_WATER-WORKS CONSTRUCTION_
Construction methods and practices which lend themselves to the
development of the water-supply for an individual house may be divided
into three parts, namely:--
(1) Construction at the point of collection, whether this point
be a well, spring, brook, or reservoir;
(2) The pipe line leading from the collection point to the
buildings;
(3) Constructions involved in the house, other than the
plumbing fixtures.
Taking up these different points in order, we may note at the outset
that it is possible to employ either very simple or very complicated
construction.
_Methods of collection of water._
The common method is to lay a galvanized iron pipe in a ditch as far as
a spring and there to protect the end of the pipe with a sieve or a
grating and to leave it exposed in the water with no efforts expended on
the spring itself. In a brook with waterfalls or with good slope, it is
not uncommon to project a large pipe or a wooden trough into the stream
at the top of a waterfall and so carry a certain amount of the water
into a tub or basins from which the small pipe leads to the house. On
the shores of a lake or pond the galvanized iron pipe is laid out on the
bottom of the lake with the end protected by a strainer.
In all these cases the simplest method is the best, provided the supply
of water is not needed in the winter; but such simple methods as just
described fail when frost locks up the surface flow of the stream. Then
the pipe throughout its entire length must be in a trench below the
frost line at the entrance to the spring as elsewhere. To permit this,
the spring must also be deep, or else so inclosed that the pipe leading
into the spring can be covered by earth banked up against it. Not long
ago the writer saw a pipe taking water from a small lake recently
improved by a stone wall. Instead of conveying the water-pipe down under
the wall the unwise stone mason had built the wall around the pipe and
the pipe line was frozen up through the entire winter following.
Such simple methods also fail when the supply of water is not adequate,
since, in order to secure a large quantity from a stream whose flow is
periodic and irregular, some storage must be provided, and storage
usually requires more or less elaborate construction work at the
reservoir. Another reason for more elaborate construction at a spring is
to prevent surface contamination, and it is always desirable to roof
over a spring in order to protect it from surface flows. The writer has
seen, as an example of objectionable construction, a spring in the
bottom of a ravine or gully down which, in time of rain, torrents of
water passed, although in a dry season the spring was the only sign of
water in the vicinity. It could not but happen that this torrent of
water, which carried all kinds of pollution from the road above,
practically washed through the spring, destroying its good quality. In
such a case, another channel for the gulley water ought to have been
made, or else the spring dug out and roofed over, so that the torrential
water could pass above it.
In other cases, the spring is found at the lowest point in a general
depression, so that, while no stream passes through the spring, the
spring is a catch-all for the surface drainage in the vicinity. In such
cases the water should be protected by a bank of earth around the
spring, behind which the drainage should be led off through a special
pipe line if necessary.
_Spring reservoirs._
In protecting the spring and in building up around it in order to put it
underground, concrete is the most suitable material, although a large
sewer pipe or a heavy cask or barrel will answer the purpose. It is
usually sufficient to dig out the spring to a depth of four or five
feet, and with a pump it is possible to keep the water down, so that the
concrete walls may be laid. In building these walls, it is important to
notice from which side the spring water comes, and on that side holes
should be left in the wall. These openings may properly be connected
with agricultural tile drains laid out from the spring in different
directions, serving both to drain the ground and to add volume to the
spring. It is often possible instead of pumping out water during
construction to drain a spring temporarily, in places where the ground
slopes rapidly, by carrying out a drainpipe from the lowest level; this
drain is to be later stopped up.
The size of this spring reservoir depends on the average rate of flow
of the spring and on the quantity of water used. If there is always an
overflow from the spring, that is, if it always at all times of the year
furnishes more water than is required by the house at that time of day
when the greatest demand is made, then a two-foot sewer pipe is just as
good as a concrete chamber ten feet square. But if at times the spring
is low, so that the flow during the night must be saved to compensate
for the excess consumption during the day, or if the rate at which the
water is drawn at certain hours is greater than the average rate at
which the spring flows, then storage must be allowed for in preparing
the spring to act as a reservoir.
We have already estimated that a family of ten persons might use five
hundred gallons of water a day, and the most exacting conditions would
never require the spring to hold more than one day's supply. This would
mean a chamber four feet deep and in area four by five feet. If the
average supply of the spring is less than the average consumption of the
family, then the spring must become a storage basin for the purpose of
carrying water enough over the dry season, and the capacity of the basin
must be computed from the number of days' storage required. It may not
be out of place to suggest again the possibility of increasing the yield
of the spring by laying draintile in a ditch running along the permeable
stratum. These pipes may run fifty or one hundred feet each way from the
main spring, so long as they continue to find ground water.
The walls of such a spring reservoir as here suggested for depths of six
to eight feet need not be more than nine inches thick, whether built of
brick or concrete. For greater depths the thickness should be increased
to twelve inches.
[Illustration: FIG. 38.--A protected spring-chamber.]
The roof of the spring-chamber may be of plank, but this is temporary
and undesirable. It is far better, for all spans up to ten feet, to make
the roof a flat slab of concrete six inches thick, imbedding in the
concrete in the bottom of the mass some one-half-inch iron rods, spaced
about a foot apart each way and extending well into the side walls. The
size of these rods should increase with the size of the chamber, making
them three-quarter-inch rods up to a nine-foot span, and one-inch rods
up to a twelve-foot span. There should be some way of getting into the
spring, preferably by an opening in one corner so arranged as to carry
the side walls of the opening or manhole up above the ground, where it
may be protected with an iron cover locked fast (see Fig. 38, after
Imbeaux). Besides the outlet pipe from the spring, which will naturally
pass through the side walls about halfway between top and bottom in
order to get the best water, there should be a drainpipe from the lowest
part of the inclosure, the valve of which can be reached through a valve
box coming to the surface. In the figure the drainpipe is shown by the
dotted line, and the twofold chamber is for the purpose of allowing an
examination of the spring to be made at any time.
