MEDIÆVAL PAINTING, FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE
RENAISSANCE.
The Middle Ages extend from the latter part of the fifth century to the
time of the Renaissance, or about the fifteenth century. The painting of
this period has little to attract attention if regarded only from an
artistic stand-point, for we may truly say that, comparing it with the
Greek art which had preceded it, or with the Italian art which followed
it, that of the Middle Ages had no claim to the beautiful. On the other
hand, it is full of interest to students, because it has its part in the
history of art; therefore I shall give a mere outline of it, so that this
link in the chain which unites ancient and modern painting may not be
entirely wanting in our book.
Early mediæval painting, down to about A.D. 950, consists principally of
paintings in burial-places, mosaics (usually in churches), and of
miniatures, or the illustration and illumination of _MSS._, which were the
books of that time, and were almost without exception religious writings.
This period is called the Early Period of the Middle Ages, and the
pictures are often called the works of Early Christian Art.
About 1050 a revival of intellectual pursuits began in some parts of
Europe, and from that time it may be said that the Renaissance, or new
birth of art and letters, was in its A B Cs, or very smallest beginnings.
The period between 950 and 1250 is often called the Central or Romanesque
Period of the Middle Ages, and it was during this time that glass-painting
originated; it is one of the most interesting features of art in mediæval
times.
From 1250 to 1400 comes the Final or Gothic Period of the Middle Ages, and
this has some very interesting features which foretell the coming glory of
the great Renaissance.
THE EARLY PERIOD.
The paintings of the catacombs date from the third and fourth centuries
after Christ. The catacombs, or burial-places of the early Christians,
consist of long, narrow, subterranean passages, cut with regularity, and
crossing each other like streets in a city. The graves are in the sides of
these passages, and there are some larger rooms or chambers into which the
narrow passages run. There are about sixty of the catacombs in and near
Rome; they are generally called by the name of some saint who is buried in
them. The paintings are in the chambers, of which there are sometimes
several quite near each other. The reason for their being in these
underground places was that Christians were so persecuted under the
Romans, that they were obliged to do secretly all that they did as
Christians, so that no attention should be attracted to them.
The principal characteristics of these pictures are a simple majesty and
earnestness of effect; perhaps spirituality is the word to use, for by
these paintings the early Christians desired to express their belief in
the religion of Christ, and especially in the immortality of the soul,
which was a very precious doctrine to them. The catacombs of Rome were
more numerous and important than those of any other city.
Many of the paintings in the catacombs had a symbolic meaning, beyond the
plainer intention which appeared at the first sight of them: you will know
what I mean when I say that not only was this picture of Moses striking
the rock intended to represent an historical fact in the life of Moses,
but the flowing water was also regarded as a type of the blessing of
Christian baptism.
[Illustration: FIG. 17.--MOSES. _From a painting in the Catacomb of S.
Agnes._]
[Illustration: FIG. 18.--DECORATION OF A ROOF. _Catacomb of S.
Domitilla._]
The walls of the chambers of the catacombs are laid out in such a manner
as to have the effect of decorated apartments, just as was done in the
pagan tombs, and sometimes the pictures were a strange union of pagan and
Christian devices.
The above cut, from the Catacomb of S. Domitilla, has in the centre the
pagan god Orpheus playing his lyre, while in the alternate compartments of
the border are the following Christian subjects: 1, David with the Sling;
2, Moses Striking the Rock; 3, Daniel in the Lion's Den; 4, The Raising of
Lazarus. The other small divisions have pictures of sacrificial animals.
These two cuts will give you an idea of the catacomb wall-paintings.
The mosaics of the Middle Ages were of a purely ornamental character down
to the time of Constantine. Then, when the protection of a Christian
emperor enabled the Christians to express themselves without fear, the
doctrines of the church and the stories of the life of Christ and the
histories of the saints, as well as many other instructive religious
subjects, were made in mosaics, and placed in prominent places in churches
and basilicas. Mosaics are very durable, and many belonging to the early
Christian era still remain.
