VICTORY AND DEFEAT.
We must now learn something of the fighting that took place between the
Russians and the Germans during the months of August and September.
Believing that the Russians would be unable to attack them for several
weeks, the Germans had left but three army corps to defend East Prussia.
Imagine their surprise when, as early as 3rd August, bands of Cossacks
came spurring across the border, raiding the frontier posts, and driving
off their garrisons. The inhabitants of the villages were terrified at
the very name of Cossack, and fled at their approach. These Cossack
raids heralded the approach of two Russian armies. On 7th August a swarm
of aeroplanes flew across the border near Suwalki,[35] and soon
afterwards General Rennenkampf's army set foot on German soil.
Rennenkampf was a dashing soldier, who had made a reputation in the war
against Japan, and his army was just as eager and enthusiastic as he
was. In the ranks were large numbers of young volunteers belonging to
the best families of Russia, and it is said that it included some women
who had cut off their hair and had enlisted as men. Rennenkampf marched
north-east to strike at the railway which you see on the map running
from Kowno[36] to Königsberg. His first object was to reach Insterburg,
the junction of all the railways in East Prussia. If this town could be
captured, Königsberg itself might be besieged.
At the same time another Russian army, under General Samsonov, who had
won renown as the commander of the Siberian Cossacks in the war with
Japan, began to push into East Prussia from Mlava,[37] which you will
find close to the border line, at the south of the Masurian Lake
Region. He had a large force, probably consisting of five army corps,
and his object was to march northward along the fringes of the lake
district towards Königsberg. Now let us see how these two armies carried
out their mission.
Rennenkampf first met the enemy in force at Gumbinnen, about fifteen
miles to the east of Insterburg. All round the town there are great pine
woods, between which are fields of rye, studded with windmills. The
Germans had entrenched themselves near the town, and had cut down
thousands of trees, which they had piled up in front of their trenches
to form obstacles.
The battle began on Sunday morning, 16th August. Again and again the
Russians charged the trenches, and again and again they were beaten
back. A fierce artillery duel raged, and it was soon clear that the
Russian guns and gunners could more than hold their own against the
Germans. All day the white-tunicked infantry of the Tsar hammered at the
German trenches in front, while their comrades were working steadily
round the left flank. Towards sunset the Germans found themselves almost
enveloped; they were forced to retreat, and began streaming back towards
the town, with the Cossacks hard on their rear. The retreat soon became
a rout, and many prisoners and machine guns were captured.
The Cossacks vigorously followed up the flying foe, and swept all before
them, cutting and thrusting at the little knots who vainly offered
resistance, fighting their way through blazing villages, and keeping the
beaten Germans on the run. Try as they might, the Germans could not stay
the torrent of the Russian advance. They tried to rally at Insterburg,
their next line of defence, but all in vain, and were obliged to fall
back for safety on the fortress of Königsberg. As they retreated a new
peril appeared, and their flight became so rapid that they were obliged
to abandon food, stores, ammunition, and guns.
[Illustration: The Tsar and his Commander-in-Chief, the Grand Duke
Nicholas.
_Photo, Newspaper Illustrations, Ltd._]
What was this new peril? While Rennenkampf was attacking the enemy,
Samsonov's army had advanced northward with as much speed as the
difficult nature of the ground would permit, and on 20th August his
vanguard came upon the 20th German Corps strongly entrenched on a line
about forty miles to the south-east of Königsberg. The Russians
advanced as furiously and as doggedly as they had done at Gumbinnen,
and, aided by their artillery, carried the German trenches with hand
grenades[38] and the bayonet. About eleven next morning the German right
was turned, and the left fled towards the south-west, while the
remainder, hotly pursued by Cossacks, hurried towards Königsberg. When
the news of this defeat reached the Germans who were retreating farther
north, and they learnt that a new army was on their flank, they hastened
with all speed towards Königsberg.
These two victories made the Russians masters of East Prussia. They
occupied Tilsit, on the Niemen--where, you will remember, Napoleon and
Alexander of Russia met on a raft in the river to make plans for
dividing Europe between them[39]--and marched on Königsberg. There was
great joy in Russia when these victories were reported, and on the 27th
of August a sum of £20,000 was raised by the sale of flags in
Petrograd,[40] to be given to the first Russian soldier who entered
Berlin.
