For mounting specimens, five or six small pieces of the finest and

most transparent gum tragacanth, or "gum dragon," with rather less

than the same number of pieces of clear gum arabic, are to be put in

a wide-mouthed bottle with about a large wine-glassful of cold water.

In a short time (twenty-four hours at most) the gum absorbs the fluid

and swells; then add half as much more water, and stir the mixture,

which, on being left for another twenty-four hours at most, will be

ready for use. The mixture should be dull white, of even texture,

and not quite fluid. Never make a large quantity at one time, or be

persuaded to put _anything_ else into it. Card for mounting should be

the whitest, smoothest, and best that can be procured. "Four-sheet

Bristol board" for large specimens, and three-sheet for ordinary use,

are about the proper degrees of thickness. Robersons, of Long Acre,

artists' colourmen, have promised the writer to turn out cardboard of

this kind with an extra milling, to ensure a good surface. Upon strips

of this card, pinned on a setting board, the insects to be set out are

mounted, one at a time, and not too close to each other, each on a

separate "dab" of the gum, the limbs being duly set out with a fine pin

or needle mounted in a paint-brush stick. A pin with the point very

finely turned, so as to form a minute hook, is very useful; and for

extremely minute work a "bead-needle" is valuable. The gum-brush should

not be used in setting, but one or two very fine-pointed camel's-hair

brushes may be found of advantage. Before mounting, reverse the

specimen on the blotting-paper, and brush out its limbs as far as

practicable with a damp flat brush. Very refractory individuals may

require to be gummed on their backs; as soon as the gum is dry, their

limbs can be more easily got into position, and they can then be gently

damped off their temporary mount, and treated as above.

A small pair of brass microscope-forceps, ground or cut to a minute

point, will often materially assist in getting refractory limbs into

position. French white liquid glue (not made of shell-lac) is useful

for fastening down larger specimens, as it is very strong and dries

readily; and with a very small quantity of it rows of specimens can

quickly and securely be roughly mounted, in the Continental way, which

is preferable in many cases to leaving the insects for a long time

in laurel before setting them out. Such specimens can afterwards, if

desired, be relaxed by leaving them on damp sand, or in the cyanide or

laurel bottle, and be then set in the way above indicated.

Care must be taken, in setting, not to put the specimen lop-sided

on the card, or to distort its segments unnaturally by pulling them

out of position, &c., and not to allow gum to lodge anywhere on

the upper surface. It is easy, soon after a specimen is securely

mounted, to remove with clean water and brush any superfluous gum. In

preparing such insects as are liable to "run up" in drying (e.g. the

_Staphylinidæ_), the abdomen should be duly pulled out by a bead-needle

inserted at its apex; and to prevent the contraction of the internal

muscles in drying, this part may be held with the liquid glue above

mentioned. Usually, by putting these insects as soon as mounted into

a box and keeping it closed for a few hours, while the first drying

takes place, the proper dimensions of the abdomen may be preserved,

and thus the natural facies of the insect retained. The contents of

the bodies of very large insects may well be removed, either by the

anal orifice, or by an incision on the lower side of the abdomen. The

Oil-beetles (_Meloë_) alone require careful stuffing. This is best

done by separating the entire abdomen from the metathorax, beneath the

elytra, and close to their point of insertion: the body is then easily

emptied and washed out, and may be filled with cut-up wool, which packs

closely; when gummed on again, the junction is not visible, and the

entire insect preserves its wonderfully obese appearance.

To save time, in mounting many specimens, it is better to merely gum

straight on the strip of card as many specimens as can be managed

at a sitting. The left side of each of these can then be slightly

damped with clear cold water, and its left limbs set out: when all

are thus done, the first one will be nearly, if not quite, ready to

have its right side treated in like manner; and so on to the end. Very

refractory specimens will sometimes require to be even held down with

little braces of card on pins, and to have each limb damped and set out

by a separate operation. The card of large specimens will often curl

upwards in drying, owing to the amount of damp: to counteract this,

the lower face of the card may be washed with a wet brush, just before

gumming its surface.

Before putting insects away, when dry, the individual specimens should

be cut off the strips of card by a straight cut on each side, one at

right angles to the sides in front, and another behind, all (except the

last) close to the tips of the limbs as set out, so that the whole card

forms a parallelogram. A very little practice will enable the operator

to do this both certainly and quickly. No two individuals (save perhaps

a male and female, of whose sexual relations there can be no doubt, or

an example mounted on its back, to show its under side, along with a

member of the same species) should be allowed to continue on one card;

much less should a row be left together. The reason of this is, that in

many cases species closely resembling each other often get confused;

and it is, moreover, difficult to get a glass of anything but a very

low power to bear upon all parts of the individuals without injuring

some of them. Each specimen should have sufficient card left _behind_

it to allow of a glass of high power being passed between it everywhere

and its pin. The pin should perforate the card in the middle of, and

close to, its hinder margin; and the whole card be lifted three-fourths

up the pin, to keep it from mites and dirt as much as possible. Proper

entomological pins can be obtained of all sizes at the agents of

Edelsten, 17, Silver Street, St. Martin's-le-Grand; also (with all

other apparatus) of any natural-history agent or dealer in London;

such as Mr. E. W. Janson, 28, Museum Street, or Cooke, New Oxford

Street. "No. 8" pin is, perhaps, the most useful size. In removing many

specimens, proper insect forceps will be found handy: these can be

obtained at the two last addresses; or of Buck, cutler, Tottenham Court

Road.

Specimens will occasionally become discoloured with grease, usually

from defective drying, though many water beetles and internal feeders,

and most autumn-caught specimens, are specially liable to this defect.

Benzine is an effectual remedy for it and for mites, and can be

liberally applied with a brush. Carbolic or phænic acid, dissolved in

that fluid (or alone, see p. 64), is an effectual safeguard against

mould from damp; and when in solution with water, this acid has been

found useful as a wash for card and boxes, which then are not attacked

by mites. To re-card a specimen that has become discoloured (whether

from either of these causes, or from age), it is only necessary that

it should be floated in cold water for a few minutes; the insect can

then be dried, well saturated with benzine, and again mounted, looking

as fresh as ever. But, in re-carding specimens, it is necessary to be

very careful with such as were originally kept too long in a laurel or

cyanide bottle, as they are apt to become so rotten that a little damp

will cause a "solution of continuity."

As to storing the specimens when quite dry, I can add nothing to the

excellent observations of Dr. Knaggs, at p. 65; the same remarks

applying with equal force to _Coleoptera_; except, perhaps, that, even

when the collector has (and is satisfied with) a cabinet, he is likely,

in proportion to the _real_ work done by him, to establish type-boxes

of all the difficult groups.

For the examination of insects, readily manipulated by being pinned

singly on a square, flat, thick piece of cork or bung, a pocket

glass is, of course, necessary. In this case, the best instrument is

the cheapest in the long run, whatever its cost; and one by a good

maker, such as Ross, with modifications of four powers, will suffice

for any ordinary work. For very small species, a Coddington, of the

clearest definition and highest power attainable, is of immense help.

But when the collector finds that he needs a compound microscope

to separate species, it is the firm opinion of the present writer

that that collector had better take to some other pursuit than

studying _Coleoptera_. To anyone, however, whose researches entail an

examination of the minute cibarian and other organs of beetles, whether

for purposes of classification or otherwise, the compound is absolutely

necessary; though even then the lower powers are usually sufficient.

For rough dissection, all that is needed are an oculist's very small

lance-headed dissecting-knife and a stout and fine needle. With these,

under a lens mounted on a little stage to allow the free use of both

hands, much may be done. The writer, however, has seen and used a very

pretty (and comparatively inexpensive) dissecting-stand, with various

powers and much latitude of motion, by Ross.

After mentioning that, in sending mounted beetles by post to

correspondents, it is far more practical to use a _strong_ box, not too

deep, to fasten the pins securely, with a layer of manufactured wool in

the lid (glazed side towards the beetles, so as not to catch limbs),

and to put more wool outside, and write the address and affix the stamp

on a label attached, than it is to pack carelessly, write "With care"

outside,[F] and then grumble at the post-office because the insects are

broken,--I think I cannot, with use, say anything more upon beetles in

their preserved condition; and I will therefore now give some hints as

to their haunts when alive.

[F] It is, however, always as well to write "Insects," signifying

contents that are "caviare to the million," and therefore not likely to

be appropriated en route.

To exhaust the accidental-capture system above alluded to, mention must

first be made of sand-pit collecting, a most profitable employment,

especially in spring and early summer. A clean, straight-sided

silver-sand pit is the best, and if in or near a wood its attractions

will be at their highest. Beetles, flying of an evening and by night,

dash against the pit sides and fall to the bottom; others merely crawl

in for shelter, or tumble over the sides, and many seem attracted by

the mere damp at the bottom or in the corners. Old collectors used

to recommend a sheet spread out to attract insects; and there is no

doubt that a certain number can be found by such means, just as they

can be picked up floating on horse-troughs or on ponds. Artificial

traps exist in the corridors of the Crystal Palace, some half-inclosed

country railway stations, and such places; crawling up the windows of

which many specimens are to be found. But these can only be considered

as indications of what species occur in the district, as they are

mere stragglers. Deliberately laying traps in sand pits, on commons,

&c., will be found most productive. Small dead animals, fir branches,

dead leaves, &c., can be examined time after time with profit in such

situations. Burying a stout branch with the bark on, leaving the top

above the soil, and periodically examining it when damp and nearly

rotten, has been found effective; many insects collecting beneath the

loose wet bark.

