book entitled 'An explication of the Maxims of the Saints concerning the
interior life,' gave considerable offence to the guardians of
orthodoxy."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 321. "When natural religion, who before
was only a spectator, is introduced as speaking by the centurion's
voice."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 157. "You cannot deny, that the great mover
and author of nature constantly explaineth himself to the eyes of men, by
the sensible intervention of arbitrary signs, which have no similitude, or
connexion, with the things signified."--_Berkley's Minute Philosopher_, p.
169. "The name of this letter is double U, its form, that of a double
V."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 19. "Murray, in his spelling book, wrote
'Charles-Town' with a Hyphen and two Capitals."--See p. 101. "He also wrote
'european' without a capital."--See p. 86. "They profess themselves to be
pharisees, who are to be heard and not imitated."--_Calvin's Institutes,
Ded._, p. 55. "Dr. Webster wrote both 'Newhaven' and 'Newyork' with single
capitals."--See his _American Spelling-Book_, p. 111. "Gayhead, the west
point of Martha's Vineyard."--_Williams's Univ. Gaz._ Write "Craborchard,
Eggharbor, Longisland, Perthamboy, Westhampton, Littlecompton, Newpaltz,
Crownpoint, Fellspoint, Sandyhook, Portpenn, Portroyal. Portobello, and
Portorico."--_Webster's American Spelling-Book_, 127-140. Write the names
of the months: "january, february, march, april, may, june, july, august,
september, october, november, december."--_Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book_,
21-40. Write the following names and words properly: "tuesday, wednesday,
thursday, friday, saturday, saturn;--christ, christian, christmas,
christendom, michaelmas, indian, bacchanals;--Easthampton, omega, johannes,
aonian, levitical, deuteronomy, european."--_Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book,
sundry places_.
"Eight Letters in some Syllables we find,
And no more Syllables in Words are joined."
_Brightland's Gram._, p. 61.
CHAPTER II.--OF SYLLABLES.
A _Syllable_ is one or more letters pronounced in one sound; and is either
a word, as, _a, an, ant_; or a part of a word, as _di_ in _dial_.
In every word there are as many syllables as there are distinct sounds, or
separate impulses of the voice; as, _gram-ma-ri-an_.
A word of one syllable is called a _monosyllable_; a word of two syllables,
a _dissyllable_; a word of three syllables, a _trissyllable_; and a word of
four or more syllables, a _polysyllable_.
Every vowel, except _w_, may form a syllable of itself; but the consonants
belong to the vowels or diphthongs; and without a vowel no syllable can be
formed.
DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS.
A _diphthong_ is two vowels joined in one syllable; as, _ea_ in _beat, ou_
in _sound_. In _oe_ or _æ_, old or foreign, the characters often unite.
A _proper diphthong_ is a diphthong in which both the vowels are sounded;
as, _oi_ in _voice, ow_ in _vow_.
An _improper diphthong_ is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels is
sounded; as, _oa_ in _loaf, eo_ in _people_.
A _triphthong_ is three vowels joined in one syllable; as, _eau_ in beau,
_iew_ in _view, oeu_ in _manoeuvre_.
A _proper triphthong_ is a triphthong in which all the vowels are sounded;
as, _uoy_ in _buoy_.
An _improper triphthong_ is a triphthong in which only one or two of the
vowels are sounded; as, _eau_ in _beauty, iou_ in _anxious_. The diphthongs
in English are twenty-nine; embracing all but six of the thirty-five
possible combinations of two vowels: _aa, ae, ai, ao, au, aw, ay,--ea, ee,
ei, eo, eu, ew, ey,--ia, ie_, (_ii_,) _io_, (_iu, iw, iy_,)--_oa, oe, oi,
oo, ou, ow, oy,--ua, ue, ui, uo_, (_uu, uw_,) _uy_.
Ten of these diphthongs, being variously sounded, may be either proper or
improper; to wit, _ay,--ie,--oi, ou, ow,--ua, ue, ui, uo, uy_.
The proper diphthongs appear to be thirteen; _ay,--ia, ie, io,--oi, ou, ow,
oy,--ua, ue, ui, uo, uy_: of which combinations, only three, _ia, io_, and
_oy_, are invariably of this class.
The improper diphthongs are twenty-six; _aa, ae, ai, ao, au, aw, ay,--ea,
ee, ei, eo, eu, ew, ey,--ie,--oa, oe, oi, oo, ou, ow,--ua, ue, ui, uo, uy_.
The only proper triphthong in English is _uoy_, as in _buoy, buoyant,
buoyancy_; unless _uoi_ in _quoit_ may be considered a parallel instance.
The improper triphthongs are sixteen; _awe, aye,--eau, eou, ewe, eye,--ieu,
iew, iou,--oeu, owe,--uai, uaw, uay, uea, uee_.
SYLLABICATION.
In dividing words into syllables, we are to be directed chiefly by the ear;
it may however be proper to observe, as far as practicable, the following
rules.
RULE I.--CONSONANTS.
Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diphthongs which
they modify in utterance; as, _An-ax-ag'-o-ras, ap-os-tol'-i-cal_.[110]
RULE II.--VOWELS.
Two vowels, coming together, if they make not a diphthong, must be parted
in dividing the syllables; as, _A-cka'-i-a, A-o'-ni-an, a-e'-ri-al_.
RULE III.--TERMINATIONS.
Derivative and grammatical terminations should generally be separated from
the radical words to which they have been added; as, _harm-less, great-ly,
connect-ed_: thus _count-er_ and _coun-ter_ are different words.
RULE IV.--PREFIXES.
Prefixes, in general, form separate syllables; as, _mis-place, out-ride,
up-lift_: but if their own primitive meaning be disregarded, the case may
be otherwise; thus, _re-create_, and _rec'-reate, re-formation_, and
_ref-ormation_, are words of different import.
RULE V.--COMPOUNDS.
Compounds, when divided, should be divided into the simple words which
compose them; as, _boat-swain, foot-hold, never-the-less_.
RULE VI.--LINES FULL.
At the end of a line, a word may be divided, if necessary; but a syllable
must never be broken.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--The doctrine of English syllabication is attended with some
difficulties; because its purposes are various, and its principles, often
contradictory. The old rules, borrowed chiefly from grammars of other
languages, and still retained in some of our own, are liable to very strong
objections.[111] By aiming to divide on the vowels, and to force the
consonants, as much as possible, into the beginning of syllables, they
often pervert or misrepresent our pronunciation. Thus Murray, in his
Spelling-Book, has "_gra-vel, fi-nish, me-lon, bro-ther, bo-dy, wi-dow,
pri-son, a-va-rice, e-ve-ry, o-ran-ges, e-ne-my, me-di-cine, re-pre-sent,
re-so-lu-tion_," and a multitude of other words, divided upon a principle
by which the young learner can scarcely fail to be led into error
respecting their sounds. This method of division is therefore particularly
reprehensible in such books as are designed to teach the true pronunciation
of words; for which reason, it has been generally abandoned in our modern
spelling-books and dictionaries: the authors of which have severally aimed
at some sort of compromise between etymology and pronunciation; but they
disagree so much, as to the manner of effecting it, that no two of them
will be found alike, and very few, if any, entirely consistent with
themselves.
OBS. 2.--The object of syllabication may be any one of the following four;
1. To enable a child to read unfamiliar words by spelling them; 2. To show
the derivation or composition of words; 3. To exhibit the exact
pronunciation of words; 4. To divide words properly, when it is necessary
to break them at the ends of lines. With respect to the first of these
objects, Walker observes, "When a child has made certain advances in
reading, but is ignorant of the sound of many of the longer words, it may
not be improper to lay down the common general rule to him, that a
consonant between two vowels must go to the latter, and that two consonants
coming together must be divided. _Farther than this it would be absurd to
go with a child_."--_Walker's Principles_, No. 539. Yet, as a caution be it
recorded, that, in 1833, an itinerant lecturer from the South, who made it
his business to teach what he calls in his title-page, "An _Abridgment_ of
Walker's Rules on the Sounds of the Letters,"--an _Abridgement_, which, he
says in his preface, "will be found to contain, it is believed, all the
important rules that are established by Walker, and to carry his principles
_farther_ than he himself has _done_"--befooled the Legislature of
Massachusetts, the School Committee and Common Council of Boston, the
professor of elocution at Harvard University, and many other equally wise
men of the east, into the notion that English pronunciation could be
conveniently taught to children, in "four or five days," by means of some
three or four hundred rules of which the following is a specimen: "RULE
282. When a single consonant is preceded by a vowel under the
preantepenultimate accent, and is followed by a vowel that is succeeded by
a consonant, it belongs to the accented vowel."--_Mulkey's Abridgement of
Walker's Rules_, p. 34.
OBS. 3.--A grosser specimen of literary quackery, than is the publication
which I have just quoted, can scarcely be found in the world of letters. It
censures "the principles laid down and illustrated by Walker," as "so
elaborate and so verbose as to be wearisome to the scholar and useless to
the child;" and yet declares them to be, "for the most part, the true rules
of pronunciation, according to the analogy of the language."--_Mulkey's
Preface_, p. 3. It professes to be an abridgement and simplification of
those principles, especially adapted to the wants and capacities of
children; and, at the same time, imposes upon the memory of the young
learner twenty-nine rules for syllabication, similar to that which I have
quoted above; whereas Walker himself, with all his verbosity, expressly
declares it "_absurd_," to offer more than one or two, and those of the
very simplest character. It is to be observed that the author teaches
nothing but the elements of reading; nothing but the sounds of letters and
syllables; nothing but a few simple fractions of the great science of
grammar: and, for this purpose, he would conduct the learner through the
following particulars, and have him remember them all: 1. _Fifteen
distinctions_ respecting the "classification and organic formation of the
letters." 2. _Sixty-three rules_ for "the sounds of the vowels, according
to their relative positions." 3. _Sixty-four explanations_ of "the
different sounds of the diphthongs." 4. _Eighty-nine rules_ for "the sounds
of the consonants, according to position." 5. _Twenty-three heads_,
embracing a hundred and fifty-six principles of accent. 6. _Twenty-nine_
"_rules_ for dividing words into syllables." 7. _Thirty-three "additional
principles;"_ which are thrown together promiscuously, because he could not
class them. 8. _Fifty-two pages_ of "irregular Words," forming particular
exceptions to the foregoing rules. 9. _Twenty-eight pages_ of notes
extracted from Walker's Dictionary, and very prettily called "The Beauties
of Walker." All this is Walker simplified for children!
OBS. 4.--Such is a brief sketch of Mulkey's system of orthoëpy; a work in
which "he claims to have devised what has heretofore been a
_desideratum_--a mode by which children in our common schools may be taught
_the rules_ for the pronunciation of their mother tongue."--_Preface_, p.
4. The faults of the book are so exceedingly numerous, that to point them
out, would be more toil, than to write an accurate volume of twice the
size. And is it possible, that a system like this could find patronage in
the metropolis of New England, in that proud centre of arts and sciences,
and in the proudest halls of learning and of legislation? Examine the
gentleman's credentials, and take your choice between the adoption of his
plan, as a great improvement in the management of syllables, and the
certain conclusion that great men may be greatly duped respecting them.
Unless the public has been imposed upon by a worse fraud than mere literary
quackery, the authorities I have mentioned did extensively patronize the
scheme; and the Common Council of that learned city did order, November
14th, 1833, "That the School Committee be and they are hereby authorized to
employ Mr. William Mulkey to give a course of Lectures on Orthoëpy _to the
several instructors of the public schools_, and that the sum of five
hundred dollars is hereby appropriated for that purpose, and that the same
amount be withdrawn from the reserved fund."--See _Mulkey's Circular_.
OBS. 5.--Pronunciation is best taught to children by means of a good
spelling-book; a book in which the words are arranged according to their
analogies, and divided according to their proper sounds. Vocabularies,
dictionaries, and glossaries, may also be serviceable to those who are
sufficiently advanced to learn how to use them. With regard to the first of
the abovenamed purposes of syllabication, I am almost ready to dissent even
from the modest opinion of Walker himself; for ignorance can only guess at
the pronunciation of words, till positive instruction comes in to give
assurance; and it may be doubted whether even the simple rule or rules
suggested by Walker would not about as often mislead the young reader as
correct him. With regard to the second purpose, that of showing the
derivation or composition of words, it is plain, that etymology, and not
pronunciation, must here govern the division; and that it should go no
further than to separate the constituent parts of each word; as,
_ortho-graphy, theo-logy_. But when we divide for the third purpose, and
intend to show what is the pronunciation of a word, we must, if possible,
divide into such syllabic sounds as will exactly recompose the word, when
put together again; as, _or-thog-ra-phy, the-ol-o-gy_. This being the most
common purpose of syllabication, perhaps it would be well to give it a
general preference; and adopt it whenever we can, not only in the composing
of spelling-books and dictionaries, but also in the dividing of words at
the ends of lines.
OBS. 6.--Dr. Lowth says, "The best and easiest rule, for dividing the
syllables in spelling, is, to divide them as they are naturally divided in
a right pronunciation; without regard to the derivation of words, or the
possible combination of consonants at the beginning of a
syllable."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 5. And Walker approves of the principle,
with respect to the third purpose mentioned above: "This," says that
celebrated orthoëpist, "is the method adopted by those who would convey the
whole sound, by giving distinctly every part; and, when this is the object
of syllabication, Dr. Lowth's rule is certainly to be followed."--_Walker's
Principles_,--No. 541. But this rule, which no one can apply till he has
found out the pronunciation, will not always be practicable where that is
known, and perhaps not always expedient where it is practicable. For
example: the words _colonel, venison, transition, propitious_, cannot be so
divided as to exhibit their pronunciation; and, in such as _acid, magic,
pacify, legible, liquidate_, it may not be best to follow the rule, because
there is some reasonable objection to terminating the first syllables of
these words with _c, g_, and _q_, especially at the end of a line. The rule
for terminations may also interfere with this, called "Lowth's;" as in
_sizable, rising, dronish_.
OBS. 7.--For the dividing of words into syllables, I have given six rules,
which are perhaps as many as will be useful. They are to be understood as
general principles; and, as to the exceptions to be made in their
application, or the settling of their conflicting claims to attention,
these may be left to the judgement of each writer. The old principle of
dividing by the eye, and not by the ear, I have rejected; and, with it, all
but one of the five rules which the old grammarians gave for the purpose.
"The divisions of the letters into syllables, should, unquestionably, be
the same in written, as in spoken language; otherwise the learner is
misguided, and seduced by false representations into injurious
errors."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 37. Through the influence of books
in which the words are divided according to their sounds, the pronunciation
of the language is daily becoming more and more uniform; and it may perhaps
be reasonably hoped, that the general adoption of this method of
syllabication, and a proper exposition of the occasional errors of
ignorance, will one day obviate entirely the objection arising from the
instability of the principle. For the old grammarians urged, that the
scholar who had learned their rules should "strictly conform to them; and
that he should industriously avoid _that random Method of dividing by the
Ear_, which is subject to mere jumble, as it must be continually
fluctuating according to the various Dialects of different
Countries."--_British Grammar_, p. 47.
