* * * * *
ANTIQUITIES.
The archæological remains of Baharia Oasis admit of a classification,
based on their ages, into the following three groups:—
(_a_) _Egyptian_, consisting principally of a stela of the 18th, a
tomb of the 19th, and temples of the 26th Dynasty.
(_b_) _Roman_, including the ruins of an arch and various other
structures; also the subterranean aqueducts still in use for
conveying water from springs to the cultivated land.
(_c_) _Coptic_, embracing the ruins of several villages and a church.
As the literature concerning these is mostly fragmentary and
scattered, it may be well to describe briefly the various remains,
following the above classification.
(_a_) EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES.
The oldest inscription yet found in Baharia is that on a stela of
the time of Thothmes II, which was discovered by Ascherson in 1876
to the west of Bawitti.
This stela is of historical importance, as being not only the
oldest of all antiquities from the oases, but also older than any
inscription bearing reference to the oases, and as proving that even
at the beginning of the New Empire the Egyptians had taken possession
of the oases and erected temples to their gods therein.
Ascherson was also the first to record the existence of the ruins
of an Egyptian temple in the oasis. This structure is marked on
his map[64] as existing some 2 kilometres north-west of El Qasr;
he appears, however, to have noted no inscription on the walls (the
only parts remaining) and his brief references to it in his memoir
do not give any data as to its age.
In his recent visit (1900) to Baharia, Steindorff[65] discovered
the remains of two Egyptian temples. The first of these exists under
modern dwellings in the middle of the village of El Qasr, in a farm
belonging to the Omda. It contains at present only one room, with no
inscriptions except on the roof, whence, however, we learn that the
building was erected during the reign of King Apries (B.C. 588-570)
to “_Ammon-Re, the Lord of the Oasis, who dwells in Desdest_,”
by a certain _Weh-eb-Re-nofr_ and one _Ded-Khens-ef-Onkh_.
The second temple found by Steindorff, erected by the same “_Prince
and Ruler of the Oasis_” _Ded-Khens-ef-Onkh_, lies about 2
kilometres south-west of El Qasr. It was erected in the reign of
Amasis (B.C. 569-526) and is therefore of somewhat later date than
the foregoing. The large room, excavated from sand by Steindorff,
has its walls ornamented with representations of Egyptian deities,
the colours of which are admirably preserved.
It is curious to note that at least one, and perhaps both, of the
temples discovered by Steindorff had been previously visited by
Ascherson in 1876. This observer mentions (_op. cit._ p. 140) “a
well preserved underground chamber which serves as a dwelling for
the servants of the Omda, which may be of Egyptian origin. On the
roof of this chamber (which is 7·25 metres long, 2·40 metres broad,
and 2·90 metres high) is a line of inscription,” which latter he
was unable to read owing to the darkness. There can be no doubt of
the identity of this place with the first of the temples described by
Steindorff. Further on in his memoir (p. 142) Ascherson also mentions
a ruin called “Qasr Megasba, a sandstone structure having its sides
oriented to the four cardinal points, 8·5 metres long, 6·9 metres
broad, with a small entrance-hall to the south and a large room which
can only be entered through the smaller one.” He relates that the
door-way is walled up with crude brick, and does not say whether he
entered the building or not, so that it is not certain whether this
place is identical with Steindorff’s second temple. The distance
of the ruin from El Qasr, as shown on Ascherson’s map, is about 4
kilometres, i.e., double that mentioned by Steindorff, but otherwise
the nature of the building is strongly suggestive of an identity.
In his exploration of the large Necropolis east of El Qasr and
Bawitti, Steindorff records the finding of a tomb of the New Empire,
dating from the beginning of the 19th Dynasty (B.C. 1300). On clearing
out this tomb, extremely interesting decorations were found on its
walls. The tomb consists of several chambers hewn in the rock,
only two of which are decorated with reliefs, and belonged to a
certain Amenhotep, prince of the Northern Oasis and of the Oasis
Huye. The explorer records that on one of the walls of the first
chamber Amenhotep is represented sitting by his wife, his people
bringing to him all kinds of drinks and food, including fish; on
another wall he is seen superintending the manufacture of wine,
while on a third is a lively representation of the funeral of the
deceased. The pictures on the walls of the second room are of similar
kind, but of a more religious character.