After heavy floods, as during severe droughts, beetles may be found

in great profusion; in the former case, by sifting the refuse left by

the water; in the latter, by diligently examining the damp residuum

of former ponds, and if no damp be found, by even searching below the

surface where it last occurred.

The wet hay, often decayed and mouldy, at the bottoms of stacks, which

bad farmers have placed directly on the ground, will be found to teem

with beetle-life; as will the margins of dung and vegetable-refuse

heaps, wood-stacks, cut grass, &c.; and many good things may be taken

by gently waving a light gauze net to and fro, just before sunset,

close to such places, whither the instinct of nature impels the flight

of myriads.

In winter, isolated tufts of grass in wet places, on the margins of

streams, the crests of banks, &c., must be cut close to the ground, and

gently torn in pieces over brown paper. Wherever many insects seem to

be found, it will in most of these cases be found advisable to sift the

fragments, and bring home the beetles and small stuff unexamined in a

bag with a string at the neck to prevent their escape. Moss should be

treated in this way, and the layers of black and rotting leaves found

in woods, especially at their outskirts. Beech leaves usually produce

many species, and the autumn and spring are the best times for hunting

for them.

In winter, also, many species will be found hybernating in grass at the

roots of trees, under bark, &c., in conditions not usual with them at

other times.

In autumn, fungi, in woods especially, will be found most productive.

General sweeping, except during the winter, will always be more or

less remunerative. No general rules can be laid down for this; in a

good neighbourhood (on chalk or sand, or, better still, in a district

where both these soils are found) beetles will swarm almost anywhere

in due season, and the most unlikely-looking spots will frequently be

found the best in the end. In luxuriant herbage, among low shrubs,

in the close-growing vegetation of hill-sides, the sweeping net may

be plied with success; but the best way, with all _Phytophaga_ at

least, is to start with a fixed idea as to catching certain definite

species, and then, at the right time, to hunt for such plants as these

are known or supposed to frequent; and, such failing in the district,

to try their allies. Of course, the collector will not fail to sweep

flowers in woods and lanes, whereon, in the hot sunshine, many showy

beetles bask. Many good things will be found by sweeping under fir

trees, especially towards evening, and even by night; in many places,

especially marshes, nocturnal feeders may be secured by the vague use

of this net. By night, also, many species may be found at sugar put on

trees for moths, and on ivy or sallow-blossom.

Beating is most productive in early summer, especially in the second

year's growth of young cuttings in woods; and the oak, hazel, and

poplar will generally yield many species to the tap of the stick.

Good thick, and especially _old_ hedges, must also be always carefully

thrashed into the net; very many good things, otherwise not procurable,

will reward this toil. Another scheme for getting rare species is to

beat the tops of trees with a long pole, placing beneath a sheet or

tent covering.

Breaking away the extreme edges of banks, throwing water on them,

treading heavily on the margins, diligently examining grass and roots

close to the water, reeds (especially if cut and on the ground in

heaps), &c., will bring to light great numbers of wet-loving beetles.

Water beetles, pure and simple, must be dragged and dredged for,

especially round water plants beneath the surface, and along the sides

of ponds, in eddies of running streams, in the moss on stones in them,

and on the stones themselves, &c.

The _Coprophaga_ will be found readily in the droppings of various

_Mammalia_, and also in holes bored in the ground beneath, often

to a great depth. An easy and clean way to secure them is to throw

droppings, ground and all, into water, the beetles coming to the

surface.

As to wood beetles, they must be sought for under and in bark, in solid

wood, in decaying branches, and such places; a rule to be remembered

is, that most of these occur at the _tops_ of trees: hence the paucity

of so many species in collections. Indeed, to properly hunt for the

majority of them, it is necessary to obtain _carte blanche_ and a

ladder, if any success be hoped for. Felled trunks are, of course, easy

to manipulate; and their freshly-cut stumps, exuding either resin or a

peculiar and often sweet _mucor_, are very attractive to many beetles,

as is freshly-cut sawdust, and most especially the (to us) fetid and

acrid juice resulting from the attacks of the larva of the Goat-moth.

Rotten fruit, &c., are also not to be passed by without examination.

Many small species occur in, or can be obtained from, the topmost twigs

of trees blown down by the wind.

Dead animals, as before mentioned, must be examined, as must the

vegetation and soil near them. A keeper's tree in a wood will always

produce something for the collector, who need only hold his net

beneath the gibbeted _feræ_ and bang their hides and bones with

his beating-stick. During different stages of decomposition and

desiccation, beetles of widely varied affinities will result from this

method of collecting.

Ants' nests would require a special notice, so productive are they:

their material can be sifted and their neighbouring "runs" or paths

examined, traps laid near or on them, and periodically cleared out,

&c. Bees' and wasps' nests also produce good, though fewer species,

and are, moreover, not quite so easy of access. The nests of birds,

especially if the latter are gregarious, and, indeed, the habitations

of any animals, will be found to harbour many beetles, amongst other

insects.

In gardens, the beetle collector should lay cunning traps of cut grass,

twigs, planks, bones, &c.; by a periodical examination of which he will

secure many good things. If there be a hothouse about the premises, it

and its belongings will always act as a bait.

Large tracts of waste land and commons, though superficially apparently

unproductive, often contain congregations of good species, in some

little oasis of damp or vegetation; moreover, on them several peculiar

beetles occur. Hills and mountains will often suddenly repay the toil

of the collector, who has despondently worked his way up, turning over

stones, and finding comparatively nothing. The moss, &c., attending the

channels of any streams in such places should be carefully searched,

and the stones on the top especially not neglected. River banks and

salt marshes are invariably frequented by good insects, and the very

heaps of seaweed, dry or wet, on the shore harbour countless beetles.

In such places small sand-loving plants should be pulled up by the

roots, and, with the neighbouring soil, shaken over brown paper. The

sand itself may in many instances be scraped, and burrowing beetles

brought to light; but if the hunter comes upon a dead fish or bird, a

full bottle will be his.

Thus it will be seen that almost every locality contains beetles,

if the collector can only detect them (and it may be as well here

to impress on him that it is better to bottle a dubious insect and

examine it at home, than to reject it for being _apparently_ common).

Still there can be no doubt that certain soils and districts are much

more productive than others; for instance, most of the midland and

western counties, and some of the south-western, are not by any means

so prolific as the eastern, southern, and many parts of the northern

districts of Great Britain; clay being the worst of all soils for the

Coleopterist.

The collector will do well, after a first hurried "burst" at all

beetles that come in his way, to select a special group, and lay

himself out to work it carefully, buying or borrowing the works

of authorities upon it, and making himself master of the _botany_

connected with it, if it be a group of plant-frequenting habits. By

such a way of working, he will more quickly, though step by step,

acquire a good collection, and a stock of useful knowledge, than by

any other. He will of course keep a register of the date and place of

capture, and any peculiarity of habit of each insect he takes. Figures

of the date of the year (usually the last two are sufficient), followed

by another set, commencing with 1, will generally be quite enough;

corresponding entries being made in the first column of a ruled diary.

These figures may be written in ink on the under side of the card of a

mounted specimen, or on a circular disc of paper, pierced by the pin of

one too large to be carded.

VI.

HYMENOPTERA.

By John B. Bridgman.

Having been asked to give some instructions as to the method of setting

and preserving the aculeate _Hymenoptera_, it is with great pleasure I

comply, and I hope it may be the means of inducing others to collect

these insects. To begin at the beginning, it is almost needless to

state that the females of all of them (a few of the ants excepted)

are furnished with stings, but with very little care one need never

be stung. As Mrs. Glass says, "First catch your hare": so first I

shall give a few instructions where to look for and how to catch these

insects. All the apparatus necessary is a gauze ring-net, a cyanide

bottle, and a pocket full of small card pill-boxes; the cyanide bottle

is best made by wrapping a small piece of cyanide of potassium in two

or three thicknesses of blotting-paper, tying it round with cotton to

prevent it shaking out, then fixing it to the bottom of a wide-mouthed

flat bottle with sealing-wax, which is made to adhere firmly to the

glass by heating the glass carefully over a lamp, and then corking

it up. The pill-boxes ought to have the tops and bottoms fastened in

with liquid glue (a preparation of shell-lac). These are all that are

required to catch and bring home the game; which is to be looked for

at the flowers of trees, bushes, and plants--one season's experience

will teach the best, as some species frequent one, some another, and

some almost all. The flowers I have found the greatest favourites are

sallows, willows, sycamore, holly, blackthorn, bramble, hawkweeds,

ragwort, thistles, and umbelliferæ. Some bore in putrescent wood,

and must be looked for on or in the neighbourhood of old posts and

palings; some are to be found flying about dry banks, hard-trodden

pathways, on heaths, while old sand pits are favourite places; but

they should be sought for in any warm, rough, weedy spot; and some may

be obtained by digging them out of their burrows with a trowel. My

plan of proceeding, after having got one in the net, is to catch hold

of the net so that the insect is inclosed in a sort of sack, I then

uncork the cyanide, and introduce that into the sack, holding the net

firmly round the neck of the bottle, so that there is no other escape

for the insect from the net but into the bottle, then gradually work

the insect into the bottle and close the mouth with several folds of

the net, watch my opportunity and insert the cork: when the insect is

stupefied, which happens in a few seconds if the bottle is slightly

warm, I turn it into the pill-box. A word of caution: it is necessary

to be methodical in carrying the boxes. I always keep the empty ones in

my right-hand pocket, and the filled ones in the left-hand one, as, if

they are carried sometimes one way, sometimes another, sooner or later

a previously filled one will be opened to put an insect in, which will

result in the former tenant speedily making room for the new comer; and

my experience has been, if you do lose anything it is generally your

best capture.