OBS. 8.--The important exercise of oral spelling is often very absurdly
conducted. In many of our schools, it may be observed that the teacher, in
giving out the words to be spelled, is not always careful to utter them
with what he knows to be their true sounds, but frequently accommodates his
pronunciation to the known or supposed ignorance of the scholar; and the
latter is still more frequently allowed to hurry through the process,
without putting the syllables together as he proceeds; and, sometimes,
without forming or distinguishing the syllables at all. Merely to pronounce
a word and then name its letters, is an exceedingly imperfect mode of
spelling; a mode in which far more is lost in respect to accuracy of
speech, than is gained in respect to time. The syllables should not only be
distinctly formed and pronounced, but pronounced as they are heard in the
whole word; and each should be successively added to the preceding
syllables, till the whole sound is formed by the reunion of all its parts.
For example: _divisibility_. The scholar should say, "Dee I, de; Vee I Ess,
viz, de-viz; I, de-viz-e; Bee I Ell, bil, de-viz-e-bil; I, de-viz-e-bil-e;
Tee Wy, te, de-viz-e-bil-e-te." Again: _chicanery_. "Cee Aitch I, she; Cee
A, ka, she-ka; En E Ar, nur, she-ka-nur; Wy, she-ka-nur-e." One of the
chief advantages of oral spelling, is its tendency to promote accuracy of
pronunciation; and this end it will reach, in proportion to the care and
skill with which it is conducted. But oral spelling should not be relied on
as the sole means of teaching orthography. It will not be found sufficient.
The method of giving out words for practical spelling on slates or paper,
or of reading something which is to be written again by the learner, is
much to be commended, as a means of exercising those scholars who are so
far advanced as to write legibly. This is called, in the schools,
_dictation_.
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
ERRORS IN SYLLABICATION.
LESSON I.--CONSONANTS.
1. Correct the division of the following words of two syllables: "ci-vil,
co-lour, co-py, da-mask, do-zen, e-ver, fea-ther, ga-ther, hea-ven, hea-vy,
ho-ney, le-mon, li-nen, mea-dow, mo-ney, ne-ver, o-live, o-range, o-ther,
phea-sant, plea-sant, pu-nish, ra-ther, rea-dy, ri-ver, ro-bin, scho-lar,
sho-vel, sto-mach, ti-mid, whe-ther."--_Murray's Spelling-Book_, N. Y.,
1819, p. 43-50.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the _v_ in _ci-vil_, the _l_ in _co-lour_,
the _p_ in _co-py_, &c., are written with the following vowel, but spoken
with that which precedes. But, according to Rule 1st, "Consonants should
generally be joined to the vowels or diphthongs which they modify in
utterance." Therefore, these words should be divided thus: _civ-il,
col-our, cop-y_, &c.]
2. Correct the division of the following words of three syllables:
"be-ne-fit, ca-bi-net, ca-nis-ter, ca-ta-logue, cha-rac-ter, cha-ri-ty,
co-vet-ous, di-li-gence, di-mi-ty, e-le-phant, e-vi-dent, e-ver-green,
fri-vo-lous, ga-ther-ing, ge-ne-rous, go-vern-ess, go-vern-or, ho-nes-ty,
ka-len-dar, la-ven-der, le-ve-ret, li-be-ral, me-mo-ry, mi-nis-ter,
mo-dest-ly, no-vel-ty, no-bo-dy, pa-ra-dise, po-ver-ty, pre-sent-ly,
pro-vi-dence, pro-per-ly, pri-son-er, ra-ven-ous, sa-tis-fy, se-ve-ral,
se-pa-rate, tra-vel-ler, va-ga-bond;--con-si-der, con-ti-nue, de-li-ver,
dis-co-ver, dis-fi-gure, dis-ho-nest, dis-tri-bute, in-ha-bit, me-cha-nic,
what-e-ver;--re-com-mend, re-fu-gee, re-pri-mand."--_Murray: ib._, p.
67-83.
3. Correct the division of the following words of four syllables:
"ca-ter-pil-lar, cha-ri-ta-ble, di-li-gent-ly, mi-se-ra-ble,
pro-fit-a-ble, to-le-ra-ble;--be-ne-vo-lent, con-si-der-ate, di-mi-nu-tive,
ex-pe-ri-ment, ex-tra-va-gant, in-ha-bi-tant, no-bi-li-ty, par-ti-cu-lar,
pros-pe-ri-ty, ri-di-cu-lous, sin-ce-ri-ty;--de-mon-stra-tion,
e-du-ca-tion, e-mu-la-tion, e-pi-de-mic, ma-le-fac-tor, ma-nu-fac-ture,
me-mo-ran-dum, mo-de-ra-tor, pa-ra-ly-tic, pe-ni-ten-tial, re-sig-na-tion,
sa-tis-fac-tion, se-mi-co-lon."--_Murray: ib._, p. 84-87.
4. Correct the division of the following words of five syllables:
"a-bo-mi-na-ble, a-po-the-ca-ry, con-sid-e-ra-ble, ex-pla-na-to-ry,
pre-pa-ra-to-ry;--a-ca-de-mi-cal, cu-ri-o-si-ty, ge-o-gra-phi-cal,
ma-nu-fac-to-ry, sa-tis-fac-to-ry, me-ri-to-ri-ous;--cha-rac-te-ris-tic,
e-pi-gram-ma-tic, ex-pe-ri-ment-al, po-ly-syl-la-ble, con-sid-e-ra-tion."
--_Murray: ib._, p. 87-89.
5. Correct the division of the following proper names: "He-len, Leo-nard,
Phi-lip, Ro-bert, Ho-race, Tho-mas;--Ca-ro-line, Ca-tha-rine, Da-ni-el,
De-bo-rah, Do-ro-thy, Fre-de-rick, I-sa-bel, Jo-na-than, Ly-di-a,
Ni-cho-las, O-li-ver, Sa-mu-el, Si-me-on, So-lo-mon, Ti-mo-thy,
Va-len-tine;--A-me-ri-ca, Bar-tho-lo-mew, E-li-za-beth, Na-tha-ni-el,
Pe-ne-lo-pe, The-o-phi-lus."--_Murray: ib._, p. 98-101.
LESSON II.--MIXED.
1. Correct the division of the following words, by Rule 1st: "cap-rice,
es-teem, dis-es-teem, ob-lige;--az-ure, mat-ron, pat-ron, phal-anx, sir-en,
trait-or, trench-er, barb-er, burn-ish, garn-ish, tarn-ish, varn-ish,
mark-et, musk-et, pamph-let;--brave-ry, knave-ry, siave-ry, eve-ning,
scene-ry, bribe-ry, nice-ty, chi-cane-ry, ma-chine-ry, im-age-ry;--
as-y-lum, hor-i-zon,--fi-nan-cier, he-ro-ism,--sar-don-yx, scur-ril-ous,--
com-e-di-an, post-e-ri-or."--_Webster's Spelling-Books_.
2. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 2d: "oy-er, fol-io,
gen-ial, gen-ius, jun-ior, sa-tiate, vi-tiate;--am-bro-sia, cha-mel-ion,
par-hel-ion, con-ven-ient, in-gen-ious, om-nis-cience, pe-cul-iar,
so-cia-ble, par-tial-i-ty, pe-cun-ia-ry;--an-nun-ciate, e-nun-ciate,
ap-pre-ciate, as-so-ciate, ex-pa-tiate, in-gra-tiate, in-i-tiate,
li-cen-tiate, ne-go-tiate, no-vi-ciate, of-fi-ciate, pro-pi-tiate,
sub-stan-tiate."--_Webster: Old Spelling-Book_, 86-91; _New_, 121-128.
3. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 3d: "dres-ser,
has-ty, pas-try, sei-zure, rol-ler, jes-ter, wea-ver, vam-per, han-dy,
dros-sy, glos-sy, mo-ver, mo-ving, oo-zy, ful-ler, trus-ty, weigh-ty,
noi-sy, drow-sy, swar-thy."--_Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book_. Again:
"eas-tern, full-y, pull-et, rill-et, scan-ty, nee-dy."--_Webster_.
4. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 4th:
"aw-ry,"--_Webster's Old Book_, 52; "ath-wart,"--_Ib._, 93;
"pros-pect-ive,"--_Ib._, 66; "pa-renth-e-sis,"--_Ib._, 93;
"res-ist-i-bil-ity,"--_Webster's New Book_, 93; "hem-is-pher-ic,"--_Ib._,
130; "mo-nos-tich, he-mis-tick," [112]--_Walker's Dict._, 8vo; _Cobb_, 33;
"tow-ards,"--_Cobb_, 48.
5. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 5th:
"E'n-gland,"--_Murray's Spelling-Book_, p. 100; "a-no-ther,"--_Ib._, 71;
"a-noth-er,"--_Emerson_, 76; "Be-thes-da, Beth-a-ba-ra,"--_Webster_, 141;
_Cobb_, 159.
LESSON III.--MIXED.
1. Correct the division of the following words, according to their
derivation: "ben-der, bles-sing, bras-sy, chaf-fy, chan-ter, clas-per,
craf-ty, cur-dy, fen-der, fil-my, fus-ty, glas-sy, graf-ter, gras-sy,
gus-ty, ban-ded, mas-sy, mus-ky, rus-ty, swel-ling, tel-ler, tes-ted,
thrif-ty, ves-ture."--_Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book_.
2. Correct the division of the following words, so as to give no wrong
notion of their derivation and meaning: "barb-er, burn-ish, brisk-et,
cank-er, chart-er, cuck-oo, furn-ish, garn-ish, guil-ty, hank-er, lust-y,
port-al, tarn-ish, test-ate, test-y, trait-or, treat-y, varn-ish, vest-al,
di-urn-al, e-tern-al, in-fern-al, in-tern-al, ma-tern-al, noc-turn-al,
pa-tern-al."--_Webster's Elementary Spelling-Book_.
3. Correct the division of the following words, so as to convey no wrong
idea of their pronunciation: "ar-mo-ry, ar-te-ry, butch-er-y, cook-e-ry,
eb-o-ny, em-e-ry, ev-e-ry, fel-o-ny, fop-pe-ry, flip-pe-ry, gal-le-ry,
his-to-ry, liv-e-ry. lot-te-ry, mock-e-ry, mys-te-ry, nun-ne-ry, or-re-ry,
pil-lo-ry, quack-e-ry, sor-ce-ry, witch-e-ry."--_Ib._, 41-42.
4. Correct the division of the following words, and give to _n_ before _k_
the sound of _ng_: "ank-le, bask-et, blank-et, buck-le, cack-le, crank-le,
crink-le, east-er, fick-le, freck-le, knuck-le, mark-et, monk-ey,
port-ress, pick-le, poult-ice, punch-eon, qua-drant, qua-drate, squa-dron,
rank-le, shack-le, sprink-le, tink-le, twink-le, wrink-le."--_Cobb's
Standard Spelling-Book_.
5. Correct the division of the following words, with a proper regard to
Rules 1st and 3d: "a-scribe, bland-ish, bran-chy, clou-dy, dus-ty, drea-ry,
eve-ning, faul-ty, fil-thy, fros-ty, gau-dy, gloo-my, heal-thy, hear-ken,
hear-ty, hoa-ry, lea-ky, loung-er, mar-shy, migh-ty, mil-ky, naugh-ty,
pas-sing, pit-cher, rea-dy, roc-ky, spee-dy, stea-dy, stor-my, thirs-ty,
thor-ny, trus-ty, ves-try, wes-tern, weal-thy."--_Emerson's Spelling-Book_,
17-44.
CHAPTER III.--OF WORDS.
A _Word_ is one or more syllables spoken or written as the sign of some
idea, or of some manner of thought. Words are distinguished as _primitive_
or _derivative_, and as _simple_ or _compound_. The former division is
called their _species_; the latter, their _figure_.
A _primitive_ word is one that is not formed from any simpler word in the
language; as, _harm, great, connect_.
A _derivative_ word is one that is formed from some simpler word in the
language; as, _harmless, greatly, connected, disconnect, unconnected_.
A _simple_ word is one that is not compounded, not composed of other
words; as, _watch, man, house, tower, never, the, less_.
A _compound_ word is one that is composed of two or more simple words; as,
_watchman, watchhouse, watchtower, nevertheless_.
Permanent compounds are consolidated; as, _bookseller, schoolmaster_:
others, which may be called temporary compounds, are formed by the hyphen;
as, _good-natured, negro-merchant_.
_RULES FOR THE FIGURE OF WORDS_.
RULE I.--COMPOUNDS.
Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly known as forming a
compound, should never be needlessly broken apart. Thus, _steamboat,
railroad, red-hot, well-being, new-coined_, are preferable to the phrases,
_steam boat, rail road, red hot, well being, new coined_; and _toward us_
is better than the old phrase, _to us ward_.
RULE II.--SIMPLES.
When the simple words would only form a regular phrase, of the same
meaning, the compounding of any of them ought to be avoided. Thus, the
compound _instead_ is not to be commended, because the simple phrase, _in
stead of_, is exactly like the other phrases, _in lieu of, in place of, in
room of_, in which we write no compound.
RULE III.--THE SENSE.
Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined together or
written separately, as the sense and construction may happen to require.
Thus, a _glass house_ is a house made of glass, but a _glasshouse_ is a
house in which glass is made; so a _negro merchant_ is a coloured trader,
but a _negro-merchant_ is a man who buys and sells negroes.
RULE IV.--ELLIPSES.
When two or more compounds are connected in one sentence, none of them
should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word. Thus, "_six or
seventeen_" should not be said for "_sixteen or seventeen_;" nor ought we
to say, "_calf, goat, and sheepskins_" for "_calfskins, goatskins, and
sheepskins_" In the latter instance, however, it might be right to separate
all the words; as in the phrase, "_soup, coffee_, and _tea_
houses."--_Liberator_, x, 40.
RULE V.--THE HYPHEN.
When the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce, as _to-day, to-night,
to-morrow_; or when each retains its original accent, so that the compound
has more than one, or one that is movable, as _first-born, hanger-on,
laughter-loving, garlic-eater, butterfly-shell_, the hyphen should be
inserted between them.
RULE VI.--NO HYPHEN.
