KOREA
[Illustration: TABLET IN SEOUL]
KOREA
BY
ANGUS HAMILTON
WITH A NEWLY PREPARED MAP
AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS
NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
153-157 FIFTH AVENUE
1904
_All rights reserved_
TO MY MOTHER
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
The Position of Russia in Manchuria—Comparative Estimate
of Naval and Military Resources of Russia, Japan, and
Korea Pp. xvii-xlii
CHAPTER I
Off the coast—Lack of survey intelligence—Island
_flora_—Forgotten _voyagers_—Superstitions and
beliefs—Outline of history Pp. 1-12
CHAPTER II
Physical peculiarities—Direction of advancement—Indications of
reform and prosperity—Chemulpo—Population—Settlement—Trade Pp. 13-23
CHAPTER III
Move to the capital—A city of peace—Results of foreign
influence—In the beginning—Education—Shops—Costume—Origin—Posts
and telegraphs—Methods of cleanliness Pp. 24-42
CHAPTER IV
The heart of the capital—Domestic economy—Female
slavery—Standards of morality—A dress rehearsal Pp. 43-58
CHAPTER V
The Court of Korea—The Emperor and his Chancellor—The Empress
and some Palace factions Pp. 59-69
CHAPTER VI
The passing of the Emperor—An Imperial pageant Pp. 70-80
CHAPTER VII
Sketch of Mr. McLeavy Brown—The Question of the Customs—The
suggested Loan Pp. 81-93
CHAPTER VIII
Foreign action in Korea—Exhausted Exchequer—Taxes—Budgets—Debased
currency—The Dai Ichi Ginko—Dishonest officials Pp. 94-107
CHAPTER IX
Education—Arts and graces—Penal code—Marriage and divorce—The
rights of concubines—Position of children—Government Pp. 108-116
CHAPTER X
Farmers—Farming and farm animals—Domestic
industries—Products—Quality and character of food-stuffs Pp. 117-127
CHAPTER XI
Japan in Korea—Historical associations—In Old Fusan—Political
and economic interests—Abuse of paramountcy Pp. 128-137
CHAPTER XII
The commercial prospects of Korea—Openings to trade—Requirements
of markets—Lack of British enterprise Pp. 138-147
CHAPTER XIII
British, American, Japanese, French, German, and Belgian
interests—Railways and mining fictions—Tabled counterfeited
Imports Pp. 148-169
CHAPTER XIV
Some account of the treaty ports; Won-san, Fusan,
Mok-po—Character of export and import trade—Local
industries Pp. 170-181
CHAPTER XV
Treaty ports (_continued_)—Wi-ju—Syön-chyön-po—Chin-am-po—
Pyöng-yang—Kun-san—Syöng-chin Pp. 182-191
CHAPTER XVI
Russian interests—Russia and Japan—Ma-san-po—Ching-kai-wan—
Yong-an-po Pp. 192-206
CHAPTER XVII
By the wayside—A journey inland to Tong-ko-kai—Inland
beauties Pp. 207-215
CHAPTER XVIII
The German mines—Mineralogy and methods of mining—A bear
hunt—With gun and rifle Pp. 216-225
CHAPTER XIX
The monks and monasteries of the Diamond Mountains—The
Temple of Eternal Rest—The Temple of the Tree of
Buddha—Buddhism Pp. 226-240
CHAPTER XX
The abomination of desolation—Across Korea—The east
coast—Fishing and filth Pp. 241-252
CHAPTER XXI
Drought—Starvation—Inland disturbances—Rainfall and disease Pp. 253-260
CHAPTER XXII
The missionary question—Ethics of Christianity—Cant and
commerce—The necessity for restraint Pp. 261-269
CHAPTER XXIII
Inland journeying—Ponies, servants, interpreters, food and
accommodation—What to take and how to take it—Up the Han
River, frolic and leisure Pp. 270-283
CHAPTER XXIV
Kang-wha, brief history of the island—A monastic retreat,
an ideal rest—Nocturnal visitors—Midnight masses—Return
to the capital—Preparations for a great journey—Riots
and confusion Pp. 284-300
APPENDIX I
Schedule of train service P. 301
APPENDIX II
Return of all shipping entered at the open ports of Korea
during the year 1902 Pp. 302-304
APPENDIX III
Return of principal articles of export to foreign countries from
the open ports of Korea during the years 1901-1902 P. 305
APPENDIX IV
Return of principal articles of imports to foreign countries
during the years 1901-1902 P. 306
APPENDIX V
Coast trade between treaty-ports in native produce (net) P. 307
APPENDIX VI
Customs revenue P. 307
APPENDIX VII
Gold export to foreign countries P. 308
APPENDIX VIII
Table of minerals P. 309
ILLUSTRATIONS
_Ceiling, Imperial Palace, Seoul_ _Cover_
_Tablet in Seoul_ _Frontispiece_
PAGE
_Devil Post outside Seoul_ 1
_Guardian of a grave_ 9
_Independence Arch_ 11
_Pagoda at Seoul_ 12
_A moment of leisure_ 13
_At the Wells_ 17
_Chemulpo_ 21
_Pavilion on the wall of the Capital_ 23
_Hen-seller_ 24
_Not one whit Europeanised_ 33
_A side alley_ 35
_Native dress_ 37
_They wear the_ Chang-ot 38
_A study in hats_ 39
_Means of locomotion_ 42
_A_ Sang-no 43
_White-coated, white-socked population_ 45
_She may visit her friends_ 47
_A middle-class family_ 49
_In winter costume_ 51
_A palace concubine_ 53
_Dancing women of the Court_ 55
_Boys_ 58
_His Imperial Highness, Prince Yi-Cha-Sum_ 59
_His Imperial Majesty the Emperor_ 60
_The Hall of Audience, Seoul_ 64
_Their Imperial Highnesses the Crown Prince and Princess_ 67
_A minor Royalty_ 69
_Within the Palace grounds, Seoul_ 72
_Imperial Throne, Seoul_ 74
_Imperial Tablet-House, Seoul_ 77
_An Imperial pavilion, Seoul_ 79
_Mr. J. McLeavy Brown, C.M.G., LL.D._ 82
_British Legation, Seoul_ 88
_The Imperial Library, Seoul_ 94
_A Seoul gate_ 107
_Justice is not tempered with mercy_ 113
_Children of the lower class_ 115
_The Korean and his bull_ 119
_A spade furnished with ropes_ 121
_Pounding grain_ 122
_Carrying produce to market_ 123
_Japanese Cavalry_ 128
_The Guard of the Japanese Legation, Seoul_ 131
_H.M.S._ Astrea 137
_Brick laying extraordinary_ 145
_The Consulting-room of Miss Cooke_ 155
_A railway siding_ 169
_In New Fusan_ 177
_Palace Gateway_ 180
_Chemulpo_ 185
_On the Yalu River_ 197
_Chinese Encampment_ 203
_Beyond the Capital_ 208
_Woodland Glades_ 209
_Country Carts_ 213
_A pitched battle_ 215
_A summer pleasaunce_ 224
_The Abbot of Chang An Sa_ 227
_The Abbot of Yu Chom Sa_ 233
_Yu Chom Sa_ 237
_An Altar-piece_ 239
_Shin Ki Sa_ 243
_The Abbot and Monks of Chang An Sa_ 245
_A Fair Magician_ 251
_Without the walls of Seoul_ 253
_The Temple of Heaven, Seoul_ 255
_An Imperial summer house, erected to mark the spot where the
corpse of the late Queen was burned by the Japanese_ 260
_A bridge scene in Seoul_ 261
_The streets are magnificent_ 268
_Beyond the Amur_ 281
_On the Han River_ 282
_Washing clothes in a drain_ 284
_A day of festival_ 291
_Russian post on the Korean Frontier_ 297
INTRODUCTION
Nothing is more natural than the circumstance that war should be the
outcome of the existing crisis; yet, equally, nothing is less certain.
