Commodore Perry, in 1853-54, with his big guns. He came to establish
treaties of commerce and trade, and to secure better treatment for
American ships and sailors--peaceably if possible, forcibly if
necessary. Here it is needful, in the interests of truth, to disprove
another pretty story, to the effect that Perry and his crew were very
pious, godly men, and that they secured the concessions desired by
peaceable methods--by praying and singing psalms. The fact is that the
concessions gained were _forced_ from Japan by intimidation, by
threats, and by a show of strength. Commodore Perry also used the same
tactics in Liukiu. He effected his purpose, it is true, without using
his guns, except for intimidation, but it is safe to say that he would
not have accomplished it without them.
{45}
The treaties then forced from the government were humiliating to Japan;
for example, granting exterritoriality, by virtue of which foreigners
should live under their own consuls and in no sense be amenable to the
laws of the land. Such concessions are demanded by civilized states of
the uncivilized only, and their very existence implies inferiority.
But nothing else was possible at that time, nor did Japan object.
The coming of Perry, and his forced opening of the country, marked the
birth of new Japan, so different from the old, and the beginning of an
era of unprecedented prosperity. The Japanese now recognize this, and
speak of Perry as one of their greatest benefactors.
During the years immediately preceding this there was a great revival
of learning. A school of literati arose, which zealously studied the
antiquities of its own country as opposed to the imported Chinese
classics. A revival of Shinto sprang up, and with it grew again that
great reverence and esteem for the ancient imperial line, the divine
mikados, as against the upstart shoguns. In this way began the
movement which ended in the revolution of 1868 and the overthrow of the
shogunate.
When Perry came the shogun's government was already tottering to its
fall, and when this government made treaties with foreign countries,
{46} admitting the "barbarians" to this "land of the gods," a loud cry
arose against it over all the land. Finally the imperial court at
Kyoto, prompted by the mighty daimios of Choshu, Satsuma, and Tosa,
decided upon the abolition of the shogunate. The shogun himself
submitted to the decree of the mikado, but many of his followers did
not. The War of the Revolution ensued, and after much fighting the
imperial troops were victorious; the shogunate was forever abolished,
and the emperor once more took personal charge of the government.
The literary party had triumphed. Buddhism was largely supplanted by
Shinto; the shogunate, which had admitted the foreigners, was
abolished; and the literati fondly supposed that the court would now
expel the intruders, abolish the treaties, again shut up the country,
and affairs would go on as in the "good old times." But they were
deceived. The mighty lords of Tosa, Satsuma, and Choshu now declared
in favor of foreign intercourse and the adoption of European
civilization. These princes were too powerful not to be heard. Their
advice was heeded; the foreigners were welcomed, the country was opened
more and more, old abuses were corrected, and the Europeanization of
Japan was begun.
The reformation was ably assisted from the very quarter where we would
expect to find it {47} most bitterly opposed. The young and able
emperor Mutsuhito, coming out of the obscurity which had enshrouded his
ancestors for ages, and putting aside the traditions of centuries, ably
seconded the efforts of his ministers in every reform. The
unparalleled progress during his long and enlightened reign is due in
no small part to his wisdom and prudence. He has shown himself a
liberal, enlightened monarch, and I am sure that I express the
sentiment of every friend of Japan in saying, Long live his Majesty
Mutsuhito!
The reformation of the country, the assimilation of Western
civilization and institutions, and the gradual opening and development
of the empire have gone on uninterruptedly since the restoration of the
emperor to the supreme power.
In 1871 the daimiates were abolished and the old daimios retired to
private life. Thus feudalism was at last broken up and the central
government strengthened. In this same year the postal and telegraph
systems were introduced and a mint was established.
In 1889 the constitution was promulgated, whereby the people were given
a voice in the government, and Japan became a constitutional monarchy,
very much like Prussia or other European states. In this year local
self-government was also established. In accordance with the
constitution, the first Diet was opened in 1890. {48} This highest
legislative body in Japan resembles somewhat, in its organization and
functions, the German Reichstag.
One of the greatest recent events in Japanese history is the successful
revision of the treaties. After the Restoration and the adoption of
Western institutions and civilization, efforts were continually being
made to have these treaties revised on a basis more favorable to Japan;
but these efforts were always defeated. Thus Japan was for many years
forced to submit to treaties made long ago, which were good enough
then, but are outgrown entirely now. No recognition whatever was made
of her great progress during these thirty years, and the foreign powers
still treated her as an inferior. This was unjust, and the people
naturally chafed under it. Finally, by the wisdom and perseverance of
the present Japanese statesmen, treaty revision has been secured on the
basis of equality. By this revision she regains the concessions forced
from her in former years. After the year 1900 all foreigners residing
in Japan will become amenable to her laws; exterritoriality will be
abolished; power to levy taxes upon imports within prescribed limits
will be regained; and Japan will be recognized as an equal by the great
powers of the West. In return for these concessions on the part of
foreign powers, she gives liberty of residence and travel {49} in any
part of the empire, and all privileges generally accorded aliens in
Western nations, except the right of ownership of land. We rejoice
with Japan that justice has at last been accorded her, and that the
treaties have been satisfactorily revised.
