as before. During these successive dryings the presence or absence of
wind plays a considerable part in the length of time the vessel is
allowed to remain in the sun; for a stiff breeze will dry the paste
almost as quickly as the sun itself. The potters do not like to mould
ollas when there is much wind because the paste dries so quickly that
the vessel is ready to be taken up again before the second vessel, upon
which the potter is working, is ready to set aside. Occasionally, but by
no means always, the drying olla is turned so as to present a fresh
section of the side to the sun.
After testing with the hand the newly built part of the olla, to
determine its firmness, the vessel, if sufficiently dried, is taken to
the work-board and the building continued. The pinching of the rim is
done as before, two more rings are added, and their shaping is begun.
The rolls decrease very slowly in diameter. In shaping with the kajepe
only the newly added section of the vessel is treated. At this stage the
work becomes more difficult, for the two rings just added form the lower
part of the neck of the olla, and therefore constrict the mouth of the
partly finished vessel. If the paste is a little too soft, the newly
built section will sag when the shaping is begun. The vessel must then
be set aside at once until it reaches the proper degree of stiffness.
While using the kajepe on the exterior, during this stage of the
construction, the left hand is held inside the vessel not only as a
brace or stop, but also as a support for the incurving side. When the
scraping and smoothing have been finished, and the side has been given
the proper curve, the rim is smoothed a little before the vessel, now in
the fifth stage (pl. 15, e), is again set aside.
Half an hour or so later the building of the olla is completed by the
addition of one more ring. The rolls composing this ring are distinctly
more slender than the first rolls used in the vessel. When this ring has
been applied the rim is cursorily smoothed and the last shaping begun.
The final delicate contour of the vessel depends to a large extent upon
this final shaping near the rim. The kajepe is used with painstaking
care, and the work progresses slowly. A slight outward flare is given to
the lip by careful manipulation of the kajepe on the interior. When this
is completed, the olla has reached the sixth stage (pl. 15, f).
The finishing touches consist largely in going over the rim carefully
and adding pellets of paste when necessary, thus making its curve as
nearly uniform as possible. This process consumes a considerable amount
of time, for the work is done very painstakingly and slowly (pl. 17, a).
The vessel has now attained its final shape (pl. 15, g and h), and for
the last time is set out in the sun to dry.
The time taken to mould an olla is far greater than that necessary for a
bowl. The type of olla shown in the illustrations is about fourteen
inches in diameter at the shoulder. The potter who made these counted on
moulding two such ollas each day. On some days a little time was left in
the afternoon in which to make some smaller vessels, but no olla was
ever begun in the afternoon. Ollas were usually started between ten and
eleven o’clock in the morning and finished between half-past-three and
half-past-four in the afternoon. During the early morning the household
tasks had to be attended to; at noon about an hour was used in preparing
and eating lunch; and at various times during the day the children,
especially the baby, made it necessary for the potter to leave her work.
Table III, columns A and B, gives in detail the various steps in the
construction of two ollas, together with the time each vessel was
actually under the hands of the potter and the length of the intervals
in which the vessel was drying; columns C and D record two other ollas
on which the observations were less complete. As a rule it requires one
and a half
[Illustration: PLATE 16
a
Potter moulding an olla. The first roll at the shoulder has just been
added. The temporary rim has been pinched up with the thumb and
forefinger to provide a firm seat for the succeeding roll.
b
A potter of San Ildefonso. The costume is typical of the Rio Grande
Pueblos. With the exception of the shawl it is entirely of native
manufacture.]
hours’ work to mould an olla. In the case of olla A, the potter was
unfortunate in misjudging the proper consistency of the paste, which
delayed the construction of this vessel an entire half-hour, omitting
the periods of additional drying. The two ollas were begun at eleven
o’clock in the morning; the second of the two was set aside completed at
eight minutes past four in the afternoon.
It is said that it requires one whole day, and sometimes two, to mould a
single very large olla. The process is identical with that just
described. In the case of small ollas (such as those seen in pl. 18, a)
a single period of drying elapses between the construction of the body
and that of the neck. These small ollas can be moulded in a little less
than twice the time taken for a bowl of about the same diameter.