If the area of hostilities were not confined to the Far East, and the
Power confronting Japan were any other than Russia, the outbreak of
war might be predicted positively. But with Russia, consideration of
the strategic qualities of her position in Manchuria must exercise a
paramount influence upon her movements. To those who are not close
students of military history, as well as to those who do not possess an
extensive knowledge of the situation, the position in which Russia is
placed equally affords the keenest interest. Certainly in the annals of
military history, excluding the march of Napoleon upon Moscow, there is
no war which may be said to have developed a parallel to the task which
besets Russia in Manchuria and Korea. Her position at sea, moreover, is
no better than that which she holds on land. Upon land, a single line
of railway traversing the heart of an enemy’s country terminates at
Port Arthur. At sea, Vladivostock is cut off by reason of its position,
while it is inaccessible on account of its climate. These points, Port
Arthur and Vladivostock, define the extremities of the strategic position
which Russia holds in Manchuria. Excluding Vladivostock at this moment
from any especial consideration, Port Arthur is left for the opening
moves of this campaign. Therefore, Port Arthur, with a single line of
communications in its rear, becomes the pivot of the operations.
The aspect of Port Arthur from the sea is uninviting. Rugged hills,
offshoots from the range of mountains which divides the Liao-tung
peninsula, cluster round the bay, and encroaching upon the foreshore
and bearing neither trees nor vegetation, impart to the surroundings a
desolate and even wild appearance. Within the headlands of the harbour,
conforming with the indentations of the coast, there are several bays
shallow and unprofitable, but which in time may become an important
adjunct to the small area of deep water which the harbour now possesses.
Dredging operations have been undertaken, but there is so much to be
done that many years must pass before Port Arthur receives any material
addition to its very restricted accommodation. The mud, brought down
by the streams which empty into the harbour, has already affected the
deep-water area, and since the harbour was constructed these deposits
have encroached very considerably upon the depth off shore. At low water
steamers, which lie up within sixty feet of the wharf, rest upon mud
in little more than a fathom of water, and at the same time the space
is so small that it is impossible for a dozen vessels to anchor in the
harbour with any comfort. Steamers, if any larger in size than the small
coasting-boats which call at Port Arthur from China and Japan must anchor
off the entrance, unloading and re-charging from junks or tenders. In
relation to the requirements of the squadron Port Arthur is not nearly
large enough. When cruisers are taking in stores battleships remain
outside, an arrangement which is manifestly inconvenient in a period
of emergency. It was for this reason that the authorities constructed
at Dalny—a few miles from the fortress and within Pa-tien-wan Bay—a new
town, together with commercial docks and wharves, in order that Port
Arthur might be devoted more particularly to the needs of the navy.
Port Arthur is happy in the possession of all those objects which, to a
naval base, are component parts of its success. The dry dock, somewhat
weak and unsubstantial, is 385 feet in length, 34 feet in depth, and 80
feet broad, while the naval basin is equal in surface space to the total
available steamer anchorage in the harbour proper. When the dredging
works in the harbour bays have been completed it is hoped that a mean
depth of four fathoms will have been obtained. This systematic deepening
of the harbour will give to the fleet a surface anchorage considerably in
excess of one square mile, but until the work has been executed the value
of Port Arthur as a satisfactory naval base is infinitely less than the
prestige which it enjoys as an impregnable position.
Port Arthur possesses a small parade-ground, rifle-range, and artillery
practice-ground, torpedo-station and training reservation, which will be
enlarged when the bays are opened out. There is a flash-light station and
various schools of instruction—torpedo, gunnery, telegraphy—while the
arsenals and workshops which are built around the naval basin and within
the navy yards are very thoroughly equipped. These effects, however,
were mainly taken over by Russia when she seized Port Arthur; their
existence at the present moment tends to show how impossible it is to
under-estimate the advantages which Russia derives from the possession of
this port, and how far-reaching are the consequences of the monstrous
blunder which Lord Salisbury committed when he acquiesced in its
usurpation.
Apart from the defences Russia, hitherto, has not added much to Port
Arthur; for the main part the troops have been quartered in the old
Chinese houses or in the former barracks of the Chinese troops, affairs
having been somewhat neglected in view of the prior claim which the
defences held. Now, however, fine barracks are in course of construction,
and, if there is no war, it is anticipated that ample accommodation will
be ready soon upon the shores of some of the bays and on the hills.
The defences are indeed magnificent. Very few of the forts, which were
in existence during the time of the Chinese, remain. Since the Russian
Government entered upon possession the work of extending the perimeter
of the defences, as well as strengthening the fortifications, has been a
continuous labour. It is quite clear that the authorities are determined
upon no half-measures. They have gained Port Arthur, and they propose
to keep it. Upon the cliffs, rising immediately from the right of the
harbour entrance, there is a most powerful position, formed, I believe,
of a battery of six 21-inch Krupp guns, which was further supported by
a fort placed a few feet above the harbour, and sweeping its immediate
front, containing eight 10-inch Krupps. At the corresponding elevations
upon the opposite headland there were two similar forts with identical
batteries, while the mine fields within the harbour are controlled from
these two lower positions. Following the hills to the south and north
there are other forts; one in particular, of great size, is placed upon
the extreme crest of the range, and, towering above all else, sweeps the
sea and approaches to the harbour for great distances. It is impossible
to detect the character of these guns, but from their position, and the
extent of the fort and the nature of the part which they are intended
to fill, it is improbable that they can be less than 27-ton guns,
discharging shells of about 500 lb. The interior line of forts is no less
formidable, and it must seem that Port Arthur can never be reduced by
bombardment alone, while any force attacking by land would be severely
handled by the positions from which the Russians propose to defend their
flanks and the neck. At the present, however, there is a paucity of
field-guns among the troops in garrison, in addition to which many of the
more recently constructed forts lack artillery; while the opinion may be
hazarded that the entire position has been so over-fortified as to become
a source of eventual weakness in the ultimate disposition of the Russian
force.
Of course a fight for the command of the sea must precede any land
operations. Japan is within fifteen hours steam of Fusan, already a
Japanese garrison-town, and of Ma-san-po, the port to which Russia and
Japan make equal claim. The strait separating Japan from Korea is 200
miles broad, while Russia’s nearest base at Port Arthur is 900 miles
away on one hand and Vladivostock is 1200 miles away on the other. It
follows therefore, that in Korea, and not in Manchuria, the troops of the
Japanese army would be landed. Once established in Korea, Japan would
be able to dispute the supremacy of the sea on equal terms. In this
respect the possession by the Japanese of numerous torpedo craft confers
a distinct advantage upon them, since it will be within their power to
utilise their services if the Russian fleet were to attempt to check the
movement. The absence of any facilities for repairing damages makes it
certain that so far as possible the Russian fleet will evade any serious
engagement. It would be difficult to improve upon the position of Japan
in this respect. At Yokosuka, from which place a large number of cruisers
have been launched, there is a very extensive building-yard, and Japan
also possesses suitable docks for large ships at Kure and Nagasaki. In
all she has at her immediate disposal some half a dozen docks, 400 ft. in
length or more, and a very skilful army of working mechanics and workmen
in general. Port Arthur must be regarded for practical purposes the naval
base of Russia in the Far East in the event of a cold-weather campaign.
Vladivostock is too far removed from the range of probable utility.
At this port, however, Russia has constructed one large dry dock, one
floating dock 301 ft. long, and a second dry dock has been laid down.
Against these two solitary and isolated centres, Japan possesses naval
bases, arsenals and docks at the following points on her coast.
Yokosuka Arsenal, slip and dry dock.
Kure Arsenal, slip, dry dock, armour-plate works.
Sassebo Arsenal.
Maitsura New dockyard.
Nagasaki Three docks.
Takeshiki Coaling-station, naval base.
Ominato Base for small craft.
Kobe Torpedo repairing yard.
Matsmai Refitting station.
The squadrons which Japan and Russia will be able to employ in this war
are very formidable, and during the past few months each Power has made
strenuous efforts to increase the strength of its fleet.