A sketch of Japanese history would be incomplete without some mention
of the recent war with China. This war was especially interesting
because it afforded the first opportunity Japan has had of trying her
strength with her new arms. For years she has been to school to the
Western nations; now she goes out to put into practice the lessons she
has learned. Her fine army and navy, constructed after the most
approved Western models, are tested for the first time. The results
are such as to more than satisfy Japan with her new equipment. The
story of her splendid success against a nation outnumbering her ten to
one is familiar to all and need not be recounted.
The war was a positive gain to Japan in many ways. Aside from the
material gain in indemnity and the extension of her territory, it gave
her an opportunity to demonstrate to the world the substantial progress
she has made. Nothing else would have gained for her so much respect
from Western powers as her prowess exhibited in this war. A
demonstration of force and of ability to fight great battles is still
regarded as a mark of progress and civilization.
{50}
The war also helped to settle many troublesome internal questions.
Some feared the people would be so elated by their phenomenal success
that their pride and arrogance would be unendurable. But it was not
so. The Japanese expected to win from the beginning, and were not
surprised at the result. After the war was over they settled down to
the even tenor of their ways as though nothing had happened. They have
shown themselves as able to bear victory as to win it.
Such is an all too brief account of the history of this interesting
people. An acquaintance with the main facts of this history I thought
necessary to enable American Christians rightly to appreciate the work
of their missionaries in their efforts to plant the church in Japan.
{51}
III
JAPANESE CHARACTERISTICS
It is next to impossible for an alien to judge accurately the
characteristics of a people. That a foreigner's interpretation of a
nation's character, and of the moral influences that direct and mold
its life, is apt to be imperfect and erroneous is now a recognized
truth. An Englishman cannot understand a Frenchman, nor a Frenchman an
Englishman. Even people so closely related as the English and
Americans, with a common ancestry, common history and traditions, a
common speech, common laws, and a common faith, find great difficulty
in properly understanding one another. The American essayist Emerson
did not venture to write "English Traits" until he had visited England,
mingled freely with the people, and familiarized himself with the
manifold phases of English character; and Bryce's excellent work on
"The American Commonwealth," in {52} which American characteristics are
reflected more truly than they have been by any other English writer,
did not see the light until its author had made frequent visits to the
United States and had carefully studied his subject for seventeen years.
If it is so hard to understand a kindred people, how much harder it is
to understand a people so alien as the Japanese! Here the religion,
language, manners and customs, and moral ideas are so different from
our own that the task of portraying the real characteristics of the
race becomes a colossal one. It should be attempted only by men who
have had years of practical experience with the people, who can read
their language and look at things from their standpoint, and who bring
to their task a loving sympathy with the people whose life they would
portray.
But nothing is more common than to meet with sweeping judgments on
Japanese character by persons utterly incompetent to make them. Men
who have perhaps never seen Japan sit in judgment upon her with a gusto
unequaled. Globe-trotters, spending at most only a few weeks here, and
necessarily learning nothing of the inner life of the people, have made
most sweeping statements concerning the traits of national character,
such as: "The Japanese are a nation of liars;" "They are mere
imitators, originating nothing;" "They are fickle and quite {53}
unreliable;" "Licentiousness is the most prominent trait in the
national character," etc. Now it is unnecessary to say that judgments
formed in this way are worthless. Here, if anywhere, it behooves one
to write only after careful study and observation, and even then to
speak with caution.
Physically the Japanese are inferior to the races of the West. They
are shorter of stature and lighter of weight than Europeans or
Americans. The upper part of their bodies is developed perhaps as
fully as our own; but the lower limbs have been so cramped by sitting
on the floor for centuries that they are shorter and weaker. Their
habits of life and their vegetable diet have combined to make of them a
physically weak people. They age earlier than the races of the
Occident.
In color they do not differ much from the American Indians or the
half-breeds of the South. There are two types of facial expression:
the old samurai or noble classes have a long, narrow face, sharp nose,
high, narrow forehead, and oblique eyes; the lower classes have fat,
round, pudding faces, with broad mouths and flat noses. These two
types are distinguished readily on the streets, and rank can be judged
by them.
The Japanese are a cheerful race. The cares of life seem lightly to
weigh upon them. On the surface they appear always smiling and happy.
{54} They are very fond of gay scenes and bright colors. Politeness is
a national characteristic. Etiquette has been carried to such an
extent as to have largely degenerated into empty forms.