* * * * *
Now for the sequel. The loss of East Prussia was a bitter blow to the
Kaiser and his nobility. The knowledge that this precious Prussian land
was in the hands of the enemy could not be hidden from the German
people, for there were crowds of refugees in the Berlin streets,
bemoaning the loss of their farms and villages. Immediately the General
Staff decided that East Prussia must be recovered at all costs. They had
no need to look far for the general who was to undertake this task.
There was only one soldier who could do it--von Hindenburg, a veteran of
1870, a tough, hardy man, although nearer seventy years of age than
sixty. He had made a special study of East Prussia; it was his hobby,
and he knew it like the palm of his hand. He had spent weeks for many
years past in travelling over this wilderness of lake and marsh,
sometimes on foot, sometimes in a motor car. He knew every road, every
quagmire, and every bog-hole. He had tested every path by which an army
could pass and every position where a gun could be brought to bear.
There was not a charcoal burner or a forest ranger in the whole of East
Prussia who knew the country so well as he. When it was proposed to
drain the region and clear it of forests so that it might become a rich
agricultural land, he went to the Kaiser and protested strongly. This
eastern wilderness, he said, was worth many army corps and a dozen
fortresses to Germany, for it was a great natural bulwark against
Russia. The Kaiser listened to him, and the scheme was abandoned.
Von Hindenburg had on many occasions played the mimic game of war in
East Prussia, for he had commanded the German armies during manoeuvres
in this region. He used to divide his troops into two armies, the one
wearing a white ribbon, the other a red ribbon. The "Reds" were the
Russians; the "Whites" were the Germans. When the "Reds" knew that von
Hindenburg was in command against them, they used to say, "To-day we
shall have a bath." They knew that everything that they could do would
be unavailing: whether they attacked from the left or from the right,
whether they made a frontal attack, or whether they fell upon the
"Whites" from the rear, whether they were few or many, the end was
always the same. Von Hindenburg was sure to drive them into a place from
which they could not extricate themselves. When the signal was given to
break off the manoeuvres, the "Reds" were sure to be found standing up
to the neck in water. No wonder the soldiers nicknamed him "Papa
Coldbaths."
A new army was gathered at Danzig, composed of the troops which had
retired south-west, of the troops in Königsberg who were carried to
Danzig by sea, and of reinforcements picked up in various parts of
Germany. Later on several army corps were withdrawn from the western
theatre of war. Altogether, von Hindenburg had about 150,000 men with
which to begin the reconquest of East Prussia. He pushed forward from
the line of the Vistula by the three railways which you see marked on
the map. Along these three lines he rushed men, guns, and ammunition
with great speed.
[Illustration: Russian Infantry Officers saluting the Tsar.
_Photo, Record Press._]
You know that after the battle of Gumbinnen, Rennenkampf had advanced
towards Königsberg, which is a very strong fortress with an open channel
to the sea. He was now waiting for his siege train to arrive before
beginning to attack it. Meanwhile Samsonov seemed as if he were bent on
seizing the crossings of the Vistula. In order to do this he marched
his troops south towards the important railway junction of Osterode,
which stands on the margin of the lake region. He had five army
corps--that is, about 200,000 men--but they could not deploy owing to
the lakes and swamps which lay between the roads. His columns could not,
therefore, come to the assistance of each other in case of attack.
Von Hindenburg chose his ground with all the local knowledge and skill
which was expected of him. He extended his line from Soldau to the
north-west of Allenstein, so that his front was barred by lakes and
swamps, over which his artillery had a great sweep of fire. He made his
front still stronger by a string of forts built of trees cut down in the
forests. Then he stood on the defensive, and Samsonov began to attack
him. Towards the end of August there was a great struggle, which is
known by the Russians as the battle of Osterode, and by the Germans as
the battle of Tannenberg, from the name of a little village on a
fir-clad dune in the neighbourhood.
Von Hindenburg was in no hurry. He let the Russians wear themselves down
by repeated attacks on his almost impregnable position, and then, when
the right hour arrived, he counter-attacked. First, he forced back the
Russian left, and cut it off from the one good road that led southwards
to Russian Poland. Samsonov made a desperate effort to regain this road,
and in order to do so was obliged to withdraw troops from his centre. He
failed, and meanwhile his centre was pushed back into the terrible lake
country to the east.
Von Hindenburg's attack on the Russian left was a feint to cover a great
turning movement on the Russian right. All the time the fighting was
proceeding on the left, the wily old general was busy preparing for
another Sedan. Motor lorries, omnibuses, and taxi-cabs in large numbers
had been collected from all parts of Germany, and these were filled with
men, guns, and Maxims, and hurried north beyond Allenstein, in order to
curve round the Russian right. The result was that Samsonov's right was
pushed back into the almost roadless country where von Hindenburg had
over and over again left the "Reds" of his manoeuvre days up to their
necks in water.