In January 1903 the aggregate tonnage of the Russian Pacific Squadron
stood at some 87,000 tons, the fleet including the battleships
_Peresviet_, _Petropavlovsk_, _Poltava_, _Sevastopol_, and the cruisers
_Rossia_, _Gromoboi_, and _Rurik_, with other smaller vessels.
In March the tonnage went up to 93,000 tons, thanks to the arrival of the
cruiser _Askold_ from the Baltic.
In May the cruisers _Diana_, _Pallada_, _Novik_, and the battleship
_Retvizan_ joined.
In June the cruisers _Bogatyr_ and _Boyarin_ reached the scene.
In July the battleship _Probleda_ arrived.
In November the battleship _Tzarevitch_ and the cruiser _Bayan_ further
added to Russia’s strength.
In December the battleship _Oslyabya_, the armoured cruiser _Dimitri
Donskoi_, the protected cruisers _Aurora_ and _Almaz_, and eleven
torpedo-boat destroyers.
In January 1904 the battleship _Imperator Alexander III_. leaves the
Baltic for the Far East.
Russia has laboured under great disadvantages to secure her position in
this region. In consequence of restricted shipbuilding resources and
owing to an unfortunate geographical position, Russia has not enjoyed
those opportunities of adding to her Pacific fleet which have presented
themselves to Japan. In effect, if not in fact, Russia is compelled to
maintain four navies. Unhappily, each is isolated from the other, many
hundreds of miles separating them. Naval squadrons are concentrated in
the Baltic, in the Black Sea, in the Caspian Sea and in the Pacific.
The Pacific squadron is of recent establishment and of most modern
construction. It dates back to 1898, from which time her policy of naval
expansion began. Orders were placed with France, Germany and America
for cruisers and battleships, coal was bought at Cardiff, and in a short
space the nucleus of a powerful fleet had sprung into existence. At the
present time these new ships are deficient in the various ratings, and
hundreds of mechanics, gunners and engineers have been withdrawn from the
Black Sea Squadron to do service with the Pacific Fleet, moving to the
Pacific Ocean from the Black Sea by means of the Trans-Siberian Railway.
Just now, and until the acute phase of the crisis has disappeared or war
has been declared, the disposition of the Russian Pacific Squadron is as
follows.
At Port Arthur, the battleships _Petropavlovsk_, _Poltava_, _Sevastopol_,
_Peresviet_, _Retvizan_, _Probleda_, and _Tzarevitch_; the first-class
cruisers _Bayan_, _Askold_, _Pallada_, _Diana_, and _Varyag_; the
gunboats _Bobr_, _Gremyashtchi_, and _Koreetz_; the transports _Amur_,
_Yenissei_, and _Angara_; the torpedo-cruisers _Vsadnik_, and _Gaidamak_;
and the destroyers _Bezshumni_, _Bezposhadni_, _Bditelni_, _Bezstrashni_,
_Boevoi_, _Vnimatelni_, _Vnushitelni_, _Viposlivi_, _Vlastni_, _Burni_,
and _Boiki_.
At Vladivostock, the first-class cruisers _Rossia_, _Gromoboi_, _Rurik_,
and _Bogatyr_, the gunboat _Mandchur_, and the transport _Lena_.
At Chemulpo, the second-class cruiser _Boyarin_, and the destroyer
_Grossovoi_.
At Ma-san-po, the second-class cruiser _Rasboinik_.
In Nimrod Bay, the second-class cruiser _Djijdjit_.
At Newchwang, the gunboats _Otvazhni_ and _Sivutch_.
At Nagasaki, the gunboat _Gilvak_.
It will be seen from this list that Russia practically has the whole
of her Pacific Squadron in and about the Yellow Sea. In addition to
this force there is the squadron now _en suite_ for the Far East, which
lately passed through Bizerta. This comprises the battleship _Oslyabya_,
two second-class cruisers, _Aurora_ and _Dimitri Donskoi_, and eleven
torpedo-boat destroyers. The added strength which Russia will receive
when these reinforcements, under Admiral Virenius, reach her will give
her a numerical superiority over Japan. The greater efficiency, and that
higher degree of skill, which is so noticeable aboard the Japanese fleet,
reduces this preponderance to a mean level. However, Russia is by no
means to be caught napping, as the formation in Port Arthur of a reserve
naval brigade tends to show. Meanwhile, however, the subjoined detailed
list presents the principal vessels in the Russian Pacific Squadron. The
officers commanding are:
Vice-Admiral Stark,
Rear-Admiral Prince Ukhtomski,
Rear-Admiral Baron Shtakelberg,
Admiral Virenius (to join).
BATTLESHIPS
+----------------------+----------+-----------+-------+------------+
| | | | Speed,| Chief |
| | Built | Tonnage | knots | armament |
+----------------------+----------+-----------+-------+------------+
|Tzarevitch (flagship) | 1901 | 13,000 | 18 | { 4 12 in.|
| | | | | { 12 6 in.|
| | | | | |
|Probleda | 1900 | 12,000 | 19 | { 4 10 in.|
| | | | | { 11 6 in.|
| | | | | |
|Poltava | 1894 | 11,000 | 17 | { 4 12 in.|
| | | | | { 12 6 in.|
| | | | | |
|Sevastopol | 1895 | 11,000 | 17 | { 4 12 in.|
| | | | | { 12 6 in.|
| | | | | |
|Petropavlovsk | 1894 | 11,000 | 17 | { 4 12 in.|
| | | | | { 12 6 in.|
| | | | | |
|Peresviet | 1898 | 12,000 | 19 | { 4 10 in.|
| | | | | { 10 6 in.|
| | | | | |
|Retvizan | 1900 | 12,700 | 18 | { 4 12 in.|
| | | | | { 12 6 in.|
+----------------------+----------+-----------+-------+------------+
Reinforcements to join: Oslyabya, 12,000 tons, 4 10-in. guns, 10 6-in.
guns; Navarin, 9,000 tons, 4 12-in. guns, 8 6-in. guns; Imperator
Alexander III.
CRUISERS
+-----------+---------+----------+-------+------------+
| | | | Speed,| Chief |
| | Built | Tonnage | knots | armament |
+-----------+---------+----------+-------+------------+
|Askold | 1900 | 7,000 | 23 | 12 6 in. |
|Bayan | 1900 | 8,000 | 21 | { 2 8 in. |
| | | | | { 8 6 in. |
|Gromoboi | 1899 | 12,000 | 20 | { 4 8 in. |
| | | | | { 16 6 in. |
|Rossia | 1896 | 12,000 | 20 | { 4 8 in. |
| | | | | {16 6 in. |
|Rurik | 1892 | 11,000 | 18 | { 4 8 in. |
| | | | | { 16 6 in. |
|Bogatyr | 1901 | 6,000 | 23 | 12 6 in. |
|Varyag | 1899 | 6,000 | 23 | 12 6 in. |
|Diana | 1899 | 7,000 | 20 | 8 6 in. |
|Pallada | 1899 | 7,000 | 20 | 8 6 in. |
|Boyarin | 1900 | 3,000 | 22 | 6 4.7 in. |
|Novik | 1900 | 3,000 | 25 | 6 4.7 in. |
|Zabiuca | 1878 | 1,300 | 14 | Field guns |
|Djijdjit | 1878 | 1,300 | 13 | 3 6 in. |
|Rasboinik | 1879 | 1,300 | 13 | 3 6 in. |
+-----------+---------+----------+-------+------------+
Reinforcements to join: Gremyashtchi, Admiral Nakhimoff; Aurora, Admiral
Korniloff; Otrajny, Dmitri Donskoi; Almaz.
The gunboats on this station number nine, the destroyers eighteen, and
the transports six. Thirteen destroyers are to join.
