

Babylonia in the age of Sargon of Akkad, 3800 B.C. In the British Museum

may be seen a series of clay tablets, circular in shape and dating back

to 2300 or 2100 B.C., which contain surveys of lands. One of these

depicts in a rough way lower Babylonia encircled by a "salt water

river," Oceanus.

_Development of Map-making among the Greeks._[13]--Ionian mercenaries

and traders first arrived in Egypt, on the invitation of Psammetichus I.

about the middle of the 7th century B.C. Among the visitors to Egypt,

there were, no doubt, some who took an interest in the science of the

Egyptians. One of the most distinguished among them was Thales of

Miletus (640-543 B.C.), the founder of the Ionian school of philosophy,

whose pupil, Anaximander (611-546 B.C.) is credited by Eratosthenes with

having designed the first map of the world. Anaximander looked upon the

earth as a section of a cylinder, of considerable thickness, suspended

in the centre of the circular vault of the heavens, an idea perhaps

borrowed from the Babylonians, for Job (xxvi. 7) already speaks of the

earth as "hanging upon nothing." Like Homer he looked upon the habitable

world ([Greek: oikoumenê]) as being circular in outline and bounded by a

circumfluent river. The geographical knowledge of Anaximander was

naturally more ample than that of Homer, for it extended from the

Cassiterides or Tin Islands in the west to the Caspian in the east,

which he conceived to open out into Oceanus. The Aegean Sea occupied the

centre of the map, while the line where ocean and firmament seemed to

meet represented an enlarged horizon.

Anaximenes, a pupil of Anaximander, was the first to reject the view

that the earth was a circular plane, but held it to be an oblong

rectangle, buoyed up in the midst of the heavens by the compressed air

upon which it rested. Circular maps, however, remained in the popular

favour long after their erroneousness had been recognized by the

learned.

Even Hecataeus of Miletus (549-472 B.C.), the author of a _Periodos_ or

description of the earth, of whom Herodotus borrowed the terse saying

that Egypt was the gift of the Nile, retained this circular shape and

circumfluent ocean when producing his map of the world, although he had

at his disposal the results of the voyage of Scylax of Caryanda from the

Indus to the Red Sea, of Darius' campaign in Scythia (513), the

information to be gathered among the merchants from all parts of the

world who frequented an emporium like Miletus, and what he had learned

in the course of his own extensive travels. Hecataeus was probably the

author of the "bronze tablets upon which was engraved the whole circuit

of the earth, the sea and rivers" (Herod, v. 49), which Aristagoras, the

tyrant of Miletus, showed to Cleomenes, the king of Sparta, in 504,

whose aid he sought in vain in a proposed revolt against Darius, which

resulted disastrously in 494 in the destruction of Miletus. The map of

the world brought upon the stage in Aristophanes' comedy of _The Clouds_

(423 B.C.), whereon a disciple of the Sophists points out upon it the

position of Athens and of other places known to the audience, was

probably of the popular circular type, which Herodotus (iv. 36) not many

years before had derided and which was discarded by Greek cartographers

ever after. Thus Democritus of Abdera (b. _c._ 450, d. after 360), the

great philosopher and founder, with Leucippus, of the atomic theory, was

also the author of a map of the inhabited world which he supposed to be

half as long again from west to east, as it was broad.

Dicaearcus of Messana in Sicily, a pupil of Aristotle (326-296 B.C.), is

the author of a topographical account of Hellas, with maps, of which

only fragments are preserved; he is credited with having estimated the

size of the earth, and, as far as known he was the first to draw a

parallel across a map.[14] This parallel, or dividing line, called

_diaphragm_ (partition) by a commentator, extended due east from the

Pillars of Hercules, through the Mediterranean, and along the Taurus and

Imaus (Himalaya) to the eastern ocean. It divided the inhabited world,

as then known, into a northern and a southern half. In compiling his map

he was able to avail himself of the information obtained by the

_bematists_ (surveyors who determined distances by pacing) who

accompanied Alexander the Great on his campaigns; of the results of the

voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates, and of the

"Periplus" of Scylax of Caryanda, which described the coast from between

India and the head of the Arabian Gulf. On the other hand he unwisely

rejected the results of the observations for latitude made by Pytheas in

326 B.C. at his native town, Massilia, and during a subsequent voyage to

northern Europe. In the end the map of Dicaearcus resembled that of

Democritus.

Scientific geography profited largely from the labours of Eratosthenes

of Cyrene, whom Ptolemy Euergetes appointed keeper of the famous

library of Alexandria in 247 B.C., and died in that city in 195 B.C. He

won fame as having been the first to determine the size of the earth by

a scientific method. Having determined the difference of latitude

between Alexandria and Syene which he erroneously believed to lie on the

same meridian, and obtained the distance of those places from each other

from the surveys made by Egyptian geometers, he concluded that a degree

of the meridian measured 700 stadia.[15]

Eratosthenes is the author of a treatise which deals systematically with

the geographical knowledge of his time, but of which only fragments have

been preserved by Strabo and others. This treatise was intended to

illustrate and explain his map of the world. In this task he was much

helped by the materials collected in his library. Among the travellers

of whose information he was thus able to avail himself were Pytheas of

Massilia, Patroclus, who had visited the Caspian (285-282 B.C.),

Megasthenes, who visited Palibothra on the Ganges, as ambassador of

Seleucus Nicator (302-291 B.C.), Timosthenus of Rhodes, the commander of

the fleet of Ptolemy Philadelphus (284-246 B.C.) who wrote a treatise

"On harbours," and Philo, who visited Meroe on the upper Nile. His map

formed a parallelogram measuring 75,800 stadia from Usisama (Ushant

island) or Sacrum Promontorium in the west to the mouth of the Ganges

and the land of the Coniaci (Comorin) in the east, and 46,000 stadia

from Thule in the north to the supposed southern limit of Libya. Across

it were drawn seven parallels, running through Meroe, Syene, Alexandria,

Rhodes, Lysimachia on the Hellespont, the mouth of the Borysthenes and

Thule, and these were crossed at right angles by seven meridians, drawn

at irregular intervals, and passing through the Pillars of Hercules,

Carthage, Alexandria, Thapsacus on the Euphrates, the Caspian gates, the

mouth of the Indus and that of the Ganges. The position of all the

places mentioned was supposed to have been determined by trustworthy

authorities. The inhabited world thus delineated formed an island of

irregular shape, surrounded on all sides by the ocean, the Erythrean Sea

freely communicating with the western ocean. In his text Eratosthenes

ignored the popular division of the world into Europe, Asia and Libya,

and substituted for it a northern and southern division, divided by the

parallel of Rhodes, each of which he subdivided into _sphragides_ or

_plinthia_--seals or plinths. The principles on which these divisions

were made remain an enigma to the present day.

This map of Eratosthenes, notwithstanding its many errors, such as the

assumed connexion of the Caspian with a northern ocean and the

supposition that Carthage, Sicily and Rome lay on the same meridian,

enjoyed a high reputation in his day. Even Strabo (_c._ 30 B.C.) adopted

its main features, but while he improved the European frontier, he

rejected the valuable information secured by Pytheas and retained the

connexion between the Caspian and the outer ocean. In the extreme east

his information extended no further than that of Eratosthenes, viz. to

India and Taprobane (Ceylon) and the Sacae (Kirghiz).

Hipparchus, the famous astronomer, on the other hand, (_c._ 150 B.C.)

proved a somewhat captious critic. He justly objected to the arbitrary

network of the map of Eratosthenes. The parallels or _climata_[16] drawn

through places, of which the longest day is of equal length and the

decimation (distance) from the equator is the same, he maintained, ought

to have been inserted at equal intervals, say of half an hour, and the

meridians inserted on a like principle. In fact, he demanded that maps

should be based upon a regular projection, several descriptions of

which he had adopted for his star maps. He moreover accuses

Eratosthenes, (whose determination of a degree he accepts without

hesitation) with trusting too much to hypothesis in compiling his map

instead of having recourse to latitudes and longitudes deduced by

astronomical observations. Such observations, however, were but rarely

available at the time. A few latitudes had indeed been observed, but

although Hipparchus had shown how longitudes could be determined by the

observation of eclipses, this method was in reality not available for

want of trustworthy time-keepers. The determination of an ocean

surrounding the inhabited earth he declared to be based on a mere

hypothesis and that it would be equally allowable to describe the

Erythraea as a sea surrounded by land. Hipparchus is not known to have

compiled a map himself.

About the same time Crates of Mallus (d. 145 B.C.) embodied the views of

the Stoic school of philosophy in a globe which has become typical as

one of the insignia of royalty. On this globe an equatorial and a

meridional ocean divide our earth into four quarters, each inhabited,

thus anticipating the discovery of North and South America and

Australia.[17]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The Globe of Crates of Mallus.]

The period between Eratosthenes and Marinus of Tyre was one of great

political importance. Carthage had been destroyed (146 B.C.), Julius

Caesar had carried on his campaign in Gaul (58-51 B.C.), Egypt had been

occupied (30 B.C.), Britannia conquered (A.D. 41-79), and the Roman

empire had attained its greatest extent and power under the emperor

Trajan (A.D. 98-117). But although military operations added to our

knowledge of the world, scientific cartography was utterly neglected.

Among Greek works written during this period there are several which

either give us an idea of the maps available at that time, or furnish

information of direct service to the compiler of a map. Among the latter

a Periplus or coastal guide of the Erythrean Sea, which clearly reveals

the peninsular shape of India (A.D. 90) and Arrian's _Periplus Ponti

Euxeni_ (A.D. 131) which Festus Avienus translated into Latin. Among

travellers Eudoxus of Cyzicus occupies a foremost rank, since, between

115-87 B.C. he visited India and the east coast of Africa, which

subsequently he attempted in vain to circumnavigate by following the

route of Hanno, along the west coast. Among geographers should be

mentioned Posidonius (135-51), the head of the Stoic school of Rhodes,

who is stated to be responsible for having reduced the length of a

degree to 500 stadia; Artemidorus of Ephesus, whose "Geographumena" (c.

100 B.C.) are based upon his own travels and a study of itineraries, and

above all, Strabo, who has already been referred to. Among historians

who looked upon geography as an important aid in their work are numbered

Polybius (c. 210-120 B.C.), Diodorus Siculus (c. 30 B.C.) and

Agathachidus of Cnidus (c. 120 B.C.) to whom we are indebted for a

valuable account of the Erythrean Sea and the adjoining parts of Arabia

and Ethiopia. The _Periegesis_ of Dionysius of Alexandria is a popular

description of the world in hexameters, of no particular scientific

value (c. A.D. 130). He as well as Artemidorus and others accepted a

circular or ellipsoidal shape of the world and a circumfluent ocean;

Strabo alone adhered to the scientific theories of Eratosthenes.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Ptolemy's Map.]

The credit of having returned to the scientific principles innovated by

Eratosthenes and Hipparchus is due to Marinus of Tyre (c. A.D. 120)

which, though no longer occupying the pre-eminent position of former

times, was yet an emporium of no inconsiderable importance, having

extensive connexions by sea and land. The map of Marinus and the

descriptive accounts which accompanied it have perished, but we learn

sufficient concerning them from Ptolemy to be able to appreciate their

merits and demerits. Marinus was the first who laid down the position of

places on a projection according to their latitude and longitude, but

the projection used by him was of the rudest. Parallels and meridians

were represented by straight lines intersecting each other at right

angles, the relative proportions between degrees of longitude and

latitude being retained only along the parallel of Rhodes. The

distortion of the countries represented would thus increase with the

distance, north and south, from this central parallel. The number of

places whose position had been determined by astronomical observation

was as yet very small, and the map had thus to be compiled mainly from

itineraries furnished by travellers or the dead reckoning of seamen. The

errors due to an exaggeration of distances were still further increased

on account of his assuming a degree to be equal to 500 stadia, as

determined by Posidonius, instead of accepting the 700 stadia of

Eratosthenes. He was thus led to assume that the distance from the first

meridian drawn through the Fortunate islands to Sera (mod. Si-ngan-fu),

the capital of China, was equal to 225°, which Ptolemy reduced to 177°,

but which in reality only amount to 126°. A like overestimate of the

distances covering the march of Julius Maternus to Agisymba, which

Marinus places 24° south of the equator, a latitude which Ptolemy

reduces to 18°, but which is probably no farther south than lat. 12° N.

The map of Marinus was accompanied by a list of places arranged

according to latitude and longitude. It must have been much in demand,

for three editions of it were prepared. Masudi (10th century) saw a copy

of it and declared it to be superior to Ptolemy's map.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.]