Having got home with the left-hand pocket more or less filled, turn

the boxes out, preparatory to killing the contents, which must be done

with burnt sulphur. My mode of proceeding is as follows:--I stupefy

the contents of each box with chloroform, in a manner I will describe

farther on. Having stupefied them, I empty them all into a short,

wide-mouthed, round bottle, having a piece of glass tube put through

the cork; the mouth of the tube is plugged with cotton wool, not too

tight, to act as a strainer. I then put this in a Nabob pickle-bottle

(any other bottle will do as well), through the stopper of which I have

drilled a hole about a sixteenth of an inch in diameter, in which is

fixed a copper wire, having a shallow tin cup at the end. In this tin

cup is placed the sulphur. The tin cup is then held over the flame of a

lamp, gas, or candle, till the sulphur is burning, then put it into the

bottle and press it down. When all the oxygen is consumed the sulphur

goes out. Leave them for about three hours, take them out, and put

them into a damp box for twelve or more hours: they will then be in a

splendid condition for setting. To stupefy the insects I tip the lids

on one side, put them into the sulphur bottle, pour a drop or two into

the tin cup, and put it into the bottle. Be careful not to chloroform

them too much, as if killed so they become so rigid that it is with

difficulty they can be set.

Having killed them, there only remains to pin and set them. There are

various sizes of pins used; most collectors have fancies of their

own on this subject; I shall therefore only say what is my practice.

The pins I use are D. F. Tayler & Co.'s, New Hall Works, Birmingham;

No. 15 for bumble-bees only; the other sizes I find most useful are

15, 10, and 18. Some pin the insects straight, and some with the pin

inclining forward. Having pinned them, the next thing is to set them.

There are two ways of doing this; one is, cut an oblong square of stout

cardboard, and put a pin through one end; after the legs are stretched

out, this is put into the cork, one on each side, till the upper

surface of cork is just below the level of the wings, which are then

laid out on the card, and held there by a brace the same shape as the

table (see Fig. 28). If the insect has been properly killed, the legs

and antennæ will keep set out without the aid of pins; if not, this is

done with bent or straight pins, as may be necessary. The other way is

a "hymn of my own composing."

[Illustration: Fig. 28 Insect set with Table Braces.]

[Illustration: Fig. 29 Wood, with the Strips glued on.]

First take one of the strips of cork as sold at the shops, paper it on

both sides with thin soft paper; then take a piece of wood a little

larger than the cork, about half an inch thick; on this I glue strips

of cardboard, or thin wood, according to the size of the insect, side

by side, and as far apart as necessary (see Fig. 29). These being dry,

I glue the sheet of cork on to the top of the strips, which leaves it

looking like a succession of bridges. When this is dry the cork must be

cut through between the pieces first fastened on the wood. These pieces

are then taken out and glued to the wood (see Fig. 30); this leaves

many setting boards, something similar to the single rounded ones used

by Lepidopterists; but these are flat--they want to be just deep enough

for the insect and wide enough to allow the legs to be stretched out. A

little practice will soon determine the size. The wing I hold down with

small triangular braces. Each board will hold about seventy or eighty

insects; beneath I put the date they were set, and leave them on the

board about a month to dry, as if taken off too soon the wings spring.

Always put a label to each specimen, either with the date or a number

corresponding to one in a book, in which enter the date and locality.

[Illustration: Fig. 30. Ditto, side view. A, the same with the cork

glued on; B, cork; C, the same with the cork cut through at the dotted

lines in A, and fastened down.]

One more observation and I have done. Sometimes one comes across an

insect whose rigid wings seem to defy all attempts to set; in such

cases just press firmly at the back part of the thorax, between that

and the abdomen, towards the pin, and the wings will sometimes fly open

of their own accord, or will allow of their being easily set in the

required direction, which should always be set well forward.

VII.

LAND AND FRESHWATER SHELLS, ETC.

By Professor Ralph Tate, F.G.S., etc.

A young friend, desirous of entering upon one of the most accessible

natural history pursuits, that of the study of Land and Freshwater

Molluscs, begged of me some practical hints on the collection

and preservation of these objects of our woodlands, waysides,

and watercourses. Believing that this kind of work offers a good

stepping-stone to the study of nature in its more extended forms and

complicated relations, I was most anxious to help my tyro naturalist,

and that beyond his utmost expectations, as I made a few initiatory

trips with him in a search for the coveted treasures.

Our equipment was simple and inexpensive, consisting of a block-tin

saucepan finely perforated at the bottom, about six inches across, and

having a hollow handle of a size to receive firmly the end of a common

walking-stick--such a _dredge_ or a _sifter_ will cost ninepence or a

shilling at a tinman's; secondly, of a pocket lens; and lastly, of a

variety of boxes, and a bag to contain specimens of different sizes.

Thus provided, our first excursion had for its object an examination

of certain neighbouring ponds and streams. My pupil, guessing the use

of the perforated saucepan, makes his way to the nearest pond, fixes

the improvised handle, dashes in the _sifter_ with impatient ardour,

and having brought up a quantity of mud from the bottom, looked upon

the oozy mass with despair. Patience, my lad! Remember that the

pleasure of success in science is the higher the greater the labour

expended in obtaining the objects of our search. Expect failure now

and again, but do not be disheartened. _Ohne Hast ohne Rast_, should

be the motto of every naturalist. Now, shake the tin in the water,

keeping its rim just out of the water, dipping it down now and then.

That is well; thus you see that you have cleared off the mud, and what

you want is probably left behind along with the rubbish. What, nothing!

Come, try again; but this time scrape the sifter along the surface of

the mud, and I am confident that you will find something to reward you,

and with much less trouble and display of temper. In this way, after

repeated trials, a number of shells were secured and transferred to

the boxes. Then, after the first gush of excitement is over, we retire

to an adjoining bank to con over the spoils, and I to make mention

of the various habits of freshwater snails, and consequently of the

different modes of search. My young friend's enthusiasm is aroused by

the mention that a few large mussel-like shells are inhabitants of our

fresh waters, and great is his haste to be up and again doing, in the

hope of adding some of them to his stock. But in vain were his many

attempts to find them in the pond which had already yielded us such a

variety. "Do they live here?" is at last the anxious question. "No; but

let us away to yon sluggish brook, for it is in such that we may expect

to meet with them." "Now I see them. Are not those their ends just

peeping above the mud?" And full of eagerness he dashes in the dredge,

but with little result, excepting that of a dead shell or two. "Oh! how

can I get them? Shall I take off my shoes and socks and wade for them?"

"Well, you might secure them that way, and sometimes it is the only

way, but on this occasion I do not think it necessary. Come, we will

move a little higher up, where the stream is clear, and the shellfish

undisturbed. Observe the gaping ends of the shell, and thus I push the

end of the stout rod between the partially-open valves; now they close

upon the stick, and so we bring our prize holding on to the stick to

the bank."

"You will recollect," addressing my companion, "that in the muddy pond

we have just left, we chiefly got small bivalves and only a few snail

shells. I have already told you that water shells differ much in their

habits, and that consequently our search for any particular species, or

set of species, can only be successfully carried on when that knowledge

is our guide. Those little bivalves, and a few of the snails that we

have gathered, habitually live at the bottom, and will of course be

brought up in the dredge when that implement is dragged over it; but

there are many shells which live at or near the surface, and which

feed on the submerged and floating plants. Therefore we must seek out

a weedy pool if we would increase the variety of our collection." Such

a spot is reached; and the dredge is brought into requisition, anon

to snatch up a floating snail, or again to sweep over and through the

plants, varying our occupation by dragging to the margin the tangled

masses of weeds; by all of which means a considerable number of the

class of air-breathing water snails was obtained--admonishing my young

friend that this last plan does very well when the plants grow in dense

masses, because when thus interlaced they form a natural net to catch

those snails which on the slightest disturbance lose their hold upon

the weeds, and which would otherwise fall to the bottom.

Yet another plan remains to be pursued, one by which the few small

shells hiding among the roots of the plants may be secured. Obviously

the dredge misses such; but by pulling up the plants by their roots,

and well shaking them in the half-sunken sifter, we yet after all

obtain them.