Steindorff remarks that this is the first important tomb of Egyptian
age to be found in the oases of the Libyan Desert. It appears to have
been used later on for other interments, as several clay mummy-shaped
coffins were found; from these the mummies had disappeared, but a
few relics such as scarabei, a gold earring, a bronze mirror, etc.,
were found.
To the Egyptian period also belongs a limestone statue of the same
_Ded-Khens-ef-Onkh_ who erected the two temples of the 26th Dynasty
already mentioned; Steindorff found this in one of the houses at
El Qasr.
A sandstone ruin situate 2 kilometres due west of Zubbo, mapped but
not examined by the Survey, would appear to be that of another small
Egyptian temple. It is marked on Cailliaud’s map as “débris de
Temple,” but is not mentioned in his description.
Yet a fifth temple in Baharia would seem to be represented by the ruin
“Qasr Mayesra,” 2 kilometres north-west of Mandisha, visited by
Ascherson. This ruin, which is also mentioned by Belzoni, Cailliaud,
and Wilkinson, is a small structure of sandstone 7·91 metres long,
6·24 metres broad, having only one room (entered from the north),
and oriented to the cardinal points. The stones of this ruin have
Greek letters and other signs cut in them, possibly mason’s marks;
they are so striking as to have been seen from a distance through
a telescope by Belzoni.
The rock-tombs south-east of Mandisha, mentioned by Ascherson (_l.c._
p. 145), may possibly be further remains of the Egyptian epoch, and
the same is the case with some rock-chambers found by the Survey
in the south part of the oasis, some 3 kilometres south of Ain el
Haiss. The latter are excavated in an isolated rock-mass (sandstone)
some 20 metres in diameter and 6 metres high. The chief entrance is on
the south-east side of the rock, by what looks from a short distance
like a mere crack; this entrance leads into a series of four small low
chambers (each about 3 metres square), with a deeper channel running
along the centre. Other similar chambers are found entering from
the north side. No inscriptions appear to exist except a few Arabic
scratches near the principal entrance, and the chambers were empty.
(_b_) ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.
The Roman structures in the oasis differ generally from those of the
Egyptian era in being built of crude brick instead of stone. They
show, however, a great solidity of construction; for this reason these
erections of the Romans have in many cases outlasted those of the
Coptic period which were built long afterwards; in Baharia the old
Roman underground aqueducts still serve for the conveyance of water
from the springs to the irrigated tracts, and the present inhabitants
are far too indolent to construct similar channels for themselves.
According to Ascherson (_l.c._ p. 140) the village of El Qasr owes
its name to a Roman castle, abundant remains of which still exist
under the modern houses.
The most important of the Roman ruins of Baharia was however until
recently an arch situated close to the north of El Qasr. Cailliaud
(_l.c._ p. 183) describes the structure (as seen in 1820) as
consisting of an “arc de triomphe” standing on an embankment 39½
metres long, with a dressed stone revetment;[66] this embankment
rises 10 metres from the ground-level at the north side, and is
level with the soil of the village to the south. The principal
façade is to the north. The courses of the masonry are 27 to 30
centimetres high, and show a peculiar construction, headers and
stretchers being built in alternate courses. The wall, which was
about 2·3 metres thick, and built with a strongly-marked batter,
had an ornamental cornice all round; above this came a sort of
parapet 90 centimetres high. The substance of the embankment is a
kind of concrete of irregularly-shaped stones set in cement.