Ptolemy (q.v.) was the author of a _Geography_[18] (c. A.D. 150) in

eight books. "Geography," in the sense in which he uses the term,

signifies the delineation of the known world, in the shape of a map,

while chorography carries out the same objects in fuller detail, with

regard to a particular country. In Book I. he deals with the principles

of mathematical geography, map projections, and sources of information

with special reference to his predecessor Marinus. Books II. to VII.

form an index to the maps. They contain about 8000 names, with their

latitudes and longitudes, and with their aid it is possible to

reconstruct the maps. These maps existed, as a matter of course, before

such an index could be compiled, but it is doubtful whether the maps in

our available manuscript, which are attributed to Agathodaemon, are

copies of Ptolemy's originals or have been compiled, after their loss,

from this index. Book VIII. gives further details with reference to the

principal towns of each map, as to geographical position, length of day,

climata, &c.

Ptolemy's great merit consists in having accepted the views of

Hipparchus with respect to a projection suited for a map of the world.

Of the two projections proposed by him one is a modified conical

projection with curved parallels and straight meridians; in the second

projection (see fig. 3) both parallels and meridians are curved. The

correct relations in the length of degrees of latitude and longitude are

maintained in the first case along the latitude of Thule and the

equator, in the second along the parallel of Agisymba, the equator and

the parallels of Meroe, Syene and Thule. Following Hipparchus he divided

the equator into 360° drawing his prime meridian through the Fortunate

Islands (Canaries). The 26 special maps are drawn on a rectangular

projection. As a map compiler Ptolemy does not take a high rank. In the

main he copied Marinus whose work he revised and supplemented in some

points, but he failed to realize the peninsular shape of India,

erroneously exaggerated the size of Taprobane (Ceylon), and suggested

that the Indian Ocean had no connexion with the western ocean, but

formed Mare Clausum. Ptolemy knew but of a few latitudes which had been

determined by actual observation, while of three longitudes resulting

from simultaneous observation of eclipses he unfortunately accepted the

least satisfactory, namely, that which placed Arbela 45° to the east of

Carthage, while the actual meridian distance only amounts to 34°. An

even graver source of error was Ptolemy's acceptance of a degree of 500

instead of 700 stadia. The extent to which the more correct proportion

would have affected the delineation of the Mediterranean is illustrated

by fig. 4. But in spite of his errors the scientific method pursued by

Ptolemy was correct, and though he was neglected by the Romans and

during the middle ages, once he had become known, in the 15th century,

he became the teacher of the modern world.

_Map-Making among the Romans._--We learn from Cicero, Vitruvius, Seneca,

Suetonius, Pliny and others, that the Romans had both general and

topographical maps. Thus, Varro (_De rustici_) mentions a map of Italy

engraved on marble, in the temple of Tellus, Pliny, a map of the seat of

war in Armenia, of the time of the emperor Nero, and the more famous map

of the Roman Empire which was ordered to be prepared for Julius Caesar

(44 B.C.), but only completed in the reign of Augustus, who placed a

copy of it, engraved in marble, in the Porticus of his sister Octavia (7

B.C.). M. Vipsanius Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus (d. 12 B.C.),

who superintended the completion of this famous map, also wrote a

commentary illustrating it, quotations from which of Ammianus

Marcellinus of Antioch (d. 330), Pliny and others, afford the only means

of judging of its character. The map is supposed to be based upon actual

surveys or rather reconnaissances, and if it be borne in mind that the

Roman Empire at that time was traversed in all directions by roads

furnished with mile-stones, that the Agrimensores employed upon such a

duty were skilled surveyors, and that the official reports of the

commanders of military expeditions and of provincial governors were

available, this map, as well as the provincial maps upon which it was

based, must have been a work of superior excellence, the loss of which

is much to be regretted. A copy of it may possibly have been utilized by

Marinus and Ptolemy in their compilations. The Romans have been

reproached for having neglected the scientific methods of map-making

advocated by Hipparchus. Their maps, however, seem to have met the

practical requirements of political administration and of military

undertakings.

Only two specimens of Roman cartography have come down to us, viz. parts

of a plan of Rome, of the time of the emperor Septimius Severus (A.D.

193-211), now in the Museo Capitolino, and an _itinerarium scriptum_, or

road map of the world, compressed within a strip 745 mm. in length and

34 mm. broad. Of its character the reduced copy of one of its 12

sections (fig. 5) conveys an idea. The map, apparently of the 3rd

century, was copied by a monk at Colmar, in 1265, who fortunately

contented himself with adding a few scriptural names, and having been

acquired by the learned Conrad Peutinger of Augsburg it became known as

_Tabula peutingeriana_. The original is now in the imperial library of

Vienna.[19]

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--A Section of Peutinger's Tabula.]

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The World according to Cosmas Indicopleustes

(535).]

_Map-Making in the Middle Ages._--In scientific matters the early middle

ages were marked by stagnation and retrogression. The fathers of the

church did not encourage scientific pursuits, which Lactantius (4th

century) declared to be unprofitable. The doctrine of the sphericity of

the earth was still held by the more learned, but the heads of the

church held it to be unscriptural. Pope Zachary, when in 741 he

condemned the views of Virgilius, the learned bishop of Salzburg, an

Irishman who had been denounced as a heretic by St Boniface, declares it

to be _perversa et iniqua doctrina_. Even after Gerbert of Aurillac,

better known as Pope Sylvester II. (999-1063), Adam of Bremen (1075),

Albertus Magnus (d. 1286), Roger Bacon (d. 1294), and indeed all men of

leading had accepted as a fact and not a mere hypothesis the geocentric

system of the universe and sphericity of the globe, the authors of maps

of the world, nearly all of whom were monks, still looked in the main to

the Holy Scriptures for guidance in outlining the inhabited world. We

have to deal thus with three types of these early maps, viz. an oblong

rectangular, a circular and an oval type, the latter being either a

compromise between the two former, or an artistic development of the

circular type. In every instance the inhabited world is surrounded by

the ocean. The authors of rectangular maps look upon the Tabernacle as

an image of the world at large, and believe that such expressions as the

"four corners of the earth" (Isa. x. 12), could be reconciled only with

a rectangular world. On the other hand there was the expression "circuit

of the earth" (Isa. xl. 22), and the statement (Ezek. v. 5) that "God

had set Jerusalem in the midst of the nations and countries." In nearly

every case the East occupies the top of the map. Neither parallels nor

meridians are indicated, nor is there a scale. Other features frequently

met with are the Paradise in the Far East, miniatures of towns, plants,

animals, human beings and monsters, and an indication of the twelve

winds around the margin.

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Map of Albi (8th century).]

[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Anglo-Saxon Map of the World (9th century).]

The oldest rectangular map of the world is contained in a most valuable

work written by Cosmas, an Alexandrian monk, surnamed Indicopleustes,

after returning from a voyage to India (535 A.D.), and entitled

_Christian Topography_. According to Cosmas (fig. 6) the inhabited earth

has the shape of an oblong rectangle surrounded by an ocean which breaks

in in four great gulfs--the Roman or Mediterranean, the Arabian, Persian

and Caspian Sea. Beyond this ocean lies another world, which was

occupied by man before the Deluge, and within which Cosmas placed the

Terrestrial Paradise. Above this rise the walls of the heavens like unto

the tent of the Tabernacle. Far more simple is a small map of the world

of the 8th century found in a codex in the library of Albi, an

archiepiscopal seat in the department of Tarn. Its scanty nomenclature

is almost wholly derived from the "Historiae adversum paganos" of Paulus

Orosius (418). Far greater interest attaches to the so-called

Anglo-Saxon Map of the World in the British Museum (Cotton MSS.), where

it is bound up in a codex which also contains a copy of the _Periegesis_

of Priscianus. Map and Periegesis are copies by the same hand, but no

other connexion exists between them. More than half the nomenclature of

the map is derived from Orosius, an annotated Anglo-Saxon version of

which had been produced by King Alfred (871-901). The Anglo-Saxons of

the time were of course well acquainted with Island (first thus named in

870) Slesvic and Norweci (Norway), and there is no need to have recourse

to Adam of Bremen (1076) to account for their presence upon this map.

The broad features of the map were derived no doubt from an older

document which may likewise have served as the basis for the map of the

world engraved on silver for Charlemagne, and was also consulted by the

compilers of the Hereford and Ebstorf maps (see fig. 11).

[Illustration: FIG. 9.--T map from Isidor of Seville's _Origines_.]

The map or diagram of which Leonardo Dati in his poem on the Sphere

(Della Spera) wrote in 1422 "un T dentre a uno O mostra il disegno" (a T

within an O shows the design) is one of the most persistent types among

the circular or wheel maps of the world. It perpetuates the tripartite

division of the world by the ancient Greeks and survives in the Royal

Orb. A diagram of this description will be found in Isidor of Seville's

_Origines_ (630), see fig. 9.

T maps of more elaborate design illustrate the MS. copies of Sallust's

_Bellum jugurthinum_; one of these taken from a codex of the 11th

century in the Leipzig town library is shown in fig. 10.

[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Map illustrating Sallust's _Bellum jugurthinum_

(11th century, Leipzig).]

The outlines of several medieval maps resemble each other to such an

extent that there can be no doubt that they are derived from the same

original source. This source by some authors is assumed to have been the

official map of the Roman Empire, but if we compare the crude outline

given to the Mediterranean with the more correct delineation of Ptolemy,

who was certainly in a position to avail himself of these official

sources, such an assumption is untenable. The earliest delineation of

the description has already been referred to as the Anglo-Saxon map of

the world. Next in the order of age, follows the oval map which Henry,

canon of Mayence Cathedral, dedicated to Mathilda, consort of the

emperor Henry V. (1110). Of far greater importance is the map seen in

Hereford Cathedral. It is the work of Richard of Haldingham, and has a

diameter of 134 cm. (53 ins.). The "survey" ordered by Julius Caesar is

referred to in the legend, evidently derived from the Cosmography of

Aethicus a work widely read at the time, but this does not prove that

the author was able to avail himself of a map based upon that survey. A

map essentially identical with that of Hereford, but larger--its

diameter is 15.6 cm. (6 in.), and consequently fuller of

information--was discovered in 1830 in the old monastery of Ebstorf in

Hanover. Its date is 1484. Both maps abound in miniature pictures of

towns, animals, fabulous beings and other subjects. The Hereford map is

surmounted by a picture of the Day of Judgment. Similar in design,

though much smaller of scale and oval in form, are the maps which

illustrate the popular _Polychronicon_ of Ranulf Higden, a monk of St

Werburgh's Abbey of Chester (d. 1363).

[Illustration: FIG. 11.--The Hereford Map (c. 1280).]

[Illustration: FIG. 12.--The Map of Beatus (776).]

Pomponius Mela tells us that beyond the Ethiopian Ocean which sweeps

round Africa in the south and the uninhabitable torrid zone, there lies

an _alter orbis_, or fourth part of the world inhabited by

_Antichthones_. On a diagram illustrating the origines of Isidore of

Seville (d. 636) this country is shown, but is described as a _terra

inhabitabilis_. It is shown likewise upon a number of maps which

illustrate the _Commentaries on the Apocalypse_, by Beatus, a

Benedictine monk of the abbey of Valcavado at the foot of the hills of

Liebana in Asturia (776).

Our little map (fig. 12) is taken from a copy of Beatus' work made in

1203, and preserved at Burgo de Osma in Castille. Similar maps

illustrating the _Commentaries_ exist at St Sever (1050), Paris (1203),

and Tunis; others are rectangular, the oldest being in Lord Ashburnham's

library (970). Beatus, too, describes the southern land as

_inhabitabilis_. The habitable world is divided among the twelve

apostles, whose portraits are given. On the maps illustrating the

encyclopaedic _Liber floridus_ by Lambert, a canon of St Omer (1120),

this south land "unknown to the sons of Adam," is stated to be inhabited

"according to the philosophers" by Antipodes. Lambert, indeed, seems to

have believed in the sphericity of the earth. Fig. 13 shows his map of

the world reduced from a MS. at Wolfenbüttel, to which is added a

diagram of the zones from a MS. at Ghent, which illustrates Macrobius'

commentary on Cicero's _Somnium Scipionis_. Diagrams illustrating the

division of the world into climata, are to be found in the _opus majus_

of Roger Bacon (d. 1294) and in Cardinal Pierre d'Ailly's _De imagine

Mundi_ (1410).

[Illustration: FIG. 13.]

Among countries represented on a larger scale on maps, Palestine not

unnaturally occupies a prominent place in this age of pilgrimages and

crusades (1095-1291). The maps which accompany St Jerome's translation

of the _Onomasticon_ of St Eusebius (388). The same subject is

illustrated by a picture-map in mosaic, portions of which were

discovered in 1896 on the floor of the church of Madaba to the east of

the Dead Sea. This is the oldest original of a map in existence, for it

dates back to the 6th century. Among more recent maps of Palestine, that

by Petrus Vesconte (1320) is greatly superior to the earlier maps. It

illustrates Marino Sanuto's _Secreta fidelium crucis_, in which its

author vainly appeals to Christendom to undertake another crusade. One

of the earliest plans of Jerusalem is contained in _Gesta Francorum_, a

history of the Crusades up to 1106, based upon information furnished by

Fulcherius of Chartres (c. 1109).