The mosaics at Ravenna form the most connected series, and are the best
preserved of those that still exist. While it is true in a certain sense
that Rome was always the art centre of Italy, it is also true that at
Ravenna the works of art have not suffered from devastation and
restoration as have those of Rome. After the invasion of the Visigoths in
A.D. 404, Honorius transferred the imperial court to Ravenna, and that
city then became distinguished for its learning and art. The Ravenna
mosaics are so numerous that I shall only speak of one series, from which
I give an illustration (Fig. 19).
This mosaic is in the church of S. Vitalis, which was built between A.D.
526 and 547. In the dome of the church there is a grand representation of
Christ enthroned; below Him are the sacred rivers of Paradise; near Him
are two angels and S. Vitalis, to whom the Saviour is presenting a crown;
Bishop Ecclesius, the founder of the church, is also represented near by
with a model of the church in his hand.
On a lower wall there are two pictures in which the Emperor Justinian and
the Empress Theodosia are represented: our cut is from one of these, and
shows the emperor and empress in magnificent costumes, each followed by a
train of attendants. This emperor never visited Ravenna; but he sent such
rich gifts to this church that he and his wife are represented as its
donors.
[Illustration: FIG. 19.--JUSTINIAN, THEODORA, AND ATTENDANTS. _From a
mosaic picture at S. Vitalis, Ravenna._]
After the time of Justinian (A.D. 527-565) mosaics began to be less
artistic, and those of the later time degenerated, as did everything else
during the Middle or Dark Ages, and at last all works of art show less and
less of the Greek or Classic influence.
When we use the word miniature as an art term, it does not mean simply a
small picture as it does in ordinary conversation; it means the pictures
executed by the hand of an illuminator or _miniator_ of manuscripts, and
he is so called from the _minium_ or cinnabar which he used in making
colors.
In the days of antiquity, as I have told you in speaking of Egypt, it was
customary to illustrate manuscripts, and during the Middle Ages this art
was very extensively practised. Many monks spent their whole lives in
illuminating religious books, and in Constantinople and other eastern
cities this art reached a high degree of perfection. Some manuscripts have
simple borders and colored initial letters only; sometimes but a single
color is used, and is generally red, from which comes our word rubric,
which means any writing or printing in red ink, and is derived from the
Latin _rubrum_, or red. This was the origin of illumination or
miniature-painting, which went on from one step to another until, at its
highest state, most beautiful pictures were painted in manuscripts in
which rich colors were used on gold or silver backgrounds, and the effect
of the whole was as rich and ornamental as it is possible to imagine.
Many of these old manuscripts are seen in museums, libraries, and various
collections; they are very precious and costly, as well as interesting;
their study is fascinating, for almost every one of the numberless designs
that are used in them has its own symbolic meaning. The most ancient,
artistic miniatures of which we know are those on a manuscript of a part
of the book of Genesis; it is in the Imperial Library at Vienna, and was
made at the end of the fifth century. In the same collection there is a
very extraordinary manuscript, from which I give an illustration.
This manuscript is a treatise on botany, and was written by Dioskorides
for his pupil, the Princess Juliana Anicia, a granddaughter of the Emperor
Valentine III. As this princess died at Constantinople A.D. 527, this
manuscript dates from the beginning of the sixth century. This picture
from it represents Dioskorides dressed in white robes and seated in a
chair of gold; before him stands a woman in a gold tunic and scarlet
mantle, who represents the genius of discovery; she presents the legendary
mandrake root, or mandragora, to the learned man, while between them is
the dog that has pulled the root, and falls dead, according to the
fabulous story. This manuscript was painted by a masterly hand, and is
curious and interesting; the plants, snakes, birds, and insects must have
been painted from nature, and the whole is most skilfully done.