Mentally they are bright and intelligent, receiving and apprehending
instruction readily. The students are equally as diligent and earnest
as are those in the academies and colleges of America, though
physically they are not so able to endure prolonged study. They have
great thirst for knowledge, and study for the sake of learning itself;
hence the various devices for evading study so common in the schools at
home are almost unknown. The intensity of this thirst for knowledge on
the part of the young is remarkable. Hundreds of young men over all
Japan are struggling for an education against very great odds. Many
are now educated abroad, and these take their stand in our best
colleges and universities along with the brightest of our own students.
When their course is completed they are able to carry on all kinds of
learned scientific investigations independently of their teachers.
Witness what they have done in seismology, botany, and medicine. These
facts indicate that the Japanese are an intellectual race.
In order rightly to appreciate the national character we must remember
that the idea of personality is developed here only partially. {55}
This is strikingly evident in the structure of the language, which
consists of nouns and verbs almost exclusively. Distinctions of person
and number are generally ignored, and true pronouns are entirely
wanting. From ancient times men have been considered, not as
individuals, but _en masse_. The family has been exalted above the
individual, who is hardly considered to have an existence apart from
it. Thus, in ancient times, as among Occidental races also, if one
member of a family came under the censure of the government, all were
censured. When one member was put to death, all were executed. As the
family, and not the individual, was the unit with which the laws dealt,
the family became the subject of prime consideration. To perpetuate
the family line came to be considered a very essential thing, and in
order thereto the system of concubinage was introduced. It is proper
to state that in regard to this exaltation of the family over the
individual Japan is now in a transition period, and that the individual
is becoming more and more important in the eyes of the law.
A marked characteristic of the Japanese is their strong patriotism.
There is no more patriotic people on the face of the earth. It is said
that the name of the emperor, whispered over the heads of an excited
mob, will calm it as readily as oil poured on troubled waters. In the
recent war {56} with China there were many more volunteers for active
service than could be sent to the front. I have seen old men lament,
with tears in their eyes, that they could no longer serve their country
as soldiers, even to the death if need be. This principle of loyalty
is the strongest motive power in Japan to-day. It supersedes all
others. A man's duty to his family, even to his parents, is nothing
when compared with his duty to his country; and Japanese history
abounds in pathetic stories of men, women, and even children, who have
counted all other duties as naught and have willingly sacrificed their
lives for their country.
Patriotism here amounts to a passion--I had almost said a fanaticism.
From earliest infancy it is instilled into the minds of the children,
and there is not one of the little ones in whose heart his country has
not the first place. A native writer has expressed the sentiments of
every Japanese thus: "My native land! everywhere and always the first
affections of my heart and the first labor of my hands shall be thine
alone."
This patriotism is not always held intelligently. The masses of the
people have very mistaken ideas as to what patriotism is. I meet not a
few who believe that love for Japan necessitates a hatred of all other
countries, and that no man can be loyal and at the same time admire and
praise foreign lands. Fortunately, the class {57} whose nationalism is
so unenlightened is not an influential one; otherwise patriotism itself
would check the growth and development of the country. As it is, the
strong nationalistic feeling serves to prevent a too indiscriminate
adoption of Western institutions and to preserve the good elements of
old Japan.
Respect for parents and teachers is one of the most prominent elements
in the national character. The first principle of Confucian ethics, as
taught in China, is reverence and obedience to parents; and although in
Japan this has been subordinated to the principle of loyalty, it is
still a prominent factor in the national life. The proper attitude of
children toward parents, and pupils toward teachers, is not one of
love, but one of absolute obedience and reverence. It is said here
that true love can come only from a superior to an inferior, while the
proper feeling of inferiors toward their superiors is one of reverence.
This relation of superior and inferior is carried into every phase of
society, and on it depends much of the family and national life. The
principle of obedience is almost the only moral teaching given to the
girls, and when they are grown up their moral ideas cluster round this
one point. In olden times parents had absolute control over their
children and could dispose of them as they saw fit, even killing them
if they so desired. But now the {58} parent's control over the child
is limited by law. Children are expected to yield implicit,
unquestioning obedience to their parents, and Japanese children are
usually more virtuous in this respect than the children of Americans.
As a result of this fundamental principle of obedience, inculcated from
childhood, has grown the universal respect for authority found in
Japan. Whatever the government does the common people do not question.
Even petty officials are respected and obeyed in a manner surprising to
us independently thinking people of the West. No matter how
disagreeable and unjust an act on the part of the authorities may be,
it is usually accepted meekly with the comment, "There is no help for
it."