The concrete used in this work should be of good quality, one part of
cement to five parts of gravel or to four parts of stone and two parts
of sand. A concrete bottom, although sometimes used, is not necessary.
The position of the drain, of the house pipe, and of the several
collection pipes must not be overlooked when the wall is being built,
since it is much easier to leave a hole than to dig through the concrete
afterwards.
_Stream supplies._
If the volume of a stream is more than enough for the maximum
consumption, nothing is needed but to carry the intake pipe from the
shore out under water and protect the end with a strainer. In this case,
however, the stream may freeze down to the level of the strainer and
even around the strainer, so that the supply of water in winter would be
cut off. To avoid this possibility the intake pipe ought to be in a pool
of water so deep that it never freezes, and this means sometimes
creating a pool for this very purpose. If storage is to be provided, a
reservoir must be built, and this intake pipe would naturally be placed
at least two feet below the surface of the water.
_Dams._
If the stream is not deep, or if there is not a pool of satisfactory
depth, or if the minimum flow of the stream is not adequate for the
maximum needs of the consumers, a dam across the stream becomes a
necessity. There are two or three types of dams suitable for a reservoir
on a small stream, and they may be described briefly.
A dirt dam is not generally desirable, since in most cases the dam must
also be used as a waste weir; that is, the freshets must run over the
dam. This means that unless the crest of the dam is protected with
timber or masonry the dam will be washed out; as happened, indeed, in
the terrible flood at Johnstown, Pennsylvania, several years ago. If it
is possible to carry the overflow water of the stream away in some other
channel than over the dam, then a dirt dam is not objectionable,
although always a dirt dam is best with a masonry core. A very good dam
can be made by driving three-inch tongue-and-grooved planking tight
together across a gulley and then filling in on each side so that the
slope on each face is at least two feet horizontal for every foot in
height. This last requirement means that if the dam is ten feet high,
the width of the dam at the base shall be at least forty-five feet, the
other five feet being required to give the proper thickness to the dam
at the top.
[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Concrete core in a dam.]
In the second type of dam this central timber core is replaced with a
thin wall of concrete as shown in Fig. 39, from six to twelve inches
thick, sufficing to prevent small animals burrowing through the dam and
at the same time to make the dam more nearly water-tight. Sometimes
stone masonry is used, building a light wall to serve as the true dam,
and then holding up this light wall with earth-filling on each side. If
neither plank, stone, nor concrete can be used, the central core is
made of the best earth available, a mixture of clay and sand preferably,
and special pains are taken in the building to have this mixture well
rammed and compacted.
The writer has recently heard of a dam on a small stream being made by
the continual dumping of field stone from the farm into the brook at a
certain definite place. This stone, of course, assumed a slope at each
side and settled in place from year to year as the dam grew. The mud and
silt of the stream filled up the holes between the stones, so that the
dam was finally practically water-tight. This made a cheap construction
and had the additional value of serving to use up stones from the
fields. It was necessary, since the spring floods poured over the top of
this dam, to protect the top stones, and a plank crest was put on,
merely to keep the dam from being washed away.
The third type of dam is entirely of concrete or stone masonry, concrete
to-day being preferable because more likely to be water-tight. The
problem with a concrete dam is to get a foundation such that the
impounded water will not leak out under the dam, imperiling the very
existence of it. The ideal foundation, of course, is rock, and in a
great many locations can be found in the small gulleys where the
limestone and shale peculiar to this region will answer as well as more
solid rock for dams not more than ten feet high; but with gravel banks
on the sides or with soft sandy bottom, or where the clay soil becomes
saturated with water at times, the gulley offers great difficulties for
the construction of a dam. It will be wise, under such conditions, to
carry a cut-off wall, not necessarily more than twelve inches thick,
well into the bank, that is, about ten feet on each side, and under the
dam this cut-off wall ought to go down until it reaches another stratum
of sand or clay or rock. This cut-off wall, then, surrounding the main
dam, shuts off the leakage, and the dam itself can be built without
danger of undermining. In many large dams this cut-off wall is carried
down more than a hundred feet, especially where the depth of water
behind the dam is great. For small dams, a row of plank driven down
behind a timber sill across and in the bed of the stream will often be
sufficient.
[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Section of a flood dam.]
The cross section of the main dam, in cases where flood water in the
spring runs over the dam, should be such that the bottom thickness is
about one half the height, and Fig. 40 (after Wegman) shows a suitable
cross-section of a dam ten feet high. Figure 41 (after Wegman) shows a
cross-section intended to carry the water over the dam, especially in
times of flood, without danger of erosion.
Sometimes, in a narrow gorge with rock sides, it is possible to save
masonry by building the dam in the form of an arch upstream, the
resistance to the force of the water being then furnished by the
abutment action of the rock sides, instead of by the weight of the dam,
as in ordinary construction. For a dam ten feet high, the necessary
thickness of the curved dam would probably not be more than twelve
inches, while the ordinary gravity dam would be three or four feet
thick. The workmanship on the former, however, must be of a very
superior order.
[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Section of a flood dam.]
It is never desirable to allow the water flowing over the dam to fall
directly on the ground in front, since the falling water will rapidly
carry away this soil and undermine the front of the dam. For this
reason, the lower section of the dam is made curved, as shown in Fig.