This fleet, with reinforcements, compares numerically with the eventual
strength of Japan as follows:
Battleships Cruisers
Russia 10 21
Japan 7 26
A proportion of Japanese cruisers would be needed for coast defence,
so that Russia is becoming numerically the stronger for sea work. In
addition, Russia also has a powerful auxiliary fleet, consisting of ten
steamers of the Black Sea Steam Navigation Company, most of which were
built on the Tyne, and average fourteen knots. The Russian Volunteer
Fleet Association numbers twelve Tyne and Clyde built ships. They are
also at the disposal of the authorities.
Against this fighting array the Japanese are able to place vessels of
equal size and displacement; in the actual weight of metal the Japanese
are at a disadvantage, but in the thickness of the armoured protection
there is little to choose. Against this comparative equality of the
opposing fleets there must be borne in mind the great advantage which
Japan derives from her ability to use her own fortified ports as naval
bases. Indeed, this is of such importance that the knowledge of this
fact might induce her to risk her whole strength in a single engagement.
Again, in the mercantile marine, which has increased enormously of recent
years, Japan will find all she may require for the purposes of transport
and auxiliaries to the war fleet. The principal vessels in the Japanese
navy are here indicated:
BATTLESHIPS
+--------------+-------------+--------+-------+------------+-----------+
| | | | | | Weight of |
| Name |Displacement | I.H.P. |Nominal| Gun | Broadside |
| | | | Speed | Protection | Fire |
+--------------+-------------+--------+-------+------------+-----------+
| | Tons | | Knots | In. | Lbs. |
|Hatsuse } | | | | | |
|Asahi } | 15,000 | 15,000 | 18.0 | 14.6 | 4240 |
|Shikishima } | | | | | |
|Mikasa | 15,200 | 16,000 | 18.0 | 14.6 | 4225 |
|Yashima } | | | | | |
|Fuji } | 12,300 | 13,000 | 18.0 | 14.6 | 4000 |
+--------------+-------------+--------+-------+------------+-----------+
ARMOURED CRUISERS
+--------------+-------------+--------+-------+------------+-----------+
| | | | | | Weight of |
| Name |Displacement | I.H.P. |Nominal| Gun | Broadside |
| | | | Speed | Protection | Fire |
+--------------+-------------+--------+-------+------------+-----------+
| | Tons | | Knots | In. | Lbs. |
|Tokiwa } | | | | | |
|Asama } | 9750 | 18,000 | 21.5 | 6.6 | 3568 |
|Yaqumo | 9850 | 16,000 | 20.0 | 6.6 | 3368 |
|Azuma | 9436 | 17,000 | 21.0 | 6.6 | 3368 |
|Idzuma } | | | | | |
|Iwate } | 9800 | 15,000 | 24.7 | 6.6 | 3568 |
+--------------+-------------+--------+-------+------------+-----------+
In addition to these, early in January 1904 the two cruisers purchased in
Italy from the Argentine Government will be ready for sea.
PROTECTED CRUISERS
+--------------+-------------+--------+-------+------------+-----------+
| | | | | | Weight of |
| Name |Displacement | I.H.P. |Nominal| Gun | Broadside |
| | | | Speed | Protection | Fire |
+--------------+-------------+--------+-------+------------+-----------+
| | Tons | | Knots | In. | Lbs. |
|Takasago | 4300 | 15,500 | 24.0 | 4½.2 | 800 |
|Kasagi } | 4784 | 15,500 | 22.5 | 4½.0 | 800 |
|Chitose } | | | | | |
|Itsukushima } | | | | | |
|Hashidate } | 4277 | 5400 | 16.7 | 11.4 | 1260 |
|Matsushima } | | | | | |
|Yoshino | 4180 | 15,750 | 23.0 | — | 780 |
|Naniwa } | 3727 | 7120 | 17.8 | — | 1196 |
|Takachiho } | | | | | |
|Akitsushima | 3150 | 8400 | 19.0 | — | 780 |
|Nitaka } | 3420 | 9500 | 20.0 | — | 920 |
|Tsushima } | | | | | |
|Suma } | 2700 | 8500 | 20.0 | — | 335 |
|Akashi } | | | | | |
+--------------+-------------+--------+-------+------------+-----------+
In connection with the First Division of the Japanese Fleet an
interesting fact has transpired which, from reason of its association
with this country, will prove of more than ordinary interest. In case
of war it appears that with one exception the ships comprising this
division are all British built. Designs, armour-plating and armament
follow the type and standard of our own Navy, and it is therefore obvious
that we cannot fail to be stirred deeply by the results of any collision
which may occur. Each nation possesses in Far Eastern waters ships
supplied with the latest appliances which science and ingenuity have
devised. To the people of this Empire, whose security rests primarily
upon the Fleet, our interest in the engagements is naturally the higher,
by reason of the similarity between the ships which will be engaged upon
one side and those of our own Navy. These vessels, all of which have
received their war-paint, and whose place of concentration is Nagasaki,
some 585 nautical miles from Port Arthur, are as follows:
+---------------+----------------+--------+--------------+
|Name | Where built | Tonnage| Chief |
| | | | armament |
+---------------+----------------+--------+--------------+
|Hatsuse (B) | Elswick | 15,000 | { 4 12 in. |
| | | | { 14 6 in. |
| | | | |
|Shikishima (B) | Thames | 15,000 | { 4 12 in. |
| | | | { 14 6 in. |
| | | | |
|Asahi (B) | Clyde | 15,000 | { 4 12 in. |
| | | | { 14 6 in. |
| | | | |
|Fuji (B) | Blackwall | 12,500 | { 4 12 in. |
| | | | { 10 6 in. |
| | | | |
|Yashima (B) | Elswick | 12,500 | { 4 12 in. |
| | | | { 10 6 in. |
| | | | |
|Iwate (C) | Elswick | 10,000 | { 4 8 in. |
| | | | { 10 6 in. |
| | | | |
|Asama (C) | Elswick | 10,000 | { 4 8 in. |
| | | | { 10 6 in. |
| | | | |
|Idzuma (C) | Elswick | 10,000 | { 4 8 in. |
| | | | { 14 6 in. |
| | | | |
|Tokiwa (C) | Elswick | 10,000 | { 4 8 in. |
| | | | { 10 6 in. |
| | | | |
|Takasago (C) | Elswick | 4,300 | { 2 8 in. |
| | | | { 10 4.7 in. |
| | | | |
|Kasagi (C) | Cramp | 5,000 | { 2 8 in. |
| | (Philadelphia) | | { 10 4.7 in. |
+---------------+----------------+--------+--------------+
(B) battleship; (C) cruiser.
A torpedo flotilla, numbering thirty-five vessels, forms part of this
division. The other divisions of the fleet for war comprise the following:
Third division
Second division. (Home).
Battleships 2 —
Cruisers 10 8
Small craft 30 80
In addition to these the auxiliary fleet numbers some forty steamers, for
the most part vessels belonging to the Nippon Yusen Kaisha.
The present constitution of the Japanese Army dates from 1873, and the
Military Forces consist of—(1) the permanent or Regular Army, with its
Reserves and Recruiting Reserves; (2) the Territorial Army; (3) the
National Militia; and (4) the Militia of the various island centres
off the coast, &c. Military service is obligatory in the case of every
able-bodied male from the age of seventeen to forty years of age. Of
this period, three years are passed in the permanent or Regular Army,
four years and four months in the Regular Reserves, five years in the
Territorial Army, and the remaining liability in the National Militia.