When a compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation, as
_watchword, statesman, gentleman_, and the parts are such as admit of a
complete coalescence, no hyphen should be inserted between them. Churchill,
after much attention to this subject, writes thus: "The practical
instruction of the _countinghouse_ imparts a more thorough knowledge of
_bookkeeping_, than all the fictitious transactions of a mere _schoolbook_,
however carefully constructed to suit particular purposes."--_New Gram._,
p. vii. But _counting-house_, having more stress on the last syllable than
on the middle one, is usually written with the hyphen; and _book-keeping_
and _school-book_, though they may not need it, are oftener so formed than
otherwise.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--Words are the least parts of significant language; that is, of
language significant in each part; for, to syllables, taken merely as
syllables, no meaning belongs. But, to a word, signification of some sort
or other, is essential; there can be no word without it; for a sign or
symbol must needs represent or signify something. And as I cannot suppose
words to represent external things, I have said "A _Word_ is one or more
syllables spoken or written as the sign of some _idea_." But of _what_
ideas are the words of our language significant? Are we to say, "Of _all_
ideas;" and to recognize as an English word every syllable, or combination
of syllables, to which we know a meaning is attached? No. For this, in the
first place, would confound one language with an other; and destroy a
distinction which must ever be practically recognized, till all men shall
again speak one language. In the next place, it would compel us to embrace
among our words an infinitude of terms that are significant only of _local_
ideas, such as men any where or at any time may have had concerning any of
the individuals they have known, whether persons, places, or things. But,
however important they may be in the eyes of men, the names of particular
persons, places, or things, because they convey only particular ideas, do
not properly belong to what we call _our language_. Lexicographers do not
collect and define proper names, because they are beyond the limits of
their art, and can be explained only from history. I do not say that proper
names are to be excluded from grammar; but I would show wherein consists
the superiority of general terms over these. For if our common words did
not differ essentially from proper names, we could demonstrate nothing in
science: we could not frame from them any general or affirmative
proposition at all; because all our terms would be particular, and not
general; and because every individual thing in nature must necessarily be
for ever itself only, and not an other.
OBS. 2.--Our common words, then, are the symbols neither of external
particulars, nor merely of the sensible ideas which external particulars
excite in our minds, but mainly of those general or universal ideas which
belong rather to the intellect than to the senses. For intellection differs
from sensation, somewhat as the understanding of a man differs from the
perceptive faculty of a brute; and language, being framed for the
reciprocal commerce of human minds, whose perceptions include both, is made
to consist of signs of ideas both general and particular, yet without
placing them on equal ground. Our general ideas--that is, our ideas
conceived as common to many individuals, existing in any part of time,
past, present, or future--such, for example, as belong to the words _man,
horse, tree, cedar, wave, motion, strength, resist_--such ideas, I say,
constitute that most excellent significance which belongs to words
primarily, essentially, and immediately; whereas, our particular ideas,
such as are conceived only of individual objects, which arc infinite in
number and ever fleeting, constitute a significance which belongs to
language only secondarily, accidentally, and mediately. If we express the
latter at all, we do it either by proper names, of which but very few ever
become generally known, or by means of certain changeable limitations which
are added to our general terms; whereby language, as Harris observes,
"without wandering into infinitude, contrives how to denote things
infinite."--_Hermes_, p. 345. The particular manner in which this is done,
I shall show hereafter, in Etymology, when I come to treat of articles and
definitives.
OBS. 3.--If we examine the structure of proper names, we shall find that
most of them are compounds, the parts of which have, in very many
instances, some general signification. Now a complete phrase commonly
conveys some particular notion or conception of the mind; but, in this
case, the signification of the general terms is restricted by the other
words which are added to them. Thus _smith_ is a more general term than
_goldsmith_; and _goldsmith_ is more general than a _goldsmith_; _a
goldsmith_, than _the goldsmith_; _the goldsmith_, than _one Goldsmith_;
_one Goldsmith_, than _Mr. Goldsmith_; _Mr. Goldsmith_, than _Oliver
Goldsmith_. Thus we see that the simplest mode of designating particular
persons or objects, is that of giving them _proper names_; but proper names
must needs be so written, that they may be known as proper names, and not
be mistaken for common terms. I have before observed, that we have some
names which are both proper and common; and that these should be written
with capitals, and should form the plural regularly. It is surprising that
_the Friends_, who are in some respects particularly scrupulous about
language, should so generally have overlooked the necessity there is, of
_compounding_ their numerical names of the months and days, and writing
them uniformly with capitals, as proper names. For proper names they
certainly are, in every thing but the form, whenever they are used without
the article, and without those other terms which render their general idea
particular. And the compound form with a capital, is as necessary for
_Firstday, Secondday, Thirdday_, &c., as for _Sunday, Monday, Tuesday_, &c.
"The first day of the week,"--"The seventh day of the month,"--"The second
month of summer,"--"The second month in the year," &c., are good English
phrases, in which any compounding of the terms, or any additional use of
capitals, would be improper; but, for common use, these phrases are found
too long and too artificial. We must have a less cumbersome mode of
specifying the months of the year and the days of the week. What then?
Shall we merely throw away the terms of particularity, and, without
substituting in their place the form of proper names, apply general terms
to particular thoughts, and insist on it that this is right? And is not
this precisely what is done by those who reject as heathenish the ordinary
names of the months and days, and write "_first day_," for _Sunday_, in
stead of "the first day of the week;" or "_second month_," for _February_,
in stead of "the second month in the year;" and so forth? This phraseology
may perhaps be well understood by those to whom it is familiar, but still
it is an abuse of language, because it is inconsistent with the common
acceptation of the terms. Example: "The departure of a ship will take place
_every sixth day_ with punctuality."--_Philadelphia Weekly Messenger_. The
writer of this did not mean, "_every Friday_;" and it is absurd for the
Friends so to understand it, or so to write, when that is what they mean.
OBS. 4.--In the ordinary business of life, it is generally desirable to
express our meaning as briefly as possible; but legal phraseology is always
full to the letter, and often redundant. Hence a merchant will write, "Nov.
24, 1837," or, "11 mo. 24th, 1837;" but a conveyancer will have it, "On the
twenty-fourth day of November, one thousand eight hundred and
thirty-seven;"--or, perhaps, "On the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh
month, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and
thirty-seven." Accordingly we find that, in common daily use, all the names
of the months, except _March, May, June_, and _July_, are abbreviated;
thus, _Jan., Feb., Apr., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec_. And sometimes even
the Arabic number of the year is made yet shorter; as '37 for 1837; or
1835-6-7, for 1835, 1836, and 1837. In like manner, in constructing tables
of time, we sometimes denote the days of the week by the simple initials of
their names; as, S. for Sunday, M. for Monday, &c. But, for facility of
abbreviation, the numerical names, whether of the months or of the days,
are perhaps still more convenient. For, if we please, we may put the simple
Arabic figures for them; though it is better to add _d_. for _day_, and
_mo._ for _month_: as, 1 d., 2 d., 3 d., &c.;--1 mo., 2 mo., 3 mo.,
&c.:--or more compactly thus: 1d., 2d., 3d., &c.;--1mo., 2mo., 3mo., &c.
But, take which mode of naming we will, our ordinary expression of these
things should be in neither extreme, but should avoid alike too great
brevity and too great prolixity; and, therefore, it is best to make it a
general rule in our literary compositions, to use the full form of proper
names for the months and days, and to denote the years by Arabic figures
written in full.
OBS. 5.--In considering the nature of words, I was once a little puzzled
with a curious speculation, if I may not term it an important inquiry,
concerning the _principle of their identity_. We often speak of "_the same
words_," and of "_different words_;" but wherein does the sameness or the
difference of words consist? Not in their pronunciation; for the same word
may be differently pronounced; as, _p=at'ron_ or _p=a'tron, m=at'ron_ or
_m=a'tron_. Not in their orthography; for the same word may be differently
spelled; as, _favour_ or _favor, music_ or _musick, connexion_ or
_connection_. Not in their form of presentation; for the same word may be
either spoken or written; and speech and writing present what we call _the
same words_, in two ways totally different. Not in their meaning; for the
same word may have different meanings, and different words may signify
precisely the same thing. This sameness of words, then, must consist in
something which is to be reconciled with great diversity. Yet every word is
itself, and not an other: and every word must necessarily have some
property peculiar to itself, by which it may be easily distinguished from
every other. Were it not so, language would be unintelligible. But it _is_
so; and, therefore, to mistake one word for an other, is universally
thought to betray great ignorance or great negligence, though such mistakes
are by no means of uncommon occurrence. But that the question about the
identity of words is not a very easy one, may appear from the fact, that
the learned often disagree about it in practice; as when one grammarian
will have _an_ and _a_ to be two words, and an other will affirm them to be
only different forms of one and the same word.
OBS. 6.--Let us see, then, if amidst all this diversity we can find that
principle of sameness, by which a dispute of this kind ought to be settled.
Now, although different words do generally differ in orthography, in
pronunciation, and in meaning, so that an entire sameness implies one
orthography, one pronunciation, and one meaning; yet some diversity is
allowed in each of these respects, so that a sign differing from an other
only in one, is not therefore a different word, or a sign agreeing with an
other only in one, is not therefore the same word. It follows thence, that
the principle of verbal identity, the principle which distinguishes every
word from every other, lies in neither extreme: it lies in a narrower
compass than in all three, and yet not singly in any one, but jointly in
any two. So that signs differing in any two of these characteristics of a
word, are different words; and signs agreeing in any two, are the same
word. Consequently, if to any difference either of spelling or of sound we
add a difference of signification everybody will immediately say, that we
speak or write different words, and not the same: thus _dear_, beloved, and
_deer_, an animal, are two such words as no one would think to be the same;
and, in like manner, _use_, advantage, and _use_, to employ, will readily
be called different words. Upon this principle, _an_ and _a_ are different
words; yet, in conformity to old usage, and because the latter is in fact
but an abridgement of the former, I have always treated them as one and the
same article, though I have nowhere expressly called them the same word.
But, to establish the principle above named, which appears to me the only
one on which any such question can be resolved, or the identity of words be
fixed at all, we must assume that every word has one right pronunciation,
and only one; one just orthography, and only one; and some proper
signification, which, though perhaps not always the same, is always a part
of its essence. For when two words of different meaning are spelled or
pronounced alike, not to maintain the second point of difference, against
the double orthography or the double pronunciation of either, is to
confound their identity at once, and to prove by the rule that two
different words are one and the same, by first absurdly making them so.
OBS. 7.--In no part of grammar is usage more unsettled and variable than in
that which relates to the _figure of words_. It is a point of which modern
writers have taken but very little notice. Lily, and other ancient Latin
grammarians, reckoned both species and figure among the grammatical
accidents of nearly all the different parts of speech; and accordingly
noticed them, in their Etymology, as things worthy to be thus made distinct
topics, like numbers, genders, cases, moods, tenses, &c. But the manner of
compounding words in Latin, and also in Greek, is always by consolidation.
No use appears to have been made of the _hyphen_, in joining the words of
those languages, though the name of the mark is a Greek compound, meaning
"_under one_." The compounding of words is one principal means of
increasing their number; and the arbitrariness with which that is done or
neglected in English, is sufficient of itself to make the number of our
words a matter of great uncertainty. Such terms, however, having the
advantage of explaining themselves in a much greater degree than others,
have little need of definition; and when new things are formed, it is very
natural and proper to give them new names of this sort: as, _steamboat,
railroad_. The propriety or impropriety of these additions to the language,
is not to be determined by dictionaries; for that must be settled by usage
before any lexicographer will insert them. And so numerous, after all, are
the discrepancies found in our best dictionaries, that many a word may have
its day and grow obsolete, before a nation can learn from them the right
way of spelling it; and many a fashionable thing may go entirely out of
use, before a man can thus determine how to name it. _Railroads_ are of so
recent invention that I find the word in only one dictionary; and that one
is wrong, in giving the word a hyphen, while half our printers are wrong,
in keeping the words separate because _Johnson_ did not compound them. But
is it not more important, to know whether we ought to write _railroad_, or
_rail-road_, or _rail road_, which we cannot learn from any of our
dictionaries, than to find out whether we ought to write _rocklo_, or
_roquelo_, or _roquelaur_, or _roquelaure_, which, in some form or other,
is found in them all? The duke of Roquelaure is now forgotten, and his
cloak is out of fashion.
OBS. 8.--No regular phrase, as I have taught in the second rule above,
should be needlessly converted into a compound word, either by tacking its
parts together with the hyphen, or by uniting them without a hyphen; for,
in general, a phrase is one thing, and a word is an other: and they ought
to be kept as distinct as possible.[113] But, when a whole phrase takes the
relation of an _adjective_, the words must be compounded, and the hyphen
becomes necessary; as, "An inexpressibly apt _bottle-of-small-beer_
comparison."--_Peter Pindar_. The occasions for the compounding of words,
are in general sufficiently plain, to any one who knows what is intended to
be said; but, as we compound words, sometimes with the hyphen, and
sometimes without, there is no small difficulty in ascertaining when to use
this mark, and when to omit it. "Some settled rule for the use of the
hyphen on these occasions, is much wanted. Modern printers have a strange
predilection for it; using it on almost every possible occasion. Mr. L.
Murray, who has only three lines on the subject, seems inclined to
countenance this practice; which is, no doubt, convenient enough for those
who do not like trouble. His words are: 'A Hyphen, marked thus - is
employed in connecting compounded words: as, Lap-dog, tea-pot,
pre-existence, self-love, to-morrow, mother-in-law.' Of his six examples,
Johnson, our only acknowledged standard, gives the first and third without
any separation between the syllables, _lapdog, preexistence_; his second
and fifth as two distinct words each, _tea pot, to morrow_; and his sixth
as three words, _mother in law_: so that only his fourth has the sanction
of the lexicographer. There certainly can be no more reason for putting a
hyphen after the common prefixes, than before the common affixes, _ness,
ly_, and the rest."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 374.
OBS. 9.--Again: "While it would be absurd, to sacrifice the established
practice of all good authors to the ignorance of such readers [as could
possibly mistake for a diphthong the two contiguous vowels in such words as
_preexistence, cooperate_, and _reenter_]; it would unquestionably be
advantageous, to have some principle to guide us in that labyrinth of
words, in which the hyphen appears to have been admitted or rejected
arbitrarily, or at hap-hazard. Thus, though we find in Johnson,
_alms-basket, alms-giver_, with the hyphen; we have _almsdeed, almshouse,
almsman_, without: and many similar examples of an unsettled practice might
be adduced, sufficient to fill several pages. In this perplexity, is not
the pronunciation of the words the best guide? In the English language,
every word of more than one syllable is marked by an accent on some
particular syllable. Some very long words indeed admit a secondary accent
on _another_ syllable; but still this is much inferior, and leaves one
leading accent prominent: as in _expos'tulatory_. Accordingly, when a
compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation, as _night'cap,
bed'stead, broad'sword_, the two words have coalesced completely into one,
and no hyphen should be admitted. On the other hand, when each of the
radical words has an accent, as _Chris'tian-name', broad'-shoul'dered_, I
think the hyphen should be used. _Good'-na'tured_ is a compound epithet
with two accents, and therefore requires the hyphen: in _good nature, good
will_, and similar expressions, _good_ is used simply as an adjective, and
of course should remain distinct from the noun. Thus, too, when a noun is
used adjectively, it should remain separate from the noun it modifies; as,
a _gold ring_, a _silver buckle_. When two numerals are employed to express
a number, without a conjunction between them, it is usual to connect them
by a hyphen; as, _twenty-five, eighty-four_: but when the conjunction is
inserted, the hyphen is as improper as it would be between other words
connected by the conjunction. This, however, is a common abuse; and we
often meet with _five-&-twenty, six-&-thirty_, and the like."--_Ib._, p.