I need not describe the battle in detail. By 28th and 29th August the
bulk of the Russians were bundled into the mire of the swamps. As they
retired, their guns sank up to the axle trees, and had to be abandoned.
Horses struggled in the bogs, and whole regiments were driven into the
lakes and drowned in the water or choked in the quagmires. Meanwhile the
pitiless German guns were working terrible havoc on those who survived.
The 31st of August was the final day of the battle. A bursting shell
slew Samsonov and two of his corps commanders, while elsewhere several
other Russian leaders were lying dead or wounded. The whole Russian army
was smashed to ruin. Out of 200,000 men, no less than 140,000 were
killed, wounded, or captured. The Germans took between 80,000 and 90,000
prisoners--about the same number which fell into their hands at Sedan.
Not a Russian gun was saved, and the miserable remnants of the army
crossed their own frontier as a mere rabble. Never was there a more
complete and decisive victory. Von Hindenburg became the idol of the
German people, and his triumph was well deserved. By his great skill and
knowledge of the country he had hopelessly beaten a bigger force than
his own.
Without losing a day, von Hindenburg pushed northwards in the attempt to
cut off Rennenkampf's army. Rennenkampf, however, fell back steadily
from Königsberg, and by rapid marching managed to reach the safety of
the frontier forts.
So ends the tragic story of Russia's invasion of East Prussia. The whole
campaign was a mistake. Russia was not yet ready for great adventures;
she had tried to do too big a job with too small a force, and she had
failed. Nevertheless she had not failed in vain; she had relieved the
pressure on the Allies in the west, and had learned those lessons of
bitter experience which were to serve her well in the future.
* * * * *
Now we must turn to the province of Galicia, which projects south of
Russian Poland, just as East Prussia projects to the north. Early in
August, while the Russians were conquering in East Prussia, the
Austrians advanced two main armies, said to consist of more than a
million men, into Russian Poland. The first of these armies pushed
north-east, and met a smaller Russian army under General Ivanov, who
gave way before it, and retired slowly eastwards towards the valley of
the Bug. The 2nd Austrian Army, which was operating to the north and
south of Lemberg, had, however, to meet two Russian armies--the more
northerly one under General Ruzsky, the more southerly one under
General Brussilov. These armies, each of which numbered about a quarter
of a million men, came into touch with each other towards the end of
August, and assailed the 2nd Austrian Army both from the north and from
the east. Their object was to capture Lemberg, the key of the road and
railway system of Eastern Galicia. Lemberg is not a fortress; its sole
defence was the 2nd Austrian Army. During the last week of August
Ruzsky's army fought its way across the Upper Bug, while Brussilov's
army, after a fight which lasted nearly three days, stormed the Austrian
trenches and entered the town of Tarnapol, where fierce hand-to-hand
combats took place in the streets. Tarnapol was captured, and Brussilov,
still fighting fiercely, crossed the Dneister and wheeled northwards to
Lemberg.
[Illustration: Map showing the situation towards the end of August.
Solid black oblongs show Austrians; open oblongs, Russians. C, General
Ivanov's army; D, General Ruzsky's army; E, General Brussilov's army; F,
2nd Austrian Army; G, 1st Austrian Army.]
The battle of Lemberg began on the 1st of September, and lasted two
days. Brussilov struck hard on the Austrian right, while Ruzsky's right
came sweeping round to the north of the city and drove in the Austrian
left. So far bent back were the Austrian wings that the general decided
to abandon the city and fall back through the wooded country that lay
between him and the Carpathians. The Russians pursued him: the Cossacks
did great execution on the rearguard, and the big guns played
remorselessly on the retreating enemy. Soon the retreat became very
hurried; immense numbers of prisoners and scores of guns were captured.
Wherever the Austrians made a stand, they cut down tall trees and piled
them up to form platforms for their machine guns, which were fixed
between the branches. The Russians swept upon these obstacles with the
bayonet, and the Austrians fled so quickly that they had no time to get
the guns out of the trees. Scores of them, with their supplies of
ammunition, fell into the hands of the Russians, and were immediately
turned on the flying foe.
[Illustration: Russian Attack on Lemberg, September 1-2.]
