PREPARATIONS FOR WINTERING.
The same latitude is colder in the southern than in the northern
hemisphere; but the temperature of the New World is fifteen degrees
beneath that of the other parts of the world; and in America these
countries, known under the name of the region of greatest cold, are
the most inclement.
The mean temperature for the whole year is two degrees below zero.
Physicists have explained this fact in the following way, and Dr.
Clawbonny shared their opinion.
According to them, the most constant winds in the northern regions of
America are from the southwest; they come from the Pacific Ocean, with
an equal and agreeable temperature; but before they reach the arctic
seas they are obliged to cross the great American continent, which is
covered with snow; the contact chills them, and communicates to these
regions their intense cold.
Hatteras found himself at the pole of cold, beyond the countries seen
by his predecessors; he consequently expected a terrible winter, on a
ship lost amid the ice, with a turbulent crew. He resolved to meet
these dangers with his usual energy. He faced what awaited him without
flinching.
He began, with Johnson's aid and experience, to take all the measures
necessary for going into winter-quarters. According to his calculation
the _Forward_ had been carried two hundred and fifty miles from any
known land, that is to say, from North Cornwall; she was firmly fixed
in a field of ice, as in a bed of granite, and no human power could
extricate her.
[Illustration]
There was not a drop of open water in these vast seas chained by the
fierce arctic winter. The ice-fields stretched away out of sight, but
without presenting a smooth surface. Far from it. Numerous icebergs
stood up in the icy plain, and the _Forward_ was sheltered by the
highest of them on three points of the compass; the southeast wind
alone reached them. Let one imagine rock instead of ice, verdure
instead of snow, and the sea again liquid, and the brig would have
quietly cast anchor in a pretty bay, sheltered from the fiercest
blasts. But what desolation here! What a gloomy prospect! What a
melancholy view!
The brig, although motionless, nevertheless had to be fastened
securely by means of anchors; this was a necessary precaution against
possible thaws and submarine upheavals. Johnson, on hearing that the
_Forward_ was at the pole of cold, took even greater precautions for
securing warmth.
"We shall have it severe enough," he had said to the doctor; "that's
just the captain's luck, to go and get caught at the most disagreeable
spot on the globe! Bah! you will see that we shall get out of it."
As to the doctor, at the bottom of his heart he was simply delighted.
He would not have changed it for any other. Winter at the pole of
cold! What good luck!
At first, work on the outside occupied the crew; the sails were kept
furled on the yards instead of being placed at the bottom of the hold,
as the earlier explorers did; they were merely bound up in a case, and
soon the frost covered them with a dense envelope; the topmasts were
not unshipped, and the crow's-nest remained in its place. It was a
natural observatory; the running-rigging alone was taken down.
It became necessary to cut away the ice from the ship to relieve the
pressure. That which had accumulated outside was quite heavy, and the
ship did not lie as deep as usual. This was a long and laborious task.
At the end of some days the ship's bottom was freed, and could be
inspected; it had not suffered, thanks to its solidity; only its
copper sheathing was nearly torn away. The ship, having grown lighter,
drew about nine inches less than she did earlier; the ice was cut away
in a slope, following the make of the hull; in this way the ice formed
beneath the brig's keel and so resisted all pressure.
The doctor took part in this work; he managed the ice-cutter well; he
encouraged the sailors by his good-humor. He instructed them and
himself. He approved of this arrangement of the ice beneath the ship.
"That is a good precaution," he said.
"Without that, Dr. Clawbonny," answered Johnson, "resistance would be
impossible. Now we can boldly raise a wall of snow as high as the
gunwale; and, if we want to, we can make it ten feet thick, for there
is no lack of material."
"A capital idea," resumed the doctor; "the snow is a bad conductor of
heat; it reflects instead of absorbing, and the inside temperature
cannot escape."
"True," answered Johnson; "we are building a fortification against the
cold, and also against the animals, if they care to visit us; when
that is finished, it will look well, you may be sure; in this snow we
shall cut two staircases, one fore, the other aft; when the steps are
cut in the snow, we shall pour water on them; this will freeze as hard
as stone, and we shall have a royal staircase."
"Precisely," answered the doctor; "and it must be said it is fortunate
that cold produces both snow and ice, by which to protect one's self
against it. Without that, one would be very much embarrassed."
In fact, the ship was destined to disappear beneath a thick casing of
ice, which was needed to preserve its inside temperature; a roof made
of thick tarred canvas and covered with snow was built above the deck
over its whole length; the canvas was low enough to cover the sides of
the ship. The deck, being protected from all outside impressions,
became their walk; it was covered with two and a half feet of snow;
this snow was crowded and beaten down so as to become very hard; so it
resisted the radiation of the internal heat; above it was placed a
layer of sand, which as it solidified became a sort of macadamized
cover of great hardness.