The permanent Army, with its Reserves, conducts operations abroad, and
the Territorial Army and the Militia are for home defence. These latter
are equipped with Peabody and Remington single-loading rifles. The
up-to-date strength of the permanent Army, on a war footing, which does
not include the Reserves, is as follows:
+---------------------------------------+----------+----------+--------+
| | | Rank | |
| | Officers | and File | Horses |
+---------------------------------------+----------+----------+--------+
|Infantry, 52 regiments of 3 | | | |
| battalions, 156 battalions = | 4,160 | 143,000 | 52 |
| | | | |
|Cavalry, 17 regiments of 3 squadrons, | | | |
| 51 squadrons = | 400 | 9,300 | 9,000 |
| | | | |
|Field and Mountain Artillery, 19 | | | |
| regiments of 6 batteries, total | | | |
| 114 batteries of 6 guns = 684 guns = | 800 | 12,500 | 8,800 |
| | | | |
|Fortress Artillery, 20 battalions = | 530 | 10,300 | 70 |
| | | | |
|Engineers { 13 Sapper battalions = | 270 | 7,000 | 215 |
| { 1 Railway battalion = | 20 | 550 | 15 |
| | | | |
|Transport, 13 battalions = | 220 | 7,740| 40,000 |
+---------------------------------------+----------+----------+--------+
Total = 684 guns, 6400 officers, 190,390 rank and file, 58,152 horses.
The Reserves comprise 52 battalions of Infantry, 17 squadrons, 26
Engineer and Transport companies, and 19 batteries with 114 guns,
yielding a total of 1000 officers, 34,600 rank and file, and 9000 horses.
Therefore, on mobilisation, the grand effective strength of the Army
available for service beyond the seas would amount to 7400 officers,
224,990 rank and file, 798 guns, and 67,152 horses. Behind this, there is
the Territorial Army, comprising 386 Infantry battalions, 99 squadrons,
26 Engineer and Transport companies, and about 70 batteries, or 11,735
officers, 348,100 men, 1116 guns, and 86,460 horses.
The Infantry and Engineers of the Regular Army have been recently
re-armed with the Meidji magazine rifle. The following particulars show
that the Japanese small arm is a superior weapon to the Russian, which
dates from 1891:
Japanese “Meidji,” model 1897.
Muzzle Sighted Weight No. of
Calibre. velocity. up to with Rounds
Ft.-Sec. Yards. Bayonet. in Mag.
.255 in. 2315 700 9 lb. 2 oz. 5
Russian “Three-Line,” model 1891.
.299 in. 1900 2500 9 lb. 12 oz. 5
The Regular Cavalry have the Meidji carbine. The Reserves are armed with
the Murata magazine rifle, model 1894, calibre .312 in., muzzle velocity
2000 feet-seconds, sighted up to 2187 yds., and weight with bayonet, 9
lb. 1 oz. The equipment carried by the Infantry soldier in the field
weighs 43½ lbs.
The Regular Field and Mountain Artillery is armed with 2.95 in.
quick-firing equipment, with hydraulic compressor, throwing a 10 lb.
projectile. This is known as the Arisaka equipment. The Fortress and
Siege Artillery have the latest models of Krupp and Schneider-Canet in
siege guns, guns of position, and mortars. The Reserve Field Artillery
are armed with a 2.95 rifled cannon of bronze on the old Italian model.
The Japanese have no Horse Artillery, and the only difference between
the field and mountain equipments is that the latter is the shorter
and lighter gun, and has not as long a range. The Cavalry is the least
efficient army of the service. It carries sword and carbine, but no
lance. The horses are badly trained; the men are very indifferent riders.
The strength of the Russian forces in Manchuria embraces 88 battalions,
60 squadrons and 50 batteries, which, together with the garrison forces
and fortress armament, numbers 200,000 men and 300 guns. These troops in
Manchuria are formed into two army corps of the first line and two of
the second. Two new Rifle Brigades have just been added to the existing
strength. They are composed as follows:
7TH BRIGADE 8TH BRIGADE
Port Arthur Vladivostock
GENERAL KONDRATENKO GENERAL ARTAMANOFF
25th Regiment 29th Regiment
26th ” 30th ”
27th ” } (new) 31st ” } (new)
28th ” } 32nd ” }
The Russian is a phenomenal marcher; the actual weight of his equipment
is 58 lbs. 2 oz. One tent is carried in section between six men. Each
soldier carries in his haversack two and a half days’ biscuits. The
ration in daily use for war consists of
Biscuit 1 lb. 13 oz.
Meat 7¼ oz.
Groats 4⅘ oz.
Salt ⅘ oz.
Tea ⁹⁄₄₀ oz.
Sugar ⁸⁄₂₀ oz.
Spirits ¹⁄₂₇ of a pint
In the exigencies of active service it happens that the Russian soldier
must forage for himself. Under any circumstances, however, he sustains
himself on very little nourishment, and relies in a great measure upon
what he can find. The Russian cavalry is armed with sword, rifle and
bayonet. The latter is invariably carried “fixed,” even when the weapon
itself is slung. A few regiments only carry the lance. The field guns are
steel breech-loaders manufactured at the Obukhov works. They are akin
to the Krupp pattern; many, however, have the interrupted screw breech
piece and the de Bange obturation. At present there are many varieties
of artillery with the Russian troops, particularly in their fortified
positions, to which places the Russian transported the seizures which
they made from the Chinese during the Boxer crisis. These embraced
French, German and British examples of artillery.
On land, the immense superiority of the reserve numbers of the Russians
reduces the advantages which would accrue to the Japanese if the fighting
were confined to the sea. At the same time, however, it should be
remembered that the Russian troops are slow movers, and although they
may exhibit magnificent endurance, and although they may be relied upon
to fight well, the lack of individual initiative upon the part of the
Russian officers robs the operations of that dash and address which is
embodied in the spirit of the Japanese army. Curiously enough, each side
favours the Continental school of infantry and cavalry tactics, the
underlying principles in the training of the Japanese revealing a close
adherence to Teutonic methods. Neither side will profit, therefore, by
any degree of indivisibility to which they may have attained. The winter
great-coat of either army is very nearly identical in colour, and for
warm weather Japanese and Russians alike favour a white blouse. There
has been talk of the Japanese adopting a khaki tint; upon the other
hand, the blouse of the Russian soldier is by courtesy equally white or
khaki. In the more important direction of land transport, it might appear
that the Manchurian railway would be a crowning triumph for the Russian
authorities. Unfortunately, this immense length of rail, badly laid and
indifferently equipped, will impose a perpetual strain upon the military
resources. If the country population could be relied upon to maintain
a benevolent neutrality towards telegraph poles and lines, railway
sleepers and rails, the stone pillar and balks of the bridges, the
possibility of any serious interruption of traffic would be materially
lessened. Unhappily for the Russians, the attitude and acts of the native
population, who, in a general way, will lose no opportunity to harass
their enemy, must impede the effective co-operation of the Russian forces.
Against this instinctive feeling of animosity there may be set the
racial sympathy with the Japanese which governs every Chinaman. In
Manchuria particularly, the Japanese enjoy a high reputation in the
minds of the populace, while there is remembered, above aught else, that
prompt redemption of all obligations during the Chino-Japanese War which
distinguished the policy of the invaders towards local interests. This
policy of benevolence was exhibited for the second time during the Boxer
crisis, and, of course, the striking example offered by the Japanese,
in comparison with the Russians, was not lost upon the Chinese. These
things are recalled to-day in Manchuria, and they may be calculated to
offset any reactionary sentiment which may take place in Korea. Between
the hospital arrangements of each belligerent there is little to choose.
The more efficient system of the Japanese service is equalised by the
greater facilities which the possession of railway communication by the
Russians will present to the transportation of the wounded. It should be
pointed out, however, that the principal medical service—the Russian Red
Cross Society—is wholly patriotic, and that it is not, in any degree, a
military organisation. It is liable to be withdrawn from the field at any
moment after the conclusion of the major operations.