[Illustration: FIG. 20.--THE DISCOVERY OF THE HERB MANDRAGORA. _From a MS.
of Dioskorides, at Vienna._]
During the Middle Ages the arts as practised in Rome were carried into all
the different countries in which the Romans made conquests or sent their
monks and missionaries to establish churches, convents, and schools. Thus
the mediæval arts were practised in Gaul, Spain, Germany, and Great
Britain. No wall-paintings or mosaics remain from the early German or
Celtic peoples; but their illuminated manuscripts are very numerous:
miniature-painting was extensively done in Ireland, and many Irish
manuscripts remain in the collections of Great Britain.
When Charlemagne became the king of the Franks in 768, there was little
knowledge of any art among his northern subjects; in 800 he made himself
emperor of the Romans, also, and when the Franks saw all the splendor of
Rome and other parts of Italy, it was not difficult for the great emperor
to introduce the arts into the Frankish portion of his empire. All sorts
of beautiful objects were carried from Italy by the Franks, and great
workshops were established at Aix-la-Chapelle, the capital, and were
placed under the care of Eginhard, who was skilled in bronze-casting,
modelling, and other arts; he was called Bezaleel, after the builder of
the Tabernacle. We have many accounts of the wall-paintings and mosaics of
the Franks; but there are no remains of them that can be identified with
positive accuracy.
Miniature-painting flourished under the rule of Charlemagne and his
family, and reached a point of great magnificence in effect, though it was
never as artistic as the work of the Italian miniators; and, indeed,
gradually everything connected with art was declining in all parts of the
world; and as we study its history, we can understand why the terms Dark
Ages and Middle Ages are used to denote the same epoch, remarkable as it
is for the decay and extinction of so many beautiful things.
THE CENTRAL, OR ROMANESQUE PERIOD.
During the Romanesque Period (950-1250) architecture was pursued according
to laws which had grown out of the achievements and experiences of earlier
ages, and had reached such a perfection as entitled it to the rank of a
noble art. But this was not true of painting, which was then but little
more than the painting of the Egyptians had been, that is, a sort of
picture-writing, which was principally used to illustrate the doctrines of
religion, and by this means to teach them to peoples who had no books, and
could not have read them had they existed.
During all this time the art of painting was largely under the control of
the priests. Some artists were priests themselves, and those who were not
were under the direction of some church dignitary. Popes, bishops, abbots,
and so on, were the principal patrons of art, and they suggested to the
artists the subjects to be painted, and then the pictures were used for
the decoration of churches and other buildings used by the religious
orders. The monks were largely occupied in miniature-painting; artists
frequented the monasteries, and, indeed, when they were engaged upon
religious subjects, they were frequently under the same discipline as that
of the monks themselves.
Next to the influence of the church came that of the court; but in a way
it was much the same, for the clergy had great influence at court, and,
although painting was used to serve the luxury of sovereigns and nobles,
it was also true that these high personages often employed artists to
decorate chapels and to paint altar-pieces for churches at their expense,
for during the Romanesque period there was some painting on panels. At
first these panel-pictures were placed on the front of the altar where
draperies had formerly been used: later they were raised above the altar,
and also put in various parts of the church. The painting of the
Romanesque period was merely a decline, and there can be little more said
of it than is told by that one word.
[Illustration: FIG. 21.--KING DAVID. _From a window in Augsburg
Cathedral._]
Glass-painting dates from this time. The very earliest specimens of which
we know are from the eleventh century. Before that time there had been
transparent mosaics made by putting together bits of colored glass, and
arranging them in simple, set and ornamental patterns. Such mosaics date
from the earliest days of Christianity, and were in use as soon as glass
was used for windows. From ancient writings we know that some windows were
made with pictures upon them as long ago as A.D. 989; but nothing now
remains from that remote date.