TABLE III
A B C D
_Min._ _Sec._
First clay picked up 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00
Pat placed in puki 04.00 04.00
Second handful of clay picked up 04.30 05.30
First roll added 05.00 06.00
First ring flattened, second begun 06.45 08.30
Second ring flattened, third begun 09.00 10.00
Third ring flattened, fourth begun 11.30 12.30
Fourth ring flattened, fifth begun 15.00 16.45
Fifth ring flattened (Stage I,
pl. 15, a), inside scraping begun 18.30 20.00
Exterior scraping begun 21.00 21.30
Rim smoothed and interior
scraping begun 23.00 24.00
Rim smoothing begun 25.00 27.30
Set aside (Stage II, pl. 15, b) 26.00 29.00
_Time out_ 34.00 24.30
Interior smoothing, then exterior 26.00 29.00
Set aside (Stage III, pl. 15, c) 33.00 32.30
_Time out_ 53.00 59.00
Pinching of rim begun 33.00 32.30 33.00 33.00
Pinching of rim completed 34.15 33.30
First roll made 35.00 34.15
First roll pinched on, second begun 35.30 34.30
Second roll pinched on,
flattening begun 39.45 36.30
First ring flattened 41.00 37.30 37.00
Second ring flattened, rim
smoothing begun 45.00 41.30 41.00
Interior scraping begun 45.30 42.00 42.00
Exterior scraping begun 50.00 45.00 45.00
Rim smoothing begun 52.00 47.00
Interior smoothing begun 53.30 48.30 47.00
Exterior smoothing begun 55.00 49.30 52.00
Rim smoothing begun 57.00 50.15
Set aside (Stage IV, pl. 15, d) 58.00 50.45 54.00 55.00
_Time out_ 27.00 20.45 28.00 68.00
Pinching of rim begun 58.00 50.45 54.00 55.00
Pinching of rim completed 58.45 51.15
First roll completed 59.30 52.00
First ring flattened, second begun 64.00 56.45
Second ring on 66.15 59.45
Second ring flattened, rim
smoothing begun 67.15 60.30 61.00
Exterior scraping begun 68.00 60.45 61.15
Interior scraping begun 70.00 omitted omitted omitted
Set aside (clay too soft) 70.30 “ “ “
Rim smoothing begun omitted 63.00 “ “
Set aside omitted 63.45 “ “
_Time out_ 13.45 17.00 “ “
Interior scraping begun 70.30 63.45 64.00
Exterior smoothing begun 75.15 69.15
Rim smoothing begun 77.15 71.45
Set aside (Stage V, pl. 15, e) 79.15 73.30 69.00 67.00
_Time out_ 18.00 15.15 68.00 42.00
Interior smoothing begun 79.15 omitted omitted omitted
Exterior smoothing begun 83.45 “ “ “
Rim smoothing begun 84.15 “ “ “
Set aside 84.45 “ “ “
_Time out_ 33.00 “ “ “
Interior smoothing begun 84.45 “ “ “
Exterior smoothing begun 88.00 “ “ “
Set aside 89.45 “ “ “
_Time out_ 21.00 “ “ “
Pinching of rim begun 89.45 73.30 69.00 67.00
First roll put on 92.45 75.00
Ring flattened, rim smoothed,
exterior scraping begun 94.45 77.30 73.00
Interior scraping begun 97.45 79.00 76.00
Exterior smoothing begun 100.15 81.30
Interior smoothing begun
(Stage VI, pl. 15, f) 101.45 83.00
Exterior smoothing begun 102.45 omitted omitted omitted
Rim smoothing begun 103.30 84.30 84.00 83.00
Set aside (clay in rim
too soft) 105.15 omitted omitted omitted
_Time out_ 16.30 “ “ “
Interior and exterior
smoothing begun omitted “ “ 87.00
Rim finishing begun 105.15 90.30 91.00
Vessel completed
(Stage VII, pl. 15, g, h) 119.45 94.30 93.00 98.00
Total elapsed time from beginning: Ollas A and B, 5 hours, 7 minutes, 30
seconds; Ollas C and D, about 5 hours.
COOKING-VESSELS
The clay forming the paste of these pieces is called Apache clay, and is
very different from that employed in making ordinary ware (see p. 22);
it is used without the addition of any tempering material.