376. Thus far Churchill: who appears to me, however, too hasty about the
hyphen in compound numerals. For we write _one hundred, two hundred, three
thousand_, &c., without either hyphen or conjunction; and as
_five-and-twenty_ is equivalent to _twenty-five_, and virtually but one
word, the hyphen, if not absolutely necessary to the sense, is certainly
not so very improper as he alleges. "_Christian name_" is as often written
without the hyphen as with it, and perhaps as accurately.
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
ERRORS IN THE FIGURE, OR FORM, OF WORDS.
UNDER RULE I.--OF COMPOUNDS.
"Professing to imitate Timon, the man hater."--_Goldsmith's Rome_, p. 161.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the compound term _manhater_ is here made
two words. But, according to Rule 1st, "Words regularly or analogically
united, and commonly known as forming a compound, should never be
needlessly broken apart." Therefore, _manhater_ should be written as one
word.]
"Men load hay with a pitch fork."--_Webster's New Spelling-Book_, p. 40. "A
pear tree grows from the seed of a pear."--_Ib._, p. 33. "A tooth brush is
good to brush your teeth."--_Ib._, p. 85. "The mail is opened at the post
office."--_Ib._, p. 151. "The error seems to me two fold."--_Sanborn's
Gram._, p. 230. "To pre-engage means to engage before hand."--_Webster's
New Spelling-Book_, p. 82. "It is a mean act to deface the figures on a
mile stone."--_Ib._, p. 88. "A grange is a farm and farm house."--_Ib._, p.
118. "It is no more right to steal apples or water melons, than
money."--_Ib._, p. 118. "The awl is a tool used by shoemakers, and harness
makers."--_Ib._, p. 150. "Twenty five cents are equal to one quarter of a
dollar."--_Ib._, p. 107. "The blowing up of the Fulton at New York was a
terrible disaster."--_Ib._, p. 54. "The elders also, and the bringers up of
the children, sent to Jehu."--SCOTT: 2 _Kings_, x, 5. "Not with eye
service, as men pleasers."--_Bickersteth, on Prayer_, p. 64. "A good
natured and equitable construction of cases."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 138. "And
purify your hearts, ye double minded."--_Gurney's Portable Evidences_, p.
115. "It is a mean spirited action to steal; i. e. to steal is a mean
spirited action."--_Grammar of Alex. Murray, the schoolmaster_, p. 124.
"There is, indeed, one form of orthography which is a kin to the
subjunctive mood of the Latin tongue."--_Booth's Introd. to Dict._, p. 71.
"To bring him into nearer connexion with real and everyday
life."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 459. "The common place, stale
declamation of its revilers would be silenced."--_Ib._, i, 494. "She formed
a very singular and unheard of project."--_Goldsmith's Rome_, p. 160. "He
had many vigilant, though feeble talented, and mean spirited
enemies."--ROBERTS VAUX: _The Friend_, Vol. vii, p. 74. "These old
fashioned people would level our psalmody," &c.--_Music of Nature_, p. 292.
"This slow shifting scenery in the theatre of harmony."--_Ib._, p. 398. "So
we are assured from Scripture it self."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 300. "The
mind, being disheartened, then betakes its self to trifling."--_R.
Johnson's Pref. to Gram. Com._ "Whose soever sins ye remit, they are
remitted unto them."--_Beacon_, p. 115: SCOTT, ALGER, FRIENDS: _John_, xx,
23. "Tarry we our selves how we will."--_Walker's English Particles_, p.
161. "Manage your credit so, that you need neither swear your self, nor
want a voucher."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 33. "Whereas song never conveys
any of the above named sentiments."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 424. "I go on
horse back."--_Guy's Gram._, p. 54. "This requires _purity_, in opposition
to barbarous, obsolete, or new coined words."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 242;
_Gould's_, 234. "May the Plough share shine."--_White's Eng. Verb_, p. 161.
"Which way ever we consider it."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 83.
"Where e'er the silent (e) a Place obtains,
The Voice foregoing, Length and softness gains."
--_Brightland's Gr._, p. 15.
UNDER RULE II.--OF SIMPLES.
"It qualifies any of the four parts of speech abovenamed."--_Kirkham's
Gram._, p. 83.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because _abovenamed_ is here unnecessarily made a
compound. But, according to Rule 2d, "When the simple words would only form
a regular phrase, of the same meaning, the compounding of any of them ought
to be avoided." Therefore, _above_ and _named_ should here have been
written as two words.]
"After awhile they put us out among the rude multitude."--_Fox's Journal_.
Vol. i, p. 169. "It would be ashame, if your mind should falter and give
in."--_Collier's Meditations of Antoninus_, p. 94. "They stared awhile in
silence one upon another."--_Rasselas_, p. 73. "After passion has for
awhile exercised its tyrannical sway."--_Murray's Gram._, ii, 135 and 267.
"Though set within the same general-frame of intonation."--_Rush, on the
Voice_, p. 339. "Which do not carry any of the natural vocal-signs of
expression."--_Ib._, p. 329. "The measurable constructive-powers of a few
associable constituents."--_Ib._, p. 343. "Before each accented syllable or
emphatic monosyllabic-word."--_Ib._, p. 364. "One should not think too
favourably of oneself."--See _Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 154. "Know ye not
your ownselves, how that Jesus Christ is in you."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol.
i, p. 355. "I judge not my ownself, for I know nothing of my ownself."--
_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 84. "Though they were in such a rage, I
desired them to tarry awhile."--_Josephus_, Vol. v, p. 179. "_A_ instead of
_an_ is now used before words beginning with _a_ long."--_Murray's Gram._,
p. 31. "John will have earned his wages the next new-year's
day."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 82. "A new-year's-gift is a present made on the
first day of the year."--See _Johnson, Walker, Webster, et al._ "When he
sat on the throne, distributing new-year's-gifts."--STILLINGFLEET, _in
Johnson's Dict._ "St. Paul admonishes Timothy to refuse old-wives'-
fables."--_Author_. "The world, take it altogether, is but one."--
_Collier's Antoninus_, B. vii, Sec. 9. "In writings of this stamp we must
accept of sound instead of sense."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 298. "A
male-child, A female-child, Male-descendants, Female-descendants."--
_Goldsbury's C. S. Gram._, p. 13; _Rev. T. Smith's Gram._, p. 15.
"Male-servants, Female-servants. Male-relations, Female-relations."--
_Felton's Gram._, p. 15.
"Reserved and cautious, with no partial aim,
My muse e'er sought to blast another's fame."--_Lloyd_, p. 162.
UNDER RULE III.--THE SENSE.
"Our discriminations of this matter have been but four footed
instincts."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 291.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the term _four footed_ is made two words, as
if the instincts were four and footed. But, according to Rule 3d, "Words
otherwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined together, or written
separately, as the sense and construction may happen to require."
Therefore, _four-footed_, as it here means _quadruped_, or _having four
feet_, should be one word.]
"He is in the right, (says Clytus,) not to bear free born men at his
table."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, Vol. ii, p. 128. "To the short seeing eye of
man, the progress may appear little."--_The Friend_, Vol. ix, p. 377.
"Knowledge and virtue are, emphatically, the stepping stone to individual
distinction."--_Town's Analysis_, p. 5. "A tin peddler will sell tin
vessels as he travels."--_Webster's New Spelling-Book_, p. 44. "The beams
of a wood-house are held up by the posts and joists."--_Ib._, p. 39. "What
you mean by _future tense adjective_, I can easily understand."--_Tooke's
Diversions_, Vol. ii, p. 450. "The town has been for several days very well
behaved."--_Spectator_, No. 532. "A _rounce_ is the handle of a printing
press."--_Webster's' Dict._; also _El. Spelling-Book_, p. 118. "The
phraseology we call _thee and thouing_ is not in so common use with us, as
the _tutoyant_ among the French."--_Walker's Dict., w. Thy._ "Hunting, and
other out door sports, are generally pursued."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 227.
"Come unto me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden."--SCOTT, ALGER,
FRIENDS: _Matt._, xi, 28. "God so loved the world, that he gave his only
begotten Son to save it."--_Barclay's Works_, i, p. 71. See SCOTT'S BIBLE:
_John_, iii, 16. "Jehovah is a prayer hearing God: Nineveh repented, and
was spared."--_N. Y. Observer_, Vol. x, p. 90. "These are well pleasing to
God, in all ranks and relations."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 73.
"Whosoever cometh any thing near unto the tabernacle."--_Numb._, xvii, 13.
"The words coalesce, when they have a long established association."--
_Murray's Gram._, p. 169. "Open to me the gates of righteousness: I will go
in to them."--OLD BIBLE: _Ps._, cxviii, 19. "He saw an angel of God coming
into him."--See _Acts_, x, 3. "The consequences of any action are to be
considered in a two fold light."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 108. "We
commonly write two fold, three fold, four fold, and so on up to ten fold,
without a hyphen; and, after that, we use one."--_Author._ See _Matt._,
xiii, 8. "When the first mark is going off, he cries _turn!_ the glass
holder answers _done!_"--_Bowditch's Nav._, p. 128. "It is a kind of
familiar shaking hands with all the vices."--_Maturin's Sermons_, p. 170.
"She is a good natured woman;" "James is self opinionated;" "He is broken
hearted."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 147. "These three examples apply to the
_present tense_ construction only."--_Ib._, p. 65. "So that it was like a
game of hide and go seek."--_Edward's First Lessons in Grammar_, p. 90.
"That lowliness is young ambition's ladder,
Whereto the climber upward turns his face."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 97.
UNDER RULE IV.--OF ELLIPSES.
"This building serves yet for a school and a meeting-house."
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the compound word _schoolhouse_ is here
divided to avoid a repetition of the last half. But, according to Rule 4th,
"When two or more compounds are connected in one sentence, none of them
should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word." Therefore, "_school_"
should be "_schoolhouse_;" thus, "This building serves yet for a
_schoolhouse_ and a meeting-house."]
"Schoolmasters and mistresses of honest friends [are] to be
encouraged."--_N. E. Discipline_, p. xv. "We never assumed to ourselves a
faith or worship-making-power."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 83. "Pot and
pearl ashes are made from common ashes."--_Webster's New Spelling-Book_, p.
69. "Both the ten and eight syllable verses are iambics."--_Blair's Gram._,
p. 121. "I say to myself, thou, he says to thy, to his self; &c."--_Dr.
Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang._, Vol. ii p. 121. "Or those who have
esteemed themselves skilful, have tried for the mastery in two or four
horse chariots."--_Zenobia_, Vol. i, p. 152. "I remember him barefooted and
headed, running through the streets."--_Castle Rackrent_, p. 68. "Friends
have the entire control of the school and dwelling-houses."--_The Friend_,
Vol. vii, p. 231. "The meeting is held at the first mentioned place in the
first month, at the last in the second, and so on."--_Ib._, p. 167.
"Meetings for worship are held at the same hour on first and fourth
days."--_Ib._, p. 230. "Every part of it, inside and out, is covered with
gold leaf."--_Ib._, p. 404. "The Eastern Quarterly Meeting is held on the
last seventh day in second, fifth, eighth, and eleventh month."--_Ib._, p.
87. "Trenton Preparative Meeting is held on the third fifth day in each
month, at ten o'clock; meetings for worship at the same hour on first and
fifth days."--_Ib._, p. 231. "Ketch, a vessel with two masts, a main and
mizzen-mast."--_Webster's Dict._, "I only mean to suggest a doubt, whether
nature has enlisted herself as a Cis or Trans-Atlantic partisan?"--
_Jefferson's Notes_, p. 97. "By large hammers, like those used for paper
and fullingmills, they beat their hemp."--MORTIMER: _in Johnson's Dict._
"Ant-hill, or Hillock, _n. s._ The small protuberances of earth, in which
ants make their nests."--_Ib._ "It became necessary to substitute simple
indicative terms called _pro-names_ or _nouns._"--_Enclytica_, p. 16.
"Obscur'd, where highest woods, impenetrable
To star or sun-light, spread their umbrage broad."--_Milton._
UNDER RULE V.--THE HYPHEN.
"_Evilthinking_; a noun, compounded of the noun _evil_ and the imperfect
participle _thinking_; singular number;" &c.--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 180.
[FORMULE--Not proper, because the word _evilthinking_, which has more than
one accented syllable, is here compounded without the hyphen. But,
according to Rule 5th, "When the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce,
or when each retains its original accent, so that the compound has more
than one, or one that is movable, the hyphen should be inserted between
them." Therefore, the hyphen should be used in this word; thus,
_evil-thinking._]
"_Evilspeaking_; a noun, compounded of the noun _evil_ and the imperfect
participle _speaking._"--_Ib._ "I am a tall, broadshouldered, impudent,
black fellow."--SPECTATOR: _in Johnson's Dict._ "Ingratitude! thou
marblehearted fiend."--SHAK.: _ib._ "A popular licence is indeed the
manyheaded tyranny."--SIDNEY: _ib._ "He from the manypeopled city
flies."--SANDYS: _ib._ "He manylanguaged nations has surveyed."--POPE:
_ib._ "The horsecucumber is the large green cucumber, and the best for the
table."--MORTIMER: _ib._ "The bird of night did sit, even at noonday, upon
the market-place."--SHAK.: _ib._ "These make a general gaoldelivery of
souls, not for punishment."--SOUTH: _ib._ "Thy air, thou other goldbound
brow, is like the first."--SHAK.: _ib._ "His person was deformed to the
highest degree; flatnosed, and blobberlipped."--L'ESTRANGE: _ib._ "He that
defraudeth the labourer of his hire, is a bloodshedder."--ECCLUS., xxxiv,
22: _ib._ "Bloodyminded, _adj._ from _bloody_ and _mind._ Cruel; inclined
to blood-shed."--See _Johnson's Dict._ "Bluntwitted lord, ignoble in
demeanour."--SHAK.: _ib._ "A young fellow with a bobwig and a black silken
bag tied to it."--SPECTATOR: _ib._ "I have seen enough to confute all the
boldfaced atheists of this age."--BRAMHALL: _ib._ "Before milkwhite, now
purple with love's wound."--SHAK: _ib._ "For what else is a redhot iron
than fire? and what else is a burning coal than redhot wood?"--NEWTON:
_ib._ "Pollevil is a large swelling, inflammation, or imposthume in the
horse's poll, or nape of the neck just between the ears."--FARRIER: _ib._
"Quick-witted, brazenfac'd, with fluent tongues,
Patient of labours, and dissembling wrongs."--DRYDEN: _ib._
UNDER RULE VI.--NO HYPHEN.