41, giving the water a horizontal direction as it leaves the dam instead
of a vertical. A plank floor is often added to carry even further from
the dam any possible erosion (Fig. 40). Where it can be done, it is a
good plan to provide a small body of still water below the dam, so that
the force of the falling water may be distributed through the water on
to the soil below.
There are other forms of dams often used. For example, brush dams,
formerly common, are made by cutting off the tops of trees and dropping
them in place and loading them with stones so as to make a mass of
interwoven branches. These branches hold together particles of earth
which are dumped in and form a dam.
Another dam that has been much used in rural communities is the
old-fashioned crib dam, where logs are piled up crib fashion, held
together at the corners by iron pins, a bottom spiked on, and the crib
then filled with stone, a succession of these cribs across the stream
forming the dam. Dirt is filled in on each side of this crib work, and,
in some cases, cross timbers are set in, and both sides of the dam
covered with tongue-and-grooved planking. But such dams are not
permanent, and their construction involves an expense nearly equal to
that of a permanent structure, and consequently they are not to be
recommended.
_Waste weirs._
When the dam is made of earth with or without a core wall and when no
opportunity exists for carrying the waste water around the dam, a waste
weir of masonry through the dam must be provided, so that freshets may
be carried off without destroying or washing out the earth work.
The size of this weir is a matter of considerable concern, since its
ability to carry off the high water is fundamental. The capacity of such
waste weirs depends on the volume of flood-water, and this, in turn,
depends on the area of the watershed. This volume cannot be predicted
with any absolute certainty, but, in general, it may be said that the
maximum run-off in the eastern part of the United States, from small
areas not exceeding twenty-five square miles, will be about one hundred
cubic feet per second per square mile, so that the freshet flow for a
watershed of twelve square miles would be twelve hundred cubic feet per
second. Ordinarily, the height of the weir is taken to be from two to
four feet and the length made sufficient to care for the volume of
discharge.
If the depth of water flowing over the weir is taken at one foot, the
length of weir in feet necessary to carry the flood flow may be computed
by multiplying the number of square miles of watershed by thirty. Then
an area of twelve square miles would need a length of waste channel of
three hundred sixty feet; in most cases, for small dams, longer than the
dam itself.
If the depth be taken at two feet, then the number of square miles of
watershed must be multiplied by ten to get the length of weir, so that a
shed of twelve square miles would mean a weir one hundred twenty feet
long.
The factor for a depth of three feet on the weir is six, making for the
same area the length of weir seventy-two feet, and for four feet depth
the factor is four. There is no more important part of the construction
of a dam than that involved by a proper design of a waste weir, since a
failure either to provide proper area or to so build as to withstand the
erosive action of the running water will inevitably wash away the dam.
When the valley is narrow and the watershed large, the waste weir will
occupy the entire width of the dam, and then it becomes necessary to
construct the dam in masonry. On the other hand, when the watershed is
small and the width of the valley great, then it is proper to make the
waste weir only a certain portion of the entire width of the dam, making
the rest of the dam either masonry or earth, as may be convenient.
_Gate house._
In connection with a reservoir and at the back of the dam at the bottom
of the bank, it is convenient to have what is called, in larger
installations, a "gate house"; that is, a masonry or wooden manhole
through which the water-pipe leading out from the reservoir passes and
in which a gate is placed to shut off the water. In larger
installations, it is usually possible to admit water at this point from
different levels of the reservoir into the water-pipe, so as always to
get the best quality of water, but for a small plant that is not
necessary. A gate or valve, however, should always be provided, and
while this may be on the bank of the pond with the intake pipe extending
twenty or thirty feet into the pond, the valve should not be omitted.
The end of the pipe extending into the pond should be placed about two
feet above the bottom of the pond, instead of resting in the mud, in
order to get a better quality of water.
_Pipe lines._
In bringing the water from the spring or pond to the house, some kind of
a pipe line must be provided. Such a pipe line is made of various
materials; hollow wooden logs, vitrified tile, cast-iron pipe,
wrought-iron pipe, and lead pipe having all been used. The last-named
pipe is now too expensive for use in any great lengths. Hollow wooden
pipes are employed occasionally, but, except in unusual localities, they
also are more expensive than other forms, and are short lived on
account of their tendency to decay. Cast-iron pipe, commonly used for
municipal water-supplies, is not made in small sizes and may be excluded
from the possibilities for an individual house. There remains only tile
and wrought-iron pipe. Under certain conditions, the use of tile pipe is
to be recommended, since it may be installed even in large sizes at a
comparatively low cost, the objection to it being that it is very
difficult to make the joints water-tight, and practically impossible
when the pressure is greater than ten feet. It is more difficult to make
joints in a pipe line of small diameter water-tight than in a pipe line
of larger diameter, because the space for the cement in the former is so
small. The writer has tried both four-inch and six-inch pipe, and while
the four-inch line can be laid with tight joints, it requires much more
careful and conscientious effort on the part of the workman than with
six-inch pipe. The joints must be thoroughly filled with cement, not
very wet, so that it can be rammed or packed with a thin stick into
every part of the joint. Merely plastering the cement over the surface
of the joint will always result in a leaking joint.
It often happens that a water-supply coming from a distance of a mile or
so runs at first nearly level, so that, except for surface pollution,
the water might be carried in an open ditch. An open ditch is, however,
far better replaced by vitrified tile, six inches in diameter, which
entirely prevents surface pollution, and which costs only about ten
cents a running foot. When the slope of the ground exceeds the natural
fall of the water, so that a pressure inside the pipe is created, iron
pipe must be used. If vitrified pipe is used, the joints must be made
with the greatest care, and every precaution taken to prevent leakage.
