MAP MARIE LOUISE
MAPLE, SIR JOHN BLUNDELL MARIENBAD
MAPLE MARIENBERG (town of Saxony)
MAPU, ABRAHAM MARIENBURG (town of West Prussia)
MAQQARI MARIENWERDER
MAQRIZI MARIE THÉRÈSE
MAR, EARLDOM OF MARIETTA (Georgia, U.S.A.)
MAR, ERSKINE (regent of Scotland) MARIETTA (Ohio, U.S.A.)
MAR, ERSKINE (Scottish politician) MARIETTE, AUGUSTE FERDINAND FRANÇOIS
MAR, ERSKINE (Scottish Jacobite) MARIGNAC, JEAN CHARLES GALISSARD DE
MARA, GERTRUD ELISABETH MARIGNAN, BATTLE OF
MARABOUT MARIGNOLLI, GIOVANNI DE'
MARACAIBO (lake of Venezuela) MARIGNY, ENGUERRAND DE
MARACAIBO (city of Venezuela) MARIGNY, JEAN DE
MARAGHA MARIGOLD
MARANHÃO MARIINSK
MARANO MARILLAC, CHARLES DE
MARASH MARINES
MARAT, JEAN PAUL MARINETTE
MARATHI MARINI, GIAMBATTISTA
MARATHON MARINO
MARAZION MARINUS (popes)
MARBLE MARINUS (philosopher)
MARBLEHEAD MARINUS OF TYRE
MARBLES MARIO, GIUSEPPE
MARBOT, JEAN BAPTISTE MARCELIN MARION, FRANCIS
MARBURG (town of Austria) MARION, HENRI FRANÇOIS
MARBURG (town of Germany) MARION (Indiana, U.S.A.)
MARBURG, COLLOQUY OF MARION (Ohio, U.S.A.)
MARCA, PIERRE DE MARIONETTES
MARCANTONIO MARIOTTE, EDME
MARCASITE MARIPOSAN
MARCEAU-DESGRAVIERS, SÉVERIN MARIS, JACOB
MARCEL, ÉTIENNE MARITIME PROVINCE
MARCELLINUS, ST MARITIME TERRITORY
MARCELLO, BENEDETTO MARIUPOL
MARCELLUS (popes) MARIUS OF AVENCHES
MARCELLUS (Roman plebeian family) MARIUS, GAIUS
MARCESCENT MARIVAUX, PIERRE DE CHAMBLAIN DE
MARCH, EARLS OF MARJORAM
MARCH, AUZIAS MARK, ST
MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW MARK
MARCH (town in England) MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
MARCH (month) MARKBY, SIR WILLIAM
MARCH (of military troops) MARKET
MARCHE (province of France) MARKET BOSWORTH
MARCHE (town of Belgium) MARKET DRAYTON
MARCHENA MARKET HARBOROUGH
MARCHENA RUIZ DE CASTRO, JOSÉ MARKHAM, SIR CLEMENTS ROBERT
MARCHES, THE MARKHAM, GERVASE
MARCHMONT, EARLS OF MARKHAM, MRS
MARCHPANE MARKHAM, WILLIAM
MARCIAN MARKHOR
MARCIANUS MARKIRCH
MARCION & THE MARCIONITE CHURCHES MARKLAND, JEREMIAH
MARCOMANNI MARKO KRALYEVICH
MARCOS DE NIZA MARK SYSTEM
MARCOU, JULES MARL
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS MARLBOROUGH, EARLS AND DUKES OF
MARCY, WILLIAM LEARNED MARLBOROUGH, JOHN CHURCHILL
MARDIN MARLBOROUGH (England)
MARDUK MARLBOROUGH (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)
MARE MARLITT, E.