There is a doubt as to whether glass-painting originated in France or
Germany. Some French authors ascribe its invention to Germany, while some
German writers accord the same honor to France. Remains of glass-painting
of the eleventh century have been found in both these countries; but it is
probable that five windows in the Cathedral of Augsburg date from 1065,
and are a little older than any others of which we know. This picture of
David is from one of them, and is probably as old as any painted window in
existence.
[Illustration: FIG. 22.--WINDOW. _From the Cathedral of St. Denis._]
The oldest glass-painting in France is probably a single fragment in the
Cathedral of Le Mans. This cathedral was completed in 1093, but was badly
burned in 1136, so that but a single piece of its windows remains; this
has been inserted in a new window in the choir, and is thus preserved.
With the beginning of the twelfth century, glass-painting became more
frequent in Europe, and near the end of this century it was introduced
into England, together with the Gothic style of architecture. Very soon a
highly decorative effect was given to glass-painting, and the designs upon
many windows were very much like those used in the miniatures of the same
time. The stained glass in the Cathedral of St. Denis, near Paris, is very
important. It dates from about 1140-1151, and was executed under the care
of the famous Abbot Suger. He employed both French and German workmen, and
decorated the entire length of the walls with painted windows. St. Denis
was the first French cathedral in the full Gothic style of architecture.
The present windows in St. Denis can scarcely be said to be the original
ones, as the cathedral has suffered much from revolutions; but some of
them have been restored as nearly as possible, and our illustration (Fig.
22) will give you a good idea of what its windows were.
The stripes which run across the ground in this window are red and blue,
and the leaf border is in a light tone of color. There are nine
medallions; the three upper ones have simply ornamental designs upon them,
and the six lower ones have pictures of sacred subjects. The one given
here is an Annunciation, in which the Abbot Suger kneels at the feet of
the Virgin Mary. His figure interferes with the border of the medallion in
a very unusual manner.
Perhaps the most important ancient glass-painting remaining in France is
that of the west front of the Cathedral of Chartres. It dates from about
1125, when this front was begun; there are three windows, and their color
is far superior to the glass of a later period, which is in the same
cathedral. The earliest painted glass in England dates from about 1180.
Some of the windows in Canterbury Cathedral correspond to those in the
Cathedral of St. Denis.
In the Strasbourg Cathedral there are some splendid remains of painted
glass of the Romanesque period, although they were much injured by the
bombardment of 1870. Fig. 23 is from one of the west windows, and
represents King Henry I.
This is an unusually fine example of the style of the period before the
more elaborate Gothic manner had arisen; the quiet regularity of the
drapery and the dignified air of the whole figure is very impressive.
An entirely different sort of colored windows was used in the churches and
edifices which belonged to the Cistercian order of monks. The rule of this
order was severe, and while they wished to soften the light within their
churches, they believed it to be wrong to use anything which denoted pomp
or splendor in the decoration of the house of God. For these reasons they
invented what is called the _grisaille_ glass: it is painted in regular
patterns in gray tones of color. Sometimes these windows are varied by a
leaf pattern in shades of green and brown, with occasional touches of
bright color; but this is used very sparingly. Some of these _grisaille_
windows are seen in France; but the finest are in Germany in the Cathedral
of Heiligenkreuz: they date from the first half of the thirteenth century.
THE FINAL, OR GOTHIC PERIOD.
The Gothic order of architecture, which was perfected during this period,
had a decided influence upon the painting and sculpture of the time; but
this influence was not felt until Gothic architecture had reached a high
point in its development. France was now the leading country of the world,
and Paris came to be the most important of all cities: it was the centre
from which went forth edicts as to the customs of society, the laws of
dress and conduct, and even of the art of love. From France came the codes
of chivalry, and the crusades, which spread to other lands, originated
there. Thus, for the time, Paris overshadowed Rome and the older centres
of art, industry, and science, with a world-wide influence.
[Illustration: FIG. 23.--FIGURE OF HENRY I. IN WEST WINDOW OF STRASBOURG
CATHEDRAL.]