[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Matthew of Paris (1236-1259).]

There existed, no doubt, special maps of European countries, but the

only documents of that description are two maps of Great Britain, the

one of the 12th century, the other by Matthew of Paris, the famous

historiographer of the monastery of St Albans (1236-1259).[20]

Celestial globes were known in the time of Bede; they formed part of the

educational apparatus of the monastic schools. Gerbert of Aurillac is

known to have made such globes (929). Their manufacture is described by

Alphonso the Wise (1252), as also in _De sphaera solida_ of G. Campanus

of Novara (1303). Terrestrial globes, however, are not referred to.

_Map-making among the Arabians and other Nations of the East._--Bagdad

early became a famous seat of learning. Indian astronomers found apt

pupils there among the Arabs; the works of Ptolemy were translated into

Arabic, and in 827, in the reign of the caliph Abdullah al Mamun, an arc

of the meridian was measured in the plain of Mesopotamia. Most famous

among these Arabian astronomers were Al Batani (d. 998), Ibn Yunis of

Cairo (d. 1008), Zarkala (Azarchel), who determined the meridian

distance between his observatory in Toledo and Bagdad to amount to 51°

30´, an error of 3° only, as compared with Ptolemy's error of 18°, and

Abul Hassan (1230) who reduced the great axis of the Mediterranean to

44°.

[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Idrisi (1154).]

[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Idrisi (1154).]

Further materials serviceable to the compilers of maps were supplied by

numerous Arabian travellers and geographers, among whom Masudi

(915-940), Istakhri (950), Ibn Haukal (942-970), Al Biruni (d. 1038),

Ibn Batuta (1325-1356) and Abul Feda (1331-1370), occupy a foremost

place, yet the few maps which have reached us are crude in the extreme.

Masudi, who saw the maps in the Horismos or Rasm el Ard, a description

of the world by Abu Jafar Mahommed ben Musa of Khiva, the librarian of

the caliph el Mamun (833), declares them to be superior to the maps of

Ptolemy or Marinus, but maps of a later date by Istakhri (950) or Ibn al

Wardi (1349) are certainly of a most rudimentary type. Nor can Idrisi's

map of the world, which was engraved for King Roger of Sicily upon a

silver plate, or the rectangular map in 70 sheets which accompanies his

geography (Nushat-ul Mushtat) take rank with Ptolemy's work. These maps

are based upon information collected during many years at the instance

of King Roger. The seven climates adopted by Idrisi are erroneously

supposed to be equal in latitudinal extent. The Mediterranean occupies

nearly half the inhabited world in longitude, and the east coast of

Africa is shown as if it extended due east.

The Arabians are not known to have produced a terrestrial globe, but

several of their celestial globes are to be found in our collections.

The oldest of these globes was made at Valentia, and is now in the

museum of Florence. Another globe (of 1225) is at Velletri; a third by

Ibn Hula of Mosul (1275) is the property of the Royal Asiatic Society of

London; a fourth (1289) from the observatory of Maragha, in the Dresden

Museum, two globes of uncertain age at Paris (see fig. 17) and another

in London. All these globes are of metal (bronze), or they might not

have survived so many years.

The charts in use of the medieval navigators of the Indian Ocean--Arabs,

Persians or Dravidas--were equal in value if not superior to the charts

of the Mediterranean. Marco Polo mentions such charts; Vasco da Gama

(1498) found them in the hands of his Indian pilot, and their nature is

fully explained in the _Mohit_ or encyclopaedia of the sea compiled from

ancient sources by the Turkish admiral Sidi Ali Ben Hosein in 1554.[21]

These charts are covered with a close network of lines intersecting each

other at right angles. The horizontal lines are parallels, depending

upon the altitude of the pole star, the Calves of the Little Bear and

the Barrow of the Great Bear above the horizon. This altitude was

expressed in _isbas_ or inches each equivalent to 1° 42´ 50´´. Each

_isba_ was divided into _zams_ or eights. The interval between two

parallels thus only amounted to 12´ 51´´. These intervals were mistaken

by the Portuguese occasionally for degrees, which account for Malacca,

which is in lat. 2´ 13´´ N., being placed on Cantino's Chart (1502) in

lat. 14´ S. It may have been a map of this kind which accounts for

Ptolemy's moderate exaggerations of the size of Taprobana (Ceylon). A

first meridian, separating a leeward from a windward region, passed

through Ras Kumhari (Comorin) and was thus nearly identical with the

first meridian of the Indian astronomers which passed through the sacred

city of Ujjain (Ozere of Ptolemy) or the meridian of Azin of the Arabs.

Additional meridians were drawn at intervals of _zams_, supposed to be

equal to three hours' sail.

In China, maps in the olden time were engraved on bronze or stone, but

after the 10th century they were printed from wood-blocks. Among the

more important productions of more recent times, may be mentioned a map

of the empire, said to be based upon actual surveys by Yhang (721), who

also manufactured a celestial globe (an older globe by Ho-shing-tien, 4

metres in circumference, was produced in 450), and an atlas of the

empire on a large scale by Thu-sie-pun (1311-1312) of which new enlarged

editions with many maps were published in the 16th century and in 1799.

None of these maps was graduated, which is all the more surprising as

the Chinese astronomers are credited with having made use of the gnomon

as early as 1000 B.C. for determining latitudes.

[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Globe in Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris]

[Illustration: FIG. 18.--The Indian Ocean according to Mohit, as

interpreted by Dr Tomaschek.]

In the case of Japan, the earliest reference to a map is of 646, in

which year the emperor ordered surveys of certain provinces to be made.

_Portolano Maps._--During the long period of stagnation in cartography,

which we have already dealt with, there survived among the seamen of the

Mediterranean charts of remarkable accuracy, illustrating the

_Portolani_ or sailing directories in use among them. Charts of this

description are first mentioned in connexion with the Crusade of Louis

XI. in 1270, but they originated long before that time, and in the

eastern part of the Mediterranean they embody materials available even

in the days before Ptolemy, while the correct delineation of the west

seems to be of a later date, and may have been due to Catalan seamen.

These charts are based upon estimated bearings and distances between the

principal ports or capes, the intervening coast-line being filled in

from more detailed surveys. The bearings were dependent upon the

seaman's observation of the heavens, for these charts were in use long

before the compass had been introduced on board ship (as early as 1205,

according to Guiot de Provins) although it became fully serviceable only

after the needle had been attached to the compass card, an improvement

probably introduced by Flavio Gioja of Amalfi in the beginning of the

14th century. The compass may of course have been used for improving

these charts, but they originated without its aid, and it is therefore

misleading to describe them as _Compass or Loxodromic_ charts, and they

are now known as _Portolano_ charts.

[Illustration: FIG. 19.--The Eastern Mediterranean, by Petrus Vesconte

(1311).]

[Illustration: FIG. 20.--The Mediterranean.

a, According to A. Dulceti, 1339, and

b, On Mercator's projection, according to modern maps.]

None of these charts is graduated, and the horizontal and vertical lines

which cross many of them represent neither parallels nor meridians.

Their most characteristic feature, and one by which they can most

readily be recognized, is presented by groups or systems of rhumb-lines,

each group of these lines radiating from a common centre, the central

group being generally encircled by eight or sixteen satellite groups. In

the course of time the centres of radiation of all these groups had

imposed upon them ornate _rose dei venti_, or windroses, such as may

still be seen upon our compass-cards. Each chart was furnished with a

scale of miles. These miles, however, were not the ordinary Roman miles

of 1000 paces or 5000 ft., but smaller miles of Greek or Oriental

origin, of which six were equal to five Roman miles, and as the latter

were equal to 1480 metres, the Portolano miles had a length of only 1233

metres, and 75.2 of the former, and 90.3 of the latter were equal to a

degree. The difference between these miles was known, however, only to

the more learned among the map-makers, and when the charts were extended

to the Atlantic seaboard the two were assumed to be identical.

[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Map illustrating Marino Sanuto's _Liber

secretorum fidelium crucis_.]

On these old charts the Mediterranean is delineated with surprising

fidelity. The meridian distance between the Straits of Gibraltar and

Beirut in Syria amounts upon them to about 3000 Portolano miles, equal

in lat. 36° N. to 40.9°, as compared with an actual difference of 41.2°,

and a difference of 61° assumed by Ptolemy. There exists, however, a

serious error of orientation, due, according to Professor H. Wagner, to

the inexperience of the cartographers who first combined the charts of

the separate basins of the Mediterranean so as to produce a chart of the

whole. This accounts for Gibraltar and Alexandria being shown as lying

due east and west of each other, although there is a difference of 5° of

latitude between them, a fact known long before Ptolemy.

The production of these charts employed numerous licensed draughtsmen in

the principal seaports of Italy and Catalonia, and among seamen these

MS. charts remained popular long after the productions of the

printing-press had become available. The oldest of these maps which have

been preserved, the so-called "Pisan chart," which belongs probably to

the middle of the 13th century, and a set of eight charts, known by the

name of its former owner, the Cavaliere Tamar Luxoro, of somewhat later

date, are both the work of Genoese artists. Among more eminent Genoese

cartographers are Joannes da Carignano (d. 1344), Petrus Vesconte, who

worked in 1311 and 1327, and is the draughtsman of the maps illustrating

Marino Sanuto's _Liber secretorum fidelium crucis_, which was to have

roused Christendom to engage in another crusade (figs. 19 and 21)

Battista Beccario (1426, 1435) and Bartolomeo Pareto (1455). Venice

ranks next to Genoa as a centre of cartographic activity. Associated

with it are Francesco Pizigano (1367-1373), Francesco de Cesanis (1421),

Giacomo Giroldi (1422-1446), Andrea Bianco (1436-1448) Giovanni Leardo

(1442-1452), Alvise Cadamosto, who was associated with the Portuguese

explorers on the west coast of Africa (1454-1456) and whose _Portolano_

was printed at Venice in 1490, and Fra Mauro (1457).

Associated with Ancona are Grazioso Benincasa and his son Andreas, whose

numerous charts were produced between 1461 and 1508, and Count Ortomano

Freducci (1497-1538).

[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Fra Mauro (1457).]

The earliest among Majorcan and Catalonian cartographers is Angelino

Dulcert (1325-1339) whom A. Managhi claims as a Genoese, whose true name

according to him was Angelino Dalorto. Other Catalans are Jahuda

Cresques, a Jew of Barcelona, the supposed author of the famous Catalan

map of the world (1375), Guglielmo Solerio (1384), Mecia de Viladestes

(1413-1433) Gabriel de Valleseche (1439-1447) and Pietro Roselli, a

pupil of Beccario of Genoa (1462).

These maps were originally intended for the use of seamen navigating the

Mediterranean and the coasts of the Atlantic, but in the course of time

they were extended to the mainland and ultimately developed into maps of

the whole world as then known. Thus Pizigano's map of 1367 extends as

far east as the Gulf of Persia, whilst the Medicean map of 1356 (at

Florence) is remarkable on account of a fairly correct delineation of

the Caspian, the Shari river in Africa, and the correct direction given

to the west coast of India, which had already been pointed out in a

letter of the friar Giovanni da Montecorvino of 1252. Most of the

expansions of Portolano maps into maps of the world are circular in

shape, and resemble the wheel maps of an earlier period. This is the

character of the map of Petrus Vesconte of 1320 (fig. 21), of Giovanni

Leardo (1448) and of a Catalan map of 1450. Jerusalem occupies the

centre of these maps, Arab sources of information are largely drawn

upon, while Ptolemy is neglected and contemporary travellers are

ignored. Far superior to these maps is Fra Mauro's map (1457), for the

author has availed himself not only of the information collected by

Marco Polo and earlier travellers, but was able, by personal

intercourse, to gather additional information from Nicolo de' Conti, who

had returned from the east in 1440, and more especially from Abyssinians

who lived in Italy at that time. His delineation of Abyssinia, though

unduly spread over a wide area, is indeed wonderfully correct.

[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Catalan Map of the World (1375).]

[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Genoese Map (1457).]

Very different in character is the Catalan map of 1375, for its author,

discarding Ptolemy, shows India as a peninsula. On the other hand, an

anonymous Genoese would-be reformer of maps (1457; fig. 24), still

adheres to the erroneous Ptolemaic delineation of southern Asia, and the

same error is perpetuated by Henricus Marvellus Germanus on a rough map

showing the Portuguese discoveries up to 1489. None of these maps is

graduated, but if we give the Mediterranean a length of 3000 Portolano

miles, equivalent in 36° N. to 41°, then the longitudinal extent of the

old world as measured on the Genoese map of 1457 would be 136° instead

of 177° or more as given by Ptolemy.