MARE CLAUSUM and MARE LIBERUM MARLOW
MAREE, LOCH MARLOWE, CHRISTOPHER
MAREMMA MARLOWE, JULIA
MARENGO MARLY-LE-ROI
MAREOTIS MARMALADE
MARE'S-TAIL MARMANDE
MARET, HUGUES-BERNARD MARMIER, XAVIER
MARGARET (female name) MARMONT, AUGUSTE FRÉDÉRIC LOUIS DE
MARGARET, ST (virgin and martyr) MARMONTEL, JEAN FRANÇOIS
MARGARET, ST (queen of Malcolm III.) MARMORA
MARGARET (queen of Scotland) MARMORA, SEA OF
MARGARET (titular queen of Scotland) MARMOSET
MARGARET (queen of Denmark) MARMOT
MARGARET OF ANJOU MARNE (river of France)
MARGARET OF AUSTRIA (duchess of Savoy) MARNE (department of France)
MARGARET OF AUSTRIA (duchess of Parma) MARNIAN EPOCH
MARGARET OF PROVENCE MAROCHETTI, CARLO
MARGARET MAULTASCH MARONITES
MARGARINE MAROONS
MARGARITA MAROS-VÁSÁRHELY
MARGATE MAROT, CLÉMENT
MARGGRAF, ANDREAS SIGISMUND MAROT, DANIEL
MARGHELAN MARPLE
MARGRAVE MARPRELATE CONTROVERSY
MARGUERITE MARQUAND, HENRY GURDON
MARGUERITE DE VALOIS MARQUARDT, JOACHIM
MARGUERITTE, PAUL and VICTOR MARQUESAS
MARHEINEKE, PHILIP KONRAD MARQUESS
MARIANA, JUAN DE MARQUETRY
MARIANAO MARQUETTE, JACQUES
MARIANAS (archipelago) MARQUETTE
MARIANAS (tribe of Indians) MARR, CARL
MARIANUS SCOTUS MARRADI, GIOVANNI
MARIA STELLA MARRAKESH
MARIA THERESA MARRI
MARIAZELL MARRIAGE
MARIE AMÉLIE THÉRÈSE MARRUCINI
MARIE ANTOINETTE MARRUVIUM
MARIE DE FRANCE MARRYAT, FREDERICK
MARIE DE' MEDICI MARS, MLLE [ANNE FRANÇOISE BOUTET]
MARIE GALANTE MARS
MARIE LESZCZYNSKA
MAP, a representation, on a plane and a reduced scale, of part or the
whole of the earth's surface. If specially designed to meet the
requirements of seamen it is called a chart, if on an exceptionally
large scale a plan. The words map and chart are derived from _mappa_ and
_charta_, the former being the Latin for napkin or cloth, the latter for
papyrus or parchment. Maps were thus named after the material upon which
they were drawn or painted, and it should be noted that even at present
maps intended for use in the open air, by cyclists, military men and
others, are frequently printed on cloth. In Italian, Spanish and
Portuguese the word _mappa_ has retained its place, by the side of
_carta_, for marine charts, but in other languages both kinds of maps[1]
are generally known by a word derived from the Latin _charta_, as
_carte_ in French, _Karte_ in German, _Kaart_ in Dutch. A chart, in
French, is called _carte hydrographique, marine or des côtes_; in
Spanish or Portuguese _carta de marear_, in Italian _carta da navigare_,
in German _Seekarte_ (to distinguish it from _Landkarte_), in Dutch
_Zeekaart_ or _Paskaart_. A chart on Mercator's projection is called
_Wassende graadkaart_ in Dutch, _carte réduite_ in French. Lastly, a
collection of maps is called an atlas, after the figure of Atlas, the
Titan, supporting the heavens, which ornamented the title of Lafreri's
and Mercator's atlases in the 16th century.
_Classification of Maps._--Maps differ greatly, not only as to the scale
on which they are drawn, but also with respect to the fullness or the
character of the information which they convey. Broadly speaking, they
may be divided into two classes, of which the first includes
topographical, chorographical and general maps, the second the great
variety designed for special purposes.
Topographical maps and plans are drawn on a scale sufficiently large to
enable the draughtsman to show most objects on a scale true to
nature.[2] Its information should not only be accurate, but also
conveyed intelligibly and with taste. Exaggeration, however, is not
always to be avoided, for even on the British 1 in. ordnance map the
roads appear as if they were 130 ft. in width.
Chorographical (Gr. [Greek: chôra], country or region) and general maps
are either reduced from topographical maps or compiled from such
miscellaneous sources as are available. In the former case the
cartographer is merely called upon to reduce and generalize the
information given by his originals, to make a judicious selection of
place names, and to take care that the map is not overcrowded with names
and details. Far more difficult is his task where no surveys are
available, and the map has to be compiled from a variety of sources.