Although the painting of this period had largely the same characteristics
as that of the Romanesque period, it had a different spirit, and it was no
longer under the control of the clergy. Before this time, too, painters
had frequently been skilled in other arts; now it became the custom for
them to be painters only, and besides this they were divided into certain
classes of painters, and were then associated with other craftsmen who
were engaged in the trade which was connected with their art. That is, the
glass-painters painted glass only, and were associated with the
glass-blowers; those who decorated shields, with the shield or scutcheon
makers, and so on; while the painters, pure and simple, worked at
wall-painting, and a little later at panel-painting also. From this
association of artists and tradesmen there grew up brotherhoods which
supported their members in all difficulties, and stood by each other like
friends. Each brotherhood had its altar in some church; they had their
funerals and festivals in common, and from these brotherhoods grew up the
more powerful societies which were called guilds. These guilds became
powerful organizations; they had definite rights and duties, and even
judicial authority as to such matters as belonged to their special trades.
All this led to much greater individuality among artists than had ever
existed before: it came to be understood that a painter could, and had a
right to, paint a picture as he wished, and was not governed by any
priestly law. Religious subjects were still painted more frequently than
others, and the decoration of religious edifices was the chief employment
of the artists; but they worked with more independence of thought and
spirit. The painters studied more from nature, and though the change was
very slow, it is still true that a certain softness of effect, an easy
flow of drapery, and a new grace of pose did appear, and about A.D. 1350 a
new idea of the uses and aims of painting influenced artists everywhere.
[Illustration: FIG. 24.--BIRTH OF THE VIRGIN. _From the Grandes Heures of
the Duc de Berri._]
About that time they attempted to represent distances, and to create
different planes in their works; to reproduce such things as they
represented far more exactly than they had done before, and to put them in
just relations to surrounding places and objects; in a word, they seemed
to awake to an appreciation of the true office of painting and to its
infinite possibilities.
During this Gothic period some of the most exquisite manuscripts were made
in France and Germany, and they are now the choicest treasures of their
kind in various European collections.
Fig. 24, of the birth of the Virgin Mary, is from one of the most splendid
books of the time which was painted for the Duke de Berry and called the
Great Book of the Hours. The wealth of ornament in the border is a
characteristic of the French miniatures of the time. The Germans used a
simpler style, as you will see by Fig. 25, of the Annunciation.
The influence of the Gothic order of architecture upon glass-painting was
very pronounced. Under this order the windows became much more important
than they had been, and it was not unusual to see a series of windows
painted in such pictures as illustrated the whole teaching of the
doctrines of the church. It was at this time that the custom arose of
donating memorial windows to religious edifices. Sometimes they were the
gift of a person or a family, and the portraits of the donors were painted
in the lower part of the window, and usually in a kneeling posture; at
other times windows were given by guilds, and it is very odd to see
craftsmen of various sorts at work in a cathedral window: such pictures
exist at Chartres, Bourges, Amiens, and other places.
[Illustration: FIG. 25.--THE ANNUNCIATION. _From the Mariale of Archbishop
Arnestus of Prague._]
About A.D. 1300 it began to be the custom to represent architectural
effects upon colored windows. Our cut is from a window at Konigsfelden,
and will show exactly what I mean (Fig. 26).
This style of decoration was not as effective as the earlier ones had
been, and, indeed, from about this time glass-painting became less
satisfactory than before, from the fact that it had more resemblance to
panel-painting, and so lost a part of the individuality which had belonged
to it.
[Illustration: FIG. 26.--PAINTED WINDOW AT KONIGSFELDEN.]
Wall-paintings were rare in the Gothic period, for its architecture left
no good spaces where the pictures could be placed, and so the interior
painting of the churches was almost entirely confined to borders and
decorative patterns scattered here and there and used with great effect.