From causes which need not be explained here, the shells living in some

ponds are all much eroded, or coated with a ferruginous deposit; it

will be desirable therefore to find out the localities where specimens

are in the best condition, so that you may have typical specimens for

comparison before an extensive collection is made.

Our experience is, that though a considerable number of species may

be obtained from a ditch or pond, yet a few are found as the sole

molluscan tenants of particular sheets of water; that lakes exhibit a

dearth of life, and that the greatest variety is often to be met with

in canals; but should a search be carried on in them, avoid the towpath

side, for reasons that a little thought will readily suggest.

Living near the sea, and within a short distance of wooded hill-sides,

we had within a limited area such a variety of physical features that

we were led to infer the existence of a rich molluscan fauna for the

neighbourhood. Our second excursion was devoted to a search for snails

along the sea margin and shores of the estuary. Proceeding along the

low sand-dunes--at first sight a most uninteresting spot--_Helix

caperata_, _H. virgata_, _Bulimus acutus_, and a few other snails, were

found clustering upon the low stunted vegetation in such numbers, that

handfuls might have been gathered within an area of a few square feet.

Leaving the seashore, our way led us over the foreshore of the mouth

of the river, crushing under our feet at every step shells of _Cardium

edule_, _Scrobicularia piperata_, and a few other bivalves which find

a congenial habitat in such situations. Gaining the muddy margins of

the higher part of the estuary, _Conovulus_ was looked for, and found

under the stones along the high-water mark. Higher up the river the

rejectamentum on its banks was carefully turned over, and we were

successful in securing a number of land shells. The animals, of course,

do not live in such places; but their empty shells, which alone were

found, had been brought down from the land surface by the agency of

the streams and tributaries of the river. Nevertheless such an _omnium

gatherum_ should demand attention, as its contents give an insight

into the character of the land and freshwater forms within the area of

drainage of the river.

The number of estuarine species which have a place in our works devoted

to British land and freshwater snails is very few, and the majority,

moreover, are confined to the margins of the tidal rivers in the south

of England. Thus _Assiminea Grayana_, _Hydrobia ventrosa_, and _H.

similis_, live on the mud banks beneath the shade of sedges and rushes,

skirting the Thames below Greenwich. To gather these small shells

singly is a tedious operation; but if a thin piece of flat wood, or

other substitute as the ingenuity of the collector suggests, be used to

scrape lightly over the surface of mud, transferring the mass to the

_dredger_, and washing in water, a number of specimens sufficient to

stock every private cabinet in the country may be obtained in a short

space of time.

For the third initiatory excursion our steps were directed inland, and

as we proceeded the hedgerows, mossy banks, and margins of watercourses

were diligently searched, finding a _Helix_ here, a _Pupa_ or a

_Succinea_ there. Gaining the woods, we turn over the damp leaves, grub

under the clumps of ferns and wood-rushes for small Helices, Pupæ, and

the like; scan the trunks of the trees for the climbing _Clausiliæ_,

_Bulimi_, and _Helices_, not unmindful that each little dirt-like mass

is probably a _Bulimus obscurus_, which, by covering its shell with

mud, thus exhibits a protective faculty, and often escapes detection.

Raise the rotting bark for _Balia_; lift the stones at our feet, or

roll away a log for _Helicella_, and other small shells which usually

live in such situations.

From all this we learn that each species affects certain stations, and

therefore, with the knowledge of the circumstances in which they are

found, we may set out with some definite idea as to what we are likely

to meet with; and, in consequence, when to collect and where to collect

are regulated by the unvarying habits of the objects of our search.

Now, a large portion of the life of most land snails is passed in a

state of sleep. Those living in open situations are inactive during the

heat of a summer's day, and when there is continued drought; but on the

first shower, or after the fall of dew at night, they recover and move

about in search of food. Cold acts much in the same way as heat, and

with the fall of the leaf they retire to winter quarters in crannies of

rocks, crevices of walls, under heaps of decaying vegetation, &c., or

bury themselves in the soil, there to hybernate till the genial showers

of spring awaken them.

The best time of the year for collecting is in the autumn, when the

shells are full-grown. Those collected in spring have lost much of

their original beauty by exposure to the rains and cold of the winter

months.

As regards the particular time of day to collect with advantage, it

has already been implied that a search in an open country should be

prosecuted after a shower of rain, or during early morn. In damp woods,

where throughout the day the air is sufficiently moist to maintain the

animals in full activity, no such considerations determine the best

time for collecting. In such places, light is usually the desideratum,

and consequently I have found that a search conducted at midday in a

clear sky has been amply rewarded.

Land snails exhibit a partiality for calcareous soils, not only by

those living on downs and hill-sides, but also by the woodland species.

Having spent the forenoons of three days in gathering slugs and snails

as before detailed, one evening was devoted to the preparation of the

specimens for the cabinet.

The first step was to remove the animals, and, as all know, it is

neither an easy nor a clean task to separate the living snail and

its house; but kill your snail, and the muscular connection with the

shell being severed, its whole body is readily taken out by means of a

pin--why, it is just like picking periwinkles; and if the proclivities

of our childhood's days are not entirely obliterated, cleaning out

larger snails from their shells will be a task requiring no teaching.

But, with regard to the smaller kind, it is another matter, and it will

be my duty to show you how to set about the work.

Now pick out those shells, the apertures of which are wide enough, as

it seems to you, to permit the removal of the dead body of the snail

by a pin. You may also place with them the larger bivalves. All these

we will boil to kill the animals; then strain off the water, and wash

with cold water. By this means the bodies contract, and being firmer

are not so liable to be broken in the process of removal. Shake the

water out of the empty shell, and place them before the fire to dry;

do not rub them, but particles of dirt may be gently flicked off by

the aid of a camel-hair brush. Thus we treat the larger snails. Now

for the mussels. Doubtless most of the dead bodies will have fallen

out between the open valves while in the water; should any remain, a

slight shaking of the shell held by the hand in the water will remove

the contained body. Taken from the water, the valves gape widely; dry

the inside and outside with a cloth, and having tape or cotton at

hand, close the valves by the pressure of the thumb and fingers of the

one hand, and with the end of the thread between your teeth, wind the

thread two or three times around the shell with the other; now tie the

thread as tight as you can. "Yes, I have done so, but still the valves

are not closed." True, this is because of the elasticity of thread. If,

however, you will take the precaution to wet the thread before tying,

you will find that the tie is more secure, and that there is less

difficulty in making the second knot.

With patience and a little skill, bivalves as small as _Cyclas cornea_

may be treated in this way. But the smaller _Pisidiums_, and some

of the minute snails, as _Carychium minimum_, may be prepared for

the cabinet by gently drying them in sand; too great a heat causes a

transfusion of the carbonaceous matter of the animal into the substance

of the shell, which is thereby discoloured.

There still remain for treatment such shells as _Clausilia_, _Bulimus_,

_Helicella_, some Helices, &c., the animals of which retreat, on the

least irritation, beyond the reach of a pin, and whose shells, indeed,

will hardly bear the rough handling almost necessary when a pin is

used. Their bodies might be dried within the shells, but if it be

possible to remove some portion only of the animal, an attempt should

be made to do so.

Land snails, when placed in water, do their best to effect an escape

from a medium so fatal to them; their efforts are usually exhibited by

stretching out their bodies to the utmost, swaying them to and fro

as if in search of a foothold. Taking advantage of this propensity,

the snails should be immersed in tepid water, because the majority,

after a day or two's confinement in the collecting boxes, will be in a

dormant condition, and warm water has a greater resuscitating effect

than cold. When all the snails are struggling to find a way out of

their unpleasant situation, gradually add hot water so as to kill or

paralyze them while in an extended state. They may now be thrown into

boiling water, the better to relax the muscular attachments, and the

bodies, or so much as will come away, dragged out by forceps, or a pin

passed through the foot. The shells may now be dried in sand, as before

mentioned.

In cleaning the shells of some species, great care is needed, so as

not to remove the hairs or bristles which clothe the surface of the

epidermis.

The shells of such snails as _Paludina_, _Cyclostoma_, &c., &c., would

be imperfectly illustrated without the opercula or lids which close the

apertures of their shells. Each one should be detached from the foot of

the snail, the interior of the shell plugged with cotton wool, and the

specimen gummed down in its natural position.