Beyond these few observations it is difficult—if not impossible—to
trespass with any certainty, although, as a closing remark, it may
perhaps be added that, provided the investment of Port Arthur be
satisfactorily accomplished by sea and that Vladivostock were enclosed
by ice, the estuaries of the Yalu and Lico Rivers enables an admirable
position to be taken up, from which the Russian position throughout
Manchuria may be very readily threatened. Speculations as to the
development of the campaign upon land are, however, quite absurd until
something is known of the results of the naval engagements with which the
war must open. Meanwhile the painful familiarity with the costs of war
which distinguishes the British taxpayer has directed no little attention
to the financial position of either country. An eminent German financier,
interested in the public debt of Russia, lately explained to me that
a very large proportion of the moneys, which have been raised for the
construction of the Russian inter-railway communications in addition to
the Trans-Siberian and Manchurian Railways, has been set aside from time
to time to supplement her war chest. These sums, added to those collected
by Count Mouravieff with the assent of M. de Witte, and including the
large balances which have accrued to the State by departmental economies
during the past year, represent approximately a capital of one hundred
millions sterling. Against this accumulation it is said that the
financial position of Japan is most favourable. There is, I believe, a
specie reserve in the Central Bank which amounts to 113,000,000 yen, plus
some 40,000,000 yen in London. Moreover, the bank’s note-issuing margin
is 35,000,000 yen, which will be larger after the New Year. The Treasury
has three capital funds, amounting together to 50,000,000 yen, besides
some millions in London remaining from the bond sale of 1902. Finally,
there are large sums lying idle in all the banks throughout the country,
while an Ordinance has been issued which provides the Government with
unlimited credit.
The more recent action of the Russians in Manchuria tends, of course,
to support the view that war may be imminent. Nevertheless, bluff is a
component part of Russian diplomacy, and there is ground for believing
that the intentions of Russia in the Far East are by no means so
warlike as the preparations now proceeding and the acts of the Russian
administrative officials in Manchuria itself would imply. Russian
diplomacy always covers the development of its plans by preparing
to demonstrate in a contrary direction; and at the present time her
occupation of Korean territory is little else than the screen, behind
which she proposes to secure her hold upon Manchuria. Nothing short of
war will cause her to retire from her position in Manchuria; but while
Korean territory is of little value to the Russian protectorate, whatever
the compromise which may be effected between Japan and Russia, she may
be expected to make a determined effort to dominate the lower waters
of the Yalu River. In fact, curious as it may seem, the estuary of the
Yalu River is the very locale of the dispute between the two Powers,
since, if Russia were ever permitted to dominate the Yalu River, she
would gain at once that special position upon the frontiers of Korea
which it is the desire of Japan to frustrate. In this Japan can rely only
upon the shortshifts of diplomacy; and although the Russian occupation
of Yong-an-po may be circumvented, the development of An-tung upon the
opposite shore of the river cannot be prevented. It seems, therefore,
as inevitable that some commanding position upon the Yalu River must
ultimately fall to her lot. An-tung lies within Manchurian territory;
the Yalu River is the border stream between Manchuria and Korea, and
at Yong-an-po the nucleus of an important Russian settlement has been
established. The future contains no promise of the immediate settlement
of the present difficulty. At best the outlook is confused; while at
the same time there is presented in a manner singularly clear and
comprehensible the fact that Russia neither will evacuate New-chang, be
driven out of Manchuria, nor abandon her position on the Yalu River. The
position of Russia at New-chang has been indicated by past events, her
occupation of Manchuria is an old story, and she is now engaged in the
rapid development of her interests at An-tung. The position of this port
endows it with unusual advantages, and the commercial potentialities of
the place are very great. It lies about fifteen miles above Yong-an-po,
on the opposite bank. At present the export trade is confined to millet
and silk cocoons, the over-production of the latter commodity requiring
close technical supervision. Eight miles below An-tung, situated on the
right bank of the river, is the likin station San-tao-lan-tao, where
junks and rafts must report and pay the stipulated excise before they
proceed onward. The river then bears away to the north-east, and after
another stretch of seven miles there comes An-tung, upon the same bank,
at a point where the stream divides, the eastern branch being the Yalu
River. An-tung is of quite recent construction, and a few years ago
millet fields occupied its site. Under the care of native merchants
large, solid-looking houses have been built, broad streets have been
opened out, and an air of unusual prosperity distinguishes the place.
The anchorage is thronged with junks, while timber is stacked in vast
quantities below the limits of the town. Sea-going steamers of the
coaster type can here discharge and load their cargoes, thus obviating
transhipment at Ta-tung-kao.
Trade between Ta-tung-kao, which is situated at the mouth of the Yalu,
and Chi-fu, is at present carried on by small steamers of the _Mosquito_
flotilla and one British ship, the _Hwang-ho_, of the China Navigation
Company (Messrs. Butterfield and Swire), while the vast volume of the
exports and imports finds its way hither and thither in Chinese junks.
The run from Chi-fu port is one of a hundred and eighty-five miles, and
the time usually occupied in the trip north-eastward is twenty-two hours,
the steamers anchoring in the fairway channel at a distance of four miles
from Ta-tung-kao. Ta-tung-kao is a busy town, inasmuch as it is the place
of transhipment for imports and exports, most of which go to or come
from An-tung. The fact of steamers being unable to approach Ta-tung-kao
makes An-tung the real business centre of the Yalu River. In respect of
An-tung, two hundred Russian cavalry have been stationed there for over
two and a half years. The cantonment is situated on a small hill, marking
the northern limit of the town, which has no wall. As usual, through the
Yalu Valley these soldiers bear an evil reputation among the natives,
from whom they commandeer at pleasure. Striking away from An-tung is the
Pekin “Great Road,” which runs to Liao-yang. Above An-tung the river
divides and shoals exist, the water being so shallow that none but native
craft can ply. Wi-ju is situated about ten miles to the eastward, and at
a point west of Mao-kewi-shan, four miles below An-tung, there is the
terminus of the branch of the Manchurian railway, which is to strike the
river. The construction of this work will begin in the spring of 1904.
The first eighty miles offer little obstruction, and it is intended that
the work shall be pushed forward until its junction with the main line
of the system is accomplished. Russia, therefore, cannot well afford to
ignore the consequences of her policy in the Far East, nor, at the same
time, can she be expected to sacrifice, at the request of Japan, those
great interests which she has been at such pains to foster. The position
is, indeed, a striking example of the manner in which an imperious policy
will create the taste, if not the necessity, for Imperialism.
The position of Korea in regard to the disputed questions is a hopeless
one. Unfortunately, the government of Korea is powerless to prevent
either the advance of Russia or the steady spread of Japanese influence.
She possesses neither army nor navy which can be put to any practical
use, and she is in that position in which a country is placed when
unable to raise its voice upon its own behalf. The army numbers a few
thousand men, who, in the last few years, have been trained to the use
of European weapons. They are armed with the Gras, (obsolete pattern)
Murata, Martini, and a variety of muzzle-loading smooth-bore rifles.
Their shooting powers are most indifferent, and they lack besides the
qualities of courage and discipline. There is no artillery, and the
cavalry arm is confined to a few hundred men with no knowledge of
horse-mastership, and with no idea of their weapons or their duties. At
a moment of emergency the entire force of mounted and dismounted men
would become utterly demoralised. There are numerous general officers,
while, I believe, the navy is composed of twenty-three admirals and one
iron-built coal lighter, until quite lately the property of a Japanese
steamship company. Korea is the helpless, hapless sport of Japanese
caprice or Russian lust; and it has been my aim to present an impartial
study of the condition of the country in the pages of this volume. Since
so many and so much abler pens have dealt with the position of Manchuria
elsewhere, I have confined myself solely to a review of Korea. For this
I trust that I may not be taken to task, while in order to satisfy those
who think that some reference to the questions of Manchuria should have
been incorporated in my book I have ventured to impart to my preface the
appearance of a chapter which deals solely with this problem. And now,
at the end of my work, a last, but none the less pleasant, duty awaits
me. In addition to my own notes upon Korea I have gathered information
from many people—writers, travellers, and students—all interested in
the contemporary history of the Hermit Kingdom. These I now hasten to
thank, and by naming them I would mark my grateful appreciation of the
kindness which they have extended to me. To Mr. McLeavy Brown, of the
Korean Maritime Customs; Mr. Gubbins, formerly of the British Legation,
Seoul; to my distinguished and learned friend, Professor Homer B.