[Illustration: FIG. 25.--_Claudius Clavus Swartha_ (1427).]

_The Revival of Ptolemy._--Ptolemy's great work became known in western

Europe after Jacobus Angelus de Scarparia had translated it into Latin

in 1410. This version was first printed in 1475 at Vicenza, but its

contents had become known through MS. copies before this, and their

study influenced the construction of maps in two respects. They led

firstly to the addition of degree lines to maps, and secondly to the

compilation of new maps of those countries which had been inadequately

represented by Ptolemy. Thus Claudius Clavus Swartha (Niger), who was at

Rome in 1424, compiled a map of the world, extending westward as far as

Greenland. The learned Cardinal Nicolaus Krebs, of Cusa (Cues) on the

Moselle, who died 1464, drew a map of Germany which was first published

in 1491; D. Nicolaus Germanus, a monk of Reichenbach, in 1466 prepared a

set of Ptolemy's maps on a new projection with converging meridians; and

Paolo del Pozzo Toscanelli in 1474 compiled a new chart on a rectangular

projection, which was to guide the explorer across the western ocean to

Cathay and India.

Of the seven editions of Ptolemy which were published up to the close of

the 15th century, all except that of Vicenza (1475) contained Ptolemy's

27 maps, while Francesco Berlinghieri's version (Florence 1478), and two

editions published at Ulm (1482 and 1486), contained four or five modern

maps in addition, those of Ulm being by Nicolaus Germanus.

The geographical ideas which prevailed at the time Columbus started in

search of Cathay may be most readily gathered from two contemporary

globes, the one known as the Laon globe because it was picked up in 1860

at a curiosity shop in that town, the other produced at Nuremberg in

1492 by Martin Behaim.[22] The Laon globe is of copper gilt, and has a

diameter of 170 mm. The information which it furnishes, in spite of a

legend intended to lead us to believe that it presents us with the

results of Portuguese explorations up to the year 1493, is of more

ancient date. The Nuremberg globe is a work of a more ambitious order.

It was undertaken at the suggestion of George Holzschuher, a travelled

member of the town council. The work was entrusted to Martin Behaim, who

had resided for six years in Portugal and the Azores, and was believed

to be a thoroughly qualified cosmographer. The globe is of pasteboard

covered with whiting and parchment, and has a diameter of 507 mm. The

author followed Ptolemy not only in Asia, but also in the Mediterranean.

He did not avail himself of the materials available in his day. Not even

the coasts of western Africa are laid down correctly, although the

author claimed to have taken part in one of the Portuguese expeditions.

The ocean separating Europe from Asia is assumed as being only 126°

wide, in accordance with Toscanelli's ideas of 1474. Very inadequate use

has been made of the travels of Marco Polo, Nicolo de' Conti, and of

others in the east.[23] On the other hand, the globe is made gay with

flags and other decorations, the work of George Glockendon, a well-known

illuminator of the time.

[Illustration: FIG. 26.]

The maritime discoveries and surveys of that age of great discoveries

were laid down upon so-called "plane-charts," that is, charts having

merely equidistant parallels indicated upon them, together with the

equator, the tropics and polar circles, or, in a more advanced stage,

meridians also. The astrolabe quadrant or cross-staff enabled the

mariner to determine his latitude with a certain amount of accuracy, but

for his longitude he was dependent upon dead reckoning, for although

various methods for determining a longitude were known, the available

astronomical ephemerides were not trustworthy, and errors of 30° in

longitude were by no means rare. It was only after the publication of

Kepler's _Rudolphine Table_ (1626) that more exact results could be

obtained. A further difficulty arose in connexion with the variation of

the compass, which induced Pedro Reinel to introduce two scales of

latitude on his map of the northern Atlantic (1504; fig. 27).

[Illustration: FIG. 27.]

The chart of the world by Juan de la Cosa, the companion of Columbus, is

the earliest extant which depicts the discoveries in the new world

(1500), Nicolaus de Canerio, a Genoese, and the map which Alberto

Cantino caused to be drawn at Lisbon for Hercules d'Este of Ferrara

(1502), illustrating in addition the recent discoveries of the

Portuguese in the East. Other cosmographers of distinction were Pedro

Reinel (1504-1542), Nuno Garcia de Toreno (1520), to whom we are

indebted for 21 charts, illustrating Magellan's voyage, Diogo Ribero

(maps of the world 1527, 1529),[24] Alonzo de Santa Cruz, of Seville,

whose _Isolario general_ includes charts of all parts of the world

(1541), John Rotz or Rut (1542), Sebastian Cabot (1544), as also Nicolas

Desliens, Pierre Desceliers, G. Breton and V. Vallard, all of Arques,

near Dieppe, whose charts were compiled between 1541 and 1554.

Of the many general maps of the world or of particular countries, a

large number illustrate such works as G. Reisch's _Margarita

philosophica_ (1163), the cosmographies of Peter Apianus or Bienewitz

(1520, 1522, 1530), Seb. Münster (1544), J. Honter (1546) and Gulielmus

Postel (1561) or the _Geographia_ of Livio Sanuto (1588); others, and

these the more numerous and important, supplement the original maps of

several editions of Ptolemy. Thus the Roman edition of 1507, edited by

Marcus Benaventura and Joa Cota, contains 6 modern maps, and to these

was added in 1508 Joh. Ruysch's famous map of the world on a modified

conical projection. The next edition published at Venice in 1511

contained a heart-shaped world by Bernhard Sylvanus. The Strassburg

Ptolemy of 1513 has a supplement of as many as 20 modern maps by Martin

Waldseemüller or Ilacomilus, several among which are copied from

Portuguese originals. Waldseemüller was one of the most distinguished

cartographers of his day. He was born at Radolfzell in Baden in 1470,

was associated with Ringmann at the gymnasium of St Dié, and died in

1521. He published in 1507 a huge map of the world, in 12 sheets,

together with a small globe of a diameter of 110 mm., the segments for

which were printed from wood-blocks. On these documents the new world is

called America, after Amerigo Vespucci, its supposed discoverer. In 1511

Waldseemüller published a large map of Europe, in 1513 he prepared his

maps for the Strassburg edition of Ptolemy, and in 1516 he engraved a

copy of Canerio's map of the world. The Strassburg Ptolemy of 1522

contains Waldseemüller's maps,[25] edited on a reduced scale by

Laurentius Frisius, together with three additional ones. The same set of

maps is reprinted in the Strassburg edition of 1524, newly translated by

W. Pirckheimer with notes by Joh. Müller Regiomontanus, and in the Lyon

edition of 1535, edited by Michael Servetus. The new maps of the Basel

edition of 1540, twenty-one in number, are by Sebastian Münster; Jacob

Gastaldo supplied the Venice edition of 1548 with 34 modern maps, and

these with a few additions are repeated in Girolamo Ruscelli's Italian

translation of Ptolemy published at Venice in 1561.

Equally interesting with these Ptolemaic supplements are collections

like that of Anton Lafreri, which contains reprints of 142 maps of all

parts of the world originally published between 1556 and 1572

(_Geografica tavole moderne_, Rome, n.d.), or that of J. F. Camocio,

published at Venice in 1576, which contains 88 reprints.

The number of cartographers throughout Europe was considerable, and we

confine ourselves to mentioning a few leading men. Among them Germany is

then represented by G. Glockedon, the author of an interesting road-map

of central Europe (1501), Sebastian Münster (1489-1552), Elias

Camerarius, whose map of the mark of Brandenburg won the praise of

Mercator; Wolfgang Latz von Lazius, to whom we are indebted for maps of

Austria and Hungary (1561), and Philip Apianus, who made a survey of

Bavaria (1553-1563), which was published 1568 on the reduced scale of

1:144,000, and is fairly described as the topographical masterpiece of

the 16th century. For maps of Switzerland we are indebted to Konrad

Türst (1495-1497), Johann Stumpf (1548) and Aegidius Tschudi (1538). A

map of the Netherlands from actual survey was produced by Jacob of

Deventer (1536-1539). Leonardo da Vinci, the famous artist, while in the

service of Cesare Borgia as military engineer, made surveys of several

districts in central Italy. Other Italian cartographers of merit were

Giovanni Battiste Agnese of Venice, whose atlases (1517-1564) enjoyed a

wide popularity; Benedetto Bordone (1528); Giacomo Gastaldo,

cosmographer of the Venetian Republic (1534-1568), and his successor,

Paolo Forlani. New maps of Spain and Portugal appeared in 1560, the

former being due to Pedro de Medina, the latter to Fernando Alvarez

Secco and Hernando Alvaro. Among the French map-makers of this period

may be mentioned Oronce Finée (Finaeus), who in 1525 published a map of

France, and Jean Jolivet (c. 1560). Gregorio Lilly (1546) and Humphrey

Lhuyd of Denbigh (d. 1510) furnished maps of the British Isles, Olaus

Magnus (1539) of Scandinavia, Anton Wied (1542), Sigismund von

Herberstein (1549) and Anthony Jenkinson (1562) of Muscovy.

The cylindrical and modified conical projections of Marinus and Ptolemy

were still widely used, the stereographical projection of Hipparchus,

was for the first time employed for terrestrial maps in the 16th

century, but new projections were introduced in addition to these. The

earliest of these, a trapeziform projection with equidistant parallels,

by D. Nicolaus Germanus (1466), naturally led to what is generally known

as Flamsteed's projection. Joh. Stabius (1502) and his pupil J. Werner

(1514) devised three heart-shaped projections, one of which was

equivalent. Petrus Apianus (1524) gave his map an elliptical shape. H.

Glareanus (1510) was the first to employ an equidistant zenithal polar

projection.

No reasonable fault can be found with the marine surveyors of this

period, but the scientific cartographers allowed themselves too

frequently to be influenced by Ptolemaic traditions. Thus Gastaldo

(1548) presents us with a map of Italy, which, except as to

nomenclature, differs but little from that of Ptolemy, although on the

Portolano charts the peninsula had long since assumed its correct shape.

Many of the local maps, too, were excellent specimens of cartography,

but when we follow any cartographer of the period into regions the

successful delineation of which depended upon an intelligent

interpretation of itineraries, and of information collected by recent

travellers, they are generally found to fail utterly. This is

illustrated by the four sketch maps shown in fig. 28.

[Illustration: FIG. 28.]

Columbus, trusting to Toscanelli's misleading chart, looked upon the

countries discovered by him as belonging to eastern Asia, a view still

shared about 1507 by his brother Bartolomeo. Waldseemüller (1507) was

the first to separate America and Asia by an ocean of considerable

width, but J. Ruysch (1508) returns to the old idea, and even joins

Greenland (Gruenlant) to eastern Asia. Bologninus Zalterius on a map of

1566, and Mercator on his famous chart of 1569, separates the two

continents by a narrow strait which they call Streto de Anian, thus

anticipating the discovery of Bering Strait by more than a hundred and

fifty years. Anian, however, which they place upon the American coast,

is no other than Marco Polo's Anica or Anin, our modern Annam. Such an

error could never have arisen had the old compilers of maps taken the

trouble to plan Marco Polo's routes.

_Globes_, both celestial and terrestrial, became popular after the

discovery of America. They were included among the scientific apparatus

of ships and of educational establishments. Columbus and Magellan had

such globes, those of the latter produced by P. Reinel (1519), and

Conrad Celtes tells us that he illustrated his lectures at the

university of Vienna with the help of globes (1501). Globes were still

engraved on copper, or painted by hand, but since 1507, in which year

Waldseemüller published a small globe of a diameter of 110 mm., covered

with printed segments or gores, this cheap and expeditious method has

come into general use. Waldseemüller constructed his gores graphically,

A. Dürer (1525) and Hen. Loriti Glareanus (1527) were the first who

dealt scientifically with the principles underlying their construction.

Globes covered with printed gores were produced by L. Boulenger (1514),

Joh. Schöner (1515), P. Apianus, Gemma Frisius (1530) and G. Mercator

(1541). Leonardo da Vinci's rough map of the world in 8 segments (c.

1513) seems likewise to have been intended for a globe. Of J. Schöner we

know that he produced four globes, three printed from segments (1515,

1523, 1533), and one of larger size (diam. 822 mm.), which is drawn by

hand, and is preserved in the Germanic Museum at Nuremberg. Among

engraved globes, one of the most interesting is that which was

discovered by R. M. Hunt in Paris, and is preserved in the Lenox

Library, New York. Its diameter is only 4½ in. (127 mm.). The so-called

"Nancy globe" is of chased silver, richly ornamented, and formerly

served the purpose of a pyx. Its diameter is 160 mm., its date about

1530. About the same date is assigned to a globe by Robert de Bailly,

engraved on copper and gilt (diam. 440 mm.). Celestial globes were

manufactured by Regiomontanus (d. 1476) at Nuremberg, by Joh. Stöffler

(1499), and by G. Hartmann (1535).