"A little more," said the doctor, "and with a few trees I might
imagine myself at Hyde Park, or even in the hanging-gardens at
Babylon."
A trench was dug tolerably near the brig; this was a circular space in
the ice, a real pit, which had to be kept always open. Every morning
the ice formed overnight was broken; this was to secure water in case
of fire or for the baths which were ordered the crew by the doctor; in
order to spare the fuel, the water was drawn from some distance below
the ice, where it was less cold. This was done by means of an
instrument devised by a French physicist (Francois Arago); this
apparatus, lowered for some distance into the water, brought it up to
the surface through a cylinder.
[Illustration]
Generally in winter everything which encumbers the ship is removed,
and stored on land. But what was practicable near land is impossible
for a ship anchored on the ice.
Every preparation was made to fight the two great enemies of this
latitude, cold and dampness; the first produces the second, which is
far more dangerous. The cold may be resisted by one who succumbs to
dampness; hence it was necessary to guard against it.
The _Forward_, being destined to a journey in arctic seas, contained
the best arrangements for winter-quarters: the large room for the crew
was well provided for; the corners, where dampness first forms, were
shut off; in fact, when the temperature is very low, a film of ice
forms on the walls, especially in the corners, and when it melts it
keeps up a perpetual dampness. If it had been round, the room would
have been more convenient; but, being heated by a large stove, and
properly ventilated, it was very comfortable; the walls were lined
with deerskins, not with wool, for wool absorbs the condensed moisture
and keeps the air full of dampness.
Farther aft the walls of the quarter were taken down, and the officers
had a larger common-room, better ventilated, and heated by a stove.
This room, like that of the crew, had a sort of antechamber, which cut
off all communication with the outside. In this way, the heat could
not be lost, and one passed gradually from one temperature to the
other. In the anterooms were left the snow-covered clothes; the shoes
were cleansed on the scrapers, so as to prevent the introduction of
any unwholesomeness with one into the room.
Canvas hose served to introduce air for the draught of the stoves;
other pieces of hose permitted the steam to escape. In addition two
condensers were placed in the two rooms, and collected this vapor
instead of letting it form into water; twice a week they were emptied,
and often they contained several bushels of ice. It was so much taken
from the enemy.
The fire was perfectly and easily controlled, by means of the canvas
hose; by use of merely a small quantity of coal it was easy to keep
the temperature of 50 degrees. Still, Hatteras, having examined the
bunkers, soon saw that the greatest economy was necessary, for there
was not two months' fuel on board.
A drying-room was set apart for the clothes which were to be washed;
they could not be dried in the open air, for they would freeze and
tear.
The delicate pieces of the machinery were carefully taken down, and
the room which contained them was hermetically closed.
The life on board became the object of serious meditation; Hatteras
regulated it with the utmost caution, and the order of the day was
posted up in the common-room. The men arose at six o'clock in the
morning; three times a week the hammocks were aired; every morning the
floors were scoured with hot sand; tea was served at every meal, and
the bill of fare varied as much as possible for every day of the week;
it consisted of bread, farina, suet and raisins for puddings, sugar,
cocoa, tea, rice, lemon-juice, potted meats, salt beef and pork,
cabbages, and vegetables in vinegar; the kitchen lay outside of the
living-rooms; its heat was consequently lost; but cooking is a
perpetual source of evaporation and dampness.
The health of the men depends a great deal on the sort of food they
get; in high latitudes, the greatest amount of animal food ought to be
eaten. The doctor had supervised the sort of food to be given.
"We ought to follow the Esquimaux," he used to say; "they have
received their lessons from nature, and are our masters in that; if
the Arabs and Africans can content themselves with a few dates and a
handful of rice, here it is important to eat, and to eat a good deal.
The Esquimaux take from ten to fifteen pounds of oil a day. If that
fare does not please you, we must try food rich in sugar and fat. In a
word, we need carbon, so let us manufacture carbon! It is well to put
coal in the stove, but don't let us forget to fill that precious stove
we carry about with us."
With this bill of fare, strict cleanliness was enforced; every other
day each man was obliged to bathe in the half-frozen water which the
iron pump brought up, and this was an excellent way of preserving
their health. The doctor set the example; he did it at first as a
thing which ought to be very disagreeable; but this pretext was
quickly forgotten, for he soon took real pleasure in this healthy
bath.
When work or hunting or distant expeditions took the men off in the
severe cold, they had to take special care not to be frost-bitten; if
they were, rubbing with snow would restore the circulation. Moreover,
the men, who all wore woollen clothes, put on coats of deerskin and
trousers of sealskin, which perfectly resist the wind.
The different arrangements of the ship, the getting-to-rights on
board, took about three weeks, and they reached October 10th without
any special incident.