"From his fond parent's eye a tear-drop fell."--_Snelling's Gift for
Scribblers_, p. 43.
[FORMULE--Not proper, because the word _tear-drop_, which has never any
other than a full accent on the first syllable, is here compounded with the
hyphen. But, according to Rule 6th, "When a compound has but one accented
syllable in pronunciation, and the parts are such as admit of a complete
coalescence, no hyphen should be inserted between them." Therefore,
_teardrop_ should be made a close compound.]
"How great, poor jack-daw, would thy sufferings be!"--_Ib._, p. 29. "Placed
like a scare-crow in a field of corn."--_Ib._, p. 39. "Soup for the
alms-house at a cent a quart."--_Ib._, p. 23. "Up into the watch-tower get,
and see all things despoiled of fallacies."--DONNE: _Johnson's Dict., w.
Lattice._ "In the day-time she sitteth in a watchtower, and flieth most by
night."--BACON: _ib., w. Watchtower._ "In the daytime Fame sitteth in a
watch-tower, and flieth most by night."--ID.: _ib., w. Daytime._ "The moral
is the first business of the poet, as being the ground-work of his
instruction."--DRYDEN: _ib., w. Moral._ "Madam's own hand the mouse-trap
baited."--PRIOR: _ib., w. Mouse-trap._ "By the sinking of the air-shaft the
air hath liberty to circulate."--RAY: _ib., w. Airshaft._ "The multiform
and amazing operations of the air-pump and the loadstone."--WATTS: _ib., w.
Multiform._ "Many of the fire-arms are named from animals."--_Ib., w.
Musket._ "You might have trussed him and all his apparel into an
eel-skin."--SHAK.: _ib., w. Truss._ "They may serve as land-marks to shew
what lies in the direct way of truth."--LOCKE: _ib., w. Landmark._ "A
pack-horse is driven constantly in a narrow lane and dirty road."--_Id.
ib., w. Lane._ "A mill-horse, still bound to go in one circle."--SIDNEY:
_ib., w. Mill-horse._ "Of singing birds they have linnets, goldfinches,
ruddocks, Canary-birds, black-birds, thrushes, and divers others."--CAREW:
_ib., w. Goldfinch._ "Of singing birds, they have linnets, gold-finches,
blackbirds, thrushes, and divers others."--ID.: _ib., w. Blackbird._ "Of
singing birds, they have linnets, gold-finches, ruddocks, canary birds,
blackbirds, thrushes, and divers other."--ID.: _ib., w. Canary bird._
"Cartrage, or Cartridge, a case of paper or parchment filled with
gun-powder."--_Johnson's Dict._, 4to.
"Deep night, dark night, the silent of the night,
The time of night when Troy was set on fire,
The tune when screech-owls cry, and ban-dogs howl."
SHAKSPEARE: _ib., w. Silent._
"The time when screech-owls cry, and bandogs howl."
IDEM.: _ib., w. Bandog._
PROMISCUOUS ERRORS IN THE FIGURE OF WORDS.
LESSON I.--MIXED.
"They that live in glass-houses, should not throw stones."--_Old Adage._
"If a man profess Christianity in any manner or form soever."--_Watts_, p.
5. "For Cassius is a weary of the world."--SHAKSPEARE: _in Kirkham's
Elocution_, p. 67. "By the coming together of more, the chains were
fastened on."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 223. "Unto the carrying away of
Jerusalem captive in the fifth month."--_Jer._, i, 3. "And the goings forth
of the border shall be to Zedad."--_Numbers_, xxxiv, 8. "And the goings out
of it shall be at Hazar-enan."--_Ib._, ver. 9. "For the taking place of
effects, in a certain particular series."--_Dr. West, on Agency_, p. 39.
"The letting go of which was the occasion of all that corruption."--_Dr. J.
Owen._ "A falling off at the end always hurts greatly."--_Blair's Lect._,
p. 126. "A falling off at the end is always injurious."--_Jamieson's
Rhetoric_, p. 127. "As all holdings forth were courteously supposed to be
trains of reasoning."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang._, Vol. i, p.
333. "Whose goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting."--
_Micah_, v, 2. "Some times the adjective becomes a substantive."--
_Bradley's Gram._, p. 104. "It is very plain, I consider man as visited a
new."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. iii, p. 331. "Nor do I any where say, as he
falsely insinuates."--_Ib._, p. 331. "Every where, any where, some where,
no where."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 55. "The world hurries off a pace,
and time is like a rapid river."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 58. "But to now
model the paradoxes of ancient skepticism."--_Brown's Estimate_, Vol. i, p.
102. "The south east winds from the ocean invariably produce
rain."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 369. "North west winds from the high lands
produce cold clear weather."--_Ib._ "The greatest part of such tables would
be of little use to English men."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 155. "The ground
floor of the east wing of Mulberry street meeting house was filled."--_The
Friend_, vii, 232. "Prince Rupert's Drop. This singular production is made
at the glass houses."--_Red Book_, p. 131.
"The lights and shades, whose well accorded strife
Gives all the strength and colour of our life."
--_Murray's Gram._, p. 54; _Fisk's_, 65.
LESSON II.--MIXED.
"In the twenty and seventh year of Asa king of Judah did Zimri reign seven
days in Tirzah."--_1 Kings_, xvi, 15. "In the thirty and first year of Asa
king of Judah, began Omri to reign over Israel."--_Ib._, xvi, 23. "He
cannot so deceive himself as to fancy that he is able to do a rule of three
sum."--_Foreign Quarterly Review_. "The best cod are those known under the
name of Isle of Shoals dun fish."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 26. "The soldiers,
with down cast eyes, seemed to beg for mercy."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, Vol.
ii, p. 142. "His head was covered with a coarse worn out piece of
cloth."--_Ib._, p. 124. "Though they had lately received a reinforcement of
a thousand heavy armed Spartans."--_Ib._, p. 38. "But he laid them by
unopened; and, with a smile, said, 'Business to morrow.'"--_Ib._, p. 7.
"Chester monthly meeting is held at Moore's town, the third day following
the second second day."--_The Friend_, Vol. vii, p. 124. "Eggharbour
monthly meeting is held the first second day."--_Ib._, p. 124. "Little Egg
Harbour Monthly Meeting is held at Tuckerton on the second fifth day in
each month."--_Ib._, p. 231. "At three o'clock, on first day morning the
24th of eleventh month, 1834," &c.--_Ib._, p. 64. "In less than one-fourth
part of the time usually devoted."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 4. "The pupil
will not have occasion to use it one-tenth part as much."--_Ib._, p. 11.
"The painter dips his paint brush in paint, to paint the
carriage."--_Ib._, p. 28. "In an ancient English version of the
New-Testament."--_Ib._, p. 74. "The little boy was bare headed."--_Red
Book_, p. 36. "The man, being a little short sighted, did not immediately
know him."--_Ib._, p. 40. "Picture frames are gilt with gold."--_Ib._, p.
44. "The park keeper killed one of the deer."--_Ib._, p. 44. "The fox was
killed near the brick kiln."--_Ib._, p. 46. "Here comes Esther, with her
milk pail."--_Ib._, p. 50. "The cabinet maker would not tell us."--_Ib._,
p. 60. "A fine thorn hedge extended along the edge of the hill."--_Ib._, p.
65. "If their private interests should be ever so little affected."--_Ib._,
p. 73. "Unios are fresh water shells, vulgarly called fresh water
clams."--_Ib._, p. 102.
"Did not each poet mourn his luckless doom,
Jostled by pedants out of elbow room."--_Lloyd_, p. 163.
LESSON III.--MIXED.
"The captive hovers a-while upon the sad remains."--PRIOR: _in Johnson's
Dict., w. Hover._ "Constantia saw that the hand writing agreed with the
contents of the letter."--ADDISON: _ib., w. Hand_. "They have put me in a
silk night-gown, and a gaudy fool's cap."--ID.: _ib., w. Nightgown_. "Have
you no more manners than to rail at Hocus, that has saved that clod-pated,
numskull'd ninnyhammer of yours from ruin, and all his family?"--ARBUTHNOT:
_ib., w. Ninnyhammer_. "A noble, that is, six, shillings and eightpence,
is, and usually hath been paid."--BACON: _ib., w. Noble_. "The king of
birds thick feather'd and with full-summed wings, fastened his talons east
and west."--HOWELL: _ib., w. Full-summed_. "To morrow. This is an idiom of
the same kind, supposing _morrow_ to mean originally _morning_: as, _to
night, to day_."--_Johnson's Dict._, 4to. "To-day goes away and to-morrow
comes."--_Id., ib., w. Go_, No. 70. "Young children, who are try'd in Go
carts, to keep their steps from sliding."--PRIOR: _ib., w. Go-cart_.
"Which, followed well, would demonstrate them but goers backward."--SHAK.:
_ ib., w. Goer_. "Heaven's golden winged herald late he saw, to a poor
Galilean virgin sent."--CRASHAW: _ib., w. Golden_. "My penthouse eye-brows
and my shaggy beard offend your sight."--DRYDEN: _ib., w. Penthouse_. "The
hungry lion would fain have been dealing with good horse-flesh."--
L'ESTRANGE: _ib., w. Nag_. "A broad brimmed hat ensconced each careful
head."--_Snelling's Gift_, p. 63. "With harsh vibrations of his three
stringed lute."--_Ib._, p. 42. "They magnify a hundred fold an author's
merit."--_Ib._, p. 14. "I'll nail them fast to some oft opened
door."--_Ib._, p. 10. "Glossed over only with a saint-like show, still thou
art bound to vice."--DRYDEN: in _Johnson's Dict., w. Gloss_. "Take of
aqua-fortis two ounces, of quick-silver two drachms."--BACON: _ib., w.
Charge_. "This rainbow never appears but when it rains in the
sun-shine."--NEWTON: _ib., w. Rainbow_.
"Not but there are, who merit other palms;
Hopkins and Stern hold glad the heart with Psalms."
_British Poets_, Lond., 1800, Vol. vi, p. 405.
CHAPTER IV.--OF SPELLING.
_Spelling_ is the art of expressing words by their proper letters. This
important art is to be acquired rather by means of the spelling-book or
dictionary, and by observation in reading, than by the study of written
rules; because what is proper or improper, depends chiefly upon usage.
The orthography of our language is attended with much uncertainty and
perplexity: many words are variously spelled by the best scholars, and many
others are not usually written according to the analogy of similar words.
But to be ignorant of the orthography of such words as are spelled with
uniformity, and frequently used, is justly considered disgraceful.
The following rules may prevent some embarrassment, and thus be of service
to those who wish to be accurate.
_RULES FOR SPELLING._
RULE I.--FINAL F, L, OR S.
Monosyllables ending in _f, l_, or _s_, preceded by a single vowel, double
the final consonant; as _staff, mill, pass--muff, knell, gloss--off, hiss,
puss_.
EXCEPTIONS.--The words _clef, if_, and _of_, are written with single _f_;
and _as, gas, has, was, yes, his, is, this, us, pus_, and _thus_, with
single _s_. So _bul_, for the flounder; _nul_, for _no_, in law; _sol_, for
_sou_ or _sun_; and _sal_, for _salt_, in chemistry, have but the single
_l_.
OBS.--Because _sal, salis_, in Latin, doubles not the _l_, the chemists
write _salify, salifiable, salification, saliferous, saline, salinous,
saliniform, salifying_, &c., with single _l_, contrary to Rule 3d. But in
_gas_ they ought to double the _s_; for this is a word of their own
inventing. Neither have they any plea for allowing it to form _gases_ and
_gaseous_ with the _s_ still single; for so they make it violate two
general rules at once. If the singular cannot now be written _gass_, the
plural should nevertheless be _gasses_, and the adjective should be
_gasseous_, according to Rule 3d.
RULE II.--OTHER FINALS.
Words ending in any other consonant than _f, l_, or _s_, do not double the
final letter; as, _mob, nod, dog, sum, sun, cup, cur, cut, fix, whiz_.
EXCEPTIONS.--We double the consonant in _abb, ebb, add, odd, egg, jagg,
ragg, inn, err, burr, purr, butt, buzz, fuzz, yarr_, and some proper names.
But we have also _ab_ (_from_) and _ad_ (_to_) for prefixes; and _jag, rag,
in, bur_, and _but_, are other words that conform to the rule.
RULE III.--DOUBLING.
Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when they end with
a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, or by a vowel after _qu_,
double their final consonant before an additional syllable that begins with
a vowel: as, _rob, robbed, robber; fop, foppish, foppery; squat, squatter,
squatting; thin, thinner, thinnest; swim, swimmer, swimming; commit,
committeth, committing, committed, committer, committees; acquit,
acquittal, acquittance, acquitted, acquitting, acquitteth_.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. X final, being equivalent to _ks_, is never doubled: thus,
from _mix_, we have _mixed, mixing_, and _mixer_. 2. When the derivative
retains not the accent of the root, the final consonant is not always
doubled: as, _prefer', pref'erence, pref'erable; refer', ref'erence,
ref'erable_, or _refer'rible; infer', in'ference, in'ferable_, or
_infer'rible; transfer'_, a _trans'fer, trans'ferable_, or
_transfer'rible_. 3. But letters doubled in Latin, are usually doubled in
English, without regard to accent, or to any other principle: as, Britain,
_Britan'nic, Britannia_; appeal, _appel'lant_; argil, _argil'laus,
argilla'ceous_; cavil, _cav'illous, cavilla'tion_; excel', _ex'cellent,
ex'cellence_; inflame', _inflam'mable, inflamma'tion_. See Observations 13
and 14, p. 199.
RULE IV.--NO DOUBLING.