[Illustration: FIG. 29.]

[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Lenox Globes (1510).]

_Mercator and his Successors._--Of Gerhard Kremer (1512-1594) the

earliest works are a map of Palestine (1537), a map of the world on a

double heart-shaped projection (1525), and a topographical map of

Flanders based upon his own surveys (1540), a pair of globes (1541,

diam. 120 mm.), and a large map of Europe which has been praised

deservedly for its accuracy (1554). He is best known by his marine chart

(1569) and his atlas. The projection of the former may have been

suggested by a note by W. Pirkheimer in his edition of Ptolemy (1525).

Mercator constructed it graphically, the mathematical principles

underlying it being first explained by E. Wright (1594). The "Atlas" was

only published after Mercator's death, in 1595. It only contained nine

maps, but after the plates had been sold to Jodocus (Jesse) Hondius the

number of maps was rapidly increased, although Mercator's name was

retained. Mercator's maps are carefully engraved on copper. Latin

letters are used throughout; the miniatures of older maps are superseded

by symbols, and in the better-known countries the maps are fairly

correct, but they fail lamentably when we follow their author into

regions--the successful delineation of which depends upon a critical

combination of imperfect information.

Even before Mercator's death, Antwerp and Amsterdam had become great

centres of cartographic activity, and they maintained their pre-eminence

until the beginning of the 18th century. Abraham Ortelius (1527-1592),

of Antwerp, a man of culture and enterprise, but not a scientific

cartographer, published the first edition of his _Theatrum orbis

terrarum_ in 1570. It then contained 53 maps, by various authors. By

1595 the number of maps had increased to 119, including a _Parergon_ or

supplement of 12 maps illustrating ancient history. In 1578 was

published the _Speculum orbis terrarum_ of Gerard de Jude or de Judaeis.

Lucas Janszon Waghenaer (Aurigarius) of Enkhuizen published the first

edition of his _Spiegel der Zeevaart_ (Mariners' Mirror) at Leiden in

1585. It was the first collection of marine maps, lived through many

editions, was issued in several languages and became known as

_Charettier_ and _Waggoner_. In the same year Adrian Gerritsz published

a valuable _Paskaarte_ of the European Sea. Ten years afterwards, in

1595, W. Barentszoon published a marine atlas of the Mediterranean, the

major axis of which he reduced to 42 degrees. Jodocus Hondius has

already been referred to as the purchaser of Mercator's plates. The

business founded by him about 1602 was continued by his sons and his

son-in-law, Jan Janszon (Jansonius) and others. By 1653 this firm had

already produced atlases including 451 charts. Willem Janszon, the

father of Hondius's partner, published a collection of charts (1608), to

which he gave the title of _Het Licht der Zeevaart_ (the seaman's

light). Another cartographic publishing firm was established at

Amsterdam in 1612 by Willem Janszon Blaeu (1571-1638), a friend of Tycho

Brahe, from 1633 "mapmaker" of the states-general, and a man of

scientific culture. He was succeeded by his son Jan (d. 1673) and

grandson Cornelius, and before the end of the century turned out a

_Zee-Spiegel_ of 108 charts (1623), an _Atlas novus_ (_Nieuwe Atlas_),

1642, enlarged in the course of time until it consisted of 12 folio

volumes containing hundreds of maps. J. A. Colom in 1633 published a

collection of maps under the quaint title of _Vurig Colom der Zeevaert_

(Fiery Column of Navigation). Among more recent Dutch map publishers are

Nicolaus Vischer (Piscator), R. Goos, H. Doncker, F. de Wit, and J. and

G. van Keulen, whose atlases were published between 1681 and 1722. These

Dutch maps and charts are generally accompanied by descriptive notes or

sailing directions printed on the back of them. A similar work is the

_Arcano del mare_ of Sir Robert Dudley, duke of Northumberland, the

numerous sheets of which are on Mercator's projection (1631).

[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Mercator's Chart of the World (1569).]

In France, in the meantime, an arc of the meridian had been measured

(1669-1670) by Jean Picard, numerous longitudes had been observed

between 1672 and 1680 by the same, and by Phil. de Lahire (d. 1719), and

these were utilized in a _Carte de France_ "as corrected from the

observations of the members of the Academy of Sciences" (1666-1699), in

a map of the world (1694) by D. Cassini, as also in _Le Neptune

François_ (1693) with contributions by Pene, D. Cassini and others.

These corrected longitudes were not yet available for the maps produced

by Nicolas Sanson of Abbeville, since 1627. The cartographical

establishment founded by him in that year was carried on after his death

in 1667 by his sons, his son-in-law, P. Duval (d. 1683) and his grandson

Robert du Vaugondy (d. 1766). Among the cartographers whom he employed

were M. Tavernier and Mariette, and in many instances he mentioned the

authors whose maps he copied. By 1710 the maps published by the firm

numbered 466. Nicolas de Fer, the great rival of Sanson, and his heirs,

are stated to have published as many as 600 maps after 1700.

In no other country of Europe was there at the close of the 16th century

a geographical establishment capable of competing with the Dutch towns

or with Sanson, but the number of those who produced maps, in many

instances based upon original surveys, was large. Germany is thus

represented, among others, by C. Henneberger (map of Prussia, 1576), by

M. Oeder, (survey of Saxony, 1586-1607), A. Rauh (fine hill features on

a map of the environs of Wangen and Lindau, 1617), W. Schickhardt

(survey of Württemberg, 1624-1635), and G. M. Vischer (map of Austria

and Styrai, 1669-1786); Switzerland by H. C. Gyger (Canton of Zürich, a

masterpiece, 1667); Italy by G. A. Magini (1558-1610), and V. Coronelli,

appointed cosmographer of the Venetian Republic, 1685, and founder of

the Ac. Cosmogr. dei Argonauti, the earliest geographical society, and

Diogo Homem, a Portuguese settled at Venice (1558-1574); Denmark by J.

Mejer of Husum (1650); Sweden by A. Buraeus, the "father of Swedish

cartographers" (1650-1660); the British Islands by Ch. Saxton (County

Atlas of England and Wales 1575), J. Speed (_Theatrum_ of Great Britain,

1610), Timothy Pont and Robert Gordon of Strathloch (map of Scotland,

1608), and A. Moll. A _Novus atlas sinensis_, based upon Chinese

surveys, was published in 1655 by Martin Martini, S.J., a missionary

recently returned from China. Isaac Voss, in his work _De Nili_ (1659),

published a map of central Africa, in which he anticipated D'Anville by

rejecting all the fanciful details which found a place upon Filippo

Pigafetta's map of that continent.

The first maps illustrating the variation of the compass were published

by Chris. Burrus (d. 1632) and Athanasius Kircher (_Magnes_, Rome,

1643), and maps of the ocean and tidal currents by the latter in his

_Mundus subterraneus_ (1665). Edmund Halley, the astronomer, compiled

the first variation chart of scientific value (1683), as also a chart of

the winds (1686).

Globes manufactured for commercial purposes by Blaeu and others have

already been mentioned, but several large globes, for show rather than

for use, were produced in addition to these. Thus A. Busch, of Limburg

(1656-1664), manufactured a globe for Duke Frederick of Holstein,

formerly at Gottorp, but since 1713 at Tsarskoye Zelo. It has a diameter

of 11 ft. (3.57 metres) and is hollow, the inner surface of the shell

being covered with a star map, and the outer surface with a map of the

world. Professor Erh. Weigel (1696) produced a hollow celestial globe in

copper, having a small terrestrial globe in its centre. Its diameter is

3.25 metres. Lastly there is a pair of giant globes of artistic design,

turned out by V. Coronelli (1623), and intended as presents to Louis

XIV. Their diameter is nearly 5 metres. A pair of globes of 1592 by

Emeric Molineux (diam. 610 mm.) is now in the Temple Library, and is

referred to in Blundeville's _Exercises_ (1594).

_The Eighteenth Century._--It was no mere accident which enabled France

to enjoy a pre-eminence in cartographic work during the greater part of

the 18th century. Not only had French men of science and scientific

travellers done excellent work as explorers in different parts of the

world, but France could also boast of two men, Guillaume Delisle and J.

B. Bourguignon d'Anville, able to utilize in the compilation of their

maps the information they acquired.

[Illustration: FIG. 32.]

Delisle (1675-1726) published 98 maps, and although as works of art they

were inferior to the maps of certain contemporaries, they were far

superior to them in scientific value. On one of his earliest maps

compiled under advice of his father Claude (1700), he gave the

Mediterranean its true longitudinal extension of 41°. It was Delisle who

assumed the meridian of Ferro, which had been imposed upon French

navigators by royal order (1634), to lie exactly 20° to the west of

Paris. The work of reform was carried further by B. D'Anville

(1697-1782). Altogether he published 211 maps, of which 66 are included

in his _Atlas général_ (1737-1780); he swept away the fanciful lakes

from off the face of Africa, thus forcibly bringing home to us the

poverty of our knowledge (fig. 32), delineated the Chinese Empire in

accordance with the map based on the surveys conducted during the reign

of the emperor Kanghi, with the aid of Jesuit missionaries, and

published in 1718; boldly refused to believe in the existence of an

Antarctic continent covering half the southern hemisphere, and always

brought a sound judgment to bear upon the materials which the

ever-increasing number of travellers placed at his disposal. Among other

French works of importance deserving notice are _Le Neptune oriental_ of

Mannevillette (1745) and more especially the _Carte géometrique de la

France_, which is based upon surveys carried on (1744-1783) by César

François Cassini de Thury and his son Dominique de Cassini. It is on a

transversal cylindrical (rectangular) projection devised by Jacques

Cassini (d. 1746). The hills are shown in rough hachures.

England, which had entered upon a career of naval conquest and

scientific exploration, had reason to be proud of J. F. W. Desbarres,

_Atlantic Neptune_ (1774), a North-American Pilot (1779), which first

made known the naval surveys of J. Cook and of others; and Tho.

Jefferys's _West Indian_ and _American Atlases_ (1775, 1778). James

Rennell (1742-1830), who was surveyor-general of India, published the

_Bengal Atlas_ (1781), and sagaciously arranged the vast mass of

information collected by British travellers and others in India and

Africa, but it is chiefly with the name of Aaron Arrowsmith, who came to

London in 1778, and his successors, with which the glory of the older

school of cartographers is most intimately connected. His nephew John

died in 1873. Among local cartographers may be mentioned H. Moll (d.

1732), J. Senex, whose atlas was published in 1725, and Dowet, whose

atlas was brought out at the expense of the duke of Argyll.

In Germany J. B. Homann (d. 1724) founded a geographical establishment

in 1702, which depended at first upon copies of British and French maps,

but in course of time published also original maps such as J. M. Hase's

_Africa_ (1727) and Tobias Meyer's _Mappa critica_ of Germany (1780), J.

T. Güssfeld's map of Brandenburg (1773), John Majer's Württemburg

(1710), and J. C. Müller's Bavaria, both based on trigonometrical

surveys. Colonel Schmettau's excellent survey of the country to the west

of the Weser (1767-1787) was never published, as Frederick the Great

feared it might prove of use to his military enemies. Switzerland is

represented by J. J. Scheuchzer (1712), J. Gessner (d. 1790), G. Walser

(_Atlas novus Helvetiae_, 1769), and W. R. Meyer, _Atlas der Schweiz_

(1786-1802). Of the Austrian Netherlands, Count Joseph de Ferrari

published a chorographic map on the same scale as Cassini's _Carte de la

France_ (1777). Of Denmark a fine map was published under the auspices

of the Academy of Science of Copenhagen (1766-1825); of Spain and

Portugal an atlas in 102 sheets by Thomas Lopez (1765-1802); of Russia a

map by J. N. Delisle in 19 sheets (1730-1745); charts illustrating the

variation of the compass and of magnetic "dip" by E. Dunn (1776), J. C.

Wiffe (1768); a chart of the world by W. Dampier (1789). Map projections

were dealt with by two eminent mathematicians, J. H. Lambert (1772) and

Leonh. Euler (1777).

On the maps of Delisle and d'Anville the ground is still represented by

"molehills." Hachures of a rude nature first made their appearance on

David Vivier's map of the environs of Paris (1674), and on Cassini's

_Carte de la France_. Contour lines (isobaths) were introduced for the

first time on a chart of the Merwede by M. S. Cruquius (1728), and on a

chart of the English Channel by Phil. Buache (1737). Dupain-Triel,

acting on a suggestion of Du Carla, compiled a contoured map of France

(1791), and it only needed the introduction of graduated tints between

these contours to secure a graphic picture of the features of the

ground. It was J. G. Lehmann (1783) who based his method of hill-shading

or hachuring upon these horizontal contours. More than 80 methods of

showing the hills have found advocates since that time, but all methods

must be based upon contours to be scientifically satisfactory.