Figure 42 shows a section of a joint in tile pipe.
[Illustration: FIG. 42.--A joint in tile pipe.]
In using iron pipe large enough to furnish the amount of water required,
due regard must be paid to friction in the pipe. In flowing through a
pipe of small size, water loses a great deal of head by friction. This
friction between the sides of the pipe and the water, which must be duly
considered in a pipe of small size, increases very rapidly as the
velocity of the flow increases. It is always a great temptation to use a
small pipe, since the cost of the pipe increases rapidly as the diameter
increases, but it is penny wise and pound foolish to lay a line of pipe
several thousand feet long to furnish water to a house and find when
completed that the amount of water furnished by the pipe is on account
of friction only a small dribble. In a previous chapter we estimated
that the flow of water, in order to furnish three faucets at a
reasonable rate, ought to be at least two thousand gallons a day or
about one and a half gallons a minute, and the effect of a reduced size
of pipe on the head necessary to carry a definite amount of water was
shown.
The cost of cast-iron pipe should not be more than thirty cents per
running foot for four-inch pipe and fifty cents per running foot for
six-inch pipe. To this must be added the cost of about seven pounds or
ten pounds respectively of lead for each joint and the cost of all the
labor involved. The price of terra-cotta pipe is much less, as already
indicated, so that it is quite worth while to expend some additional
effort on making the tile pipe joints water-tight, if it allows the
cheaper pipe to be substituted for the more expensive iron pipe.
_Pumping._
Although the present methods of securing water for isolated farm
buildings will not corroborate the statement it is safe to say that the
proper method of obtaining a water-supply is always to make use of a
pond or stream at such an elevation that water will flow to the house by
gravity, provided this is possible. Only when the conditions are such
that a gravity supply is impossible and water from a well or stream at
some lower elevation becomes inevitable is pumping properly resorted to.
The advantage of a gravity supply is twofold. First, the daily charges
for maintenance are practically nothing, so that when once the intake
and the pipe line have been installed, there will be no additional
charges. When pumping is resorted to, on the other hand, there must be a
daily expenditure which, even if small, in the course of a year amounts
to the interest on a large sum of money. For example, suppose that the
cost for supplies for a small pumping engine was only ten cents per day,
not counting in the cost of labor. This would amount to $36.50 a year,
which at 5 per cent is the interest on $730. It would be $200 cheaper,
therefore, to borrow $500, at 5 per cent, to pay for a gravity supply
rather than to pay $30 for a pump which costs ten cents a day to run.
This same reasoning may be applied to the cost of different kinds of
pumps. One pump may cost $200 more than another, but the saving in fuel
and repairs may be sufficient to more than justify this additional cost.
Second, a gravity supply is to be preferred because of its greater
reliability. It is hardly possible to imagine any excuse for a gravity
supply failing to deliver its predetermined quantity of water regularly
day after day. A pumping plant, on the other hand, both breaks down and
wears out. Valves are continually requiring to be repacked, nuts drop
off and have to be replaced, pieces of the machinery break and require
repairs, so that with the best machinery it is almost inevitable that
for many days in the year the water-supply is interrupted by some
failure of the machinery. In planning water works for cities, an
engineer weighs and estimates the value of a continuous service, and
even if the gravity supply costs somewhat more than the pumping system,
it is in many cases adopted because the greater cost is supposed to be
compensated for by the greater reliability of the supply.
_Windmills._
Perhaps the cheapest source of power for pumping water is a windmill,
and in many cases it proves entirely serviceable. It has two drawbacks
which are self-evident. Unless the wind blows, the mill will not work,
and, unfortunately, at those times of the year when a large supply of
water is most to be desired, that is, during the hot summer months, the
wind is particularly light. It is necessary, therefore, when using wind
as a source of power, to provide large storage which will tide over the
intervals between the times of pumping. Again, the wind may blow
frequently enough, but may be so light as not to turn the large vanes
necessary to pump rapidly and easily the large amount of water needed.
Nothing less than a twelve-foot mill ought to be erected, and, to be
efficient, the wind must blow at the rate of twelve to sixteen miles an
hour.
[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Windmill and water tank.]
A windmill of the best design is made entirely of steel with small angle
irons for posts for the tower, and with the mill itself made of
galvanized iron. It requires a good foundation and must be well anchored
to the masonry piers by strong bolts set well down into the masonry. If
the mill is set directly over the well and the storage tank supported on
the tower, a very compact arrangement is accomplished and the danger
from frost is the only difficulty to be apprehended. However, the tank
is often placed in the attic, some distance from the well, to which it
is connected by suitable piping.
The location of the windmill requires careful consideration in order
that it may receive the prevailing winds in their full force and at the
same time be properly located with reference to the well. It must be
remembered that the surface of the wheel is exposed to the full fury of
a storm, and both the wheel and the tower must be strong enough to
withstand such storms. Figure 43 shows windmill and water tank in the
vicinity of Ithaca, New York.
_Hydraulic rams._
A hydraulic ram is the cheapest method of pumping water, provided that
the necessary flow with a sufficient head to do the work is available.
It requires about seven times as much water to flow through the ram and
be wasted as is pumped, so that if it is desired to pump five hundred
gallons a day, the stream must flow at the rate of about thirty-five
hundred gallons per day to lift the necessary water.