These materials generally include reconnaissance survey of small
districts, route surveys and astronomical observations supplied by
travellers, and information obtained from native sources. The compiler,
in combining these materials, is called upon to examine the various
sources of information, and to form an estimate of their value, which he
can only do if he have himself some knowledge of surveying and of the
methods of determining positions by astronomical observation. A
knowledge of the languages in which the accounts of travellers are
written, and even of native languages, is almost indispensable. He ought
not to be satisfied with compiling his map from existing maps, but
should subject each explorer's account to an independent examination,
when he will frequently find that either the explorer himself, or the
draughtsman employed by him, has failed to introduce into his map the
whole of the information available. Latitudes from the observations of
travellers may generally be trusted, but longitudes should be accepted
with caution; for so competent an observer as Captain Speke placed the
capital of Uganda in longitude 32° 44´ E., when its true longitude as
determined by more trustworthy observations is 32° 26´ E., an error of
18´. Again, on the map illustrating Livingstone's "Last Journals" the
Luapula is shown as issuing from the Bangweulu in the north-west, when
an examination of the account of the natives who carried the great
explorer's remains to the coast would have shown that it leaves that
lake on the south.
The second group includes all maps compiled for special purposes. Their
variety is considerable, for they are designed to illustrate physical
and political geography, travel and navigation, trade and commerce, and,
in fact, every subject connected with geographical distribution and
capable of being illustrated by means of a map. We thus have (1)
physical maps in great variety, including geological, orographical and
hydrographical maps, maps illustrative of the geographical distribution
of meteorological phenomena, of plants and animals, such as are to be
found in Berghaus's "Physical Atlas," of which an enlarged English
edition is published by J. G. Bartholomew of Edinburgh; (2) political
maps, showing political boundaries; (3) ethnological maps, illustrating
the distribution of the varieties of man, the density of population,
&c.; (4) travel maps, showing roads or railways and ocean-routes (as is
done by Philips' "Marine Atlas"), or designed for the special use of
cyclists or aviators; (5) statistical maps, illustrating commerce and
industries; (6) historical maps; (7) maps specially designed for
educational purposes.
_Scale of Maps._--Formerly map makers contented themselves with placing
upon their maps a linear scale of miles, deduced from the central
meridian or the equator. They now add the proportion which these units
of length have to nature, or state how many of these units are contained
within some local measure of length. The former method, usually called
the "natural scale," may be described as "international," for it is
quite independent of local measures of length, and depends exclusively
upon the size and figure of the earth. Thus a scale of 1:1,000,000
signifies that each unit of length on the map represents one million of
such units in nature. The second method is still employed in many cases,
and we find thus:--
1 in. = 1 statute mile (of 63,366 in.) corresponds to 1 : 63,366
6 in. = 1 " " " " 1 : 10,560
1 in. = 5 chains (of 858 in.) " 1 : 4,890
1 in. = 1 nautical mile (of 73,037 in.) " 1 : 73,037
1 in. = 1 verst (of 42,000 in.) " 1 : 42,000
2 Vienna in. = 1 Austrian mile (of
288,000 in.) " 1 : 144,000
1 cm. = 500 metres (of 100 cm.) " 1 : 50,000
In cases where the draughtsman has omitted to indicate the scale we can
ascertain it by dividing the actual length of a meridian degree by the
length of a degree measure upon the map. Thus a degree between 50° and
51° measures 111,226,000 mm.; on the map it is represented by 111 mm.
Hence the scale is 1:1,000,000 approximately.
The linear scale of maps can obviously be used only in the case of maps
covering a small area, for in the case of maps of greater extension
measurements would be vitiated owing to the distortion or exaggeration
inherent in all projections, not to mention the expansion or shrinking
of the paper in the process of printing. As an extreme instance of the
misleading character of the scale given on maps embracing a wide area we
may refer to a map of a hemisphere. The scale of that map, as determined
by the equator or centre meridian, we will suppose to be 1:125,000,000,
while the encircling meridian indicates a scale of 1:80,000,000; and a
"mean" scale, equal to the square root of the proportion which the area
of the map bears to the actual area of a hemisphere, is 1:112,000,000.