A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when the
accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before an
additional syllable: as, _toil, toiling; oil, oily; visit, visited; differ,
differing; peril, perilous; viol, violist; real, realize, realist; dial,
dialing, dialist; equal, equalize, equality; vitriol, vitriolic,
vitriolate_.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. The final _l_ of words ending in _el_, must be doubled
before an other vowel, lest the power of the _e_ be mistaken, and a
syllable be lost: as, _travel, traveller; duel, duellist; revel, revelling;
gravel, gravelly; marvel, marvellous_. Yet the word _parallel_, having
three Ells already, conforms to the rule in forming its derivatives; as,
_paralleling, paralleled_, and _unparalleled_. 2. Contrary to the preceding
rule, the preterits, participles, and derivative nouns, of the few verbs
ending in _al, il_, or _ol_, unaccented,--namely, _equal, rival, vial,
marshal, victual, cavil, pencil, carol, gambol_, and _pistol_,--are usually
allowed to double the _l_, though some dissent from the practice: as,
_equalled, equalling; rivalled, rivalling; cavilled, cavilling, caviller;
carolled, carolling, caroller_. 3. When _ly_ follows _l_, we have two Ells
of course, but in fact no doubling: as, _real, really; oral, orally; cruel,
cruelly; civil, civilly; cool, coolly; wool, woolly_. 4. Compounds, though
they often remove the principal accent from the point of duplication,
always retain the double letter: as, _wit'snapper, kid'napper,[114]
grass'hopper, duck'-legged, spur'galled, hot'spurred, broad'-brimmed,
hare'-lipped, half-witted_. So, _compromitted_ and _manumitted_; but
_benefited_ is different.
RULE V.--FINAL CK.
Monosyllables and English verbs end not with _c_, but take _ck_ for double
_c_; as, _rack, wreck, rock, attack_: but, in general, words derived from
the learned languages need not the _k_, and common use discards it; as,
_Italic, maniac, music, public_.
EXCEPTIONS.--The words _arc_, part of a circle; _orc_, the name of a fish;
_lac_, a gum or resin; and _sac_, or _soc_, a privilege, in old English
law, are ended with _c_ only. _Zinc_ is, perhaps, better spelled _zink_;
_marc, mark_; _disc, disk_; and _talc, talck_.
RULE VI.--RETAINING.
Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double before any
additional termination, not beginning with the same letter;[115] as in the
following derivatives: _wooer, seeing, blissful, oddly, gruffly, equally,
shelly, hilly, stiffness, illness, stillness, shrillness, fellness,
smallness, drollness, freeness, grassless, passless, carelessness,
recklessness, embarrassment, enfeoffment, agreement, agreeable_.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. Certain irregular derivatives in _d_ or _t_, from verbs
ending in _ee, ll_, or _ss_, (as _fled_ from _flee, sold_ from _sell, told_
from _tell, dwelt_ from _dwell, spelt_ from _spell, spilt_ from _spill,
shalt_ from _shall, wilt_ from _will, blest_ from _bless, past_ from
_pass_,) are exceptions to the foregoing rule. 2. If the word _pontiff_ is
properly spelled with two Effs, its eight derivatives are also exceptions
to this rule; for they are severally spelled with one; as, _pontific,
pontifical, pontificate_, &c. 3. The words _skillful, skillfully, willful,
willfully, chillness, tallness, dullness_, and _fullness_, have generally
been allowed to drop the second _l_, though all of them might well be made
to conform to the general rule, agreeably to the orthography of Webster.
RULE VII.--RETAINING.
Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double in all derivatives
formed from them by means of prefixes: as, _see, foresee_; _feoff,
enfeoff_; _pass, repass_; _press, depress_; _miss, amiss_; _call, recall_;
_stall, forestall_; _thrall, inthrall_; _spell, misspell_; _tell,
foretell_; _sell, undersell_; _add, superadd_; _snuff, besnuff_; _swell,
overswell_.
OBSERVATION.--The words _enroll, unroll, miscall, befall, befell, bethrall,
reinstall, disinthrall, fulfill_, and _twibill_, are very commonly written
with one _l_, and made exceptions to this rule; but those authors are in
the right who retain the double letter.
RULE VIII.--FINAL LL.
Final _ll_ is peculiar to monosyllables and their compounds, with the few
derivatives formed from such roots by prefixes; consequently, all other
words that end in _l_, must be terminated with a single _l_: as, _cabal,
logical, appal, excel, rebel, refel, dispel, extol, control, mogul, jackal,
rascal, damsel, handsel, tinsel, tendril, tranquil, gambol, consul_.
OBSERVATION.--The words _annul, until, distil, extil_, and _instil_, are
also properly spelled with one _l_; for the monosyllables _null, till_, and
_still_ are not really their roots, but rather derivatives, or contractions
of later growth. Webster, however, prefers _distill, extill_, and _instill_
with _ll_; and some have been disposed to add the other two.
RULE IX.--FINAL E.
The final _e_ of a primitive word, when this letter is mute or obscure, is
generally omitted before an additional termination beginning with a vowel:
as, _remove, removal_; _rate, ratable_; _force, forcible_; _true, truism_;
_rave, raving_; _sue, suing_; _eye, eying_; _idle, idling_; _centre,
centring_.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. Words ending in _ce_ or _ge_, retain the _e_ before _able_
or _ous_, to preserve the soft sounds of _c_ and _g_: as, _trace,
traceable_; _change, changeable_; _outrage, outrageous_. 2. So, from
_shoe_, we write _shoeing_, to preserve the sound of the root; from _hoe,
hoeing_, by apparent analogy; and, from _singe, singeing_; from _swinge,
swingeing_; from _tinge, tingeing_; that they may not be confounded with
_singing, swinging_, and _tinging_. 3. To compounds and prefixes, as
_firearms, forearm, anteact, viceagent_, the rule does not apply; and final
_ee_ remains double, by Rule 6th, as in _disagreeable, disagreeing_.
RULE X.--FINAL E.
The final _e_ of a primitive word is generally retained before an
additional termination beginning with a consonant: as, _pale, paleness_;
_edge, edgeless_; _judge, judgeship_; _lodge, lodgement_; _change,
changeful_; _infringe, infringement_.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. When the _e_ is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimes
omitted; as in _duly, truly, awful, argument_; but much more frequently
retained; as in _dueness, trueness, blueness, bluely, rueful, dueful,
shoeless, eyeless_. 2. The word _wholly_ is also an exception to the rule,
for nobody writes it _wholely_. 3. Some will have _judgment, abridgment_,
and _acknowledgment_, to be irreclaimable exceptions; but I write them with
the _e_, upon the authority of Lowth, Beattie, Ainsworth, Walker, Cobb,
Chalmers, and others: the French "_jugement_," _judgement_, always retains
the _e_.
RULE XI--FINAL Y.
The final _y_ of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is
generally changed into _i_ before an additional termination: as, _merry,
merrier, merriest, merrily, merriment_; _pity, pitied, pities, pitiest,
pitiless, pitiful, pitiable_; _contrary, contrariness, contrarily_.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. This rule applies to derivatives, but not to compounds:
thus, we write _merciful_, and _mercy-seat_; _penniless_, and _pennyworth_;
_scurviness_, and _scurvy-grass_; &c. But _ladyship_ and _goodyship_, being
unlike _secretariship_ and _suretiship_; _handicraft_ and _handiwork_,[116]
unlike _handygripe_ and _handystroke_; _babyship_ and _babyhood_, unlike
_stateliness_ and _likelihood_; the distinction between derivatives and
compounds, we see, is too nice a point to have been always accurately
observed. 2. Before _ing_ or _ish_, the _y_ is retained to prevent the
doubling of _i_: as, _pity, pitying_; _baby, babyish_. 3. Words ending in
_ie_, dropping the _e_ by Rule 9th, change the _i_ into _y_, for the same
reason: as, _die, dying_; _vie, vying_; _lie, lying_.
RULE XII--FINAL Y.
The final _y_ of a primitive word, when preceded by a vowel, should not be
changed into _i_ before any additional termination: as, _day, days_; _key,
keys_; _guy, guys_; _valley, valleys_; _coy, coyly_; _cloy, cloys, cloyed_;
_boy, boyish, boyhood_; _annoy, annoyer, annoyance_; _joy, joyless,
joyful_.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. From _lay, pay, say_, and _stay_, are formed _laid, paid,
said_, and _staid_; but the regular words, _layed, payed, stayed_, are
sometimes used. 2. _Raiment_, contracted from _arrayment_, is never written
with the _y_. 3. _Daily_ is more common than the regular form _dayly_; but
_gayly, gayety_, and _gayness_, are justly superseding _gaily_ and
_gaiety_.
RULE XIII.--IZE AND ISE.
Words ending in _ize_ or _ise_ sounded alike, as in _wise_ and _size_,
generally take the _z_ in all such as are essentially formed by means of
the termination; and the _s_ in monosyllables, and all such as are
essentially formed by means of prefixes: as, _gormandise, apologize,
brutalize, canonize, pilgrimize, philosophize, cauterize, anathematize,
sympathize, disorganize_, with _z_;[117] _rise, arise, disguise, advise,
devise, supervise, circumcise, despise, surmise, surprise, comprise,
compromise, enterprise, presurmise_, with _s_.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. _Advertise, catechise, chastise, criticise_,[118]
_exercise, exorcise_, and _merchandise_, are most commonly written with _s_
and _size, assize, capsize, analyze, overprize, detonize_, and _recognize_,
with _z_. How many of them are real exceptions to the rule, it is difficult
to say. 2. _Prise_, a thing taken, and _prize_, to esteem; _apprise_, to
inform, and _apprize_, to _value_, or _appraise_, are often written either
way, without this distinction of meaning, which some wish to establish. 3.
The want of the foregoing rule has also made many words _variable_, which
ought, unquestionably, to conform to the general principle.
RULE XIV.--COMPOUNDS.
Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple words which
compose them: as, _wherein, horseman, uphill, shellfish, knee-deep,
kneedgrass, kneading-trough, innkeeper, skylight, plumtree, mandrill_.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. In permanent compounds, or in any derivatives of which,
they are not the _roots_, the words _full_ and _all_ drop one _l_; as,
_handful, careful, fulfil, always, although, withal_; in temporary
compounds, they retain both; as, _full-eyed, chock-full_,[119] _all-wise,
save-all_. 2. So the prefix _mis_, (if from _miss_, to err,) drops one _s_;
but it is wrong to drop them both, as in Johnson's "_mispell_" and
"_mispend_," for _misspell_ and _misspend_. 3. In the names of days, the
word _mass_ also drops one _s_; as, _Christmas, Candlemas, Lammas_. 4. The
possessive case often drops the apostrophe; as in _herdsman, kitesfoot_. 5.
One letter is dropped, if three of the same kind come together: as,
_Rosshire, chaffinch_; or else a hyphen is used: as, _Ross-shire,
ill-looking, still-life_. 6. _Chilblain, welcome_, and _welfare_, drop one
_l_. 7. _Pastime_ drops an _s_. 8. _Shepherd, wherever_, and _whosever_,
drop an _e_; and _wherefore_ and _therefore_ assume one.
RULE XV.--USAGE.
Any word for the spelling of which we have no rule but usage, is written
wrong if not spelled according to the usage which is most common among the
learned: as, "The brewer grinds his malt before he _brues_ his beer."--_Red
Book_, p. 38.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--The foregoing rules aim at no wild and impracticable reformation
of our orthography; but, if carefully applied, they will do much to obviate
its chief difficulties. Being made variable by the ignorance of some
writers and the caprice of others, our spelling is now, and always has
been, exceedingly irregular and unsettled. Uniformity and consistency can
be attained in no other way, than by the steady application of rules and
principles; and these must be made as few and as general as the case will
admit, that the memory of the learner may not be overmatched by their
number or complexity. Rules founded on the analogy of similar words, and
sanctioned by the usage of careful writers, must be taken as our guides;
because common practice is often found to be capricious, contradictory, and
uncertain. That errors and inconsistencies abound, even in the books which
are proposed to the world as _standards_ of English orthography, is a
position which scarcely needs proof. It is true, to a greater or less
extent, of all the spelling-books and dictionaries that I have seen, and
probably of all that have ever been published. And as all authors are
liable to mistakes, which others may copy, general rules should have more
weight than particular examples to the contrary. "The right spelling of a
word may be said to be that which agrees the best with its pronunciation,
its etymology, and with the analogy of the particular class of words to
which it belongs."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 647.
OBS. 2.--I do not deny that great respect is due to the authority of our
lexicographers, or that great improvement was made in the orthography of
our language when Dr. Johnson put his hand to the work. But sometimes one
man's authority may offset an other's; and he that is inconsistent with
himself, destroys his own: for, surely, his example cannot be paramount to
his principles. Much has been idly said, both for and against the adoption
of Johnson's Dictionary, or Webster's, as _the criterion_ of what is right
or wrong in spelling; but it would seem that no one man's learning is
sufficiently extensive, or his memory sufficiently accurate, to be solely
relied on to furnish _a standard_ by which we may in all cases be governed.
Johnson was generally right; but, like other men, he was sometimes wrong.
He erred sometimes in his _principles_, or in their application; as when he
adopted the _k_ in such words as _rhetorick_, and _demoniack_; or when he
inserted the _u_ in such words as _governour, warriour, superiour_. Neither
of these modes of spelling was ever generally adopted, in any thing like
the number of words to which he applied them; or ever will be; though some
indiscreet compilers are still zealously endeavouring to impose them upon
the public, as the true way of spelling. He also erred sometimes _by
accident_, or _oversight_; as when he spelled thus: "_recall_ and _miscal,
inthrall_ and _bethral, windfall_ and _downfal, laystall_ and _thumbstal,
waterfall_ and _overfal, molehill_ and _dunghil, windmill_ and _twibil,
uphill_ and _downhil_." This occasional excision of the letter _l_ is
reprehensible, because it is contrary to general analogy, and because both
letters are necessary to preserve the sound, and show the derivation of the
compound. Walker censures it as a "ridiculous irregularity," and lays the
blame of it on the "_printers_," and yet does not venture to correct it!
See Johnson's Dictionary, first American edition, quarto; Walker's
Pronouncing Dictionary, under the word _Dunghil_; and his Rhyming
Dictionary, Introd., p. xv.
OBS. 3.--"Dr. Johnson's Dictionary" has been represented by some as having
"nearly fixed the external form of our language." But Murray, who quotes
this from Dr. Nares, admits, at the same time, that, "The orthography of a
great number of English words, is far from being uniform, even amongst
writers of distinction."--_Gram._, p. 25. And, after commending this work
of Johnson's, as A STANDARD, from which, "it is earnestly to be hoped, that
no author will henceforth, on light grounds, be tempted to innovate," he
adds, "This Dictionary, however, contains some orthographical
inconsistencies which ought to be rectified: such as, _immovable, moveable;
chastely, chastness; fertileness, fertily; sliness, slyly; fearlessly,
fearlesness; needlessness, needlesly_."--_Ib._ In respect to the final _ck_
and _our_, he also _intentionally departs from_ THE STANDARD _which he thus
commends_; preferring, in that, the authority of _Walker's Rhyming
Dictionary_, from which he borrowed his rules for spelling. For, against
the use of _k_ at the end of words from the learned languages, and against
the _u_ in many words in which Johnson used it, we have the authority, not
only of general usage now, but of many grammarians who were contemporary
with Johnson, and of more than a dozen lexicographers, ancient or modern,
among whom is Walker himself. In this, therefore, Murray's practice is
right, and his commended standard dictionary, wrong.