The two disadvantages of a ram are, first, that a fall of water is not
always obtainable or that the stream flow is not always sufficient, and
second, that the action of the ram is subject to interruptions on
account of the accumulation of air in summer and on account of the
formation of ice in winter. In fact, in winter it is necessary to keep
a small fire going in the house where the ram is at work in order that
this interruption may not take place. Its great advantage is that it
requires no attendance, no expense for maintenance, and practically
nothing for repairs. It operates continuously when once started, and,
except for the occasional interruption on account of air-lock, is always
on duty.
[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Installation of ram.]
Usually the water is led from above the dam or waterfall in a pipe to
the ram and flows away after passing through the ram, back into the
stream. The water pumped is generally taken from the same stream and is
a part of the water used to operate the ram. This is not necessary,
however, and double-acting rams are manufactured which will pump a
supply of water from a source entirely different from that which
operates the ram. The following table from the Rife Hydraulic Engine
Manufacturing Co. gives the dimensions and approximate costs of rams
suitable for pumping against a head not greater than about thirty feet
for each foot of fall available in the drive pipe:--
TABLE XI
======+=======================+=======+=========+===============+
| | | | Gallons per |
| Dimensions | Size | Size| Minute |
|-------+-------+-------| of | of| required |
| | | |Drive- | Delivery| to operate |
Number| Height| Length| Width | pipe | -pipe | Engine |
------+-------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------------+
10 | 2' 1" | 3' 2"| 1' 8"| 1-1/4"| 3/4" | 2-1/2 to 6|
15 | 2' 1" | 3' 4"| 1' 8"| 1-1/2"| 3/4" | 6 to 12|
20 | 2' 3" | 3' 8"| 1' 9"| 2" | 1" | 8 to 18|
25 | 2' 3" | 3' 9"| 1' 9"| 2-1/2"| 1" | 11 to 24|
30 | 2' 7" | 3' 10"| 1' 10"| 3" | 1-1/4" | 15 to 35|
40 | 3' 3" | 4' 4"| 2' 0"| 4" | 2" | 30 to 75|
80 | 7' 4" | 8' 4"| 2' 8"| 8" | 4" |150 to 350|
120 | 8' 9" | 8' 4"| 2' 8"| 12" | 5" |375 to 700|
120 | 8' 9" | 8' 4"| 2' 8"| 2-12" | 6" |750 to 1400|
======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=========+================+
=======+===========+========+========+=======
|Least Feet | |Price |Price
| of Fall | |Single- |Double-
Number |Recommended| Weight |acting |acting
-------+-----------+--------+--------+-------
10 | 3 | 150 | $ 50 | $ 65
15 | 3 | 175 | 55 | 70
20 | 2 | 225 | 60 | 75
25 | 2 | 250 | 66 | 81
30 | 2 | 275 | 75 | 90
40 | 2 | 600 | 150 | 170
80 | 2 | 2200 | 525 | 575
120 | 2 | 3000 | 750 | 850
120 | 2 | 6000 | 1500 | 1700
=======+===========+========+========+=======
If the length of the discharge pipe is more than a hundred feet, the
effect of friction is to reduce the amount of water pumped, but rams
will operate successfully against a head of three or four hundred feet.
The writer remembers an installation in the northern part of New York
State, where two large hydraulic rams furnish the water-supply supply
for an entire village, pumping every day several hundred thousand
gallons. Figure 44 shows an installation by the Power Specialty Co. of
New York, using the fall of some rapids in a brook to pump water into a
tank in the attic of a house.
[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Means of securing fall for hydraulic ram.]
In Fig. 45 are shown two methods of securing a fall for hydraulic rams,
recommended by the Niagara Hydraulic Engine Co. The first method shows
no drain pipe, but a long drive pipe; while the second method puts the
ram in an intermediate position, with considerable lengths of each.
There are other methods of utilizing the fall of a stream, but usually
they involve a greater outlay for the construction of a dam and other
appurtenances. An old-fashioned bucket water wheel may be used, which,
though not efficient, utilizes the power of the stream. The wheel may be
belted or geared to a pump directly or may drive a dynamo, the power of
which may in turn be transmitted to the pump. The objection to such
construction usually is that during the summer the small streams which
could be made of service at slight expense run dry or nearly so, while
the expense of damming and utilizing a large stream where the
water-supply is always sufficient is too great for a single house.
_Hot-air engines._
The simplest kind of a pump worked mechanically is the Rider-Ericsson
hot-air engine (see Fig. 46), which is made to go by the expansive force
of hot air. The fuel used may be wood, coal, kerosene oil, gasolene, or
gas, the amount used being very moderate and the daily expense of
maintenance very small.
[Illustration: FIG. 46.--A hot-air engine.]
For a number of years the writer used one of these machines to pump
water from a tank in his cellar to a tank in the attic, so that running
water could be had throughout the house. With an engine and pump costing
$100, it was necessary to pump twice a week for about an hour to supply
the attic tank and to furnish the necessary water for the family. The
following table shows the dimensions, the capacity, and the fuel
consumption of the different styles of pumps made by this company:--
TABLE XII
=========+===========+===========+=========+==========+============+======
| Suction | | | | |
| and | | | | Anthracite |
Size of | Discharge | Capacity | Cu. Ft. | Kerosene | Coal Per |
Cylinder | Pipe | Per Hour | of Gas | Per Hour | Hour | Price
---------+-----------+-----------+---------+----------+------------+------
5" | 3/4" | 150 gal. | 12 | 1 qt. | 4 lb. | $ 90
6" | 1" | 300 gal. | 16 | 2 qt. | 4 lb. | 130
8" | 1-1/4" | 500 gal. | 20 | 2 qt. | 5 lb. | 160
10" | 1-1/2" | 1000 gal. | 50 | 3 qt. | 6 lb. | 240
=========+===========+===========+=========+==========+============+======
_Gas engines for pumping._
During the last few years, on account of the great demand for gas
engines for power boats and automobiles, the efficiency and reliability
of these engines depending upon the explosive power of the mixture of
gas and air has greatly increased. To-day, probably no better device for
furnishing a satisfactory source of power in small quantities at a
reasonable cost can be found. One engine might readily be used in
several capacities, pumping water during the day or at intervals during
the day when not needed for running feed cutters; and possibly running a
dynamo for electric lights at night. It would be easy to arrange the gas
engine so that a shift of a belt would transfer the power of the engine
from a dynamo to a pump or to other machinery. In this case the pump is
entirely distinct and separate from the engine, and while the gas engine
may be directly connected with the pump and bolted to the same bed
plate, if the engine is to be used for other purposes than pumping, an
intermediate and changeable belt is desirable.