The arch itself rises from the embankment in the middle of the north
façade, and is of the Doric order, its length being 7·48 metres. At
the time of Cailliaud’s visit only the central arcade was still
standing; from it one could descend by a flight of steps on to the
lower ground. The façade was ornamented with pilasters, and on each
side of the arch was a niche decorated with small columns. In one
of the main pillars Cailliaud saw a spiral staircase leading to a
terrace on the top of the arch. The stones are frequently marked with
Greek letters, doubtless to guide the builders; no hieroglyphs or
other evidences of the Ancient Egyptians could be seen in the ruins.
This interesting ruin was found in a far less perfect state of
preservation on the visit of Ascherson in 1876, the revetment-wall
having mostly disappeared, possibly owing to an earthquake which is
said to have taken place in the oasis about 1840. The latest traveller
to visit the ruins (Steindorff, 1900) found that the whole structure
had fallen.[67]
The ruin known as Qasr Alam, situated about 2½ kilometres west of
Bawitti, visited by Wilkinson and by Ascherson, is a rectangular
crude-brick structure on a slight eminence. Only the lower parts of
the walls remain, and Wilkinson speaks of it as “an insignificant
crude-brick ruin.” Ascherson obtained a bronze hawk (now in the
Berlin museum) found in this place.
Wilkinson mentions another ruin, similar to the above, 1 kilometre
south-west of El Qasr; this does not appear to have been since
noted. There is no evidence to show the date of either of these
structures.
A nearly square building with battered walls and a fortified
appearance, situated among the ruins of the Coptic village
some 4 kilometres E.S.E. from Mandisha may possibly be a Roman
fort. Cailliaud gives its size as 14·7 metres long, 12 metres
wide, with walls 8 metres in height, the single door being to the
east. The interior is full of debris, so that the arrangement cannot
be well seen.
The same doubt as to age occurs concerning some underground chambers
at El Qasr, in one of which Virchow[68] found an urn, and similar
structures at Bawitti mentioned by Ascherson.
There is less uncertainty concerning a large crude-brick ruin in
the south-east part of the oasis, some 6 kilometres E.S.E. of Ain el
Haiss. This ruin, mentioned by Belzoni (_l.c._, p. 427), Cailliaud
(_l.c._, p. 194, and Pl. XXXVI, fig. 1), and Wilkinson (_l.c._,
p. 361), stands conspicuous on an eminence; it is of considerable
size, its length being over 87 metres, and the walls being 6 metres
high. In the interior is the debris of dwellings. It appears to have
been a Roman castle. Belzoni and Cailliaud mention also a square
building with small chambers, with a square pit cut in the rock
in the centre; this lies about 1 kilometre S.S.W. from the castle,
and is regarded by these discoverers as an ancient bath.
To the Roman period may possibly belong a large crude-brick
rectangular enclosure close to Ain el Haiss. This building is 75
paces square, with a main door on the west side, and has walls about
2 metres in height. The brickwork is peculiar, a course of stretchers
three bricks deep being followed by two courses of headers set on
edge, with one or two rows of bricks in a perpendicular position
down the centre; the walls are 50 centimetres thick. The interior of
the place is a large court, with numerous small rooms at the north
and south sides and two others on the west. The rooms are used at
the present day by the men of Bawitti when they come to gather the
rice-crop at Ain el Haiss. It is not a little remarkable that no
reference to this large structure is to be found in Cailliaud’s
account; its position (some 300 metres only south-west of the
sheikh’s tomb at Ain el Haiss) would seem to preclude the
possibility of confusing it with the other ruins he describes. He
gives however (_l.c._ p. 195) the latitude of El Haiss as 28° 0′
32″,[69] “latitude du couvent chrétien,” from which it would
appear likely that he considered this place a convent. There is no
evidence to decide whether the building is of Roman or Coptic origin.
