its influence is waning. The ancient classics are little studied, and
the younger generation knows almost nothing of them. The great temple
of Confucius in Tokyo, the Seido, has been changed into an educational
museum.
_Tenrikyo_
Perhaps some will think that Tenrikyo does not deserve mention along
with the before-named great religions. Certainly it is not worthy of
the respect accorded to them, and has not exerted such an influence as
they have. It is of very recent origin and is as yet confined to the
lower strata of society. But its disciples constitute one of the most
vigorous and active religious bodies in Japan to-day. Its growth has
been remarkably rapid, especially during the past five years.
Government recognition has been already gained, and it is gradually
making a place for itself among {138} the religions of Japan. Some
authorities place the number of its adherents as high as 5,000,000, but
these figures are probably too high.
Tenrikyo is a missionary religion, having very earnest representatives
in almost every district in Japan. These men rely almost exclusively
upon preaching for the propagation of their doctrines, and their
efforts are generally successful.
Space permits us to say only a few words in regard to the origin of
this religion. Its founder was a peasant woman named Nakayama Miiki,
popularly called Omiiki, who was born of a very poor family in the
province of Yamato in 1798, There was nothing remarkable about her life
until her fortieth year, when she fell into a trance. While in this
state one of the old Shinto deities, Kuni-Toko-Tachi No Mikoto,
appeared to her, and, after causing her much distress, left her for a
short time undisturbed. After this brief interval of quiet she again
fell into a trance, and was visited by a large number of gods, some of
them the greatest of the Shinto pantheon. These gods revealed to her
the substance of her teaching, representing it as the only true
doctrine and the one which would ultimately triumph over all others.
They also informed her that she was the divinely appointed instrument
through whom this revelation was to be given to the world. From {139}
this time forward Omiiki devoted herself to the propagation of this
revelation.
Not wishing to break entirely with the old religions, she represented
her revelation as having been received from the Shinto gods, and gave a
place in her teaching to some prominent Buddhist elements. By this
means she won popular favor and gained an earnest hearing.
The term "Tenrikyo" signifies the "Doctrine of the Heavenly Reason."
While many of its teachings differ but little from current Shinto and
Buddhistic ideas, its more prominent tenets are radically different.
In the first place, Tenrikyo tends much toward monotheism. Omiiki
herself accepted polytheism, but taught that man's real allegiance is
due to the sun and the moon. These she regarded as the real gods; but
as they always work together, and as the world and all things therein
are the product of their joint working, they are practically one.
Since her death the teaching has become more and more monotheistic in
tendency, and some of its preachers teach explicit monotheism.
Omiiki taught a new relation between the gods and men--a relation of
parents to children. The gods watch over and love their children just
as earthly parents do. The emperor is the elder brother of the people,
who rules as the representative of the divine parents.
{140}
Faith-healing formed a prominent part in the original teaching of
Tenrikyo. It asserted that neither physicians nor medicine was needed,
but that cures are to be effected through faith alone. Marvelous
stories are told of the wonderful cures it has accomplished, many of
which seem well authenticated. But while there seems no good reason
for doubting the genuineness of some of these cures, the power of mind
over mind, and the influence of personal magnetism in certain kinds of
nervous disorders, are so well known that they can be easily explained
without any reference to the supernatural. The faith-cure feature of
this religion is now falling into disuse.
Tenrikyo makes very little of the future state, although Omiiki assumed
its reality. In one passage she refers to the soul as an emanation
from the gods, and says that after death it will go back to them. She
teaches that the cause of suffering, disease, and sin is found in the
impurity of the human heart, and that the heart must be cleansed before
believers can receive the divine favor. She insists over and over
again that no prayers nor religious services are of any avail so long
as the heart is impure.
The aim of Omiiki and her followers seems to be a worthy one. The
movement is highly ethical, and there is little doubt but that the
adherents of the Tenrikyo are superior in morals to {141} the rest of
their class. Some features of this new religion are, however, looked
upon with suspicion, and it is being closely watched by the government.
Charges of gross immorality have been preferred against it, especially
in reference to the midnight dances, in which both sexes are said to
participate indiscriminately; but these charges are made by its enemies
and have never been proved.
In many respects Tenrikyo materially differs from the other religions
of Japan. Its adherents assemble at stated times for worship and
instruction, while the Buddhists assemble in the temples for worship
and preaching only three or four times a year, and the Shintoists
seldom, if ever, assemble. The worship of Tenrikyo, for the most part,
consists of praise and thanksgiving by music and dancing; but prayer is
also practised.
Another distinguishing characteristic of Tenrikyo is that it is
exclusive. The other religions of Japan are very tolerant of one
another; one may believe them all. But Tenrikyo will not tolerate
either Buddhism or Shinto. Its adherents must give their allegiance to
it alone.