Two relief maps of Central Switzerland deserve to be mentioned, the one

by R. L. Pfyffer in wax, now in Lucerne, the other by J. R. Meyer of

Aarau and Müller of Engelberg in papier mâché, now in Zurich. Globes of

the usual commercial type were manufactured in France by Delisle (1700),

Forbin (1710-1731), R. and J. de Vaugondy (1752), Lalande (1771); in

England by E. and G. Adams (1710-1766); Germany by Homann and Seutter

(1750). A hollow celestial globe 18 ft. in diameter was set up by Dr

Roger Long at Cambridge; the terrestrial globe which Count Ch. Gravie of

Vergennes presented to Louis XVI. in 1787 had a diameter of 26 metres,

or 85 ft.

_Modern Cartography._--The compiler of maps of the present day enjoys

many advantages not enjoyed by men similarly occupied a hundred years

ago. Topographical surveys are gradually extending, and explorers of

recent years are better trained for their work than they were a

generation ago, whilst technical processes of recent invention--such as

lithography, photography and heliogravure--facilitate or expedite the

completion of his task. This task, however, has grown more difficult and

exacting. Mere outline maps, such as formerly satisfied the public,

suffice no longer. He is called upon more especially to give a

satisfactory delineation of the ground, he must meet the requirements of

various classes of the public, and be prepared to record

cartographically all the facts of physical or political geography which

are capable of being recorded on his maps. The ingenuity of the compiler

is frequently taxed when called upon to illustrate graphically the

results of statistical information of every description.

Germany since the middle of the 19th century has become the headquarters

of scientific cartography. This is due as much to the inspiriting

teachings of Ritter and Humboldt as to the general culture and

scientific training combined with technical skill commanded by the men

who more especially devote themselves to this branch of geography, which

elsewhere is too frequently allowed to fall into the hands of mere

mechanics. Men like H. Berghaus (1797-1884), H. Kiepert (1818-1899), and

A. Petermann (1822-1878) must always occupy a foremost place in the

history of cartography. Among the geographical establishments of

Germany, that founded by Justus Perthes (1785), at Gotha, occupies the

highest rank. Among its publications are A. Stieler's _Hand-Atlas_

(1817-1832), K. von Spruner's _Historical Atlas_ (1438-1488), H.

Berghaus' _Physical Atlas_ (1838-1842), E. von Sydow's _Wall Maps for

Schools_ (1838-1840) and _School Atlas_ (1847). The titles of these

atlases survive, though the authors of the original editions are long

dead, and the maps have been repeatedly superseded by others bringing

the information up to the date of publication. To the same firm we are

indebted for Petermann's _Mitteilungen_, started in 1855 by A.

Petermann, after whose death in 1902 they were successively edited by E.

Behm, A. Supan and P. Langhans, as also the _Geographisches Jahrbuch_

(since 1866), at first edited by E. Behm, afterwards by Professor H.

Wagner. Among other geographical institutes in Germany which deserve

mention are the Weimar Institut, founded in 1791 by F. J. Bertuch, and

directed in 1845-1852 by H. Kiepert; Paul Fleming at Glogau (K. Sohr's

Handatlas, 1845), A. Ravenstein at Frankfort, D. Reimer at Berlin (H.

Kiepert, _Handatlas_, 1860); R. Andree (_Hand-Atlas_, 1880), and E.

Debes (_Hand-Atlas_, 1894) in Leipzig, and E. Hölzer in Vienna (Vincenz

von Haardt's maps). France is represented by the publishing firms of Ch.

Delagrave (Levaseur's maps), Hachette (Vivien de St Martin's _Atlas

universel_, in progress since 1875, F. Schrader's _Atlas de géographie

moderne_, 1880), and Armand Colin (Vidal de la Blache's _Atlas général_,

1894). In Great Britain A. Arrowsmith established himself in London in

1770 (_General Atlas_, 1817), but the cartographical business ceased on

the death of John Arrowsmith in 1873. John Walker, to whose initiative

the charts published by the admiralty are indebted for the perspicuous,

firm and yet artistic execution, which facilitate their use by the

mariner, was also the author of the maps published by the Society for

the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (1820-1840). Among more recent firms

are W. and A. K. Johnston (founded 1825; _Royal Atlas_, 1855); J.

Bartholomew & Co., now carried on by J. G. Bartholomew (Reduced Survey

maps, _Atlas of the World's Commerce_, 1906); Philip & Sons (_Imperial

Atlas_, 1890; _Systematic Atlas_ by E. G. Ravenstein, 1894; _Mercantile

Marine Atlas_, 1904, globes), and E. Stanford (_London Atlas_).

In 1890 Professor A. Penck proposed to prepare a map of the world,

including the oceans, on a scale of 1:1,000,000, and his scheme was

promised the support of a committee which met in London in 1909, and

upon which were represented the leading powers of the world. Maps on

that scale of a great part of Africa, Asia and America have been

published by British, French, German and United States authorities. A

bathymetrical chart of the oceans, by Professor J. Thoulet was published

in 1904 at the expense of Prince Albert of Monaco.

Reliefs from printed maps were first produced by Bauerkeller of

Darmstadt and Dondorf at Frankfort, from originals furnished by A.

Ravenstein (1838-1844). The exaggeration in altitude, on these maps and

on those of a later date and on a larger scale, was very considerable.

No such exaggeration exists in the case of reliefs of parts of the Alps,

on a large scale, by P. Keil and Pelikan (1890), X. Imfeld (1891), P.

Oberlerchner (1891-1895), C. Perron (1893-1900), F. Becker (1900), A.

Heim (1904) and others. A relief globe was first suggested in a letter

of M. Maestlin to J. Kepler (1596). The first globe of this description

for the use of the blind, was made by A. Zeune in 1810. H. Erben is the

author of a rough relief on a convex surface (1842), but the finest

example of this description is a relief of Italy, by César Pomba and H.

Fritsche, on a scale of 1:1,000,000 and without exaggeration of heights

(1880-1884). A map of Italy in the baptistery of St Peter at Rome has

occasionally been described as a relief, though it is merely a rude

outline map of Italy, by Carlo Fontana (1698), carved into a convex

surface.

Several globes of unusual dimensions were produced in the course of last

century. That which Colonel Langlois erected in the Champs Elysées

(1824) had a diameter of 39 metres. James Wyld's hollow globe, or

"Georama," diam. 18 metres, occupied Leicester Square until swept away

as a nuisance. The giant globe proposed by Elisée Reclus in 1895 has

never been erected; he has, however, produced maps on a concave surface,

as suggested by J. D. Hauber in 1742.

AUTHORITIES.--The history of maps is dealt with ably in Vivien de

Saint Martin's _Histoire de la géographie_ (Paris, 1875), and in

Peschel's _Geschichte der Erdkunde_ (2nd ed. by Sophus Ruge, Berlin,

1877), as also by W. Wollkenhauer (_Leitfaden zur Geschichte der

Kartographie_, Breslau, 1895), and H. Zondervan (_Allgemeine

Kartenkunde_, Leipzig, 1901). J. Lelewel's _Geographie du moyen âge_,

with an atlas (Brussels, 1850-1857), has in part been superseded by

more recent researches. There are, however, a number of works,

beautifully illustrated, which deal fully with particular periods of

the subject. Among these may be mentioned Konrad Miller's _Die

ältesten Weltkarten_ (Stuttgart, 1895-1897), which only deals with

maps not influenced by the ideas of Ptolemy. The contents of the

following collections are more varied in their nature, viz. E. F.

Jomard's _Monuments de la géographie_ (Paris, 1862), Santarem's _Atlas

composé de mappemondes et de portulans_, &c. (Paris, 1842-1853, 78

plates). A. E. Nordenskiöld's _Facsimile Atlas_ (Stockholm, 1889),

Gabriel Marcell, _Choix de cartes et de mappemondes XIV^e et XV^e

siècles_ (Paris, 1896). C. H. Coote's _Remarkable Maps of the XVth,

XVIth and XVIIth Centuries reproduced in their Original Size_

(Amsterdam, 1894-1897), and _Bibliotheca lindesiana_ (London, 1898)

with facsimiles of the Harleian and other Dieppese maps of the 16th

century. Nautical charts are dealt with in A. E. Nordenskiöld's

_Periplus_ (Stockholm, 1869), and Th. Fischer's _Sammlung

mittelälterlicher Welt- und Seekarten_ (Vienna, 1886). The discovery

and mapping of America are illustrated by F. Kunstmann's _Entdeckung

Amerikas_ (Munich, 1859), K. Kretschmer's _Atlas zur Entdeckung

Amerikas_ (Berlin, 1892), G. Marcel's _Reproductions de cartes et de

globes relatives à la découverte de l'Amérique du XVI^e au XVIII^e

siècle_ (Paris, 1893) and E. L. Stevenson's _Maps Illustrating the

early Discovery and Exploration of America, 1502-1530_ (New Brunswick,

N.J., 1906). In addition to these collections, numerous single maps

have been published in geographical periodicals or separately. See

also V. Hantzsch and L. Schmidt, _Kartog. Denkmäler zur

Entdeckungsgeschichte von Amerika, Asien, Australien und Afrika aus

der k. Bibliothek zu Dresden_ (Leipzig, 1903), and the Crown

Collection of photographs of American maps (1600-1800), selected and

edited by A. B. Hulbert (Cleveland, 1904-1909).

For reports on the progress of cartography, see _Geographisches

Jahrbuch_ (Gotha, since 1866); for announcements of new publications,

_Bibliotheca geographica_, published annually by the Berlin

Geographical Society, and to the _geographical Journal_ (London).

_Topographical Surveys._

United Kingdom.

The year 1784 marks the beginning of the ordnance survey, for in that

year Major-General Roy measured a base line of 27,404 ft. on Hounslow

Heath. Six additional base lines were measured up to 1849, including the

Lough Foyle, in 1827-1828, and that on Salisbury Plain, in 1849. The

primary triangulation was only completed in 1858, but in the meantime,

in 1791, the detail survey had begun. At first it was merely intended to

produce a map sufficiently accurate on a scale of 1 in. to a mile

(1:63,360). Ireland having been surveyed (1824-1842) on a scale of 6 in.

to a mile (1:10,560), it was determined in 1840, after the whole of

England and Wales, with the exception of Lancashire and Yorkshire, had

been completed on one-inch scales, to adopt that scale for the whole of

the United Kingdom. Finally, in 1854, a cadastral survey of the whole of

the United Kingdom, only excepting uncultivated districts, was resolved

upon, on a scale of 1:2500, still larger scales (1:500 or 1:1000) being

adopted for town plans. Parish boundaries are laid down with the help of

local meresmen appointed by justices at quarter sessions. The horizontal

contours are based upon instrumental measurement, and as a whole these

ordnance maps were undoubtedly superior in accuracy, with rare

exceptions, to similar maps published by foreign governments. Even

though the hill hachures on the older one-inch maps are not quite

satisfactory, this deficiency is in a large measure compensated for by

the presence of absolutely trustworthy contours. Originally the maps

were engraved on copper, and the progress of publication was slow; but

since the introduction of modern processes, such as electrotyping (in

1840), photography (in 1855) and zincography (in 1859), it has been

rapid. A plan, the engraving of which formerly took two years, can now

be produced in two days.

The one-inch map for the whole of the United Kingdom was completed in

1890. It covers 697 sheets (or 488 of a "new series" in large sheets),

and is published in three editions, viz. (a) in outline, with contours

in black, (b) with hills hachured in brown or black, and (c) printed in

five colours. Carefully revised editions of these and of the other maps

are brought out at intervals of 15 years at most. Since 1898 the

department has also published maps on a smaller scale, viz. a map of

England and Wales, on a scale of 2 m. to 1 in., in two editions, both

printed in colour, the one with hills stippled in brown, the other

coloured on the "layer system" as a strata-relief map; a map of the

United Kingdom on a scale of 4 m. to 1 in., also in two editions, the

one in outline, showing five classes of roads and parish boundaries, the

other in colours, with stippled hills; a map on a scale of 10 m. to 1

in., also in two editions, and finally a map of the United Kingdom on a

scale of 1:1,000,000.

The geological surveys of Great Britain and Ireland were connected from

1832 to 1853 with the ordnance survey, but are now carried on

independently. The ordnance survey, too, no longer depends on the war

office but upon the board of agriculture and fisheries. A _Bathymetrical

Survey of the Freshwater Lochs of Scotland_, under the direction of Sir

John Murray and L. Pullar, was completed in 1908, and the results

published by the Royal Geographical Society.

France.