The preservation of slugs requires separate treatment, and I can give

but little additional information to that published in my 'British Land

and Freshwater Molluscs' an extract from which is subjoined:--

"As regards the internal shell, it may be obtained by making a conical

incision in the shield, taking care not to cut down upon the calcareous

plate, which can then be removed without difficulty. The animals

can only be conserved by keeping them in some preservative fluid;

but the great object to keep in view is to have the slug naturally

extended. Most fluids contract the slugs when they are immersed in

them. The slugs should be killed whilst crawling, by plunging them

into a solution of corrosive sublimate, or into benzine. Models in

wax or dough are sometimes substituted for the animals. A writer in

the 'Naturalist' gives a process for the preservation of slugs, which

he states to answer admirably, and to be very superior to spirit,

glycerine, creosote, and other solutions:--'Make a cold saturated

solution of _corrosive sublimate_; put it into a deep wide-mouthed

bottle; then take the slug you wish to preserve, and let it crawl upon

a long slip of card. When the tentacles are fully extended, plunge it

suddenly into the solution; in a few minutes it will die, with the

tentacles fully extended in the most life-like manner; so much so

indeed, if taken out of the fluid it would be difficult to say whether

it be alive or dead. The slugs thus prepared should not be mounted

in spirit, as it is apt to contract and discolour them. A mixture of

one and a half parts of water and one part of glycerine, I find to

be the best mounting fluid. It preserves the colour beautifully, and

its antiseptic qualities are unexceptionable. A good-sized test-tube

answers better than a bottle for putting them up, as it admits of

closer examination of the animal. The only drawback to this process

is, that unless the solution is of sufficient strength, and unless the

tentacles are extruded when the animal is immersed, it generally, but

not invariably, fails. Some slugs appear to be more susceptible to the

action of the fluid than others; and it generally answers better with

full-grown than with young specimens. But if successful, the specimens

are as satisfactory as could be desired; and even if unsuccessful, they

are a great deal better than those preserved in spirit; for, although

the tentacles may not be completely extruded, they are more or less

so'".

The Testacellæ I have treated in the following manner: by partially

drying them in sand, and removal of the soft parts through a cut in the

length of the foot, filling up with cotton wool and a renewal of the

drying.

Our land and freshwater snails have other structures besides their

shells which should claim our attention. These, which include their

jaws, tongues, and some other minute parts, are not so inaccessible

as one is at first too apt to consider, and are deservedly in favour

as microscopic objects requiring a low power. I shall assume that

the collector has preserved the bodies or the heads of the snails

in spirit, which he has removed from their shells in the process of

preparing them for his cabinet. He will take care to keep separate the

animals of each species.

A last word upon the mode of displaying the shells in the cabinet. Here

one has considerable choice, as they may be kept in open card trays,

or in glass-topped boxes, or gummed on cards, papered boards, or glass

tablets. Loose specimens admit of ready examination, whilst the method

of mounting permits an arrangement of individuals according to size and

locality, and is much to be preferred.

VIII.

FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS.

By James Britten, F.L.S.

PART I.

The kindred subjects of the collecting of plants and their arrangement

in the herbarium have been treated of over and over again, and it might

almost seem as though nothing further need be said upon the matter. But

in spite of all that has been written, it cannot be said that anything

like uniform excellence has been attained, either in the collecting

or drying of specimens: on the contrary, much carelessness is still

exhibited in both particulars, and the following remarks on the subject

may therefore be useful to some, at any rate, among the readers of

'Science Gossip.' It has been found impossible to treat both points

adequately in one paper, so, on the present occasion, we shall devote

ourselves to collecting, leaving the arrangement and matters connected

therewith for another occasion.

[Illustration: Fig. 31. Young Plant of _Ipomæa Quamoclit_

(from Decandolle's 'Organographie').]

The great aim to be kept in view in collecting is to obtain as perfect

and comprehensive a specimen as possible; that is, one showing every

part of the plant--root, leaves, flowers, and fruit. It is not always

practicable to show all these upon one specimen, and in such cases such

a number must be selected as will carry out this plan. The wretched

scraps with which some collectors content themselves are not only

useless to their owners, but annoyances to everyone who has to do with

them, or who is requested to pronounce an opinion upon them. Anyone

who has had anything to do with naming plants for 'Science Gossip' or

any other journal, which in this manner supplies information to its

subscribers, will be able to testify to the large number of persons who

do not scruple to send for determination single leaves, or a terminal

shoot of a flowering plant, or a pinnule of a fern without fruit;

a proceeding which is unfair to those to whom they are submitted,

inasmuch as they either have to risk their reputation for accuracy,

or to appear uncourteous by refusing to have anything to do with such

specimens.

[Illustration: Fig. 32. Lime (_Tilia Europæa_).]

[Illustration: Fig. 33. Beech (_Fagus sylvatica_).]

[Illustration: Fig. 34. Sycamore (_Acer pseudo-platanus_),

showing cotyledons and first and second pair of leaves.]

To begin at the beginning, How rarely do we find the embryo of any

species represented in a collection of dried plants? It ought to be

there, not only as essential to the complete presentment of the history

of the species, but as in certain cases indicating relationships which

are not apparent when the plant is more advanced. Those who have not

observed them would be surprised to find how much variety of form

exists in the cotyledons alone, from the fleshy cotyledons of many

of the Leguminosæ, the horse-chestnut, &c., to the foliaceous ones,

or seed-leaves, of other plants. Among the latter may be noted and

compared the lobed or palmate cotyledons of the lime (Fig. 32); the

glossy dark green, somewhat kidney-shaped ones of the beech (Fig.

33); and the pinnatifid ones of the common garden cress (_Lepidium

sativum_); the obcordate ones of the mustard or radish; the long,

narrow, thin ones of the sycamore (Fig. 34); the sinuous or corrugated

and bilobed ones of the walnut, and many more which will occur to the

observant reader, or which may be collected by anyone who will take

the trouble to watch the germination of plants. And by making such

collections, unexpected discoveries may arise, which will yet further

confirm what has been said about the variety in form and structure

even in these beginnings of growth. Plants which are, on account of

their general affinities, reckoned among the dicotyledons, may be found

on investigation to have but one cotyledon, as Dr. Dickson observed

to be the case with two of our butterworts, _Pinguicula vulgaris_

and _P. grandiflora_, the third species, _P. lusitanica_, being

dicotyledonous; or even to be acotyledonous, as is the case with the

dodder (_Cuscuta_). In the latter-named genus, it is of importance to

collect young specimens, as showing that the plant, although parasitic

as soon as it comes in contact with a suitable foster-plant, is of

independent origin. A search among young plants will no doubt lead to

the discovery of some abnormalities, such as tricotyledonous embryos

and other irregularities. Of some plants, such as the furze, the true

leaves can only be found at an early stage of growth; in others, much

variation may be noted in many points between the first leaves and

the more perfect ones which succeed them; some, as the holly, at once

developing leaves similar to those which are produced throughout the

life of the plant, and others going through many modifications before

the ultimate shape is attained, as in the ash, elder, ivy, maple, &c.

The roots or rhizomes also require to be much more fully represented

and carefully collected than is usually the case. In every instance

where the size of the plant does not prevent, the subterranean and

subaqueous parts should be carefully procured and preserved.

Dr. Trimen has lately directed attention to the corm-like tubers of the

water plantain (_Alisma_),[G] closely resembling those of the arrowhead

(_Sagittaria_), which have been described and figured by Nolte, but

"do not seem to have been observed, or at least properly understood,

in this country. They are buds remaining dormant through the winter,

and containing a store of nutriment, to be employed in the development

of the new plant from the tuber in the next year." Similar bulbs are

developed by the frogbit (_Hydrocharis_). In determining many grasses

and rushes, it is of importance to ascertain whether the rhizome is

creeping or cæspitose, and it is therefore essential to collect good

specimens. In the case of such plants as the coral-wort (_Dentaria

bulbifera_) and toothwort (_Lathræa squamaria_), the root-stocks

are eminently characteristic. Of such parasites as the broomrapes

(_Orobanche_), some care is requisite in obtaining specimens in which

the connection between the parasite and its foster-plant may be

preserved and shown. The absence or presence of tubers should also be

noted, and if present, they must be represented.

[G] 'Journal of Botany,' 1871, p. 306.

Passing on to the leaves, we may note the importance of obtaining

in every case the root-leaves of each species. These are often very

different in form from the stem-leaves, as in such species as the

harebell (_Campanula rotundifolia_), _Pimpinella saxifraga_, the

earth-nut (_Bunium flexuosum_), and many more; in some instances, as in

the Jersey bugloss (_Echium plantagineum_), they at once characterize

the species. Still more important are these lower leaves in the case of

water-plants: in the arrowhead (_Sagittaria_), for example, they are

narrow, and resemble those of the bur-reed (_Sparganium_); and in the

water plantain (_Alisma plantago_), the submerged leaves are equally

different from those which rise out of the water. This difference is

still more noticeable in the case of the aquatic _Ranunculi_, where a

knowledge of the submerged leaves is essential to the discrimination of

the various forms or species.

Where practicable, the whole plant should be collected for the

herbarium; but when, from its size, this cannot be accomplished, leaves

from the root, the centre of the main stem, and the lateral branches,

should be taken. As to the stem itself, that must be represented: in

the _Rubi_, indeed, it is essential. "To judge properly of a bramble

from a preserved specimen," says Professor Babington, "we require a

piece of the middle of the stem with more than one leaf; the base and

tip of the stem are also desirable, likewise a piece of the old stem

with the flowering shoot attached to it; the panicle with flowers,

and the fruit. We likewise want to know the direction of the stem

throughout, of the leaflets, and of the calyx; also the shape of the

petals and the colour of the styles: a note of these should be made

when the specimen is gathered."

Passing on to the flowers, we shall find it necessary to represent

them in almost every stage, from the bud to the perfecting of the

fruit. It is of course in most cases possible to select an example

in such a state as to show upon the same plant buds, flowers, and

fruits; but where this is not the case, each of these particulars must

be supplemented by additional specimens. The turn which botanical

investigation has recently taken towards the study of the phenomena

connected with fertilization has given the collector another subject to

which his attention may be profitably directed. It has been observed

that in some plants the stamens are developed before the pistils;

in others, the pistils are matured before the stamens; while in

yet a third set, stamens and pistils are simultaneously perfected.