Far more enduring and more important (in a modern sense) than any
of their buildings, were the extensive excavations carried out by
the Romans for the improvement of the water-supply of oasis. In the
neighbourhood of Bawitti especially, long series of shafts sunk in
the sandstones and clays which form the ground, are frequently to
be seen. These shafts, which vary from 1 to 3 metres in diameter,
are sometimes round, sometimes rectangular, and are placed at only
short distances apart. They are connected below with long tunnels,
along which flows the water from the springs. Cailliaud mentions the
existence of ten of these ancient aqueducts near Mandisha, eight of
which still conveyed water in 1820; he entered one and followed it
for 40 metres. He counted no less than fourteen shafts connected
with this tunnel in a length of 150 metres, and records that one
measured had a rectangular shape, 1·45 metres by 0·45 metres, and
was perfectly cut in the rock, with footholds for the descent of the
workmen. The largest aqueduct found by Cailliaud is south-west of
El Qasr; its size is such that a man is able to walk in it. This
tunnel, which now contains no water, leads from an excavation 5
metres in diameter by 8 metres deep, and in a length of 55 metres
it is entered by ten shafts. In the same neighbourhood Cailliaud
counted more than thirty other aqueducts, mostly coming from the
south, like those of Mandisha. Four of these discharge their water
into a huge excavation 70 metres diameter and 12 metres deep. The
only example of an underground aqueduct at present known to exist
in the south part of the oasis is one discovered by Ascherson a few
kilometres east of Ain el Haiss; it is at present dry.
Though more abundant in Baharia than in any other of the Egyptian
oases, doubtless on account of the relatively shallow depths at
which water is there reached, these Roman levels are not peculiar to
Baharia, several existing in Farafra,[70] one of which was noticed
by Ascherson (_l.c._ p. 137); other examples have been found at
Ain Um Dababib and near Gennah in Kharga.[71] It appears, too,
that underground aqueducts of the same nature exist abundantly in
the oases of the Algerian and Moorish Sahara.
(_c_) COPTIC ANTIQUITIES.
Some 4 kilometres E.S.E. from Mandisha are the ruins of a Coptic[72]
village, which appear to be those described and figured by Cailliaud,
although he gives the position as “est 35° nord de Zabou”
Cailliaud characterises these remains as “miserable ruins,”
but mentions specially, besides the fort referred to, two ruined
churches, larger than the other structures. The first of these is
11·1 metres long, 6·50 metres wide, and has walls still 6 metres
high; a principal door opens to the south, while another smaller
door is situated on the north side. The interior presents only one
room, with a niche in the wall; there are three windows on each of
the two longer sides. The second ruin is of about the same size;
on each of its longer sides are nine niches in the wall, and higher
up are six small openings for light. The building appears to have
been vaulted. The ancient habitations which form the remainder of
the ruins are of a uniform type—low vaulted dwellings surmounted
by terraces, access to which is got by steps. The entire village
has a circumference of about 520 metres. The name of the locality
where these ruins exist is not without interest. Ascherson quotes
it as “Denise,” while Wilkinson gives “Bayrees;” the name,
like that of Beris in Kharga Oasis, doubtless comes from the old
Egyptian root “rs” (the south).
Another Coptic village existed in the south-east part of the oasis,
in a district now called Uxor, some 10 kilometres east of Ain el
Haiss. The principal ruin is that of a church, built of crude brick,
19·8 metres in length.[73] The exterior displays only four bare
walls, battered, with two doors in the east part opening respectively
north and south. In the interior is a nave, and on each side are three
arcades forming small chapels; in the centre is a niche ornamented
with small columns with volute capitals.
Above the chapels a gallery runs round the building. The columns of
the nave have capitals rudely modelled on the plan of the lotus-flower
of the ancient Egyptians. The remains of fresco paintings can
still be traced on the walls, with Greek crosses and fragments of
inscriptions. Ascherson records that he visited this ruin in 1876
and found it in about the same state as Cailliaud narrates, though
he was unable to discover the inscriptions on the walls which that
author and Wilkinson refer to.