In adopting a scale for their maps, cartographers will do well to choose
a multiple of 1000 if possible, for such a scale can claim to be
international, while in planning an atlas they ought to avoid a needless
multiplicity of scales.
_Map Projections_ are dealt with separately below. It will suffice
therefore to point out that the ordinary needs of the cartographer can
be met by conical projections, and, in the case of maps covering a wide
area, by Lambert's equal area projection. The indiscriminate use of
Mercator's projection, for maps of the world, is to be deprecated owing
to the inordinate exaggeration of areas in high latitudes. In the case
of topographical maps sheets bounded by meridians and parallels are to
be commended.
The meridian of Greenwich has been universally accepted as the initial
meridian, but in the case of most topographical maps of foreign
countries local meridians are still adhered to--the more important among
which are:--
Paris (Obs. nationale) 2° 20´ 14´´ E. of Greenwich.
Pulkova (St Petersburg) 30° 19´ 39´´ E. "
Stockholm 18° 3´ 30´´ E. "
Rome (Collegio Romano) 12° 28´ 40´´ E. "
Brussels (Old town) 4° 22´ 11´´ E. "
Madrid 3° 41´ 16´´ W. "
Ferro (assumed) 20° 0´ 0´´ W. of Paris.
The _outline_ includes coast-line, rivers, roads, towns, and in fact all
objects capable of being shown on a map, with the exception of the hills
and of woods, swamps, deserts and the like, which the draughtsman
generally describes as "ornament." Conventional signs and symbols are
universally used in depicting these objects.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
_Delineation of the Ground._--The mole-hills and serrated ridges of
medieval maps were still in almost general use at the close of the 18th
century, and are occasionally met with at the present day, being cheaply
produced, readily understood by the unlearned, and in reality preferable
to the uncouth and misleading hatchings still to be seen on many maps.
Far superior are those scenographic representations which enable a
person consulting the map to identify prominent landmarks, such as the
Pic du Midi, which rises like a pillar to the south of Pau, but is not
readily discovered upon an ordinary map. This advantage is still fully
recognized, for such views of distant hills are still commonly given on
the margin of marine charts for the assistance of navigators; military
surveyors are encouraged to introduce sketches of prominent landmarks
upon their reconnaissance plans, and the general public is enabled to
consult "Picturesque Relief Maps"--such as F. W. Delkeskamp's
_Switzerland_ (1830) or his _Panorama of the Rhine_. Delineations such
as these do not, however, satisfy scientific requirements. All objects
on a map are required to be shown as projected horizontally upon a
plane. This principle must naturally be adhered to when delineating the
features of the ground. This was recognized by J. Picard and other
members of the Academy of Science whom Colbert, in 1668, directed to
prepare a new map of France, for on David Vivier's map of the environs
of Paris (1674, scale 1:86,400) very crude hachures bounding the rivers
have been substituted for the scenographic hills of older maps. Little
progress in the delineation of the ground, however, was made until
towards the close of the 18th century, when horizontal contours and
hachures regulated according to the angle of inclination of all slopes,
were adopted. These contours intersect the ground at a given distance
above or below the level of the sea, and thus bound a series of
horizontal planes (see fig. 1). Contours of this kind were first
utilized by M. S. Cruquius in his chart of the Merwede (1728); Philip
Buache (1737) introduced such contours or isobaths (Gr. [Greek: isos],
equal; [Greek: bathys], deep) upon his chart of the Channel, and
intended to introduce similar contours or isohypses ([Greek: hypsos],
height) for a representation of the land. Dupain-Triel, acting upon a
suggestion of his friend M. Ducarla, published his _La France considérée
dans les différentes hauteurs de ses plaines_ (1791), upon which
equidistant contours at intervals of 16 toises found a place. The
scientific value of these contoured maps is fully recognized. They not
only indicate the height of the land, but also enable us to compute the
declivity of the mountain slopes; and if minor features of ground lying
between two contours--such as ravines, as also rocky precipices and
glaciers--are indicated, as is done on the Siegfried atlas of
Switzerland, they fully meet the requirements of the scientific man, the
engineer and the mountain-climber. At the same time it cannot be denied
that these maps, unless the contours are inserted at short intervals,