OBS. 4.--Of words ending in _or_ or _our_, we have about three hundred and
twenty; of which not more than forty can now with any propriety be written
with the latter termination. Aiming to write according to the best usage of
the present day, I insert the _u_ in so many of these words as now seem
most familiar to the eye when so written; but I have no partiality for any
letters that can well be spared; and if this book should ever, by any good
fortune, happen to be reprinted, after _honour, labour, favour, behaviour_,
and _endeavour_, shall have become as unfashionable as _authour, errour,
terrour_, and _emperour_, are now, let the proof-reader strike out the
useless letter not only from these words, but from all others which shall
bear an equally antiquated appearance.
OBS. 5.--I have suggested the above-mentioned imperfections in _Dr.
Johnson's_ orthography, merely to justify the liberty which I take of
spelling otherwise; and not with any view to give a preference to that of
_Dr. Webster_, who is now contending for the honour of having furnished a
more correct _standard_. For the latter author, though right in some things
in which the former was wrong, is, on the whole, still more erroneous and
inconsistent. In his various attempts at reformation in our orthography, he
has spelled many hundreds of words in such a variety of ways, that he knows
not at last which of them is right, and which are wrong. But in respect to
_definitions_, he has done good service to our literature; nor have his
critics been sufficiently just respecting what they call his "innovations."
See Cobb's Critical Review of the Orthography of Webster. To omit the _k_
from such words as _publick_, or the _u_ from such as _superiour_, is
certainly _no innovation_; it is but ignorance that censures the general
practice, under that name. The advocates for Johnson and opponents of
Webster, who are now so zealously stickling for the _k_ and the _u_ in
these cases, ought to know that they are contending for what was obsolete,
or obsolescent, when Dr. Johnson was a boy.
OBS. 6.--I have before observed that some of the grammarians who were
contemporary with Johnson, did not adopt his practice respecting the _k_ or
the _u_, in _publick, critick, errour, superiour_, &c. And indeed I am not
sure there were any who did. Dr. Johnson was born in 1709, and he died in
1784. But Brightland's Grammar, which was written during the reign of Queen
Anne, who died in 1714, in treating of the letter C, says, "If in any Word
the harder Sound precedes (_e_), (_i_), or (_y_), (_k_) is either added or
put in its Place; as, _Skill, Skin, Publick_: And tho' the additional (_k_)
in the foregoing Word be an _old Way_ of Spelling, yet it is now very
justly left off, as being a superfluous Letter; for (_c_) at the End is
always hard."--Seventh Edition, Lond., 1746, p. 37.
OBS. 7.--The three
grammars of Ash, Priestley, and Lowth, all appeared, in their first
editions, about one time; all, if I mistake not, in the year 1763; and none
of these learned doctors, it would seem, used the mode of spelling now in
question. In Ash, of 1799, we have such orthography as this: "Italics,
public, domestic, our traffic, music, quick; error, superior, warrior,
authors, honour, humour, favour, behaviour." In Priestley, of 1772:
"Iambics, dactyls, dactylic, anapæstic, monosyllabic, electric, public,
critic; author, emperor's, superior; favour, labours, neighbours, laboured,
vigour, endeavour; meagre, hillock, bailiwick, bishoprick, control,
travelling." In Lowth, of 1799: "Comic, critic, characteristic, domestic;
author, _favor, favored, endeavored, alledging_, foretells." Now all these
are words in the spelling of which Johnson and Webster contradict each
other; and if they are not all right, surely they would not, on the whole,
be made more nearly right, by being conformed to either of these
authorities exclusively. For THE BEST USAGE is the ultimate rule of
grammar.
OBS. 8.--The old British Grammar, written before the American Revolution,
and even before "_the learned Mr. Samuel Johnson_" was doctorated, though
it thus respectfully quotes that great scholar, does not follow him in the
spelling of which I am treating. On the contrary, it abounds with examples
of words ending in _ic_ and _or_, and not in _ick_ and _our_, as he wrote
them; and I am confident, that, from that time to this, the former
orthography has continued to be _more common than his_. Walker, the
orthoëpist, who died in 1807, yielded the point respecting the _k_, and
ended about four hundred and fifty words with _c_ in his Rhyming
Dictionary; but he thought it more of an innovation than it really was. In
his Pronouncing Dictionary, he says, "It has been a custom, _within these
twenty years_, to omit the _k_ at the end of words, when preceded by _c_.
This has introduced a _novelty_ into the language, which is that of ending
a word with an unusual letter," &c. "This omission of _k_ is, however, too
general to be counteracted, even by the authority of Johnson; but it is to
be hoped it will be confined to words from the learned languages."--
_Walker's Principles of Pronunciation_, No. 400. The tenth edition of
Burn's Grammar, dated 1810, says, "It has become customary to omit _k_
after _c_ at the end of dissyllables and trisyllables, &c. as _music,
arithmetic, logic_; but the _k_ is retained in monosyllables; as, _back,
deck, rick_, &c."--P. 25. James Buchanan, of whose English Syntax there had
been five American editions in 1792, added no _k_ to such words as
_didactic, critic, classic_, of which he made frequent use; and though he
wrote _honour, labour_, and the like, with _u_, as they are perhaps most
generally written now, he inserted no _u_ in _error, author_, or any of
those words in which that letter would now be inconsistent with good taste.
OBS. 9.--Bicknell's Grammar, of 1790, treating of the letter _k_, says,
"And for the same reason we have _dropt_ it at the end of words after _c_,
which is there always hard; as in _publick, logick_, &c. which are more
elegantly written _public, logic_."--Part ii, p. 13. Again: "It has
heretofore joined with _c_ at the end of words; as _publick, logick_; but,
as before observed, being there quite superfluous, it is now left
out"--_Ib._, p. 16. Horne Tooke's orthography was also agreeable to the
rule which I have given on this subject. So is the usage of David Booth:
"Formerly a _k_ was added, as, _rustick, politick, Arithmetick_, &c. but
this is now in disuse."--_Booth's Introd. to Dict._, Lond., 1814, p. 80.
OBS. 10.--As the authors of many recent spelling-books--Cobb, Emerson,
Burhans, Bolles, Sears, Marshall, Mott, and others--are now contending for
this "_superfluous letter_," in spite of all the authority against it, it
seems proper briefly to notice their argument, lest the student be misled
by it. It is summed up by one of them in the following words: "In regard to
_k_ after _c_ at the end of words, it may be sufficient to say, that its
omission has never been attempted, except in a _small portion_ of the cases
_where_ it occurs; and that _it_ tends to an erroneous pronunciation of
derivatives, as in _mimick, mimicking_, where, if the _k_ were omitted,
_it_ would read mimicing; and as _c_ before _i_ is always sounded like _s,
it_ must be pronounced _mimising_. Now, since _it_ is never omitted in
monosyllables, _where it_ most frequently occurs, as in _block, clock_,
&c., and _can be in a part only_ of polysyllables, it is thought better to
preserve it in all cases, by _which_ we have one general rule, in place of
several irregularities and exceptions that must follow its partial
omission."--_Bolles's Spelling-Book_, p. 2. I need not tell the reader that
these two sentences evince great want of care or skill in the art of
grammar. But it is proper to inform him, that we have in our language
eighty-six monosyllables which end with _ck_, and from them about fifty
compounds or derivatives, which of course keep the same termination. To
these may be added a dozen or more which seem to be of doubtful formation,
such as _huckaback, pickapack, gimcrack, ticktack, picknick, barrack,
knapsack, hollyhock, shamrock, hammock, hillock, hammock, bullock,
roebuck_. But the verbs on which this argument is founded are only six;
_attack, ransack, traffick, frolick, mimick_, and _physick_; and these,
unquestionably, must either be spelled with the k, or must assume it in
their derivatives. Now that useful class of words which are generally and
properly written with final _c_, are about _four hundred and fifty_ in
number, and are all of them either adjectives or nouns of regular
derivation from the learned languages, being words of more than one
syllable, which have come to us from Greek or Latin roots. But what has the
doubling of _c_ by _k_, in our native monosyllables and their derivatives,
to do with all these words of foreign origin? For the reason of the matter,
we might as well double the _l_, as our ancestors did, in _naturall,
temporall, spirituall_, &c.
OBS. 11.--The learner should observe that some letters incline much to a
duplication, while gome others are doubled but seldom, and some, never.
Thus, among the vowels, _ee_ and _oo_ occur frequently; _aa_ is used
sometimes; _ii_, never--except in certain Latin words, (wherein the vowels
are separately uttered,) such as _Horatii, Veii, iidem, genii_. Again, the
doubling of _u_ is precluded by the fact that we have a distinct letter
called _Double-u_, which was made by joining two Vees, or two Ues, when the
form for _u_ was _v_. So, among the consonants, _f, l, and s_, incline more
to duplication, than any others. These letters are double, not only at the
end of those monosyllables which have but one vowel, as _staff, mill,
pass_; but also under some other circumstances. According to general
usage, final _f_ is doubled after a single vowel, in almost all cases; as
in _bailiff, caitiff, plaintiff, midriff, sheriff, tariff, mastiff_: yet
not in _calif_, which is perhaps better written _caliph_. Final _l_, as may
be seen by Rule 8th, admits not now of a duplication like this; but, by the
exceptions to Rule 4th, it is frequently doubled when no other consonant
would be; as in _travelling, grovelling_; unless, (contrary to the opinion
of Lowth, Walker, and Webster,) we will have _fillipping, gossipping_, and
_worshipping_, to be needful exceptions also.
OBS. 12.--Final _s_ sometimes occurs single, as in _alas, atlas, bias_; and
especially in Latin words, as _virus, impetus_; and when it is added to
form plurals, as _verse, verses_: but this letter, too, is generally
doubled at the end of primitive words of more than one syllable; as in
_carcass, compass, cuirass, harass, trespass, embarrass_. On the contrary,
the other consonants are seldom doubled, except when they come under Rule
3d. The letter _p_, however, is commonly doubled, in some words, even when
it forms a needless exception to Rule 4th; as in the derivatives from
_fillip, gossip_, and perhaps also _worship_. This letter, too, was very
frequently doubled in Greek; whence we have, from the name of Philip of
Macedon, the words _Philippic_ and _Philippize_, which, if spelled
according to our rule for such derivatives, would, like _galloped_ and
_galloper, siruped_ and _sirupy_, have but one _p_. We find them so written
in some late dictionaries. But if _fillipped, gossipped_, and _worshipped_,
with the other derivatives from the same roots, are just and necessary
exceptions to Rule 4th, (which I do not admit,) so are these; and for a
much stronger reason, as the classical scholar will think. In our language,
or in words purely English, the letters _h, i, j, k, q, v, w, x_, and _y_,
are, properly speaking, never doubled. Yet, in the forming of _compounds_,
it may possibly happen, that two Aitches, two Kays, or even two Double-ues
or Wies, shall come together; as in _withhold, brickkiln, slowwoorm,
bayyarn_.
OBS. 13.--There are some words--as those which come from _metal, medal,
coral, crystal, argil, axil, cavil, tranquil, pupil, papil_--in which the
classical scholar is apt to violate the analogy of English derivation, by
doubling the letter _l_, because he remembers the _ll_ of their foreign
roots, or their foreign correspondents. But let him also remember, that, if
a knowledge of etymology may be shown by spelling metallic, metalliferous,
metallography, metallurgic, metallurgist, metallurgy, medallic, medallion,
crystallize, crystalline, argillous, argillaceous, axillar, axillary,
cavillous, cavillation, papillate, papillous, papillary, tranquillity, and
pupillary, with double _l_, ignorance of it must needs be implied in
spelling metaline, metalist, metaloid, metaloidal, medalist, coralaceous,
coraline, coralite, coralinite, coraloid, coraloidal, crystalite, argilite,
argilitic, tranquilize, and pupilage, in like manner. But we cannot well
double the _l_ in the former, and not in the latter words. Here is a choice
of difficulties. Etymology must govern orthography. But what etymology? our
own, or that which is foreign? If we say, both, they disagree; and the mere
English scholar cannot know when, or how far, to be guided by the latter.
If a Latin diminutive, as _papilla_ from _papula_ or _papa, pupillus_ from
_pupus_, or _tranquillus_ from _trans_ and _quietus_, happen to double an
_l_, must we forever cling to the reduplication, and that, in spite of our
own rules to the contrary? Why is it more objectionable to change
_pupillaris_ to _pupilary_, than _pupillus_ to _pupil_? or, to change
_tranquillitas_ to _tranquility_, than _tranquillus_ to _tranquil_? And
since _papilous, pupilage_, and _tranquilize_ are formed from the English
words, and not directly from the Latin, why is it not as improper to write
them with double _l_, as to write _perilous, vassalage_, and _civilize_, in
the same manner?
OBS. 14.--If the practice of the learned would allow us to follow the
English rule here, I should incline to the opinion, that all the words
which I have mentioned above, ought to be written with single _l_.
Ainsworth exhibits the Latin word for _coral_ in four forms, and the Greek
word in three. Two of the Latin and two of the Greek have the _l_ single;
the others double it. He also spells "_coraliticus_" with one _l_, and
defines it "A sort of white marble, called _coraline_." [120] The
Spaniards, from whose _medalla_, we have _medal_; whose _argil_[121] is
_arcilla_, from the Latin _argilla_; and to whose _cavilar_, Webster traces
_cavil_; in all their derivatives from these Latin roots, _metallum_,
metal--_coralium, corallium, curalium_, or _corallum_, coral--_crystallus_
or _crystallum_, crystal--_pupillus_, pupil--and _tranquillus_,
tranquil--follow their own rules, and write mostly with single _l_: as,
_pupilero_, a teacher; _metalico_, metalic; _corolina_ (_fem_.) coraline;
_cristalino_, crystaline; _crystalizar_, crystalize; _traquilizar_,
tranquilize; and _tranquilidad_, tranquility. And if we follow not ours,
when or how shall the English scholar ever know why we spell as we do? For
example, what can he make of the orthography of the following words, which
I copy from our best dictionaries: equip', eq'uipage; wor'ship,
wor'shipper;--peril, perilous; cavil, cavillous;[122]--libel, libellous;
quarrel, quarrelous;--opal, opaline; metal, metalline;[123]--coral,
coralliform; crystal, crystalform;--dial, dialist; medal,
medallist;--rascal, rascalion; medal, medallion;--moral, moralist,
morality; metal, metallist, metallurgy;--civil, civilize, civility;
tranquil, tranquillize, tranquillity;--novel, novelism, novelist, novelize;
grovel, grovelling, grovelled, groveller?