Just before moulding is started, the clay is carefully gone over in a
final search for small pebbles. The moulding differs only in detail from
that of vessels made from other kinds of paste. A pat very much thinner
than those described above is made and placed in the puki. The vessel is
built by the addition of rolls which are of smaller diameter than
usual--about three-eighths of an inch. When the body has been built to
the desired height, the scraping and smoothing with the kajepe are
begun. At first the vessel, like the others, is cylindrical; but the
scraping, first on the
[Illustration: PLATE 17
a. Putting the finishing touches on an olla. The potter’s left hand is
supporting the soft neck while she shapes it from the outside with the
kajepe. In front is a pile of base-moulds (pukis) for small bowls; at
the potter’s right is a lard-pail of water and a reserve supply of clay
wrapped in a canvas.
b. Applying a horizontal handle to a small olla; two gourd spoons
(kajepes) are lying on the table.]
interior and then on the exterior, thins the sides and gives it a
spherical shape. After the smoothing the sides are from one-eighth to
three-sixteenths of an inch thick, much thinner than the walls of
vessels made of other kinds of paste. When the body has assumed the
desired shape, additional rolls are added to form the lip, which is
scraped, smoothed, and flared with the kajepe. During the entire period
of moulding small pebbles are constantly being found and removed, for
Apache clay contains a great many more pebbles than the other clays.
After the finishing touches have been completed, the rim is indented,
and a vertical handle is added as described below (see p. 50).
The indenting of the rim is done with the thumb and forefinger of the
right hand. The thumb is placed under the flaring rim, with the nail
vertical; the forefinger rests upon the lip, the nail horizontal. The
fingers are in about the position they would assume were the potter
holding a pencil. A gentle downward pressure of the hand indents the rim
slightly, the nail of the thumb leaving a small mark on the under side
of the lip. This pressure is repeated at intervals of about
three-quarters of an inch until the entire lip has been given an
indented or undulating edge.
The construction described above is that of a small olla about six
inches in diameter. Larger ollas are built in several stages in the same
manner as ollas made of the other forms of paste.[33]
The time consumed in the moulding of cooking vessels was noted in only
one case. Six rolls were used for the body and two for the lip. Before
the kajepe was used for the first time the cylindrical body was five
inches in diameter and four and a half inches high. Table IV gives the
time of construction, divided according to the various steps of the
work.
TABLE IV
_Min._ _Sec._
00.00 -- Kneading of small handful of clay to eliminate pebbles begun
04.00 -- Pat placed in puki, kneading of clay for rolls begun
12.00 -- Making of first roll begun
19.00 -- Six rolls added and flattened, interior scraping begun
20.30 -- Exterior scraping begun, later interior smoothing begun,
followed shortly by exterior smoothing
26.00 -- Seventh roll added
29.00 -- Eighth roll flattened and interior smoothing begun
29.30 -- Exterior smoothing begun
32.00 -- Rim smoothing begun
38.00 -- Finishing touches begun, followed by indenting rim
46.00 -- Moulding completed, vessel set aside
9.00 -- _Time out_
46.00 -- Work upon handle begun
49.00 -- Handle finished, vessel completed
PRAYER-MEAL BOWLS
Prayer-meal bowls are of two sorts, bowl-shaped with a terraced
elevation on one side of the rim, and rectangular, or box-like, with a
terraced elevation at either end. In the construction of a rectangular
prayer-meal bowl, no puki is employed. The pat, either circular or
rectangular in shape, is made as usual. It is placed upon a board, care
being taken to press it down hard, and the rectangular shape is
accentuated by the pinching up of the edge. A thin layer of temper may,
or may not, be sprinkled on the board before the pat is placed upon it.
To this pat are added two or three rolls in the manner already
described. When it is desired to turn the vessel, the board upon which
it rests is turned. The board is either held in the lap or rests on the
top of a low stool. In scraping and shaping the vessel one potter began
to use the kajepe on the exterior first, then proceeded to the interior;
another reversed the process. The stroke on the exterior is vertical at
the corners and nearly horizontal on the sides; on the interior it is
nearly horizontal. When the building of the vessel has been completed,
the rim is smoothed, and the corners
[Illustration: FIG. 7. The three stages in making the terraced end of a
prayer-meal bowl: a. End built to full height. b. Notches cut with a
taut string. c. Bits of clay removed from the notches and edges of
terracing smoothed down.]
made straight. The bowl may be pressed lightly between the hands to
improve the symmetry and to make all the corners more nearly right
angles; it is then set aside for a while.
The next step is the construction of the terraced ends. A single short
roll is attached to the interior of the rim at one end. This roll is
pressed flat, and smoothed with the kajepe, first on the interior and
then on the exterior. The sharp edges are softened, the rim is smoothed,
and the junctions of this new portion with the sides are rounded off.