lack graphic expression. Two methods are employed to attain this: the
first distinguishes the strata or layers by colours; the second
indicates the varying slopes by shades or hachures. The first of these
methods yields a hypsographical, or--if the sea-bottom be included, in
which case all contours are referred to a common datum line--a bathy
hypsographical map. Carl Ritter, in 1806, employed graduated tints,
increasing in lightness on proceeding from the lowlands to the
highlands; while General F. von Hauslab, director of the Austrian
Surveys, in 1842, advised that the darkest tints should be allotted to
the highlands, so that they might not obscure details in the densely
peopled plains. The desired effect may be produced by a graduation of
the same colour, or by a polychromatic scale--such as white, pale red,
pale brown, various shades of green, violet and purple, in ascending
order. C. von Sonklar, in his map of the Hohe Tauern (1:144,000; 1864)
coloured plains and valleys green; mountain slopes in five shades of
brown; glaciers blue or white. E. G. Ravenstein's map of Ben Nevis
(1887) first employed the colours of the spectrum, viz. green to brown,
in ascending order for the land; blue, indigo and violet for the sea,
increasing in intensity with the height or the depth. At first
cartographers chose their colours rather arbitrarily. Thus Horsell, who
was the first to introduce tints on his map of Sweden and Norway
(1:600,000; 1835), coloured the lowlands up to 300 ft. in green,
succeeded by red, yellow and white for the higher ground; while A.
Papen, on his hypsographical map of Central Europe (1857) introduced a
perplexing range of colours. At the present time compilers of strata
maps generally limit themselves to two or three colours, in various
shades, with green for the lowlands, brown for the hills and blue for
the sea. On the international map of the world, planned by Professor A.
Penck on a scale of 1:1,000,000, which has been undertaken by the
leading governments of the world, the ground is shown by contours at
intervals of 100 metres (to be increased to 200 and 500 metres in
mountainous districts); the strata are in graded tints, viz. blue for
the sea, green for lowlands up to 300 metres, yellow between 300 and 500
metres, brown up to 2000 metres, and reddish tints beyond that height.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
The declivities of the ground are still indicated in most topographical
maps by a system of strokes or hachures, first devised by L. Chr. Müller
(_Plan und Kartenzeichnen_, 1788) and J. G. Lehmann, who directed a
survey of Saxony, 1780-1806, and published his _Theorie der
Bergzeichnung_ in 1799. By this method the slopes are indicated by
strokes or hachures crossing the contour lines at right angles, in the
direction of flowing water, and varying in thickness according to the
degree of declivity they represent (cf. for example, the map of
SWITZERLAND in this work). The light is supposed to descend vertically
upon the country represented, and in a true scale of shade the intensity
increases with the inclination from 0° to 90°; but as such a scale does
not sufficiently differentiate the lesser inclinations which are the
most important, the author adopted a conventional scale, representing a
slope of 45° or more, supposed to be inaccessible, as absolutely black,
the level surfaces, which reflect all the light which falls upon them,
as perfectly white, and the intervening slopes by a proportion between
black and white, as in fig. 2. The main principles of this system have
been maintained, but its details have been modified frequently to suit
special cases. Thus the French survey commission of 1828 fixed the
proportion of black to white at one and a half times the angle of slope;
while in Austria, where steep mountains constitute an important feature,
solid black has been reserved for a slope of 80°, the proportion of
black to white varying from 80:0 (for 50°) to 8:72 (for 5°). On the map
of Germany (1:100,000) a slope of 50° is shown in solid black while
stippled hachures are used for gentle slopes up to 10°. Instead of
shading lines following the greatest slopes, lines following the
contours and varying in their thickness and in their intervals apart,
according to the slope of the ground to be represented, may be
employed. This method affords a ready and expeditious means of sketching
the ground, if the draughtsman limits himself to characteristically
indicating its features by what have been called "form lines." This
method can be recommended in the case of plotting the results of an
explorer's route, or in the case of countries of which we have no
regular survey (cf. the map of AFGHANISTAN in this work).