It is interesting to conjecture as to the influence Christianity has
had upon Tenrikyo. It does not seem probable that Omiiki was at all
influenced by it, unless the traditions of the Catholic Christianity of
some two or three hundred years previous reached her in some way. But
the expansion {142} and development of the system by its later teachers
have been very much affected by Christianity. Some of its present
preachers, in constructing their sermons, borrow largely from Christian
sources. In the minds of the common people Tenrikyo is generally
associated with Christianity.
There are several other small religious sects in Japan, such as the
Remmon Kyokwai, Kurozumi Kyokwai, etc., but they are not of sufficient
importance to command notice here.
Any statement of the religions of contemporary Japan would be
incomplete without notice of Christianity, but that will be reserved
for another portion of this book.
The three great religions, Shinto, Buddhism, and Confucianism, are
completely woven into the warp and woof of Japanese society. As
Christianity has shaped the political, social, and family life of the
West, so these ancient faiths have that of the East. The laws, the
morality, the manners and customs of these peoples all have been
determined by their religions. And to-day the masses of the people
look to them for principles to guide their present life, and for their
future spiritual welfare, with just as much confidence and trust as my
readers look to Christianity. The missionary, in his work, must
encounter and {143} vanquish all of these religions, which is no light
task. They all have elements of superstition, and their origin and
supernatural teachings will not bear the search-light of the growing
spirit of criticism and investigation. Each one of them is even now
modifying gradually its doctrines in some features, so as to bring them
into harmony with true learning and science; and as the nation
progresses intellectually the hold of these ancient faiths upon the
common mind will become more and more precarious. We expect to see
them gradually retreating, though stubbornly resisting every inch of
ground, until they shall finally leave the field to their younger and
more vigorous antagonists, Christianity and civilization.
{144}
VIII
FIRST INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY
One of the most interesting chapters of Japanese history is that
relating to the introduction and growth of Catholic Christianity in the
sixteenth century. This story has been eloquently told in nearly all
European languages, and is familiar to the reading public. The
terrible persecutions then enacted are vividly represented in paintings
and other works of art on exhibition in art galleries of Europe and
America. This chapter is not written with the hope of saying anything
new upon the subject, but because a story of mission work in Japan
would be incomplete without it; and it may be that some for the first
time will here read this story.
In order rightly to appreciate the introduction and spread of
Christianity in Japan, it is necessary that we take a bird's-eye view
of the internal condition of the country about the middle of the {145}
sixteenth century. The Japanese were not then, as now, a homogeneous
people with a strong central government. The emperor, although the
nominal ruler, was in reality the creature of the shogun, who was the
real ruler. His title to the shogunate was frequently disputed,
however, and rival claimants waged fierce war upon him. The whole of
Japan was divided into warring factions that were hardly ever at peace
with one another. The feudal lords of the various provinces were only
bound to the central government by the weakest ties, and were
continually in a state of rebellion. Many of these daimios were great
and powerful, able to wage war with the shogun himself. Jealousy and
rivalry between the provinces kept up constant quarrels and divisions.
Bad government, internal wars, the disputes and quarrels of different
clans, and the ambitions and jealousies of their rulers had destroyed
the resources of the country and had devastated her rich and beautiful
cities. Even the fine old capital of Kyoto is represented as at that
time in a state of dilapidation and ruin, its streets filled with
unburied corpses and all kinds of debris and filth. Kamakura, the seat
of the shogun's government, once boasting 1,000,000 inhabitants, was in
ashes.
In those dark times there was little in the prevalent religions to
cheer and uplift discouraged {146} men. Shinto was so completely
overshadowed by Buddhism that it was little more than a myth. Buddhism
had become a political system, and paid little attention to purely
religious matters. The priests had degenerated into an army of
mercenaries, living in luxury and dissoluteness. The common people
were in a continual state of excitement and ferment.
Into this disordered, chaotic society Catholic Christianity was first
introduced. The conditions were favorable to its reception.
St. Francis Xavier, one of the most devoted, earnest, and successful
missionaries ever sent out by the Roman Church, has the honor of having
been the first missionary to Japan. He was led to go there in the
following manner: A refugee from Japan, named Anjiro, had wandered to
Malacca, and there he met Xavier, who was at that time engaged in
preaching the gospel in India and the Sunda Islands. Through Xavier's
influence Anjiro was converted to Christianity. The stories which he
told of his own people fired the great evangelist with the desire to
preach the gospel to the Japanese. A few years prior to this some
Portuguese traders had made their way to Japan, had been warmly
received, and had begun a lucrative trade. Some of the daimios
expressed to them a desire to have the Christian religion taught to
their people; and Xavier no {147} sooner heard of this than he set out
for Japan, accompanied by the native convert Anjiro.