These three groups of plants are termed respectively protandrous,

protogynous, and cynacmic, and a very little observation will show that

examples of each are sufficiently common.

Then in dioecious and monoecious plants, both male and female

flowers must be collected, and in some cases, as in the willows, four

specimens are necessary to the complete presentment of the species,

showing respectively the male and female catkins, the leaves, and

the fruit. Some plants produce two distinct forms of blossom, as is

noticeable in the violets and the woodsorrel, one being conspicuous

and usually barren, the other insignificant and often apetalous, but

producing perfect fruit. The pollen will afford occupation to the

microscopist: the researches of Mr. Gulliver and Mr. Charles Bailey

have demonstrated that important distinguishing characters are in some

instances furnished by it. While on this point it may be suggested

that it is convenient in many cases to collect several specimens of

the flowers alone, which, when dried, should be placed in a small

envelope or capsule, and attached to the sheet on which the plant is

represented. In the event of any examination which may be requisite

after the plant is dried, these detached blossoms will be found very

useful, and will prevent the necessity of damaging the specimen. In

the case of such plants as shed their corollas very readily, as the

speedwells, it is as well to put them in press as soon as collected;

and the colour of many may be retained by the same means.

The fruits and seeds of plants are too generally neglected by amateur

collectors, but are essential to the completeness of a specimen. It

may be found practically convenient to keep these in a separate place,

and detached from the plant; and in many cases of dried fruits it is

advisable to sort them into their places without previous pressing.

By this means the modes of dehiscence will readily be seen: pulpy and

succulent fruits should be preserved in spirit. In such plants as the

species of sea sandwort (_Lepigonum_), and some Chenopodia, important

specific characters are drawn from the seed; as they are from the pods

of _Melilotus_ and the fruits of _Agrimonia_. In collecting ferns,

well-fruited fronds must be selected, as it is impossible to determine

specimens without fructification. Grasses should be selected when in

flower and fruit, but must not be allowed to attain too great an age

before they are collected.

We have been speaking so far of the things to be collected, and space

will not allow us to dilate at any length upon the apparatus necessary

to that end. Nor indeed is this necessary; a good-sized vasculum, with

one or two smaller boxes for the pocket, in which the more delicate

plants may be preserved; a strong pocket-knife or small trowel, for

procuring roots, and a hooked stick wherewith to fish out water-plants,

or pull down branches, are the principal things required. To anyone

residing for any length of time, or even only for a few days, in a

district, a "London Catalogue" is an important acquisition, in which

should be marked off all the species met with; by this means the flora

of the neighbourhood is ascertained at a very slight expenditure of

time and trouble. It is not advisable to collect too many plants at

once, or to crowd the vasculum, unless under exceptional circumstances;

nor should the desire to possess rare plants tend, as is too often the

case, to the neglect and exclusion of commoner ones.

A careful and observant collector will frequently meet with forms

which deviate more or less from the accepted type of a species. When

these appear to offer any marked characters, they should be noted; and

in all cases it is well to preserve any forms which, from external

circumstances, have a different appearance from the normal state. The

differences produced by soil and situation alone are very considerable;

and though the essential characters are usually to be discerned,

the interest and value of a herbarium are very much increased by a

selection of examples showing the range of a species. _Campanula

glomerata_ offers a good example of this. In damp meadows it is from

one to two feet high, with a large spreading terminal head of blossoms,

while on chalk downs it does not attain more than as many inches, with

only one or two flowers; in this state it was described by Withering as

a gentian, under the name of _Gentiana collina_; and the same author

gives as _Campanula uniflora_ a one-flowered mountain state of the

harebell (_C. rotundifolia_).

The collector will also do well to keep a look-out for deviations in

structure, which are often of great interest. In short, nothing should

be neglected which can tend to the perfect presentment of a species in

the herbarium: its utility is commensurate with its completeness. The

mere collector may be satisfied with scraps of a rare plant and the

absence of commoner species; but the real worker will pride himself

rather upon the possession of instructive examples, which may be of

assistance to himself, as well as to all those who may consult them.

IX.

FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS.

By James Britten, F.L.S.

PART II.

We will assume that our collecting for the year has come to a close;

that the long evenings are beginning, and that our dried plants have

been brought together from their temporary resting-places to be revised

and selected from, so that they may be intercalated in their places in

the herbarium, if we already possess one, or, if we are as yet quite

novices, that they may form a nucleus around which the whole British

flora shall be gathered in due course. First of all, we must make all

necessary preparation for--

_Mounting_, the first essential to which is paper. Much of the neatness

of a herbarium depends upon its uniformity, so that it is desirable

to lay down a definite plan at the beginning and to act up to it

consistently. Amateurs often spoil specimens which they have collected

and preserved with considerable care by transferring them from one

sheet to another; from books--but it is only _very_ amateur botanists

who keep their plants in this way!--to loose sheets, from small paper

to large, and so on; each change being attended with some slight damage

to the specimen so treated. It is, I believe, the common practice on

the Continent to keep the specimens loose in folded sheets of paper;

but this plan is not followed in England, and although advantageous,

as permitting the fullest examination of the plant, it is attended

with much risk to the specimens in the way of breakage; so that we

may consider it settled that we are going to fasten our plant down

upon a sheet of paper. This must be rather stout, and large enough

to admit the full representation of the species. The sheets used at

the Kew Herbarium are 16-1/2 inches long by 10-1/3 inches wide; those

employed at the British Museum are 17-1/2 inches by 11-1/4 inches; but

the former will be found amply sufficient for our purpose. The next

consideration is the means by which the specimens are to be secured,

which are more various than might at first be supposed. Some persons

sew them to the paper; others place straps over them, which are secured

with small pins; but the choice practically lies between fixing the

whole specimen to the paper with gum, paste, or glue, or securing it

with straps of gummed paper. The former plan, which is that adopted at

our great public herbaria, is certainly better for specimens which

are likely to be much consulted; but the latter is in some respects

more satisfactory, if somewhat tedious, as it admits the removal of the

plant to another sheet if necessary, and delicate portions, such as

thin petals or leaves, are not injured as they are when gummed down. At

the British Museum and Kew a mixture of gum tragacanth and gum-arabic

(the former dissolved in the latter), in about equal parts, is used for

this purpose; but very coriaceous specimens are secured with glue at

the last-named establishment, while in the former the stems and ends

of branches are usually also secured with straps. When the specimen is

entirely gummed down, it is a good plan to keep a few extra flowers or

fruits in a small capsule attached to the sheet: these will be useful

if it is required to dissect such portions, and the specimen need not

be injured for such purpose.

_Poisoning._--Some persons are in the habit of employing a solution of

corrosive sublimate for the purpose of washing over their plants when

mounted, and so preventing the development of animal life. The solution

in use at the Kew Herbarium is composed of one pound of corrosive

sublimate, and the same quantity of carbolic acid to four gallons of

methylated spirit; this fulfils the purpose for which it is intended

very well, but is somewhat disagreeable to use. At the British Museum

it is found that the presence of camphor, frequently renewed in each

cabinet, is sufficient to prevent the attacks of insects. It will soon

be discovered that some plants, such, for example, as the _Umbelliferæ_

and _Grossulariaceæ_, are peculiarly liable to such attacks; and these

orders must be inspected from time to time, so that any insect ravages

may at once be checked. Damp is to be avoided in the situation of the

herbarium, as it favours the development not only of insects but of

mould, and renders the specimens rotten.

The question of _labelling_ is of some importance, especially to those

who value neatness and uniformity in the appearance of their herbarium.

One or two sets of printed labels for this purpose have been issued,

but they cannot be recommended. They give more than is necessary, e.g.

the English, or, more correctly, the book-English names, the general

habitats, and definite localities of rare species, and allow very

insufficient space for filling in the date and place of collecting,

the name of the collector, and such remarks as occasionally occur.

The plan of writing all necessary information upon the sheet itself

is a good one; but those who prefer a uniform series of labels will

find that a form like the following is as useful as any which they can

adopt, and includes all necessary information. The size here given

will be adequate for almost all requirements, and is a "happy medium"

between the small tickets upon which we have animadverted, and the

enormous ones with which some botanists think it necessary to accompany

their specimens. Care should be taken to avoid the possibility of a

misplacement of labels; many serious blunders have arisen from the

neglect of due precaution in this matter.

Herb. John Smith.

Ranunculus acris, L.

& R. Steveni, Reich.

Loc. Meadows near Barchester.

Date, June 30, 1874.

Coll. John Smith.