In Germany and England wall-painting was more used for the decoration of
castles, halls, chambers, and chapels; but as a whole mural painting was
of little importance at this time in comparison with its earlier days.
About A.D. 1350 panel pictures began to be more numerous, and from this
time there are vague accounts of schools of painting at Prague and
Cologne, and a few remnants exist which prove that such works were
executed in France and Flanders; but I shall pass over what is often
called the Transitional Period, by which we mean the time in which new
influences were beginning to act, and hereafter I will tell our story by
giving accounts of the lives of separate painters; for from about the
middle of the thirteenth century it is possible to trace the history of
painting through the study of individual artists.
[Illustration: FIG. 27.--PORTRAIT OF CIMABUE.]
GIOVANNI CIMABUE, the first painter of whom I shall tell you, was born in
Florence in 1240. He is sometimes called the "Father of Modern Painting,"
because he was the first who restored that art to any degree of the
beauty to which it had attained before the Dark Ages. The Cimabui were a
noble family, and Giovanni was allowed to follow his own taste, and became
a painter; he was also skilled in mosaic work, and during the last years
of his life held the office of master of the mosaic workers in the
Cathedral of Pisa, where some of his own mosaics still remain.
Of his wall-paintings I shall say nothing except to tell you that the
finest are in the Upper Church at Assisi, where one sees the first step in
the development of the art of Tuscany. But I wish to tell the story of one
of his panel pictures, which is very interesting. It is now in the
Rucellai Chapel of the Church of Santa Maria Novella, in Florence, and it
is only just in me to say that if one of my readers walked through that
church and did not know about this picture, it is doubtful if he would
stop to look at it--certainly he would not admire it. The story is that
when Cimabue was about thirty years old he was busy in painting this
picture of the Madonna Enthroned, and he would not allow any one to see
what he was doing.
It happened, however, that Charles of Anjou, being on his way to Naples,
stopped in Florence, where the nobles did everything in their power for
his entertainment. Among other places they took him to the studio of
Cimabue, who uncovered his picture for the first time. Many persons then
flocked to see it, and were so loud in their joyful expressions of
admiration for it that the part of the city in which the studio was has
since been called the _Borgo Allegri_, or the "joyous quarter."
When the picture was completed the day was celebrated as a festival; a
procession was formed; bands of music played joyful airs; the magistrates
of Florence honored the occasion with their presence; and the picture was
borne in triumph to the church. Cimabue must have been very happy at this
great appreciation of his art, and from that time he was famous in all
Italy.
[Illustration: FIG. 28.--THE MADONNA OF THE CHURCH OF SANTA MARIA
NOVELLA.]
Another madonna by this master is in the Academy of Florence, and one
attributed to him is in the Louvre, in Paris.
Cimabue died about 1302, and was buried in the Church of Santa Maria del
Fiore, or the Cathedral of Florence. Above his tomb these words were
inscribed: "Cimabue thought himself master of the field of painting. While
living, he was so. Now he holds his place among the stars of heaven."
Other artists who were important in this early time of the revival of
painting were ANDREA TAFI, a mosaist of Florence, MARGARITONE OF AREZZO,
GUIDO OF SIENA, and of the same city DUCCIO, the son of Buoninsegna. This
last painter flourished from 1282 to 1320; his altar-piece for the
Cathedral of Siena was also carried to its place in solemn procession,
with the sound of trumpet, drum, and bell.
GIOTTO DI BONDONE was the next artist in whom we have an unusual interest.
He was born at Del Colle, in the commune of Vespignano, probably about
1266, though the date is usually given ten years later. One of the best
reasons for calling Cimabue the "Father of Painting" is that he acted the
part of a father to Giotto, who proved to be so great an artist that from
his time painting made a rapid advance. The story is that one day when
Cimabue rode in the valley of Vespignano he saw a shepherd-boy who was
drawing a portrait of one of his sheep on a flat rock, by means of a
pointed bit of slate for a pencil. The sketch was so good that Cimabue
offered to take the boy to Florence, and teach him to paint. The boy's
father consented, and henceforth the little Giotto lived with Cimabue, who
instructed him in painting, and put him to study letters under Brunetto
Latini, who was also the teacher of the great poet, Dante.