The term "gas engine" is properly restricted to engines literally
consuming gas, either illuminating gas or natural gas; but the term is
also applied to engines using gasolene as a fuel. The same principle is
used in the construction of oil engines where kerosene oil is the fuel
instead of gasolene, and it is probable that the latter engines are
safer; that is, less subject to dangerous explosion than the former.
Whichever fuel is used, the engine may be had in sizes ranging from one
half to twenty horsepower and are very satisfactory to use. Any
ordinary, intelligent laborer with a little instruction can start and
operate them, and except for occasional interruptions they may be
depended upon to work regularly. The cost of operation with different
fuels may be estimated from the following table, which also shows the
cost when coal is used as in an ordinary steam plant, the data being
furnished by the Otto Gas Engine Works:--
TABLE XIII
=================+=================+====================+===============
| | Fuel Consumption | Cost of Fuel
| | Per Brake H.-P. | Per Brake
Fuel | Price of Fuel | 10 Hours | H.-P. 10 Hours
-----------------+-----------------+--------------------+---------------
Gasolene | 10c per gal. | 1.25 gal. | 12.5c
-----------------+-----------------+--------------------+---------------
Illuminating gas | $1.00 per 1000 | 180 cu. ft. | 18c
| cu. ft. | |
-----------------+-----------------+--------------------+---------------
Natural gas | 25c per 1000 | 130 to 160 cu. ft. | 3.25 to 4c
| cu. ft. | |
-----------------+-----------------+--------------------+---------------
Producer gas, | | |
anthracite | | |
pea coal | $4.00 per ton | 15 lb. | 2.67c
-----------------+-----------------+--------------------+---------------
Producer gas, | | |
charcoal | $10.00 per ton | 12 lb. | 5.35c
-----------------+-----------------+--------------------+---------------
Bituminous coal, | | |
ordinary | | |
steam engine | $3.00 per ton | 80 to 100 lb. | 10.7 to 13.4c
=================+=================+====================+===============
A photograph of a small (2 H.P.) gas engine made by the Foos Gas Engine
Co. with pump complete is shown in Fig. 47. This pump will lift forty
gallons of water per minute, with a suction lift up to twenty-five feet,
to a height of about seventy-five feet above the pump. The pump gear can
be thrown out of connection with the engine, so that the latter can be
used for other purposes where power is desired.
_Steam pumps._
[Illustration: FIG. 47.--A gas engine.]
The use of a steam pump would probably not be considered for a single
house unless a small boiler was already installed for other purposes.
Not infrequently a boiler is found in connection with a dairy for the
purpose of furnishing steam and hot water for washing and sterilizing
bottles and cans. Where silage is stored in quantity, a steam boiler and
engine are often employed for the heavy work of cutting up fodder. In
both these cases it may be a simple matter to connect a small duplex
pump with the installed boiler, as is done frequently in creameries, for
the sake of pumping the necessary water-supply for the house. Whenever
extensive improvements are contemplated, it is well worth while to
consider the possibilities of one boiler operating the different kinds
of machinery referred to. In Fig. 48 is shown a small pump, made by The
Goulds Manufacturing Co., capable of lifting forty-eight gallons of
water per minute against a head of a hundred feet. The diameter of
piston is four inches and the length of stroke is six inches. It is
operated by a belt from a steam engine used for other purposes as well.
[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Pump operated by belt.]
[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Duplex pump, operated directly by steam.]