_Arrangement._--The plants, being now affixed to their respective

sheets and duly labelled, are ready to be placed in covers, and

rendered available for ready reference. Each genus will require a

separate cover, which may well be of somewhat stouter paper than

that on which the plants are mounted; the name of the genus should

be written at the left-hand corner, followed by a reference to the

page of the manual by which the plants are arranged, or to the number

which it bears in the "London Catalogue," if that be employed in

their arrangement--a purpose for which it is very suitable. Should

the species be represented by more than one sheet, it is convenient

to inclose each in a cover of thinner paper, which may bear the

number assigned to the plant in the right-hand corner; and it is

also convenient to write the name of the plant at the bottom of each

sheet, and to number it also in the right-hand corner. These details

may appear trivial, but they in reality affect in no small degree the

readiness with which any species may be referred to. Should the plants

be arranged in accordance with the "London Catalogue," a copy should be

kept with the herbarium, in which the plants should be ticked off, so

that it may serve as a catalogue of the species represented.

_Cabinets._--It will of course be necessary to provide some

accommodation for our specimens, and for this purpose we shall find

no better model than the cabinets in use in the Botanical Department

of the British Museum. The accompanying figure (drawn to scale) is an

exact representation of one of these. The measurements can of course

be modified so as to suit the size of the herbarium sheets. Each

shelf is a separate drawer, which with its contents can be taken out

and replaced at will. Two cabinets such as that figured will be found

amply sufficient to contain a very good British herbarium. At Kew the

cabinets employed are somewhat similar, but their height is greater and

the shelves are fixed.

[Illustration: Fig. 35. Cabinet for Herbarium Sheets.]

The above are the principal points connected with the arrangement of a

herbarium, considered as distinct from the work of collecting. It is

possible that I may have omitted to touch upon certain details which

may occur to the amateur; should such be the case, I may add that I

shall be happy to supply any additional information, either by letter

or by word of mouth; or to show the system adopted at the British

Museum to anyone who may call upon me there for further hints upon the

subject.

X.

GRASSES, ETC.

By Professor Buckman, F.G.S., etc.

Grasses form such a distinct group of plants, and their study is so

often undertaken for special purposes, that a few remarks upon their

collection and preservation can hardly be considered as out of place in

this little manual.

Delicately as grasses are formed, yet it cannot be said that their

tissues are so liable to injury, or their colours so evanescent, as

those of the flowering plants which the botanist ordinarily delights

in. Nor indeed are the grasses so succulent as many other herbs. In

this respect they may be said to hold a place between ferns and those

plants which usually are called flowers.

Again, in the dried state their organs are generally so well preserved

as to present all that a botanist can wish for, for identification

as well as arrangement; and the student of grasses ever finds his

collection to contain beauties not only in point of rarity, but as

regards delicacy of structure and grace of outline.

Viewing them in this light alone, we have often been astonished that

so many students of plants pay so little attention to them, and this

feeling is enhanced when the great value of the grasses is considered.

If then a few simple directions for preserving these plants shall have

the effect of winning a convert to these views, we shall be delighted;

and to this end we shall make our descriptions as plain as our process

has ever been easy and simple, and yet complete.

In collecting grasses, as in other tribes of plants, it will be

necessary that our specimens should be chosen with the view to exhibit

every feature of interest. With this aim, then, it will be best in the

general way to obtain as much of the plant as possible, so that it

may be necessary to get them up by the roots. Still, in many species

the root is not of much importance: but there are a few which possess

rhizomata, or underground stems; such as the _Triticum repens_, _Poa

pratensis_, _P. compressa_, _Holcus mollis_, _Agrostis stolonifera_,

and others. These should always exhibit these parts; and as such

examples are usually agrarian, it is easier to mark down desirable

specimens and seek a fork at the neighbouring farm-buildings wherewith

to completely get them out, than to carry any substitute in a smaller

and less perfect implement.

Haying made these remarks, we will suppose that we are now about to

sally forth in search of grasses; in which case we make the following

preparations.

As we do not file our copy of the 'Times' we make use of it as

collecting-paper as follows:--Each side of the paper is cut in two,

or, as a Cockney would say, "in half." Each half is then folded into

a double collecting-sheet, and as many of these are taken as are

likely to be useful. In each of these papers is put a small slip of

writing-paper, on which to note the locality and any other noteworthy

fact connected with a specimen when put in the paper. These papers,

separately folded, are placed with the open ends inwards in a

convenient portfolio, and the collector is ready to take the field.

Of course there will be those who will advocate Bentall's drying-paper,

blotting-paper, and so on, and we would not have it supposed that we

despise these luxuries; but as we have found the plan advocated always

to answer the purpose for grasses, we have felt independent of the more

refined collecting-papers.

Now let us suppose that we have gathered fifty specimens, and have

returned home. The next thing will be to put them as soon as may be in

a position for drying.

Our drying apparatus then consists of half-a-dozen smoothly planed

deal boards, and for our first collection we take two of these, and

upon one we lay some few folds of our old 'Times' then a specimen

in their papers (having previously improved their arrangement, when

necessary), and then some more folds of paper, and proceed as before,

until all the specimens have been placed; then put a board on the top

sheet, and upon that a stone, or a 7 or 14 lb. weight, according to

the size and quantity of the specimens. If another day's collection of

specimens be made before the foregoing are dry, they may be arranged in

the same way on the top board, and another board used and the weight

replaced. The object of this is to keep partially dried from fresh

specimens, the putting together of which is a fertile source of mildew

and decay.

In arranging our specimens for the herbarium, we procure sheets of

cartridge paper 18 inches long by 11 inches wide, using a folded sheet

for each species.

In these papers the specimens are fastened down in the following manner:

Gum over a portion of the cartridge paper (so as to have the same

colour) with two consecutive coats of a clean solution of gum-arabic.

This can be cut into slips of any length and breadth, making them as

narrow as possible for the sake of neatness, and when the specimen is

placed in its paper, a few of these slips may be made to confine it in

the desired position. Each example is then to be labelled at the bottom

of the sheet, and each label should set forth--_a_, Its botanical

name; _b_, its trivial or local name; _c_, the locality whence it was

obtained; _d_, the date when gathered; added to which, if presented,

the donor's name.[H]

[H] Printed herbarium labels may be got at Messrs. Hardwicke and

Bogue's, the publishers.

The sheets so prepared may be arranged in groups or genera, each being

folded in convenient paper or cloth wrappers, and the whole arranged in

volumes of stiff covered portfolio.

This, then, is all that seems to us necessary in the collection and

preservation of grasses; but we would recommend the student, if an

artist, to make a typical specimen of each sit for its portrait. In

this way we have made drawings of all the species and varieties that

have come in our way.

Our drawings are life-size, usually lined in with Indian ink with a

fine "lithographic pen." These we partially colour on the spot.

The anatomical details are much enlarged and always fully coloured.

To this end our _impedimenta_ for a day among the grasses consist of,

besides the collecting portfolio, a sketching block, large octavo size,

and a small box of soft colours. Armed with these we have made many a

drawing of a grass under the shade of a tree, or in the parlour of some

contiguous inn.

Lastly, we would venture to remark, if, besides the interest which

grasses should have for the student of botany, these plants be viewed,

as they have ever been by us, as indicators of the nature of soil

and the value and capabilities of the land on which they grow, the

collector should not fail to make notes connected with the soil,

situation, and other practical facts connected with the habitats of

Grasses.

XI.

MOSSES.

By Dr. Braithwaite, F.L.S., etc.

In making a collection of the vegetable productions of a country we

find considerable differences in the structure of the various groups

of plants, and in the tissues of which they are composed; and hence

special manipulation is requisite in dealing with certain orders.

Some are of so succulent a nature, or have a framework so easily

disintegrated, that they contain within themselves the elements of

destruction, and present the greatest difficulty in satisfactory

preservation, while others are so slightly acted on by external agents,

that little trouble is required to prepare specimens of permanent

beauty.

The Ferns and Lycopods, being generally appropriated by the collector

of flowering plants, will be treated on with the latter, and following

these come the Mosses, to which we will now direct attention, taking

the alliance in its broadest sense, as including the three groups of

Frondose Mosses, Bog Mosses, and Liver Mosses, or Hepaticæ, all of

which are readily collected and preserved, and yield an endless fund

of instructive entertainment to the microscopist. But it may be asked,

Where is the game to be found? Where are the pleasant hunting-grounds

in which they most do congregate? We answer, everywhere may some

species or other be met with; yet, though many are cosmopolitan, the

majority have their special habitats, and some their special seasons,

both being considerably influenced by the presence of moisture.

_Collecting._--The bryologist has one advantage over the phænogamous

botanist, for it is not imperative that mosses should be laid out and

pressed immediately; and hence less care is required in collecting

them, than is bestowed on flowering plants; the necessary apparatus is

confined to a pocket-knife, to remove specimens from stones or trees,

a stock of stout waste paper, and a vasculum, or, better still, a

strong bag, in which to carry the packets. When collecting the plants,

it is well to remove any superfluous earth or stones, or to squeeze

out the water from those found in bogs; and then each is to be wrapped

separately in paper, and the locality marked outside; or the more

minute species may, for greater safety, be placed in chip boxes. On

reaching home, if we do not prepare the specimens at once, we must

not leave the parcels packed together in their receptacle, or mould

will soon attack them and spoil the whole; but we must spread them out

on the floor until quite dry, and then reserve them to a convenient

opportunity to lay out; as in the dry state they may be kept for years

unchanged.