Proposals for a new map of France, to replace the famous Cassini map of

1744-1793 were made in 1802 and again by R. Bonne in 1808, but owing to

the wars then devastating Europe no steps were taken until 1817, and the

_Carte de France de l'état major_ on a scale of 1:80,000 was only

completed in 1880. It is engraved on copper. The hachured hills are

based upon contours, and are of admirable commensurability. It has

served as a basis for a _Carte de la France_, published by the Service

Vicinal on a scale of 1:100,000, in 596 sheets, and of a general map

prepared by the ministère des travaux publics on a scale of 1:200,000 in

80 sheets. On both these maps the hills are printed in grey chalk. A

third topographical map of France is being published in accordance with

the recommendation of a committee presided over by General de la Noix in

1897. The surveys for this map were begun in 1905. The maps are based

upon the cadastral plans (1:1000), thoroughly revised and connected with

the triangulation of France and furnished with contours at intervals of

5 m. by precise measurement. These _minutes_ are published on a scale of

1:10,000 or 1:20,000 for mountain districts, while the scale of the

general map is 1:50,000. Each sheet is bounded by parallels and

meridians. The hills are shown in brown contours at intervals of 10 m.

and grey shading in chalk (Berthaut, _La Carte de France, 1750-1898_;

Paris, 1899). A geological map of France on a scale of 1:80,000 is

nearly completed, there are also a map (1:500,000) by Carez and Vasseur,

and an official _Carte géologique_ (1:1,000,000; 1906).

Germany.

By the middle of the 19th century topographical maps of the various

German states had been completed, and in several instances surveys of a

more exact nature had been completed or begun, when in 1878 the

governments of Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria and Württemberg agreed to

supersede local maps by publishing a map of the empire (_Reichskarte_)

in 674 sheets on a scale of 1:100,000. The earlier sheets of this

excellent map were lithographed, but these are gradually being

superseded by maps engraved on copper. Colour-printing is employed

since 1901. The hills are hachured and in some instances contours at

intervals of 50 metres are introduced. The map was completed in 1909,

but is continually undergoing renewal. The _Messtischblätter_, called

_Positionsblätter_ in Bavaria, are on a scale of 1:25,000. The older

among them leave much to be desired, but those of a later date are

satisfactory. This applies more especially to the maps of Saxony (since

1879) and Württemberg (since 1893). The features of the ground on most

of these maps are shown by contours at intervals of 10 metres. The map

produced on this large scale numbers over 5000 sheets, and is used as a

basis for the geological surveys carried on in several of the states of

Germany. A general map of the German Empire (_Uebersichtskarte_) on a

scale of 1:200,000, in 196 sheets, is in progress since 1893. It is

printed in three colours, and gives contours at intervals of 10 metres.

In addition to these maps there are D. G. Reymann's well-known

_Specialkarte von Mittel Europa_ (1:200,000), acquired by the Prussian

government in 1874 (it will ultimately consist of 796 sheets), a

government and Liebenow's map of central Europe (1:300,000) and C.

Vogel's beautiful map of Germany (1:500,000).

Austria-Hungary.

The _Specialkarte_ of Austria-Hungary on a scale of 1:75,000 (765

sheets), based upon a triangulation and cadastral surveys (1816-1867),

was completed in 1889, and published in heliogravure. This map was

repeatedly revised, but as it no longer met modern requirements as to

accuracy the director of the military geographical establishment at

Vienna, Field Marshal Chr. von Steeb, in 1896, organized what

practically amounts to a re-survey of the entire monarchy, to be

completed in 75 years. At the same time the cadastral plans, reduced to

a scale of 1:25,000, are being published in photo-lithography. A general

map of central Europe in 283 sheets published by the Austrian government

(1:200,000) includes nearly the whole of the Balkan Peninsula.

Switzerland.

The famous map of Switzerland, with which is associated the name of

General H. Dufour (d. 1875), is based upon a triangulation (1809-1833)

and surveys on a scale of 1:25,000 for the lowlands, 1:50,000 for the

alpine districts, and was published (1842-1865) on a scale of 1:100,000.

The hills are hachured, the light, in the case of the loftier regions,

being supposed to fall obliquely. The original surveys, carefully

revised, have been published since 1870 as a _Topographical Atlas of

Switzerland_--the so-called _Siegfried Atlas_, in 552 sheets. They are

printed in three colours, contours at intervals of 10 and 20 metres

being in brown, incidental features (ravines, cliffs, glaciers) in black

or blue. To mountain-climbers these contour maps are invaluable, but for

ordinary purposes "strata maps," such as J. M. Ziegler's hypsometric

maps (1856) or so-called "relief maps," which attempt to delineate the

ground so as to give the impression of a relief, are generally

preferred.

Belgium.

The new survey of Belgium was completed in 1872 and there have been

published 527 plane-table sections or _planchettes_ on a scale of

1:20,000 (1866-1880), a "Carte topographique de la Belgique," in 72

sheets, on a scale of 1:40,000 (1861-1883), and a more recent map in 26

sheets on a scale of 1:100,000 (1903-1912). The last is printed in five

colours, the ground is shown in contours of 10 metres interval and grey

stippling.

Holland.

The new survey of the Netherlands, based upon General Krayenhoff's

primary triangulation (1802-1811) was completed in 1855. The results

have been published on a scale of 1:25,000 (776 sheets, since 1866),

1:50,000 (Topographic and Military Map, 62 sheets, 1850-1864, and a

Waterstaatskaart, 1864-1892), and 1:200,000 (Topographical Atlas, 21

sheets, 1868-1871).

Denmark.

In Denmark, on the proposal of the Academy of Science, a survey was

carried out in 1766-1825, but the maps issued by the Danish general

staff depend upon more recent surveys. These include plane-table

sections (_Maalebordsblade_), 1209 sheets on a scale of 1:20,000, with

contours at intervals of 5 to 10 ft., published since 1830; _Atlasblade_

of Jutland and of _De Danske Öer_, on a scale of 1:40,000, the former

in 131 sheets, since 1870, the latter, on the same scale, in 94 sheets,

since 1890, and still in progress, and a general staff map on a scale of

1:100,000, in 68 sheets, since 1890. Maps of the Faroer and of Iceland

have likewise been issued.

Scandinavia.

Modern surveys in Sweden date from the organization of a corps of

"Landemätare," known since 1874 as a topographical department of the

general staff. The maps issued by this authority include one of southern

Sweden, 1:100,000, another of northern Sweden, 1:200,000, and a general

map on a scale of 1:1,000,000. In Norway a geographical survey

(_Opmaaling_) has been in progress since 1783, but the topographical map

of the kingdom on a scale of 1:100,000 in 340 sheets, has not yet been

completed.

Russia.

Of Russia in Europe only the more densely peopled governments have been

surveyed, since 1816, in the manner of other European countries, while

for most regions there are only so-called "military surveys." The most

readily available map of the whole country is the 10-verst map

(1:420,000), known as General J. A. Strelbitzki's, and published

1865-1880. A topographic map (1:126,000) embracing the whole of western

Russia, with Poland and the country of the Don Cossacks, is designed to

be extended over the whole empire. Certain governments--Moscow, Kief,

Volhynia, Bessarabia, the Crimea, &c.--have been published on a scale of

1:24,000, while Finland, as far as 61° N., was re-surveyed in 1870-1895,

and a map on a scale of 1:42,000 is approaching completion.

Surveys in Asiatic Russia are conducted by the topographical departments

organized at Orenburg, Tashkent, Omsk, Irkutsk and Tiflis. To the latter

we are indebted for a valuable map of Caucasia, 1:210,000, which since

the first publication (1863-1885) has undergone careful revision. The

Siberian departments have published a number of maps on a scale of

1:420,000. In addition to these the survey for the Trans-Siberian

railway has been published on a scale of 1:630,000, as also maps of the

Russo-Chinese frontier districts, 1:210,000 and 1:1,168,000. A map of

Asiatic Russia, 1:420,000, by Bolshef, in 192 sheets, is in course of

publication.

Portugal and Spain.

Passing to southern Europe we find that Portugal has completed a _Charta

chorographica_ (1:100,000) since 1856. In Spain a plane-table survey on

a scale of 1:20,000 has been in progress since 1870, but of the map of

Spain in 1078 sheets on a scale of 1:50,000 only 150 had been issued by

the depósito de la guerra up to 1910. Meanwhile reference may be made to

B. F. Coello's _Atlas de la España_ (1848-1890), the maps of which are

on a scale of 1:200,000.

Italy.

In Italy _Tavulette rilevata_ on a scale of 1:25,000 or 1:50,000, with

contours, based on surveys made 1862-1890, are being published, and a

_Carta del regno d'Italia_, 1:100,000, is practically complete. There

are a _Carta idrologica_ and a _Carta geologica_ on the same scale, and

a _Carta orografica_ on a scale of 1:500,000.

Greece.

Greece is still dependent upon foreigners for its maps, among which the

_Carte de Grèce_ (1:200,000) from rapid surveys made by General Palet in

1828, was published in a new edition in 1880. A similar map, mainly

based upon surveys made by Austrian officers and revised by H. Kiepert

(1:300,000), was published by the Military Geographical Institute of

Vienna in 1885. Far superior to these maps is the _Karte von Attika_

(1:100,000 and 1:25,000) based upon careful surveys made by Prussian

officers and published by E. Curtius and J. H. Kaupert on behalf of the

German Archaeological Institute in Athens (1878), or A. Philippson's map

of the Peloponnese (1:300,000; 1901).

Balkan States.

For maps of the Balkan Peninsula we are still largely indebted to the

rapid surveys carried on by Austrian and Russian officers. The Austrian

map of central Europe embraces the whole of the Balkan Peninsula on a

scale of 1:200,000; the Russian surveys (1877-1879) are embodied in a

map of the eastern part of the Balkan on a scale 1:126,000, and a map

of Bulgaria and southern Rumelia, on a scale 1:200,000, both published

in 1883. A map of Turkey in Europe, scale 1:210,000, was published by

the Turkish general staff (1899), and another map, scale 1:250,000, by

the intelligence division of the British war office is in progress since

1906. Bosnia and Herzegovina are now included with the surveys of the

Austrian Empire, the kingdom of Servia has been surveyed (1880-1891) and

the results published on a scale of 1:75,000; in eastern Rumania surveys

have been in progress since 1874 and the results have been published on

a scale of 1:50,000; a general map of the entire kingdom, scale

1:200,000, was published in 1906-1907; a map of Montenegro (1:75,000),

based on surveys by Austrian and Russian officers, was published at

Vienna in 1894.

Asia.

In Asiatic Turkey several districts of historical interest have been

surveyed, and surveys have likewise been made in the interest of

railways, or by boundary commissions, but there is no such thing as a

general survey carried on under the direction of government. We are

thus, to a large extent, still dependent upon compilations, such as R.

Kiepert's _Asia Minor_ (1:400,000; 1904-1908), a map of eastern Turkey

in Asia, Syria and western Persia (1:2,000,000; 1910), published by the

Royal Geographical Society, or a Russian general map (1:630,000,

published 1880-1885). Among maps based upon actual surveys those of

Palestine, by Lieutenant G. R. Conder and H. H. (afterwards Lord)

Kitchener (1:63,360, 1880), of the Sinai Peninsula by Sir C. W. Wilson

and H. S. Palmer (1:126,730, 1870), of Arabia Petraea by Dr A. Musil

(1:300,000, 1907) or of the Aden territory (1905) are among the more

interesting. Of Cyprus an excellent map from surveys by Major (Lord) H.

H. Kitchener was published in 1884 (1:63,360).

In the case of Persia and Afghanistan we are still dependent upon

compilations such as a Russian staff map (1:840,000, published in 1886),

Colonel Sir T. H. Holdich's map of Persia (1:1,014,000, Simla,

1897-1899), or a smaller map (1:2,028,000 and 1:4,056,000), published by

the geographical division of the general staff. The settlement of

boundaries in northern Afghanistan (1883) and in Seistan (1870) has

necessitated surveys of some interest.

A trigonometrical survey of British India was begun in 1800 and the

country can now boast of a survey which in most respects is equal to

those of most European states. The surveys are made on scales varying

according to the necessities of the case or the nature of the country,

and they have been extended since 1862 beyond the boundaries of India

proper. Revenue surveys for land settlement are published on a scale of

1:4000, but the usual scale for topographical maps is 1:63,360. An

_Indian Atlas_, on a scale of 1:255,660, includes also Ceylon and the

Malay Peninsula, but although begun so long ago as 1827 many of its

sheets are unpublished. There are in addition an official map of India

(1:1,000,000), the first edition of which was published in 1903, as also

maps of the great provinces of India, including Burma, all on a scale of

1:2,827,520, and a variety of physical and statistical maps. Ceylon and

the Straits Settlements, with the Federal Malay States, have their own

surveyors-general. The British North Borneo Company published a _Map of

British North Borneo_, on a scale of 1:633,600 (1905).