They landed at Kagoshima, a large city on the coast of the southern
island of Kyushu, August 15, 1549. The prince of Satsuma gave Xavier a
hearty welcome, but afterward became jealous because one of the rival
clans had been furnished with firearms by the Portuguese merchants, so
that Xavier was compelled to remove to Hirado. From there he went to
Nagato, thence to Bungo, where he again met a warm reception. Although
so great a missionary, and having labored in so many countries, Xavier
is said never to have mastered completely a single foreign tongue. He
studied the rudiments of Japanese, but, finding that way much too slow,
began preaching through an interpreter, with marked success and power.
Anjiro had translated the Gospel of Matthew, writing it in Roman
letters, and Xavier is said to have read this to the people with
wonderful effect. He stayed only two and a half years in Japan; yet in
that short time he organized several congregations in the neighborhood
of Yamaguchi and Hirado, and visited and preached in the old capital
Kyoto. He then left the work in the hands of other missionaries, while
he undertook the spiritual conquest of China. This ancient empire,
with her hard, conservative civilization, impervious to foreign
influence, lay like a burden {148} on his heart. Contemplating her
learning, her pride, and her exclusiveness, he uttered the despairing
cry, "O mountain, mountain, when wilt thou open to my Lord?" He died
December 2, 1551, on an island in the Canton River.
The inspiring example of Xavier attracted scores of missionaries to
Japan, and also incited the native converts to constitute themselves
missionaries to their kinsmen and friends; and their labors bore much
fruit. In a very short time, in the region of Kyoto alone, there were
seven strong churches; and the island of Amakusa, the greater part of
the Goto Islands, and the daimiates of Omura and Yamaguchi had become
Christian. In 1581 the churches had grown to two hundred, and the
number of Christians to 150,000. The converts were drawn from all
classes of the people; Buddhist priests, scholars, and noblemen
embraced the new faith with as much readiness as did the lower classes.
Two daimios had accepted it, and were doing all in their power to aid
the missionaries in their provinces. At this period the missionaries
and Christians found a powerful supporter in Nobunaga, the minister of
the mikado. This man openly welcomed the foreign priests, and gave
them suitable grounds on which to build their churches, schools, and
dwellings; and under his patronage the new {149} religion grew apace.
Catholic Christianity took its deepest root in the southern provinces,
flourishing especially in Bungo, Omura, and Arima; but there were
churches as far north as Yedo, and evangelists had carried the tidings
of Christ and the "Mother of God" even to the northern boundaries of
the empire. This was the high tide of Japanese Catholicism.
The native Christians were so earnest and loyal to the church that, in
1583, they sent an embassy of four young noblemen to Rome to pay their
respects to the pope and to declare themselves his spiritual vassals.
They were suspected by some of their countrymen of desiring to become
his vassals in another sense as well. This embassy was received with
the greatest honors by the pope, as well as by the European princes,
and was sent away heavily laden with presents. After an absence of
eight years it returned to Nagasaki, accompanied by seventeen more
Jesuit fathers. Up to this time all of the priests laboring in Japan
were members of this order. From time to time other embassies were
despatched from Japan to Rome, one of which was sent many years after
the persecutions had begun. Catholic histories put the number of
native Christians at this time at about 600,000, but native authorities
put it much higher.
{150}
_Persecutions_
Such was the happy state of Christianity in this empire as the
sixteenth century was drawing to a close. But, thick and fast, clouds
were gathering over the horizon, and suddenly and furiously the storm
broke. The loss of their protector, Nobunaga, was the beginning of the
misfortunes of the Christians. This great man was slain by an
assassin, Akechi by name, who attempted to take the reins of government
into his own hands. Hideyoshi, one of the greatest men Japan ever
produced, now came upon the stage. He was the loyal general of the
mikado, and, by the help of the Christian general Takayama, he
overthrew the usurper Akechi, and became the molder of the destinies of
the empire. He was the unifier of Japan.
Hideyoshi was at first tolerant of Christianity; but his suspicions
were by and by aroused, and he became a cruel and relentless
persecutor. According to Dr. Griffis, his umbrage arose partly because
a Portuguese captain would not please him by risking his ship in coming
out of deep water and nearer land, and partly because some Christian
maidens of Arima scorned his degrading proposals. The quarrels of the
Christians themselves also helped to bring on the persecutions. {151}
Franciscan and Dominican missionaries from Spain had recently landed in
Japan, and they were continually at strife with the Portuguese Jesuits.
The jealousy and indiscretion of these unfriendly religious orders, and
the slanders circulated by the Buddhists, stirred up the popular fury,
and a persecution of fire and blood broke out. Hideyoshi issued an
edict commanding the Jesuits to leave the country in twenty days; but
this edict was winked at, and the persecutions were carried on only
locally and spasmodically. The converts increased faster during these
persecutions than before, about 10,000 being added each year.