It often happens that our line of study is developed by some fortuitous

circumstance. A neglected flowerpot in the corner of the garden

attracts attention by its verdant carpet of moss, or, peeping over the

wall, we see the crevices between the bricks bristling with capsules of

_Tortula muralis_, the red twisted peristome freshly brought to view

by the falling away of the lid, and, taking a bit indoors to submit to

the microscope, we are so captivated therewith that we then and there

determine to become a bryologist. Nor is this all that a journey round

the garden will disclose: the neglected paths yield other species not

less worthy of examination, and old apple-trees are not unfrequently

tenanted by mosses.

Extending our walks to the commons, lanes, and woods, we may find on

the ground and banks, in bogs and on the stumps and trunks of trees, a

number of species greatly extending our list; while others again are

only met with on the clay soil of stubble-fields, as various species of

_Pottia_ and _Ephemerum_: appearing in October, their delicate texture

is developed by the constant moisture of winter, and with it also they

vanish, to appear no more until the succeeding season. Travelling yet

farther away, we find that each locality we visit yields some novelty:

old walls and rocks of sandstone or slate, limestone districts, and,

above all, a mountainous country, are rich in species we seek in vain

elsewhere. Here peat bogs, and rocks dripping with water, ever supplied

by the atmosphere, or the tumbling streams everywhere met with, are the

chosen homes of these little plants, and thither must the collector

resort, if he would reap his richest harvest. Winter and spring in the

lowlands, and a later period in the elevated districts, will be found

most productive of fruiting plants.

_Preparation of Specimens._--So rapidly does the cellular texture

of the mosses transmit fluid, that, when soaked in water, we see

them swell up and expand their little leaves, and in a short time

look as fresh as when growing; hence a basin of water, a towel, and

drying-paper are all we require to prepare our specimens for the

herbarium. If the tufts are large, we must separate them into patches

sufficiently thin to lie flat, and by repeated washing, get rid of

adherent earth, mud, or gravel. This is conveniently accomplished by

holding the tuft in the palm of the hand, under a tap, and allowing a

stream of water to pass through it; then by pressure in the folding

towel we remove superfluous moisture and immediately transfer to paper,

arranging the plants as we wish them to lie permanently, and placing

with each a ticket bearing the name: a moderate weight is sufficient to

dry them, as with great pressure the capsules split, and thus the value

of the specimen is decreased. It not unfrequently happens that two or

three species grow intermixed: these must be carefully separated at the

time of soaking, and any capsules required to show the peristome must

also be removed before the plants are submitted to pressure.

_Examination of Specimens._--We have very much to learn about a moss

before we can become masters of all the characters that pertain to it

as a specific individual. We must observe its branching, the mode of

attachment of the leaves to the stem, and their direction; the form

and structure of a separate leaf, the position of the male flowers,

and, lastly, the position and structure of the fruit. For the efficient

determination of these we require a microscope (the simple dissecting

microscope is amply sufficient), a couple of sharp-edged, triangular

needles fixed in handles, and a few glass slides and covers. Having

soaked our specimen in water, we lay it on a slide, and by cutting

through the stem with one of the needles, close to the attachment of

a leaf, we can readily remove the leaf entire, and two or three may

be transferred to another slide, and placed in a drop of water under a

cover: the same thing may be roughly accomplished by scraping the stem

backwards with one of the needles; but in this way the leaves are often

torn.

[Illustration: Fig. 36. _Tortula muralis._

_a._ Leaf and its areolation. _b._ Capsule. _c._ Calyptra. _d._ Lid.

_e._ Male flower. _f._ Antheridia and paraphyses.]

By examination of a leaf we notice its form, the condition of its

margin, whether entire or serrated or bordered; the presence and

extent of the nerve; and lastly, and most important of all, the form

and condition of its component cells; and for this a higher power is

required. With a 2/3-inch object-glass and C eyepiece we can observe

their form, and whether their walls are thickened so as to render them

dot-like; their contents, whether chlorophyllose or hyaline; and their

surface, whether smooth or covered with papillæ; for often these points

are so characteristic, that by them alone we can at once refer a barren

specimen to its proper family or genus.

_Preservation of Specimens._--This may be discussed under two heads:

1st, as microscopic objects; 2nd, for the herbarium.

1. The parts required for microscopic examination are the capsules

and peristome, entire specimens of the smaller species, and detached

leaves. The capsules having to be viewed by condensed light, must be

mounted dry as opaque objects; and for this purpose I use Piper's

wooden slides, with revolving bone cover; and in one of these we

may fix a capsule with the lid still attached, another laid on its

side, but showing the peristome, and a third with the mouth of the

capsule looking upward, a position very useful for the species of

_Orthotrichum_, as we are thus enabled to see the inner peristome; and

with them also may be placed the calyptra: should the cost of these be

an object, a cheaper substitute may be found in shallow pill-boxes,

blackened on the inside.

To preserve the leaves in an expanded state we may employ the fluid

media used for vegetable tissues, or, when time is of consequence,

Rimmington's glycerine jelly is a convenient material in which to

mount them, a ring of dammar cement being first placed on the slide,

and within this the liquefied jelly, to which the expanded specimen

is quickly transferred, and the cover securely sealed by gold size.

Preparations of this kind are of the highest value as types for

comparison with actual specimens we may have for determination.

[Illustration: Fig. 37. _Ceratodon purpureus._

_a._ Male plant. 1. Leaf and its areolation. 2. Capsule. 3. Calyptra 4.

Two teeth of the peristome.]

2. In mounting specimens for the herbarium we must be guided by the

limits which we have fixed on for the extent of the same; and I may

first describe the method adopted for my own collection. Every

species has a separate leaf of cartridge-paper measuring 14-1/2 ×

10-1/2 inches, and on this the specimens are fixed, each mounted by

a little gum on a piece of toned paper; thus 4 or 6 to 12 specimens,

according to size, are attached to each leaf,--varieties have one

or more additional leaves; and to each is also fixed a triangular

envelope, inclosing loose capsules and leaves for ready transfer to the

microscope, and also a label indicating the name, habitat, and date of

collection. A pink cover for each genus includes the species, and a

stout millboard cover embraces the genera of each family, with the name

of which it is labelled outside, the whole shutting up in a cabinet.

Another form is that seen in Rabenhorst's Bryotheca Europæa, quarto

volumes of 50 specimens, one occupying each leaf, and so arranged that

the specimens do not come opposite to each other. Others again use

loose sheets of note-paper, within each of which a single specimen

is mounted; but this, from their size, is very cumbersome. Or we may

take a single well-chosen typical specimen and arrange many species

on a page, as is seen in the beautiful volume of Gardiner's 'British

Mosses' or McIvor's 'Hepaticæ Britannicæ.' Whatever plan we adopt, our

specimens, once well dried and kept in a dry place, are unchangeable,

and are always looked upon with pleasure, each recalling some pleasing

associations, or perchance reminding us of some long-lost friend, in

companionship with whom they were collected or studied. A stock of

duplicates must also be reserved, from which to supply our friends, or

exchange with other collectors for desiderata in our own series: these

may be kept in square cases of various sizes, cut so as to allow the

edges of the top and sides to wrap over the other half folded down on

the specimens.

The Hepaticæ of the family Jungermanniaceæ are treated precisely

as mosses, the capsules, however, show but little diversity, and

will not require separate preservation; but the elaters, or spiral

threads accompanying the seeds, are elegant microscopic objects. The

Marchantiaceæ must be pressed when fresh, as they do not revive with

the same facility as other species, owing to their succulent nature and

numerous layers of cells.

_Classification._--On this I have fully treated elsewhere ("The Moss

World," 'Popular Science Review,' Oct., 1871), and it may suffice

here simply to indicate the families of British mosses and their

mode of arrangement. The cell-texture of the leaf takes an important

place in the characters, and in accordance with this principle the

Cleistocarpous or Phascoid group is broken up and distributed in

various families. We have two orders; one indeed, comprising only the

genus _Andreæa_, is distinguished by the capsule splitting into four

valves united at apex; the other, including the bulk of the species,

has in most cases a lid, which separates transversely, and usually

discloses a peristome of tooth-like processes. The structure of these

teeth again enables us to form three divisions. In the first they

consist of a mass of confluent cells; in the second, of tongue-shaped

processes, composed of agglutinated filaments; and in the third, of

a double layer of cells, transversely articulated to each other, the

outer layer composed of two rows of firm coloured cells, the inner of

a single series of vesicular hyaline cells, on which the hygroscopic

quality of the tooth depends.

Sub-Class SPHAGNINÆ.

Bog Mosses.

Fam. 1.--Sphagnaceæ.

Sub-Class BRYINÆ.

Frondose Mosses.

Order 1.--Schistocarpi.

Fam. 1.--Andreæaceæ.

Order 2.--Stegocarpi.

Div. 1.--Elasmodontes.

Fam. 2. Georgiaceæ.

Div. 2.--Nematodontes.

Fam. 3.--Buxbaumiaceæ.

Fam. 4.--Polytrichaceæ.

Div. 3.--Arthrodontes.

Subdiv. 1.--Acrocarpici.

*Distichophylla.

Fam. 5. Schistostegaceæ. | Fam. 6. Fissidentaceæ.

**Polystichophylla.