In Siam a regular survey was organized by Mr J. McCarthy (1881-1883), a

former official of the Indian survey, which did good work in connexion

with the determination of the Franco-Siamese frontier (1906). The

surveys are made on the scales of 1:4000, 1:31,680 and 1:63,360.

In French Indo-China surveys have been in progress since 1881. The

Bureau of the Indo-Chinese general staff, has published a map of

Indo-China, including Cambodia, in 45 sheets (1:200,000, 1895), while to

the service géographique de l'Indo-Chine, organized in 1899, we owe a

_Carte de l'Indo-Chine_ (1:500,000).

For China we are still largely dependent upon careful compilations like

Baron F. von Richthofen's _Atlas von China_ (1:750,000, Berlin,

1885-1890) or Bretschneider's _Map of China_ (1:4,600,000) a new edition

of which appeared at St Petersburg in 1900. There are good survey maps

of the British colony of Hong-Kong, of Wei-hai-Wei and of the country

around Kiao-chou, and the establishment of topographical offices at

Peking and Ngan-king holds out some promise of native surveys. In the

meantime large scale maps prepared by European authorities are to be

welcomed, such as maps of Chih-li and Shan-tung (1:200,000), from

surveys by Prussian officers, 1901-1905, maps on East China

(1:1,000,000) and of Yun-nan by British, German and Indian officers, of

the Indo-Chinese frontier (1:200,000, Paris 1908), and of the upper

Yangtsze-kiang by S. Chevalier (Shanghai, 1900).

Japan has a regular survey department originated by Europeans and

successfully carried on by natives. The primary triangulation was

completed in 1880, a topographical map coloured geologically (1:200,000)

was published 1889-1897, and in addition to this there are being

published an agronomical map on a scale of 1:100,000 (since 1887) and

others. The Japanese government has likewise published a map of Korea

(1:1,000,000; 1898).

The Philippine Islands are represented in a carefully compiled map by C.

W. Hodgson (1:1,115,000, New York, 1908). Of Java we possess an

excellent topographical map based upon surveys made 1850-1887

(1:100,000). A similar map has been in progress for Sumatra since 1883,

while the maps for the remaining Dutch Indies are still based, almost

exclusively, upon flying surveys. For general purposes the _Atlas der

Nederlandsche Bezittingen in Oost-Indie_ by J. N. Stemfoort and J. J.

Ten Siethoff, of which a new edition has been published since 1900, may

be consulted with confidence.

Africa.

In Africa nearly all the international boundaries have been carefully

surveyed and marked on the ground, since 1880, and yield a good basis as

a guide for the map compiler. A general map of Africa, by Colonel Lannoy

de Bissy, on a scale of 1:2,000,000 was first published in 1882-1888,

but is carefully revised from time to time. The geographical section of

the British general staff is publishing maps of all Africa on scales of

1:250,000 and 1:1,000,000. In Egypt excellent work has been done by a

survey department organized and directed by Captain H. G. Lyons up to

1909. It has published a topographical map of the Nile valley

(1:50,000), an irrigation map (1:100,000), a general map (1:250,000),

numerous cadastral plans, &c. Work on similar lines is carried on in the

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Algeria has been in course of survey since 1868,

Tunis since 1878, and the results have been published on scales of

1:50,000 and 1:250,000. Of Morocco there are many maps, among which

several compiled by the French service géographique de l'armée,

including a _Carte du Maroc_ (1:200,000), in progress since 1909. In the

British colonies of tropical and of South Africa[26] surveys for the

most part are carried on actively. Of the Gambia Colony there is a map

by Major E. L. Cowie (1:250,000, 1904-1905); the survey of the Gold

Coast Colony is being published by Major F. G. Guggisberg since 1907

(1:125,000 and 1:200,000); southern and northern Nigeria are adequately

represented on the maps of the general staff (1:250,000). The states of

British South Africa have each their surveyor-general, and a

reconnaissance survey has been in progress since 1903. It is based upon

a careful triangulation, superintended by Sir D. Gill, and carried in

1907 within 70 m. of Lake Tanganyika. This survey is rapidly superseding

other maps, such as the surveyor-general's map of Cape Colony

(1:127,000); A. Duncan's map of the Orange River State (1:148,705;

1902-1904) and Jeppe's map of the Transvaal (1:476,000; 1899). The

results of a survey of southern Rhodesia are given on the map of the

British general staff (1:500,000; 1909), while of north-eastern Rhodesia

we have an excellent map compiled by C. L. Beringer in 1907

(1:1,000,000). Surveys in British Central Africa were taken up in 1894;

a survey of Lake Nyasa, by Lieut. E. L. Rhoades and W. B. Phillips, was

published in 1902. As regards British East Africa and Uganda, the

surveys in the latter (on scales of 1:10,000 and 1:125,000) have made

considerable progress. The Victoria Nyanza was surveyed by Captain B.

Whitehouse (1898-1900), and the results have been published on a scale

of 1:292,000. These British possessions, together with the whole of

Somaliland and southern Abyssinia, are satisfactorily represented on the

maps of the British general staff.

Maps of the French Africa Colonies have been published by the service

géographique de l'Afrique occidental and the service géographique des

colonies. A map of Senegal (1:100,000) is in progress since 1905. The

official maps of the other colonies have been compiled by A. Meunier

between 1902 and 1909. They include French West Africa, (1:2,000,000;

2nd ed., 1908), French Guinea (1:500,000; 1902) and the Ivory Coast and

Dahomey (1:1,500,000; 1907-1908). A map of the French Congo by J. Hansen

(1:1,500,000), was published in 1907. In Madagascar a topographical

bureau was established by General J. S. Gallieni in 1896, and the

surveys are being published since 1900 on a scale of 1:100,000.

As regards the German colonies we are dependent upon compilations by R.

Kiepert, P. Sprigade and M. Moisel. Good maps of the Portuguese colonies

are to be found in an _Atlas colonial Portugues_, a second edition of

which was published by the Commissão de Cartographia in 1909. Of the

Congo State we have an official map on a scale of 1:1,000,000, published

in 1907. Of Italian Eritrea we have excellent maps on various scales of

1:100,000, 1:200,000 and 1:500,000, based upon surveys made between 1888

and 1900.

Australia.

In the states of Australia cadastral surveys conducted by

surveyors-general have been in progress for many years, as also

trigonometrical surveys (Western Australia excepted), and the

publication of parish and township or county maps keeps pace with the

settlement of the country; but with the exception of Victoria none of

these states is in possession of a topographical map equal in accuracy

to similar maps published in Europe. In Victoria the so-called geodetic

survey was begun in 1858; the maps are published on a scale of

1:126,730. There exists also a general map, on a scale of 1:506,930.

Maps on the same scale are available of New South Wales, South Australia

and Tasmania, on a scale of 1:560,000 for Western Australia, on a scale

of 1:253,460 for Queensland. There are likewise maps on smaller scales,

which undergo frequent revision. The map of British New Guinea is on a

scale of 1:330,200 (1898). New Zealand has a good general map on a scale

of 1:633,700. A trigonometrical survey was given up and only details of

immediate practical use are required. The "Lands Department" of the Fiji

Islands has published a map on a scale of 1:380,000 (1908).

North America.

The cadastral surveys in Canada are carried on by a commission of

Crown-lands in the old provinces and by a Dominion land office, which

lays out townships as in the United States, but with greater accuracy. A

surveyor-general is attached to the department of the interior, at

Ottawa. He publishes the topographical maps (1:63,366) since 1906. They

are based upon theodolite traverses 15 m. apart, and connected with the

United States lake and coast surveys, the details being filled in by

plane-table surveys on a scale of 1:31,680. The contours, 25 ft. apart,

depend upon spirit-levelling. In the Rocky Mountains surveys

photographic apparatus is successfully employed. The surveyor-general

issues also "sectional maps" (1:190,000 and 1:40,000) and so-called

"Standard" topographical maps for the thinly peopled west, on scales of

1:250,000 and 1:500,000. He is responsible likewise for maps of Yukon

and of Labrador, supplied by the geological survey, the former on a

scale of 1:380,200, the latter of 1:1,584,000. The intelligence branch

of the Canadian department of military defence is publishing since 1904

topographical maps on scales of 1:63,366 and 1:126,730, with contours. A

geodetic survey department, under Dr. W. F. King, chief astronomer of

the Dominion, was established in 1909.

Maps of Newfoundland, orographical as well as geological, scale

1:1,584,200, have been published.

In the United States a "geological survey" was organized in 1879, under

Clarence King as director, whose successor, Major J. W. Powell, rightly

conceived that it was necessary to produce good topographical maps

before a geological survey could be pursued with advantage. It is under

his wise guidance that the survey has attained its present efficiency.

It is based upon a triangulation by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

The maps of the more densely peopled parts of the Union are published on

a scale of 1:62,500, and those of the remainder of the country on half

or a quarter of that scale. The hills are shown by contours at intervals

of 10 or 100 ft. The details given are considered sufficient to admit of

the selection of general routes for railways or other public works. The

survey progresses at the rate of about 40,000 sq. m. annually, and in

course of time it will supersede the map of the separate states, based

on older surveys. A "reconnaissance" map of Alaska (on a scale of

1:250,000) was published in 1908.

Central America.

In Mexico the surveys are in charge of a comision geografica-exploradora

attached to the secretaria de Fomento, but only about 140 sheets of a

_Carta general_ on a scale of 1:100,000 have been published. There are

also a map of the state of S. Luis Potosi (1:250,000), of the environs

of Puebla (1:50,000) and a _Carta general de la republica mexicana_

(1:250,000).

A useful map of Central America has been published by the topographical

section of the British general staff on a scale of 1:170,300. Of great

value for cartographical work is a careful survey, carried out by

American engineers (1897-1898), for a continental railway running along

the west coast from Mexico to Chile. In South America, in proportion to

the area of the country, only few surveys of a thoroughly scientific

nature have been made, and it is therefore satisfactory that the service

géographique of the French army should be publishing, since 1900, a map

of the entire continent on a scale of 1:1,000,000.

Colombia is but inadequately represented by rough maps. For Colombia we

have F. L. Vergara y Velasco's _Atlas de geografia colombiana_

(1906-1908); Ecuador is fairly well represented by Th. Wolf (1892) and

Hans Meier (1907); in the case of Peru we still largely depend upon Paz

Soldan's _Atlas geografica_ (1865-1867) and A. Raimondi's _Mapa del

Peru_ (1:500,000) based upon surveys made before 1869. Sir Martin

Conway's "Map of the Andes of La Paz" (1:600,000; 1900) as well as Major

P. H. Fawcett's survey of the Brazilian boundary (1906-1907) are welcome

additions to our knowledge of Bolivia. In Chile a comision topografica

was appointed as long ago as 1848, but the map produced under its

auspices by Professor F. Pissis (1:250,000, 1870-1877), leaves much to

be desired. Since that time, however, valuable maps have been published

by an _Oficina de mensura de tierras_, by a _seccion de geografia y

minas_ connected with the department of public works, by the _Oficina

hidrografica_, and more especially in connexion with surveys

necessitated by the boundary disputes with Argentina, which were settled

by arbitration in 1899 and 1902. The surveys which led to the latter

were conducted by Sir Thomas Holdich.

In Venezuela a commission for producing a _plano militar_ or military

map of the country was appointed by General Castro in 1904, but little

progress seems to have been made, and meantime we are dependent upon a

revised edition of A. Codazzi's map of 1840 which was published in 1884.

In Brazil little or nothing is done by the central government, but the

progressive states of São Paulo and Mines Gerães have commissãos

geographicos e geologicos engaged in the production of topographical

maps. Valuable materials have likewise been acquired by several river

surveys including those of the Amazonas by Azevedo and Pinto (1862-1864)

and W. Chandless (1862-1869) and of the Rio Madeira by Colonel G. Earl

Church and Keller-Leuzinger (1860-1875). The proposal of a committee

presided over by the Marshal H. de Beaurepaire-Rohan (1876) to prepare a

map of Brazil on a scale of 1:200,000 has never been acted upon, and in

the meantime we are dependent upon works like the _Atlas do imperio do

Brazil_ by Mendes de Almeida (1868) or the maps in our general atlases.

In Argentina an official geographical institute was established in 1879,

but neither A. Seelstrang's _Atlas_ (1886-1892) nor H. Hoskold's _Mapa

topografica_ (1:2,000,000; London, 1895), which were published by it,

nor any of the numerous provincial maps are based upon scientific

surveys.

It need hardly be said that hydrographic surveys have been of great

service to compilers of maps. There are few coast-lines, frequented by

shipping, which have not yet been surveyed in a definite manner. In

this work the British hydrographic office may justly claim the credit

of having contributed the chief share. Great Britain has likewise

taken the lead in those deep-sea explorations which reveal to us the

configuration of the sea-bottom, and enable us to construct charts of

the ocean bed corresponding to the contoured maps of dry land yielded

by topographical surveys. (E. G. R.)