Hulbert, whose published notes upon Korea have been of exceptional value,
I make hearty acknowledgments; to Mrs. Bishop, Colonel Younghusband,
the Rev. Mr. Griffis, Major Gould-Adams, authors of interesting and
important contributions to any study of Korea, I express the sense of
my obligation; to the Rev. C. Collyer, who was good enough to make my
spelling of Korean names identical with the standard of Dr. Gale; to Mr.
Bolton, of Messrs. Stanford, the map makers, of Long Acre, who laboured
so patiently with the many shortcomings of my geographical data, I am,
indeed, indebted. To Sir Douglas Straight, editor of the _Pall Mall
Gazette_, whose paper it was my delight to represent throughout my long
residence in the Far East; to Mr. Nicol Dunn, editor of the _Morning
Post_; to Mr. S. J. Pryor, of the _Daily Express_, I have to record my
acknowledgment of the courteous permission of these distinguished people
to reproduce such portions of my work as have appeared in the columns
of their respective organs from time to time. And last of all to my
readers I offer this book in the hope that an immediate apology for its
production may be permitted to atone for its numerous shortcomings.
_December 25, 1903._
CHAPTER I
Off the coast—Lack of survey intelligence—Island
_flora_—Forgotten voyagers—Superstitions and beliefs—Outline of
history
[Illustration: DEVIL POST OUTSIDE SEOUL]
Despite the survey work which has been accomplished in the past by the
Japanese upon the coasts of Korea, little knowledge of the numerous
islands and archipelagoes, shoals and reefs which make its shores the
terror of all mariners, exists at present. Until the voyage of the
_Alceste_ and _Lyra_ in 1816, the locality of these detached groups
of rocky islets was not marked on any of the Japanese or Chinese maps
of the period. In the map of the Empire prepared by the Jesuits at
Pekin in the seventeenth century, the space now occupied by the Korean
Archipelago was covered with the drawing of an elephant—the conventional
sign of ignorance with the cartographers of that time. In the older
native maps, the mainland embraced groups of islands, the most imperfect
knowledge of the physical configuration of their own shores prevailing
among the Koreans. In quite recent days, however, the Korean Government
has recognised this fact, and in the early months of 1903 the Japanese
Government was requested to draw up a complete survey of the Hermit
Kingdom. This work is now in process of execution, the plan of the
coastline already having been completed.
The coast of Korea is remarkable for the number of spacious harbours
which distinguish it. Upon the West and South, indications of the
volcanic period, through which the country has in part passed, are shown
by the frequency with which these island groups occur. From a single
peak upon one of the small islands off the south-west coast, as many as
one hundred and thirty-five islets may be counted, stretching to the
North and to the South, the resort of the sea-fowl; desolate and almost
uninhabited. Many of the more important islands have been cultivated, and
give refuge and a lonely home to small communities of fishing-folk.
Navigation is peculiarly dangerous in these waters. Many of the islands
are submerged by the spring-tides, and the direction of the channels,
scoured by the rush of the tide, becomes quite indefinite. In the absence
of charts and maps, these island-fringed shores have been the scene of
many shipwrecks; Dutch, American, French, and British shipping meeting
in one grim and silent procession a common end: captivity on shore or
death in the sea. Some of these unfortunate mariners survived their
experiences, leaving, after the fashion of Hendrik Hamel, the supercargo
of the Dutch frigate _Sparwehr_, which went ashore off Quelpart in 1653,
records and histories of their adventures to an incredulous posterity.
Most of the islands lying off the coast are well wooded. As they are
very beautiful to look upon and very dangerous to approach, they are
regarded with mingled sentiments of reverence and superstition, differing
little, in their expression, from the fear in which the ancients held the
terrors of Scylla and Charybdis. Their isolated position, moreover, makes
them the centre of much contraband trade between the Chinese and Koreans;
their defenceless state renders them an easy prey to any pirates who care
to ravage them.
The islands off the south-west coast are the sanctuaries of many animals.
Seals sport and play unharmed among the rocks; the woody peaks are
rich in game: teal, crane, curlew, quail, and innumerable small birds
make them their breeding-grounds. The shores are happy hunting-grounds
for naturalists, and a variety of marine food is found throughout
the archipelago. A number of well-marked species of sponge may be
gathered, and the coral beds display many violent tints and delicate
shades, forming in their beautiful colourings a sea garden of matchless
splendour. The _flora_ of these islands is a no less brilliant feature of
the summer landscape. Tiger-lilies, showy and gigantic, daisies, asters,
many varieties of cactus, grow side by side with curious ferns, palms and
creepers, almost tropical in their character and profusion, yet surviving
the cooler temperature of autumn and winter, to greet each coming spring
with freshened beauty. The air vibrates with the singing and buzzing of
insects, the limpid day is bright with gaudy butterflies. Snow-white
herons stand in the shallows. Cormorants, diving birds and ducks throng
the reefs to rise in clouds with many angry splutterings when their
haunts are invaded. In the deeper waters, there are myriads of fish; in
passing from group to group along the coast shoals of whales are to be
seen, blowing columns of spray aloft, of sleeping idly upon the surface.
The coast of Korea is well sprinkled with the names of foreign
navigators, who, in previous centuries, essayed to visit the Land of
the Morning Radiance. With rare exceptions, these visitors were turned
back. Some were captured and tortured; many were ordered off at once,
few were ever entertained. None were invited to make any stay in the new
land, or permitted to inspect its wonders and curiosities. Beyond the
Japanese, those who succeeded in sapping the wall of isolation which
was so carefully built around the country and so rigorously maintained,
were generally escorted inland as prisoners, the unconscious victims of
some successful stratagem. In a manner, the fashion of their treatment
is revealed in the curious names with which these pioneers of navigation
have labelled the capes and promontories, the islands and shoals, which
they were lucky enough to locate and whose dangers they were fortunate
enough to avoid. Many of these names have ceased to be recognised. The
lapse of time has caused them to be obliterated by European hydrographers
from the maps and charts of the country and seas, in which their
originators had risked so much. In many parts of the coast, however,
particularly upon the west, along the shores of the Chyung-chyöng
Province, these original names have been preserved. They form, to-day,
a tribute to the earnestness and intrepidity of these early explorers.
This mead of recognition is only just, and is not to be denied to their
undoubted gallantry and enterprise.
It is not impossible to believe that an unusually fickle fate followed
in their footsteps, prompting them to leave thus for the guidance of
future generations, some hint of their own miscalculations. If one may
judge, from the brief narratives which these discoverers have left behind
them, the result of their work upon these inhospitable shores surpassed
anything that they had foreseen. The visit of these hardy spirits aroused
the curiosity of the Koreans, giving to them their first knowledge of
that outer world which they had spurned for centuries. Despite the golden
opportunities now presented to them, however, they continued to neglect
it. The memory of the black ships and the red beards (Dutchmen)—as they
dubbed the strange craft and stranger devils, that had to appear only off
their shores to be shipwrecked—dwelt long in their minds. Although they
treated these strangers with comparative generosity, they were careful to
preserve inviolate the secrets and sanctity of their land. They rejected
with contumacy the friendly overtures of strangers who came in monster
ships, and who, forsooth, left behind nothing but a name. It is scarcely
astonishing, therefore, that there are many points upon the coast of
Korea which bear somewhat uncomplimentary names. Deception Bay, Insult
Island, and False River savour of certain physical discomforts, which,
too great to be borne in silence, left an indelible impression upon the
associations of the spot.
If the Dutch sailors of 1627 were among the earliest to reach the
forbidding shores of this kingdom, the activities of British voyagers
were most prominent in the succeeding century. The work of Captain W. R.