The result is a flattened semicircular vertical projection at the end
(see fig. 7, a). The other end is then treated in the same manner. The
bowl is now ready to have the terraces put in. There are two methods of
doing this. One potter uses a long string in making the first marks. The
string is stretched taut horizontally, parallel to the length of the
bowl. It is then pressed lightly on both ends at the same time, first on
one side of the centre, then on the other. The distance between the
hands is next shortened, and two notches are cut on either side of the
centre of the end with this string, which is still held horizontally.
Similar notches are cut in the other end. Each end of the bowl is now as
shown in fig. 7, b. Another potter does not make the initial marks in
the two ends simultaneously. Holding the end of the bowl towards her,
she lightly marks the lines to be cut with her fingernail. Then, picking
up the string and following the marks made by her fingernail, the
notches are cut in the way described.
As soon as the notches have been cut, the small triangular pieces of
clay are removed, the edges rounded with the thumb and forefinger of the
right hand, and the corners made into curves. Small pellets of clay may
be added if necessary. After a few finishing touches with the forefinger
the terracing of the ends of the bowl is completed (see fig. 7, c).[34]
The time consumed by the swiftest potter of the village, in moulding an
unusually large prayer-meal bowl, is recorded in Table V. The piece was
seven and a half inches long, four and three-quarters inches wide, and
three and a half inches high. The terraces raised the ends one and
three-quarters inches more.
TABLE V
_Min._ _Sec._
00.00 -- First handful of paste for the bowl picked up
08.00 -- Two rolls put on the pat and flattened, the rim smoothed and
interior scraping begun (exterior scraping done later)
22.00 -- Moulding of the bowl itself completed, after some time spent
in pressing down the pat on the interior of the bowl. Vessel set aside
22.00 -- _Time out_
22.00 -- Interior and exterior smoothing begun
26.00 -- Paste picked up for roll to be placed on one end of bowl
29.45 -- Roll flattened and smoothing of edges begun
30.30 -- Interior scraping begun
31.10 -- Exterior scraping begun
31.45 -- Smoothing of connection with sides begun
32.30 -- Roll placed on other end
33.45 -- Roll flattened and interior scraping begun
34.15 -- Exterior scraping begun
34.45 -- Very small roll placed on first end to improve curve, followed
by a little smoothing with kajepe
35.45 -- Finishing of end begun
37.30 -- Marking of one end with fingernail begun
38.15 -- Notches cut with thread, pieces removed, and finishing of
terrace begun
40.15 -- Marking of other end with fingernail begun
40.35 -- Cutting of notches with thread begun
41.05 -- Pieces removed and finishing of terrace begun
43.15 -- Finishing completed
DOUBLE-MOUTHED VASES
The first step in the construction of this type of vessel is the
moulding of an open-mouthed bowl. Across the mouth of this bowl a clay
bridge is placed. Finishing touches are given at this stage of the work,
just as if the moulding had been entirely completed. The piece is set
aside for a while to stiffen.
Later, additional rolls are added to each half of the mouth of the bowl
by attaching them to the rim proper and also to the bridge. In this way
two necks are gradually built up. At regular intervals the work is set
aside to stiffen in order that it may support the additional weight to
be added. The shape and height of the two necks depend entirely upon the
whim of the potter. The moulding of the upper parts of the two necks is
a delicate process, and requires considerable skill. The roll-marks on
the interior of the neck, if obliterated at all, are destroyed by the
fingers only, since the diameter of the neck is too small to permit the
use of a kajepe. After the moulding has been entirely finished, a handle
connecting the two necks is usually put across the top at right angles
to the bridge which forms the base of the necks. Obviously this handle
has a structural as well as ornamental purpose.[35]
HANDLES
In all cases in which handles are to be applied the vessel is entirely
finished before they are put on. The potters of San Ildefonso make three
types of handles: (1) passing across the top of an open-mouthed bowl,
(2) attached vertically to the side of a vessel, (3) attached
horizontally to the side of a vessel. All three types consist of a short
roll of paste of the proper length, usually somewhat smaller in diameter
than the rolls used in the body of the vessel. This roll is slightly
flattened before it is applied.