The counterpart of this reverence and unquestioning obedience to
authority is a feeling of meekness and dependence. The government is
depended upon for much more than is the government in the United
States. It is expected to inaugurate all great commercial and
industrial enterprises. Thus the building of railroads, the
construction of telegraphs, and other great works have had to be
executed by the government. In recent years this spirit is changing
somewhat, and private corporations are beginning to inaugurate great
enterprises. But in general it may be said that the national character
is lacking in independence and decision.
{59}
Love of the beautiful is a prominent and highly developed Japanese
trait. Their ideals of beauty differ much from Western ideals, and
many things that they pronounce beautiful would not be so judged in the
Occident. Most Americans at first cannot appreciate Japanese art,
landscape scenery, or flowers; but a short residence here and an
acquaintance with native life and scenes soon bring one to appreciate
them. The esthetic faculty is much more highly developed than in
America. It is possessed by all classes. The gardens of the rich are
laid out with especial care, and no money or pains are spared to make
them beautiful. I have seen day-laborers stand and gaze for a long
time at a beautiful sunset, or go into raptures over a dwarfed
cherry-bush just putting forth its tiny buds. Men who have worked in
the fields all day, until they are exhausted, on their return home in
the evening will stop by the wayside to pluck some beautiful shrub or
flower and carry it back with them. Go into the room of a school-boy
and you will almost invariably find his table brightened by a pretty
bouquet of flowers. When the cherries are in bloom the whole
population leaves off work and turns out to enjoy them. Japan is a
beauteous land, and no people are more capable of appreciating her
beauty than her own.
The Japanese are open-minded and receptive of truth, from whatever
quarter it may come. Were this not true it would have been impossible
{60} for her to have become what she is to-day. When Buddhism was
first brought to Japan it was seen to possess elements of religious
power that Shinto did not have, and the people by and by accepted it.
When Confucianism was introduced its moral teachings were seen to be
lofty and inspiring, and it was given a warm welcome. When
Christianity first came many of the daimios took especial pains to
examine into it to see if it were likely to benefit their country, with
the full intention of accepting it. How many of them did accept it is
told in another chapter. The present attitude of opposition is the
result of prejudice, instilled in part by past experience with
Christianity, and in part by the misrepresentation of its enemies; it
is not the result of natural intolerance. The readiness with which
Western learning of all kinds has been adopted, and the patient hearing
and investigation native scholars give to all new theories of science
and knowledge, clearly show that their mind is an open and receptive
one. A native professor has expressed this characteristic in these
words: "The Japanese as a race are open-hearted, with a mind free from
prejudice and open to conviction." But that it is as receptive of
prejudice and misrepresentation as of truth and knowledge is evidenced
by its present attitude toward Christianity.
Many critics have pronounced the Japanese a {61} very speculative
people, but it is doubtful if this is true. By nature, I think, they
are more inclined to be practical than speculative. Abstract
metaphysical and theological ideas have little charm for them.
But there is a large element in Japan that simulates a taste for
philosophical study. Philosophy and metaphysics are regarded by them
as the profoundest of all branches of learning, and in order to be
thought learned they profess great interest in these studies. Not only
are the highly metaphysical philosophies of the East studied, but the
various systems of the West are looked into likewise. Many of the
people are capable of appreciating these philosophies, too; but they do
it for a purpose.
Japanese character is lacking in steadfastness and fixedness of
purpose. Huge enterprises will be begun with great enthusiasm, only to
be abandoned in a short while. There is not that steadfastness and
fixedness which lays out far-reaching plans, extending years into the
future, and which adheres to these plans until their purpose is
accomplished. On the contrary, they are vacillating and changeful, as
is shown by their migratory disposition. This want of steadfastness is
even evinced by many ministerial candidates. It is a frequent
occurrence for young men to enter the mission schools with the firm
intention of {62} becoming evangelists, and, by the time their academic
course is finished, to change their mind and go into some other
calling. Some of those who have become evangelists are restless and
vacillating, and after they have been located in one place for a few
years like to be transferred to another. The "stick-to-it-iveness" of
the Anglo-Saxon is largely wanting. But we must not speak too
dogmatically upon this point, for the Japanese government has shown
itself capable of laying out far-reaching plans, and of adhering to its
original purpose until it is successfully accomplished.
Inconsistency is another trait of the Japanese mind, which often turns
square about and takes positions exactly opposed to its avowed
principles, realizing no inconsistency in doing so. This is well
illustrated in the political life of the people. In theory the
emperor, as the divine head of the nation, cannot go wrong, and
whatever he does is necessarily right. It is the duty of every subject
unquestioningly to obey the will of the emperor. To this all Japanese
will readily agree, but in practice the people are often found
arraigned against the government, which has the emperor for its head.
Lines of policy which the emperor himself has mapped out and pursued
for years are often bitterly opposed; and yet the people are all
unconscious of this, and resent very much any insinuation that they are
opposing his will.
{63}