TABLE XIV
==========+==========+========+=============+=============+=========+
Diameter | Diameter | Length | | | Gallons
of Steam | of Water | of | Gallons per | Revolutions | per
Cylinders | Pistons | Stroke | Revolution | per Minute | Minute
----------+----------+--------+-------------+-------------+---------+
3 | 3/4 | 3 | 0.019 | 80 | 1.5
3 | 1 | 3 | 0.033 | 80 | 2.6
4-1/2 | 1 | 4 | 0.044 | 75 | 3.6
| | | | |
4-1/2 | 1-1/4 | 4 | 0.064 | 75 | 4.8
5-1/4 | 1-1/4 | 5 | 0.08 | 70 | 5.6
5-1/4 | 1-3/4 | 5 | 0.18 | 70 | 12.7
| | | | |
6 | 1-3/4 | 6 | 0.22 | 65 | 14.0
6 | 2 | 6 | 0.29 | 65 | 19.0
6 | 2-1/4 | 6 | 0.38 | 65 | 25.0
| | | | |
7-1/2 | 2-1/2 | 6 | 0.38 | 65 | 25.0
6 | 2-1/2 | 6 | 0.48 | 65 | 31.0
7-1/2 | 2-1/2 | 6 | 0.048 | 65 | 31.0
| | | | |
7-1/2 | 2-3/4 | 6 | 0.056 | 65 | 36.0
9 | 2-3/4 | 6 | 0.056 | 65 | 36.0
9 | 3-1/2 | 6 | 0.079 | 65 | 51.0
==========+==========+========+=============+=============+=========+
==========+======================================+==================
| Size of Pipes for | Approximate
| Short Lengths To be | Space Occupied
| increased as Length Increases | Feet and Inches
+-------+---------+---------+----------+--------+---------
Diameter | | | | | |
of Steam | Steam | Exhaust | Suction | Delivery | |
Cylinders | Pipe | Pipe | Pipe | Pipe | Length | Width
----------+-------+---------+---------+----------+--------+------
3 | 3/8 | 1/2 | 1-1/4 | 1 | 2 9 | 1 0
3 | 3/8 | 1/2 | 1-1/4 | 1 | 2 9 | 1 1
4-1/2 | 1/2 | 3/4 | 2 | 1-1/2 | 2 10 | 1 1
| | | | | |
4-1/2 | 1/2 | 3/4 | 2 | 1-1/2 | 2 10 | 1 1
5-1/4 | 3/4 | 1-1/4 | 1-1/2 | 1 | 3 1 | 1 4
5-1/4 | 3/4 | 1-1/4 | 1-1/2 | 1 | 3 1 | 1 4
| | | | | |
6 | 1 | 1-1/4 | 1-1/2 | 1 | 3 5 | 1 5
6 | 1 | 1-1/4 | 1-1/2 | 1 | 3 5 | 1 5
6 | 1 | 1-1/4 | 1-1/2 | 1 | 3 5 | 1 5
| | | | | |
7-1/2 | 1-1/2 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 3 6 | 1 6
6 | 1 | 1-1/4 | 1-1/2 | 1 | 3 5 | 1 5
7-1/2 | 1-1/2 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 3 6 | 1 9
| | | | | |
7-1/2 | 1-1/2 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 3 7 | 1 9
9 | 1-1/2 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 3 8 | 1 11
9 | 1-1/2 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 3 9 | 1 11
==========+=======+=========+=========+==========+========+======
[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Raising water by means of compressed air.]
Figure 49 shows a cut of a small duplex Worthington pump which operates
by steam, not requiring any intermediate engine. To show the variety of
pumps made and the way in which the proportions vary with the capacity
of the pumps, the preceding table is given of pumps of small capacity
designed to work with low steam pressure.
_Air lifts for water._
Compressed air is also a source of power for raising water from a deep
well; but it is neither economical in first cost of apparatus nor in
operation. The principle is shown by the diagram of Fig. 23, and
explains without words how air pressure may be carried down into the
well through one pipe and thereby force the water of the well up into
another pipe far above its natural level. The machinery needed involves
an engine or motor and an air compressor, the latter taking the place of
the ordinary pump. It has the single advantage that it avoids the
maintenance of valves and similar deep-well machinery at a great
distance below the ground, the air pump not requiring any mechanism in
the well.
In Fig. 50 is shown a plant installed by the Knowles Pump Co. for a
hotel where the air compressor furnished compressed air to raise the
water from the deep well into a tank, whence a steam pump lifts the
water to a reservoir, not shown.
[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Wooden tank.]
_Water tanks._
The standard form of wooden tank in which water may be stored and from
which it may be delivered to the house fixtures is pictured in Fig. 51.
Figure 52 shows a galvanized iron tank for the same purpose. The tables
appended, taken from catalogues of firms building such tanks, show the
dimensions, weights, and costs of the two kinds of tanks.
TABLE XV. DIMENSIONS AND LIST PRICES OF WATER TANKS.
WOODEN STAVE TANKS
======+=======+=========+=====+======+=============+=============+=============
| | | | | 1-1/2 In. | 2-In. | 2-In.
Length| | | |Price | Cypress | Cypress | Pine
Of | Dia. | | No.|Galv. +------+------+------+------+------+------
Stave,|Bottom,|Capacity,|of |Hoops,|Weight| |Weight| |Weight|
Feet| Feet | Gallons |Hoops|Extra | Lb. | Price| Lb. | Price| Lb. | Price
------+-------+---------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
2 | 3 | 66 | 2 |$ .30 | 105 |$ 9.30| 127 |$12.00| 110 |$10.50
3 | 3 | 108 | 3 | .40 | 146 | 12.00| 182 | 15.00| 157 | 13.20
2 | 4 | 125 | 2 | .35 | 150 | 14.30| 186 | 17.50| 160 | 15.50
4 | 4 | 283 | 4 | .65 | 260 | 21.00| 321 | 26.00| 277 | 23.00
2 | 5 | 207 | 2 | .45 | 190 | 19.80| 240 | 24.00| 207 | 21.00
2-1/2| 5 | 272 | 3 | .65 | 247 | 21.30| 305 | 26.00| 263 | 23.50
3 | 5 | 337 | 3 | .65 | 267 | 22.80| 332 | 28.00| 287 | 25.00