In open violation of the edict, four Franciscan priests came to Kyoto
in 1593 with a Spanish envoy. They were allowed to build houses and
reside there on the express condition that they were not to preach or
teach, either publicly or privately. Immediately violating their
pledge, they began preaching openly in the streets, wearing the
vestments of their order. They excited a great deal of discord among
the Jesuit congregations and used most violent language. Hideyoshi was
angered at this,--as he had good reason to be,--and caused nine
preachers to be seized while they were building chapels in Osaka and
Kyoto, and condemned to death. These, together with three Portuguese
Jesuits, six Spanish {152} Franciscans, and seventeen native
Christians, were crucified on bamboo crosses in Nagasaki, February 5,
1597. They were put to death, not as Christians, but as law-breakers
and political conspirators.
Hideyoshi was further confirmed in his opinion that these foreign
priests had political designs by the remark of a Spanish sea-captain
who showed him a map of the world, on which the vast dominions of the
King of Spain were clearly marked, and who, in reply to the question as
to how his master came by such wide territories, foolishly replied that
he first sent priests to win over the people, then soldiers to
coöperate with the native converts, and the conquest was easy.
Hideyoshi's fears were not entirely ungrounded. The truth is that
Catholic Christianity has always been, and was especially at that time,
so intimately connected with the state that her emissaries could not
keep from entangling themselves in politics.
Hideyoshi died in 1597, and with the death of their persecutor the
missionaries again took heart and began their work anew. The political
successor of Hideyoshi was Iyeyasu--a man even greater, perhaps, than
his predecessor. He was not permitted to assume direction of affairs
without a fierce and bloody struggle. Around the capital 200,000
soldiers were gathered under ambitious rival leaders. Soon the camps
were {153} divided into two factions, the northern soldiers under
Iyeyasu, and the southern soldiers under their own daimios. Most of
the Christians were naturally allied with the latter party. Believing
Iyeyasu to be a usurper, the Christian generals arrayed themselves
against him and went forth to meet him in the open field. On the field
of Sekigahara a bloody battle was fought, and 10,000 men lost their
lives. The Christians were beaten, and were dealt with after the
custom of the time--their heads were stricken off. Iyeyasu, finding
himself in undisputed possession of the reins of government, began at
once the completion of the work of Hideyoshi, i.e., the creation of a
strong central government and the subjugation of the several daimios.
Henceforth the Christians had to deal with this central government
instead of the petty local ones.
Systematic persecutions were now begun in the different provinces,
culminating in the year 1606, when Iyeyasu issued his famous edict
prohibiting Christianity. At this time there were more than 1,000,000
Christians in Japan. An outward show of obedience warded off active
persecution for a few years, when the Franciscan friars again aroused
the wrath of the government by openly violating the laws and exhorting
their converts to do likewise. In 1611 Iyeyasu is reported to have
discovered documentary evidence of the {154} existence of a plot on the
part of the native Christians and the foreign emissaries to overthrow
the government and reduce Japan to the position of a subject state.
Taking advantage of the opportunity thus afforded, he determined to
utterly extirpate Christianity from his dominions. January 27, 1614,
he issued the famous edict in which he branded the Jesuit missionaries
as triple enemies--as enemies of the gods, of Japan, and of the
buddhas. Desiring to avoid so much bloodshed, if possible, he tried
the plan of transportation. Three hundred persons--Franciscans,
Jesuits, Dominicans, Augustinians, and natives--were shipped from
Nagasaki to Macao. But many priests concealed themselves and were
overlooked. The native Christians refused to renounce their faith. It
was evident that the end was not yet. The Christians were sympathizers
with Hideyori, who had been a rival claimant with Iyeyasu for the
shogunate, and whose castle in Osaka was the greatest stronghold in the
empire. In this castle Hideyori gave shelter to some Christians, and
Iyeyasu called out a great army and laid siege to it. The war which
followed was very brief, but, if the report of the Jesuits is to be
relied upon, 100,000 men perished. The castle finally fell, and with
it the cause of the Christians. Hidetada, the next shogun, now
pronounced sentence of death upon {155} every foreigner, whether priest
or catechist, found in the country. All native converts who refused to
renounce their faith were likewise sentenced to death. The story of
the persecutions that followed is too horrible to be described. Fire
and sword were freely used to extirpate Christianity. Converts were
wrapped in straw sacks, piled in heaps of living fuel, and then set on
fire. Many were burned with fires made from the crosses before which
they were accustomed to bow. Some were buried alive. All the tortures
that barbaric cruelty could invent were freely used to rid the land of
them. The calmness and fortitude with which they bore their lot,
gladly dying for their faith, command our warmest admiration. The
power of our religion to uphold and sustain even in the midst of
torture was never more strikingly illustrated, and the ancient Roman
world produced no more willing martyrs than did Japan at this time.