[Illustration: FIG. 29.--PORTRAIT OF DANTE, PAINTED BY GIOTTO.]
The picture which we give here is from the earliest work by Giotto of
which we have any knowledge. In it were the portraits of Dante, Latini,
and several others. This picture was painted on a wall of the Podestà at
Florence, and when Dante was exiled from that city his portrait was
covered with whitewash; in 1841 it was restored to the light, having been
hidden for centuries. It is a precious memento of the friendship between
the great artist and the divine poet, who expressed his admiration of
Giotto in these lines:--
"In painting Cimabue fain had thought
To lord the field; now Giotto has the cry,
So that the other's fame in shade is brought."
Giotto did much work in Florence; he also, about 1300, executed frescoes
in the Lower Church at Assisi; from 1303-1306 he painted his beautiful
pictures in the Cappella dell' Arena, at Padua, by which the genius of
Giotto is now most fully shown. He worked at Rimini also, and about 1330
was employed by King Robert of Naples, who conferred many honors upon him,
and made him a member of his own household. In 1334 Giotto was made the
chief master of the cathedral works in Florence, as well as of the city
fortifications and all architectural undertakings by the city authorities.
He held this high position but three years, as he died on January 8, 1337.
Giotto was also a great architect, as is well known from his tower in
Florence, for which he made all the designs and a part of the working
models, while some of the sculptures and reliefs upon it prove that he was
skilled in modelling and carving. He worked in mosaics also, and the
famous "Navicella," in the vestibule of St. Peter's at Rome, was
originally made by him, but has now been so much restored that it is
doubtful if any part of what remains was done by Giotto's hands.
[Illustration: FIG. 30.--GIOTTO'S CAMPANILE AND THE DUOMO. _Florence._]
The works of Giotto are too numerous to be mentioned here, and his
merits as an artist too important to be discussed in our limits; but his
advance in painting was so great that he deserved the great compliment of
Cennino, who said that Giotto "had done or translated the art of painting
from Greek into Latin."
I shall, however, tell you of one excellent thing that he did, which was
to make the representation of the crucifix far more refined and
Christ-like than it had ever been. Before his time every effort had been
made to picture physical agony alone. Giotto gave a gentle face, full of
suffering, it is true, but also expressive of tenderness and resignation,
and it would not be easy to paint a better crucifix than those of this
master.
In person Giotto was so ugly that his admirers made jokes about it; but he
was witty and attractive in conversation, and so modest that his friends
were always glad to praise him while he lived, and since his death his
fame has been cherished by all who have written of him. There are many
anecdotes told of Giotto. One is that on a very hot day in Naples, King
Robert said to the painter, "Giotto, if I were you, I would leave work,
and rest." Giotto quickly replied, "So would I, sire, _if I were you_."
When the same king asked him to paint a picture which would represent his
kingdom, Giotto drew an ass bearing a saddle on which were a crown and
sceptre, while at the feet of the ass there was a new saddle with a
shining new crown and sceptre, at which the ass was eagerly smelling. By
this he intended to show that the Neapolitans were so fickle that they
were always looking for a new king.
There is a story which has been often repeated which says, that in order
to paint his crucifixes so well, he persuaded a man to be bound to a cross
for an hour as a model; and when he had him there he stabbed him, in order
to see such agony as he wished to paint. When the Pope saw the picture he
was so pleased with it that he wished to have it for his own chapel; then
Giotto confessed what he had done, and showed the body of the dead man.