OBS. 15.--The second clause of Murray's or Walker's 5th Rule for spelling,
gives only a single _l_ to each of the derivatives above named.[124] But it
also treats in like manner many hundreds of words in which the _l_ must
certainly be doubled. And, as neither "the Compiler," nor any of his
copiers, have paid any regard to their own principle, neither their
doctrine nor their practice can be of much weight either way. Yet it is
important to know to what words the rule is, or is not, applicable. In
considering this vexatious question about the duplication of _l_, I was at
first inclined to admit that, whenever final _l_ has become single in
English by dropping the second _l_ of a foreign root, the word shall
resume the _ll_ in all derivatives formed from it by adding a termination
beginning with a vowel; as, _beryllus, beryl, berylline_. This would, of
course, double the _l_ in nearly all the derivatives from _metal, medal_,
&c. But what says Custom? She constantly doubles the _l_ in most of them;
but wavers in respect to some, and in a few will have it single. Hence the
difficulty of drawing a line by which we may abide without censure.
_Pu'pillage_ and _pu'pillary_, with _ll_, are according to _Walker's
Rhyming Dictionary_; but Johnson spells them _pu'pilage_ and _pu'pilary_,
with single _l_; and Walker, in his Pronouncing Dictionary, has _pupilage_
with one _l_, and _pupillary_ with two. Again: both Johnson's and the
Pronouncing Dictionary, give us _medallist_ and _metallist_ with _ll_, and
are sustained by Webster and others; but Walker, in his Rhyming Dictionary,
writes them _medalist_ and _metalist_, with single _l_, like _dialist,
formalist, cabalist, herbalist_, and twenty other such words. Further:
Webster doubles the _l_ in all the derivatives of _metal, medal, coral,
axil, argil_, and _papil_; but writes it single in all those of _crystal,
cavil, pupil_, and _tranquil_--except _tranquillity_.
OBS. 16.--Dr. Webster also attempts, or pretends, to put in practice the
hasty proposition of Walker, to spell with single _l_ all derivatives from
words ending in _l_ not under the accent. "No letter," says Walker, "seems
to be more frequently doubled improperly than _l_. Why we should write
_libelling, levelling, revelling_, and yet _offering, suffering,
reasoning_, I am totally at a loss to determine; and, unless _l_ can give a
better plea than any other letter in the alphabet, for being doubled in
this situation, I must, in the style of Lucian, in his trial of the letter
_T_, declare for an expulsion."--_Rhyming Dict._, p. x. This rash
conception, being adopted by some men of still less caution, has wrought
great mischief in our orthography. With respect to words ending in _el_, it
is a good and sufficient reason for doubling the _l_, that the _e_ may
otherwise be supposed servile and silent. I have therefore made this
termination a general exception to the rule against doubling. Besides, a
large number of these words, being derived from foreign words in which the
_l_ was doubled, have a second reason for the duplication, as strong as
that which has often induced these same authors to double that letter, as
noticed above. Such are bordel, chapel, duel, fardel, gabel, gospel,
gravel, lamel, label, libel, marvel, model, novel, parcel, quarrel, and
spinel. Accordingly we find, that, in his work of expulsion, Dr. Webster
has not unfrequently contradicted himself, and conformed to usage, by
doubling the _l_ where he probably intended to write it single. Thus, in
the words bordeller, chapellany, chapelling, gospellary, gospeller,
gravelly, lamellate, lamellar, lamellarly, lamelliform, and spinellane, he
has written the _l_ double, while he has grossly corrupted many other
similar words by forbearing the reduplication; as, _traveler, groveling,
duelist, marvelous_, and the like. In cases of such difficulty, we can
never arrive at uniformity and consistency of practice, unless we resort to
_principles_, and such principles as can be made intelligible to the
_English_ scholar. If any one is dissatisfied with the rules and exceptions
which I have laid down, let him study the subject till he can furnish the
schools with better.
OBS. 17.--We have in our language a very numerous class of adjectives
ending in _able_ or _ible_, as _affable, arable, tolerable, admissible,
credible, infallible_, to the number of nine hundred or more. In respect to
the proper form and signification of some of these, there occurs no small
difficulty. _Able_ is a common English word, the meaning of which is much
better understood than its origin. Horne Tooke supposes it to have come
from the Gothic noun _abal_, signifying _strength_; and consequently avers,
that it "has nothing to do with the Latin adjective _habilis, fit_, or
_able_, from which our etymologists erroneously derive it."--_Diversions of
Purley_, Vol. ii, p. 450. This I suppose the etymologists will dispute with
him. But whatever may be its true derivation, no one can well deny that
_able_, as a suffix, belongs most properly, if not exclusively, to _verbs_;
for most of the words formed by it, are plainly a sort of verbal
adjectives. And it is evident that this author is right in supposing that
English words of this termination, like the Latin verbals in _bilis_, have,
or ought to have, such a signification as may justify the name which he
gives them, of "_potential passive adjectives_;" a signification in which
the English and the Latin derivatives exactly correspond. Thus
_dis'soluble_ or _dissolv'able_ does not mean _able to dissolve_, but
_capable of being dissolved_; and _divisible_ or _dividable_ does not mean
_able to divide_, but _capable of being divided_.
OBS. 18.--As to the application of this suffix to nouns, when we consider
the signification of the words thus formed, its propriety may well be
doubted. It is true, however, that nouns do sometimes assume something of
the nature of verbs, so as to give rise to adjectives that are of a
participial character; such, for instance, as _sainted, bigoted, conceited,
gifted, tufted_. Again, of such as _hard-hearted, good-natured,
cold-blooded_, we have an indefinite number. And perhaps, upon the same
principle, the formation of such words as _actionable, companionable,
exceptionable, marketable, merchantable, pasturable, treasonable_, and so
forth, may be justified, if care be taken to use them in a sense analogous
to that of the real verbals. But, surely, the meaning which is commonly
attached to the words _amicable, changeable, fashionable, favourable,
peaceable, reasonable, pleasurable, seasonable, suitable_, and some others,
would never be guessed from their formation. Thus, _suitable_ means
_fitting_ or _suiting_, and not _able to suit_, or _capable of being
suited_.
OBS. 19.--Though all words that terminate in _able_, used as a suffix, are
properly reckoned derivatives, rather than compounds, and in the former
class the separate meaning of the parts united is much less regarded than
in the latter; yet, in the use of words of this formation, it would be well
to have some respect to the general analogy of their signification as
stated above; and not to make derivatives of the same fashion convey
meanings so very different as do some of these. Perhaps it is from some
general notion of their impropriety, that several words of this doubtful
character have already become obsolete, or are gradually falling into
disuse: as, _accustomable, chanceable, concordable, conusable, customable,
behoovable, leisurable, medicinable, personable, powerable, razorable,
shapable, semblable, vengeable, veritable_. Still, there are several
others, yet currently employed, which might better perhaps, for the same
reason, give place to more regular terms: as, _amicable_, for _friendly_ or
_kind_; _charitable_, for _benevolent_ or _liberal_; _colourable_, for
_apparent_ or _specious_; _peaceable_, for _peaceful_ or _unhostile_;
_pleasurable_, for _pleasing_ or _delightful_; _profitable_, for _gainful_
or _lucrative_; _sociable_, for _social_ or _affable_; _reasonable_, for
_rational_ or _just_.
OBS. 20.--In respect to the orthography of words ending in _able_ or
_ible_, it is sometimes difficult to determine which of these endings ought
to be preferred; as whether we ought to write _tenable_ or _tenible,
reversable_ or _reversible, addable_ or _addible_. In Latin, the
termination is _bilis_, and the preceding vowel is determined by the
_conjugation_ to which the verb belongs. Thus, for verbs of the first
conjugation, it is _a_; as, from _arare_, to plough, _arabilis, arable_,
tillable. For the second conjugation, it is _i_; as, from _doc=ere_, to
teach, _docibilis_, or _docilis, docible_ or _docile_, teachable. For the
third conjugation, it is _i_; as, from _vend=ere_, to sell, _vendibilis,
vendible_, salable. And, for the fourth conjugation, it is _i_; as, from
_sepelire_, to bury, _sepelib~ilis, sep'elible_,[125] buriable. But from
_solvo_ and _volvo_, of the third conjugation, we have _ubilis, uble_; as,
_solubilis, sol'uble_, solvible or solvable; _volubilis, vol'uble_,
rollable. Hence the English words, _rev'oluble, res'oluble, irres'oluble,
dis'soluble, indis'soluble_, and _insol'uble_. Thus the Latin verbals in
_bilis_, are a sufficient guide to the orthography of all such words as are
traceable to them; but the mere English scholar cannot avail himself of
this aid; and of this sort of words we have a much greater number than were
ever known in Latin. A few we have borrowed from the French: as, _tenable,
capable, preferable, convertible_; and these we write as they are written
in French. But the difficulty lies chiefly in those which are of English
growth. For some of them are formed according to the model of the Latin
verbals in _ibilis_; as _forcible, coercible, reducible, discernible_; and
others are made by simply adding the suffix _able_; as _traceable,
pronounceable, manageable, advisable, returnable_. The last are purely
English; and yet they correspond in form with such as come from Latin
verbals in _abilis_.
OBS. 21.--From these different modes of formation, with the choice of
different roots, we have sometimes two or three words, differing in
orthography and pronunciation, but conveying the same meaning; as,
_divis'ible_ and _divi'dable, des'picable_ and _despi'sable, ref'erable_
and _refer'rible, mis'cible_ and _mix'able, dis'soluble, dissol'vible_, and
_dissol'vable_. Hence, too, we have some words which seem to the mere
English scholar to be spelled in a very contradictory manner, though each,
perhaps, obeys the law of its own derivation; as, _peaceable_ and
_forcible, impierceable_ and _coercible, marriageable_ and _corrigible,
damageable_ and _eligible, changeable_ and _tangible, chargeable_ and
_frangible, fencible_ and _defensible, pref'erable_ and _referrible,
conversable_ and _reversible, defendable_ and _descendible, amendable_ and
_extendible, bendable_ and _vendible, dividable_ and _corrodible,
returnable_ and _discernible, indispensable_ and _responsible, advisable_
and _fusible, respectable_ and _compatible, delectable_ and _collectible,
taxable_ and _flexible_.
OBS. 22.--The American editor of the _Red Book_, to whom all these apparent
inconsistencies seemed real blunders, has greatly exaggerated this
difficulty in our orthography, and charged Johnson and Walker with having
written all these words and many more, in this contradictory manner,
"_without any apparent reason_!" He boldly avers, that, "The perpetual
contradictions of the same or like words, _in all the books_, show that the
authors had no distinct ideas of what is right, and what is wrong;" and
ignorantly imagines, that, "The use of _ible_ rather than _able, in any
case_, originated in the necessity of keeping the soft sound of _c_ and
_g_, in the derivatives; and if _ible was confined_ to that use, it would
be an easy and simple rule."--_Red Book_, p. 170. Hence, he proposes to
write _peacible_ for _peaceable, tracible_ for _traceable, changible_ for
_changeable, managible_ for _manageable_; and so for all the rest that come
from words ending in _ce_ or _ge_. But, whatever advantage there might be
in this, his "easy and simple rule" would work a revolution for which the
world is not yet prepared. It would make _audible audable, fallible
fallable, feasible feasable, terrible terrable, horrible horrable_, &c. No
tyro can spell in a worse manner than this, even if he have no rule at all.
And those who do not know enough of Latin grammar to profit by what I have
said in the preceding observation, may console themselves with the
reflection, that, in spelling these difficult words entirely by guess, they
will not miss the way more than some have done who pretended to be critics.
The rule given by John Burn, for _able_ and _ible_, is less objectionable;
but it is rendered useless by the great number of its exceptions.
OBS. 23.--As most of the rules for spelling refer to the final letters of
our primitive words, it may be proper for the learner to know and remember,
that not all the letters of the alphabet can assume that situation, and
that some of them terminate words much more frequently than others. Thus,
in Walker's Rhyming Dictionary, the letter _a_ ends about 220 words; _b_,
160; _c_, 450; _d_, 1550; _e_, 7000; _f_, 140; _g_, 280; _h_, 400; _i_, 29;
_j_, none; _k_, 550; _l_, 1900; _m_, 550; _n_, 3300; _o_, 200; _p_, 450;
_q_, none; _r_, 2750; _s_, 3250; _t_, 3100; _u_, 14; _v_, none; _w_, 200;
_x_, 100; _y_, 5000; _z_, 5. We have, then, three consonants, _j, q_, and
_v_, which never end a word. And why not? With respect to _j_ and _v_, the
reason is plain from their history. These letters were formerly identified
with _i_ and _u_, which are not terminational letters. The vowel _i_ ends
no pure English word, except that which is formed of its own capital _I_;
and the few words which end with _u_ are all foreign, except _thou_ and
_you_. And not only so, the letter _j_ is what was formerly called _i
consonant_; and _v_ is what was called _u consonant_. But it was the
initial _i_ and _u_, or the _i_ and _u_ which preceded an other vowel, and
not those which followed one, that were converted into the consonants _j_
and _v_. Hence, neither of these letters ever ends any English word, or is
ever doubled. Nor do they unite with other consonants before or after a
vowel: except that _v_ is joined with _r_ in a few words of French origin,
as _livre, manoeuvre_; or with _l_ in some Dutch names, as _Watervleit. Q_
ends no English word, because it is always followed by _u_. The French
termination _que_, which is commonly retained in _pique, antique, critique,
opaque, oblique, burlesque_, and _grotesque_, is equivalent to _k_; hence
we write _packet, lackey, checker, risk, mask_, and _mosk_, rather than
_paquet, laquey, chequer, risque, masque_, and _mosque_. And some authors
write _burlesk_ and _grotesk_, preferring _k_ to _que_.
OBS. 24.--Thus we see that _j, q_, and _v_, are, for the most part, initial
consonants only. Hence there is a harshness, if not an impropriety, in that
syllabication which some have recently adopted, wherein they accommodate to
the ear the division of such words as _maj-es-ty, proj-ect,
traj-ect,--eq-ui-ty, liq-ui-date, ex-cheq-uer_. But _v_, in a similar
situation, has now become familiar; as in _ev-er-y, ev-i-dence_: and it may
also stand with _l_ or _r_, in the division of such words as _solv-ing_ and
_serv-ing_. Of words ending in _ive_, Walker exhibits four hundred and
fifty--exactly the same number that he spells with _ic_. And Horne Tooke,
who derives _ive_ from the Latin _ivus_, (q. d. _vis_,) and _ic_ from the
Greek [Greek: _ikos_], (q. d. [Greek: _ischus_]) both implying _power_, has
well observed that there is a general correspondence of meaning between
these two classes of adjectives--both being of "a potential active
signification; as _purgative, vomitive, operative_, &c.; _cathartic,
emetic, energetic_, &c."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. ii, p. 445. I have
before observed, that Tooke spelled all this latter class of words without
the final _k_; but he left it to Dr. Webster to suggest the reformation of
striking the final _e_ from the former.