Broughton, of the British sloop-o’-war, of sixteen guns, _Providence_, is
described to this day by the bays and harbours into which he penetrated,
and the capes and straits which this gallant man christened, to the
credit of the distant island kingdom from which he hailed. Broughton
in 1797, Maxwell of the _Alceste_, with Basil Hall, commander of the
British sloop-o’-war, the _Lyra_, in 1816, deserve the passing fame which
is secured to them by the waters and capes which have been named after
them. Their names figure as landmarks upon the west, the east, and the
south coasts. While Maxwell and Hall preferred to devote their attention
to the discovery and examination of the Korean Archipelago—of which,
although Broughton does not mention it, it seems impossible that the
discoverer of Broughton Strait can have been ignorant—Broughton roughly
charted and surveyed the west coasts, coming to a temporary halt in
Broughton Bay, some six hundred miles to the north. Hall left his name in
Basil’s Bay, where Gutzlaff landed in 1832 to plant potatoes and to leave
seeds and books. A generation later, in 1866, the archipelago to the
north-west was named after the Prince Imperial, who was to meet his death
in Zululand in 1878. In 1867, Prince Jerome’s Gulf, an inlet upon the
mainland of the Chyung-chyöng Province, was to be the scene of Oppert’s
famous attempt to remove large deposits of buried treasure and venerated
relics from an Imperial tomb. These names upon the east and west coasts
suggest nothing of the romance which actually surrounds them. At most
they conjure up the shadowy silhouettes of the redoubtable personages, to
whom they once belonged, and with whose memory many journeys of discovery
in these seas are inseparably linked.
Englishmen were not the sole navigators who were attracted by the
unknown character of the land, and the surpassing dangers of the
waters, around the Island of Quelpart, where the Sea of Japan mingles
in tempestuous chaos with the Yellow Sea. Russian and French navigators
also worked their way through the dangerous shoals and quicksands,
along the tortuous and muddy rivers, into the harbours and through the
narrow straits which hold back these islands from the mainland. The
shores teem with the distinguished names of men of science and sons
of the high seas. Following the curl and twist of its configuration a
host of buried names are revealed, the last evidence of men who are
dead and forgotten. It is infinitely pathetic that even this one last
resting-place should be denied to their reputations. Lazareli, who shares
Broughton’s Bay; Unkoffsky, who foundered in the waters of the bay which
is described by his name; the ill-fated La Pérouse, who, in June 1787,
discovered in the Sea of Japan an island which now bears the name of
the astronomer—Dagelet. Durock, Pellisier, Schwartz, and the rest—what
echo do we find of them, their fates, and subsequent careers? Should not
their names at least bear witness to their pains and labours, to the
difficulties which they faced, to the small joy of something attempted,
something done, which was their sole consolation for many hours of
cheerless and empty vigil?
Korea is a land of exceptional beauty. The customs, the literature,
and the geographical nomenclature of the kingdom prove that the superb
and inspiring scenery of the peninsula is quite appreciated by the
people. In the same manner that the coast-line of Korea bears evidence
of the adventurous spirit of many western mariners, the names given to
the mountains and rivers of the country by the inhabitants themselves
reflect the simplicity, the crudity, and the superstition of their ideas
and beliefs. All mountains are personified in Korea. In the popular
belief, they are usually associated with dragons. Every village offers
sacrifices to the mountain-spirits. Shrines are erected by the wayside
and in the mountain passes that travellers may tender their offerings
to the spirits and secure their goodwill. The Koreans believe that the
mountains in some way exert a benign and protecting influence. The
capital of Korea possesses its guardian-mountain. Every town relies upon
some preserving power to maintain its existence. Graves, too, must have
their custodian peaks, or the family will not prosper, and the impression
prevails that people are born in accordance with the conformation of the
hills upon which the tombs of their ancestors are situated. Rough and
rugged contours make for warriors and militant males. Smooth surfaces
and gentle descents beget scholars; peaks of singular charm and position
are associated with beautiful women. Like the mountain-ranges, lakes and
pools, rivers and streams exercise geomantic powers, and they are the
abodes of presiding shades, benevolent or pernicious. In lakes, there
are dragons and lesser monsters. In mountain pools, however, no wraith
exists unless some one is drowned in the waters of the pool. When this
fatality occurs, the figure of the dead haunts the pool until released
by the ghost of the next person who meets with this misfortune. The
serpent is almost synonymous with the dragon. Certain fish become in
time fish-dragons; snakes become elevated to the dignity and imbued with
the ferocity of dragons when they have spent one thousand years in the
captivity of the mountains, and one thousand years in the water. All
these apparitions may be propitiated with sacrifices and prayers.
[Illustration: GUARDIAN OF A GRAVE]
In the province of Kang-won, through which the ranges of the Diamond
Mountains pass, there are several peaks symbolical of this belief in
the existence of supernatural monsters. One dizzy height is named the
Yellow Dragon, a second the Flying Phœnix, and a third, the Hidden
Dragon, has reference to a demon who has not yet risen from the earth
upon his ascent to the clouds. The names which the Koreans give to their
rivers, lakes and villages, as also to their mountains, bear out their
wish to see the natural beauties of their land associated with its more
distinctive features. This idiosyncrasy, however, would seem to be
exceptionally pronounced in the case of mountains. The Mountain fronting
the Moon, the Mountain facing the Sun, the Tranquil Sea, the Valley of
Cool Shade, and the Hill of White Clouds emphasise this desire. Again, in
Ham-kyöng, the most northern province in the Empire, the more conspicuous
peaks receive such designations as the Peak of Continuous Virtue, the
Peak of the Thousand Buddhas, the Lasting Peace, the Sword Mountain,
Heaven Reaching Peak, the Cloud Toucher. It is evident, therefore, that
appreciation of nature, no less than reverence for the supernatural,
underlies the system by which they evolve names for the landmarks of
their country. The peculiarities of their land afford great scope for
such a practice, and it is to be admitted that they give ample vent to
this peculiar trait in their imagination.
Korea is now an independent Empire. From very early times until 1895
the King of Korea was a vassal of China, but the complete renunciation
of the authority of the Emperor of China was proclaimed in January
1895, by an Imperial decree. This was the fruit of the Chino-Japanese
war, and it was ratified by China under the seal of the treaty of
peace signed at Shimonosaki in May of the same year. The monarchy is
hereditary, and the present dynasty has occupied the throne of Korea in
continuous entail since 1392. Inhabited by a people whose traditions and
history extend over a period of five thousand years, and subjected to
kaleidoscopic changes whereby smaller tribes were absorbed by larger, and
weaker governments overthrown by stronger, Korea has gradually evolved
one kingdom, which, embracing all units under her own protection, has
presented to the world through centuries a more or less composite and
stable authority. There can be no doubt that the whilom vassal of China,
in respect of which China and Japan made war, has taken much greater
strides upon the path of progress than her ancient neighbour and liege
lord. There is no question of the superiority of the conditions under
which the Koreans in Seoul live and those prevailing in Pekin, when each
city is regarded as the capital of its country—the representative centre
in which all that is best and brightest congregates.
[Illustration: INDEPENDENCE ARCH]
It was in 1876 that Korea made her first modern treaty. It was not
until three years later that any exchange of envoys took place between
the contracting party and herself. Despite the treaty, Korea showed
no disposition to profit by the existence of her new relations, until
the opening of Chemulpo to trade in the latter part of 1883 revealed to
her the commercial advantages which she was now in a position to enjoy.
All this time China had been in intercourse with foreigners. Legations
had been established in her capital; consuls were in charge of the open
ports; commercial treaties had been arranged. She was already old and
uncanny in the wisdom which came to her by this dealing with the people
of Western nations. But, in a spirit of perversity without parallel in
constitutional history, China retired within herself to such a degree
that Japan, within one generation, has advanced to the position of a
Great Power, and even Korea has become, within twenty years, the superior
of her former liege. In less than a decade Korea has promoted works of
an industrial or humanitarian character which China, at the present time,
is bitterly and fatally opposing. It is true that the liberal tendencies
of Korea have been stimulated by association with the Japanese. Without
the guiding hand of that energetic country the position which she would
enjoy to-day is infinitely problematical. The contact has been wholly
beneficial. Its continuation forms the strongest guarantee of the
eventual development of the resources of the kingdom.
[Illustration: PAGODA AT SEOUL]