The Pope was so angry that he threatened the painter with the same death,
upon which Giotto brushed the picture over so that it seemed to be
destroyed. Then the Pope so regretted the loss of the crucifix that he
promised to pardon Giotto if he would paint him another as good. Giotto
exacted the promise in writing, and then, with a wet sponge, removed the
wash he had used, and the picture was as good as before. According to
tradition all famous crucifixes were drawn from this picture ever after.
When Boniface VIII. sent a messenger to invite Giotto to Rome, the
messenger asked Giotto to show him something of the art which had made him
so famous. Giotto, with a pencil, by a single motion drew so perfect a
circle that it was thought to be a miracle, and this gave rise to a
proverb still much used in Italy:--_Piu tondo che l'O di Giotto_, or,
"Rounder than the O of Giotto."
Giotto had a wife and eight children, of whom nothing is known but that
his son Francesco became a painter. Giotto died in 1337, and was buried
with great honors in the Church of Santa Maria del Fiore. Lorenzo de
Medici erected a monument to his memory. The pupils and followers of
Giotto were very numerous, and were called Giotteschi; among these TADDEO
GADDI, and his son AGNOLO, are most famous: others were MASO and BERNARDO
DI DADDO; but I shall not speak in detail of these artists.
While Giotto was making the art of Florence famous, there was an artist in
Siena who raised the school of that city to a place of great honor. This
was SIMONE MARTINI, who lived from 1283 to 1344, and is often called
SIMONE MEMMI because he married a sister of another painter, LIPPO MEMMI.
The most important works of Simone which remain are at Siena in the
Palazzo Pubblico and in the Lower Church at Assisi. There is one
beautiful work of his in the Royal Institution, at Liverpool, which
illustrates the text, "Behold, thy father and I have sought Thee,
sorrowing."
While the Papal court was at Avignon, in 1338, Simone removed to that
city. Here he became the friend of Petrarch and of Laura, and has been
praised by this poet as Giotto was by Dante.
Another eminent Florentine artist was ANDREA ORCAGNA, as he is called,
though his real name was ANDREA ARCAGNUOLO DI CIONE. He was born about
1329, and died about 1368. It has long been the custom to attribute to
Orcagna some of the most important frescoes in the Campo Santo at Pisa;
but it is so doubtful whether he worked there that I shall not speak of
them. His father was a goldsmith, and Orcagna first studied his father's
craft; he was also an architect, sculptor, mosaist, and poet, as well as a
painter. He made an advance in color and in the painting of atmosphere
that gives him high rank as a painter; as a sculptor, his tabernacle in
the Church of Or San Michele speaks his praise. Mr. C. C. Perkins thus
describes it: "Built of white marble in the Gothic style, enriched with
every kind of ornament, and storied with bas-reliefs illustrative of the
Madonna's history from her birth to her death, it rises in stately beauty
toward the roof of the church, and, whether considered from an
architectural, sculptural, or symbolic point of view, must excite the
warmest admiration in all who can appreciate the perfect unity of
conception through which its bas-reliefs, statuettes, busts, intaglios,
mosaics, and incrustations of _pietre dure_, gilded glass, and enamels are
welded into a unique whole."
But perhaps it is as an architect that Orcagna is most interesting to us,
for he it was who made the designs for the Loggia de Lanzi in Florence.
This was built as a place for public assembly, and the discussion of the
topics of the day in rainy weather; it received its name on account of
its nearness to the German guard-house which was called that of the
Landsknechts (in German), or Lanzi, as it was given in Italian. Orcagna
probably died before the Loggia was completed, and his brother Bernardo
succeeded him as architect of the commune. This Loggia is one of the most
interesting places in Florence, fully in sight of the Palazzo Signoria,
near the gallery of the Uffizi, and itself the storehouse of precious
works of sculpture.
There were also in these early days of the fourteenth century schools of
art at Bologna and Modena; but we know so little of them in detail that I
shall not attempt to give any account of them here, but will pass to the
early artists who may be said to belong to the true Renaissance in Italy.