4 | 5 | 467 | 4 | .85 | 342 | 25.80| 425 | 32.50| 367 | 28.50
5 | 5 | 597 | 4 | 1.00 | 409 | 28.90| 508 | 37.00| 438 | 32.00
2 | 5-1/2| 252 | 2 | .50 | 233 | 22.50| 317 | 27.50| 251 | 24.00
2-1/2| 5-1/2| 312 | 3 | .75 | 275 | 24.00| 341 | 31.70| 294 | 28.00
2 | 6 | 304 | 2 | .50 | 265 | 23.50| 331 | 28.00| 284 | 25.00
2-1/2| 6 | 400 | 3 | .75 | 310 | 26.30| 387 | 31.00| 334 | 28.00
4 | 6 | 688 | 4 | 1.25 | 443 | 31.80| 546 | 41.00| 473 | 35.00
5 | 6 | 880 | 4 | 1.40 | 520 | 36.90| 645 | 48.00| 557 | 41.00
6 | 6 | 1072 | 5 | 1.60 | 600 | 42.00| 744 | 55.00| 642 | 47.00
2-1/2| 7 | 550 | 3 | .85 | 381 | 29.00| 475 | 38.00| 409 | 32.00
5 | 7 | 1210 | 4 | 1.60 | 630 | 45.00| 780 | 58.00| 675 | 50.00
6 | 7 | 1474 | 5 | 2.00 | 738 | 51.50| 910 | 66.00| 789 | 56.50
7 | 7 | 1738 | 6 | 2.35 | 829 | 58.00|1028 | 74.00| 889 | 63.00
2 | 8 | 551 | 2 | .80 | 408 | 31.00| 506 | 40.00| 436 | 35.00
2-1/2| 8 | 725 | 3 | 1.20 | 472 | 35.00| 587 | 45.00| 507 | 39.00
6 | 8 | 1943 | 5 | 2.60 | 880 | 61.00|1083 | 78.00| 938 | 68.00
8 | 8 | 2639 | 7 | 3.50 |1113 | 76.00|1363 | 97.00|1193 | 84.00
9 | 9 | 3825 | 8 | 5.20 | | |1770 |124.40|1539 |108.00
6 | 10 | 3093 | 5 | 4.30 | | |1458 |107.00|1266 | 91.00
8 | 10 | 4200 | 7 | 6.20 | | |1867 |131.00|1630 |113.00
10 | 10 | 5308 | 9 | 8.10 | | |2277 |155.00|1994 |135.00
12 | 10 | 6516 | 11 |10.00 | | |2653 |179.00|2323 |157.00
6 | 12 | 4494 | 5 | 6.30 | | |1930 |138.00|1685 |120.00
10 | 12 | 7714 | 9 |11.35 | | |2910 |200.00|2555 |174.00
12 | 12 | 9324 | 11 |14.00 | | |3393 |231.00|2984 |201.00
======+=======+=========+=====+======+======+======+======+======+======+======
GALVANIZED IRON TANKS
=====+========+==========+==========+========+========
| Height | Diameter | Capacity | Weight |
No. | Ft. | Ft. | Bbl. | Lb. | Price
-----+--------+----------+----------+--------+--------
150 | 5 | 8 | 60 | 475 | $ 47.50
151 | 6 | 6 | 41 | 340 | 35.00
152 | 6 | 8 | 72 | 530 | 52.50
153 | 8 | 6 | 54 | 430 | 43.00
154 | 8 | 8 | 96 | 640 | 65.00
155 | 8 | 10 | 150 | 875 | 85.00
156 | 10 | 8 | 120 | 750 | 73.00
157 | 10 | 10 | 180 | 970 | 95.00
158 | 10 | 12 | 270 | 1400 | 128.00
159 | 12 | 12 | 324 | 1600 | 150.00
=====+========+==========+==========+========+========
There are many combinations and forms of these structures, and a
detailed description of their characteristic construction and cost would
occupy too much space for this present work. By referring to the pages
of any agricultural, architectural, or engineering magazine,
advertisements may be found of firms who build such towers and who may
be depended upon for satisfactory work.
[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Iron tank.]
If the tank is to be placed inside a building, it may be built of steel
or of wood, although a lining of lead, copper, or galvanized iron is of
advantage in the latter case. If the tank is out of doors, protection
against frost must be carefully attended to, both to prevent an ice cap
forming in the tank--the cause of many failures of tanks--and to
prevent standing water in the connecting pipes being frozen. If the tank
is to be placed inside the building, care must be taken to have it
water-tight and to have the supports of the tank ample for the excessive
weight which will be thereby imposed. Wooden tanks are likely to rot,
and if left standing empty, become leaky. They are, therefore, less
worth while than iron tanks.
[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Hand pump applied to air-tank.]
_Pressure tanks._
A simple and very satisfactory method of storing water, and at the same
time making provision for pumping water, is to place in the cellar or in
a special excavation outside the cellar a pressure tank similar in shape
to an ordinary horizontal boiler. The water in this tank is forced up
into the house through the agency of compressed air, pumped in above
the water, either by hand or by machinery, and in some cases
automatically regulated so that the air pressure in the tank remains
constant, no matter whether the tank contains much or little water. The
village supply of Babylon, Long Island, is on this principle, the tanks
there being eight feet in diameter and one hundred feet long,--much
larger, of course, than is needed for a single house.
[Illustration: FIG. 54.--Engine applied to air-tank.]
The accompanying diagram and figures show the method of installing this
system, which is known generally as the Kewanee system, although a
number of other firms than the Kewanee Water Supply Co. are prepared to
furnish the outfit necessary.
[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Windmill connection with tank.]
How the air-tank may be used in connection with a hand force pump is
shown in Fig. 53. The water is pumped from a well into the tank, usually
in the cellar, whence it flows by the pressure in the tank to all parts
of the house. Figure 54 shows the tank with a gas engine and a power
pump substituted for the hand pump. Figure 55 shows the using of a
windmill in connection with the tank and also shows the relation of the
tank to the fixtures in the rest of the house.