At half-past ten on the morning of the 3rd of September the Russian flag
was hoisted above the town hall of Lemberg. Most of the inhabitants of
this city are Slavs, and they greeted the victors with loud shouts of
joy. In the city the Russians found huge stores of every kind, and I am
glad to say there was no such looting and destruction as disgraced the
Germans in Belgium. The Russians behaved admirably, and the Grand Duke
Nicholas issued a proclamation to the Slavs of Austria-Hungary, telling
them that the Russians had come as their deliverers, and that
thenceforward they were to live in peace and union with their brothers
in blood.
"It was a glorious victory." The Russians had captured over 100,000
prisoners and more than 2,500 guns. The Austrians said that they had
been defeated because the Slavs in their army had played them false; but
the real reason was that the Austrian generals had calculated on the
slowness of the Russian mobilization, and had advanced too far into
Russia in separate armies which did not work together. The Russian
generals showed great skill, especially Ruzsky, when he pushed in
between the two Austrian armies, and thus divided them and threatened
the flanks of both. The Russian soldiers showed wonderful spirit and
endurance during the fighting. They made long and trying marches, and
held out for days in their trenches with but little food. So eager were
they that they could hardly be kept back from charging with the bayonet
at the first sight of the enemy.
By 14th September Brussilov had sent his left wing into the Carpathian
passes, and his centre and right advanced along the railway towards
Przemysl. The Russians were now masters of a large part of Eastern
Galicia. The Poles of Galicia received the conquerors with open arms,
and all the Slav races in Austria-Hungary began to take heart of grace.
Meanwhile what had happened to the 1st Austrian Army, now completely cut
off from the routed 2nd Army? You will remember that Ivanov's army had
retired before the 1st Austrian Army to the river Bug. Against the
centre of this army the 1st Austrian Army, strongly reinforced, made an
attack about the 4th of September. The attack failed, and then the
Russians advanced with such effect that the Austrians were taken in
flank and forced to flee southward in utter confusion. Thus you see that
while the invasion of Eastern Prussia had ended so disastrously, the
campaigns in Galicia were crowned with complete success.
* * * * *
We must not forget that Serbia is also included in the eastern theatre
of war. Though this chapter is already long, I must find space to tell
you in a few words how these gallant peasant soldiers were faring. You
will remember that the great war began with the quarrel between Austria
and Serbia, and that on 29th July the Austrians began to bombard
Belgrade.[41]
The Serbians were not ready for war, and were obliged to withdraw from
their capital and transfer the seat of government to Nish.[42] Their
troops took up a strong position on the hills to the south of Belgrade,
and the Austrians massed their armies along the north bank of the Danube
just below Belgrade, and on the line of the river Save. Other Austrian
forces were stationed on the Bosnian frontier, along the line of the
Drina.[43]
When Russia made Serbia's cause her own the Austrians were faced, like
the Germans, with war on two frontiers. In order to meet the bigger and
more powerful enemy, they were obliged to draw off many of their best
troops and attempt to hold the Serbians with about 100,000 men. When the
Austrians tried to cross the Danube east of Belgrade they were beaten
back by the Serbians with great loss, one regiment being almost entirely
wiped out. There were numerous other small fights, and in all of them
the Serbians held their own.
In the middle of August the Serbians and Montenegrins advanced on
Bosnia, in the attempt to reach Sarajevo, the capital; but the most
serious fighting took place along the line of the Lower Save, where, on
the 17th, the Austrians were badly beaten, and lost many guns and
prisoners. Shortly afterwards the Austrian army of Bosnia also suffered
defeat, and was driven over the Drina after a battle which lasted four
days. By the end of August the Serbians were able to claim that they had
cleared the Austrians out of their country, and that they were slowly
advancing into Bosnia.
[Footnote 35: _Soo-val´kee_.]
[Footnote 36: _Kov´no_.]
[Footnote 37: _M'lā´var_.]
[Footnote 38: Hollow balls of iron filled with explosives, and burst by
means of a lighted fuse. They are usually thrown at the enemy by hand.
The grenadiers were so called because they were specially trained to
throw grenades.]
[Footnote 39: See p. 63, vol. i.]
[Footnote 40: The German name of St. Petersburg was changed to the
Russian form, Petrograd, by order of the Tsar on September 1.]
[Footnote 41: See p. 32, vol. i.]
[Footnote 42: 130 miles south-east of Belgrade. It was the birthplace of
Constantine the Great.]
[Footnote 43: See map on p. 8, vol. i.]