The first two types of handles are placed on the vessel in the same
manner. The ends of the flattened roll are pinched still flatter. In the
case of the handle over the top of a bowl, first one end of the roll,
then the other, is attached by pressure to the exterior of the rim. The
vertical handle on the side of a vessel is attached first to the
exterior of the rim, then bent over and attached to the side just above
the shoulder. The left hand is used as a stop on the inside of the
vessel in order that the shape of the side may not be altered by the
pressure exerted in applying the handle. The junction-lines between the
handle and the vessel are then obliterated with the forefinger of the
right hand. Small pellets of paste may be added to the side of the
contacts, especially on the inner side of the handle where it makes an
acute angle with the side of the bowl. In this way the welding is made
solid, and the curves regular. Finally the curve of the handle itself is
made symmetrical. A few finishing touches, such as the obliterating of
fine cracks in the handle and the smoothing of its surface, complete the
process. Such a handle may be constructed in three to five minutes.
Horizontal handles are attached to the sides of vessels in an entirely
different manner, being keyed or riveted in, rather than merely welded
on. Handles of this type are usually put on in pairs. The position of
one handle is chosen and the rim of the finished pot is marked to show
its location; by sighting across the top of the vessel a point exactly
opposite is also marked to give the location of the other. For each
handle two holes, about three-eighths of an inch in diameter and fairly
close together, are cut through the side of the vessel from the exterior
with a small stick. One end of the roll which is to form the handle is
inserted in one of the two holes. Then the other end is similarly
inserted. The left hand holds the first end in place on the interior,
while the other end is being put in (pl. 17, b). Next the junctions
between the ends of the roll and the interior surface of the vessel are
smoothed over and obliterated with the fingers of the right hand. The
handle itself is flattened a little, and small pellets of paste are
added at the junctions between it and the exterior of the vessel. These
are smoothed over with the fingers, so that superficially the handle
looks as if it had been pressed upon the surface in the same manner as a
vertical handle. A smoothing of curves, and touching up of the handles
to make them symmetrical, form the last stage of the construction. It
took one potter just an hour to place a pair of handles of this type on
a globular bowl.[36]
SUN-DRYING
The purpose of sun-drying is to allow the vessels to harden, and to
remove all moisture before the work on them is completed. During
sun-drying, which immediately follows moulding, the ability of the
vessels to withstand some heat is also tested. Pieces made of improperly
mixed clay are eliminated at this stage of the work, because of the
cracks which develop (see under Temper, p. 21). The length of time
allowed for sun-drying depends upon the weather and also upon the place
where the vessels are exposed.
During the dry months of the year, notably in May and June, vessels
placed in the sun will dry completely in less than a day, often in half
a day (pl. 18, a). In the fall it requires an entire day under the same
conditions. When the sky is cloudy or showers threaten, the drying is
done in the house. If time is not pressing, the pots are placed on a
table, or in the corner of the room, and allowed to remain there three
or more days. At the end of that time they are usually sufficiently dry.
Vessels moulded one afternoon and placed on the table for the night are
dry enough the following morning to permit lifting them from the pukis,
which can then be used again. If, during cloudy weather, the potter
desires to dry the vessels quickly, they are placed in the oven of the
small wood-stove with which most San Ildefonso houses are nowadays
equipped. Sometimes a piece of corrugated cardboard from a carton is
placed on the floor of the oven, the door of which is left open to allow
the evaporating moisture to escape. Only a low fire is built in the
stove, for a hot one would cause the vessels to dry too quickly. Under
such treatment a batch of pottery can be dried in two days, more or
less. The length of time depends very largely upon the number of pieces
to be dried, for the potter tries to keep all the vessels at about the
same stage of drying; this of course requires frequent relays in the
oven. The most common, and most natural, method, however, is to place
the vessels in the sun and, when showers threaten, to carry them
hurriedly into the house. In this way pottery is dried in a day or a day
and a half. The loss of moisture in the paste changes its color from a
dark reddish or greyish brown to a light reddish or whitish grey, and in
the early stages the variations in the color of the paste serve as
indications of the dryness of the vessel. Later the color-change is very
difficult to detect. Various parts of the vessel dry at different rates;
the rim always first, then the body, and last the base, both because it
is thicker and because it is usually in the shadow of the vessel itself;
in spite of this the vessels are never inverted while they are drying.
The occurrence of cracks in the paste is the only form of accident which
takes place during drying. There are three sorts of cracks: those in the
bottom of the vessel, which usually pass through or very near the centre
of the base; rim-cracks; and vertical cracks in the body. All are caused
by the contraction of the paste in drying. The part of the vessel which
receives the greatest strain is the base, which,
[Illustration: PLATE 18
a. Vessels on their base-moulds drying in the sun; the pottery is always
thoroughly sun-dried after it is moulded and before it is decorated.