Instead of supposing the light to fall vertically upon the surface it is
often supposed to fall obliquely, generally at an angle of 45° from the
upper left-hand corner. It is claimed for this method that it affords a
means of giving a graphic representation of Alpine districts where other
methods of shading fail. The Dufour map of Switzerland (1:100,000) is
one of the finest examples of this style of hill-shading. For use in the
field, however, and for scientific work, a contoured map like
Siegfried's atlas of Switzerland, or, in the case of hilly country, a
map shaded on the assumption of a vertical light, will prove more useful
than one of these, notwithstanding that truth to nature and artistic
beauty are claimed on their behalf.
Instead of shading by lines, a like effect may be produced by mezzotint
shading (cf. the map of ITALY, or other maps, in this work, on a similar
method), and if this be combined with contour lines very satisfactory
results can be achieved. If this tint be printed in grey or brown,
isohypses, in black or red, show distinctly above it. The same
combination is possible if hills engraved in the ordinary manner are
printed in colours, as is done in an edition of the 1-inch ordnance map,
with contours in red and hills hachured in brown.
Efforts have been made of late years to improve the available methods of
representing ground, especially in Switzerland, but the so-called
stereoscopic or relief maps produced by F. Becker, X. Imfeld, Kümmerly,
F. Leuzinger and other able cartographers, however admirable as works of
art, do not, from the point of utility, supersede the combination of
horizontal contours with shaded slopes, such as have been long in use.
There seems to be even less chance for the combination of coloured
strata and hachures proposed by K. Peucker, whose theoretical
disquisitions on aerial perspective are of interest, but have not
hitherto led to satisfactory practical results.[3]
The above remarks apply more particularly to topographic maps. In the
case of general maps on a smaller scale, the orographic features must be
generalized by a skilful draughtsman and artist. One of the best modern
examples of this kind is Vogel's map of Germany, on a scale of
1:500,000.
_Selection of Names and Orthography._--The nomenclature or "lettering"
of maps is a subject deserving special attention. Not only should the
names be carefully selected with special reference to the objects which
the map is intended to serve, and to prevent overcrowding by the
introduction of names which can serve no useful object, but they should
also be arranged in such a manner as to be read easily by a person
consulting the map. It is an accepted rule now that the spelling of
names in countries using the Roman alphabet should be retained, with
such exceptions as have been familiarized by long usage. In such cases,
however, the correct native form should be added within brackets, as
Florence (Firenze), Leghorn (Livorno), Cologne (Cöln) and so on. At the
same time these corrupted forms should be eliminated as far as possible.
Names in languages not using the Roman alphabet, or having no written
alphabet should be spelt phonetically, as pronounced on the spot. An
elaborate universal alphabet, abounding in diacritical marks, has been
devised for the purpose by Professor Lepsius, and various other systems
have been adopted for Oriental languages, and by certain missionary
societies, adapted to the languages in which they teach. The following
simple rules, laid down by a Committee of the Royal Geographical
Society, will be found sufficient as a rule; according to this system
the vowels are to be sounded as in Italian, the consonants as in
English, and no redundant letters are to be introduced. The diphthong
_ai_ is to be pronounced as in _aisle_; _au_ as _ow_ in _how_; _aw_ as
in _law_. _Ch_ is always to be sounded as in _church_, _g_ is always
hard; _y_ always represents a consonant; whilst _kh_ and _gh_ stand for
gutturals. One accent only is to be used, the acute, to denote the
syllable on which stress is laid. This system has in great measure been
followed throughout the present work, but it is obvious that in numerous
instances these rules must prove inadequate. The introduction of
additional diacritical marks, such as [macron mark] and [breve mark],
used to express quantity, and the diaeresis, as in _aï_, to express
consecutive vowels, which are to be pronounced separately, may prove of
service, as also such letters as _ä_, _ö_ and _ü_, to be pronounced as
in German, and in lieu of the French _ai_, _eu_ or _u_.
The United States Geographic Board acts upon rules practically identical
with those indicated, and compiles official lists of place-names, the
use of which is binding upon government departments, but which it would
hardly be wise to follow universally in the case of names of places
outside America.