Besides the two above-mentioned, a third Coptic village seems to
have existed about 7 kilometres south-west of Mandisha, at the
south end of the range of hills which will be seen on the map. This
village has not been seen, apparently, by any European traveller,
though its position was pointed out to Ascherson from a distance,
under the name “Merharet-el-Fama.” Information was derived on a
visit to Ain Jafarra (6 kilometres south of Mandisha) that some ruins
existed a short distance to the north-west, and this would appear
to coincide with the position given by Ascherson; time unfortunately
failed for an excursion in search of them.
* * * * *
[Footnote 64: _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin_,
Band 20, 1885, pp. 110-160.]
[Footnote 65: _Berichte der philologisch-historischen klasse der
Konigl. Sachs. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig_, 1900,
pp. 209-239.]
[Footnote 66: Belzoni, as remarked on p. 8. mistook this
revetment-wall for that of a temple of Jupiter Ammon, and the
builder’s stone-marks for the remains of a Greek inscription.]
[Footnote 67: _Op. cit._ p. 226.]
[Footnote 68: “Gesichtsurne aus der kleinen Oase”;
Sitzungsber. der Berliner anthropol. Gesellschaft, 1876, pp. 171,
172 (with woodcut).]
[Footnote 69: The Survey observations give 28° 2′ 11″ N. as
the latitude of Ain el Haiss, thus placing it about 3 kilometres
further north. Jordan’s value, 28° 1′ 55″ substantially
confirms this; the small difference is doubtless due to different
points of observation being used.]
[Footnote 70: _Op. cit. Farafra Oasis_, etc., p. 12.]
[Footnote 71: _Kharga Oasis, etc._, p. 82.]
[Footnote 72: _Op. cit._ p. 149. Pl. XXXVIII.]
[Footnote 73: _Op. cit._ p. 193 and Pl. XXXVI, Fig. 2.]
INDEX.
* * * * *
Abu Moharik dunes, 20, 25, 35, 36; see also Dunes.
Abu Roash, 16, 64, 70.
Abu Zabel, 63, 64.
Administration of Oasis, 8.
Ain Auena, 42.
„ Bayum, 42.
„ Beled, 46.
„ el Gidr, 20.
„ el Haiss, 12, 14, 38, 39, 40, 41, 44, 45, 46, 51, 56, 58, 59,
65, 66, 67, 70, 75, 77, 78.
„ el Wadi, 34.
„ Gelid, 25, 26, 36, 38, 41, 46.
„ Hassab, 45.
„ Haswi, 41, 46.
„ Jafarra, 44, 45.
„ Khaman, 46.
„ Murun, 42.
„ Rayan, see Rayan.
„ Sini, 42.
„ Um Dababib, 79.
Alexandria, 17, 39.
Altitudes, 13, 14, 24, 25, 29, 34.
Amenhotep, northern oasis of, 8.
Andesite, see Igneous rocks.
Animals, 15, 18.
Antiquities, see Archæology.
Aqueducts, 8, 15, 42, 78.
Aradj, 35.
Archæology, 7, 8, 9, 15, 73-80.
Area of depression, 37, 42.
Ascherson, 5, 7, 9, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 34, 35, 36, 42, 45, 46, 47,
51, 63, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80.
Assiut, 11, 36.
Assuan, 26.
Bahnessa, 17, 22, 35, 64.
Bahr bela ma, see El Bahr.
Bahr Yusuf, 35.
Ball, J., 17.
Barron, T., 54.
Barytes, 49.
Basalt, see Dolerite.
Base-line measurement, 12.
Bawitti, El, 11, 14, 15, 20, 39, 42, 45, 46, 49, 53, 58, 74, 77, 78.
Bayrees, 79.
Beadnell, H. J. L., 16, 17, 19, 34, 47, 48, 54, 68.
Belzoni, 8, 35, 75, 76.
Beniadi, 36.
Beni Suef, 8.
Beris, 79.
Bilbeis, 63.
Blanckenhorn, M., 23, 52, 59.
Blown sand, see Dunes.
Bone-beds, 54.
Boring wells, 43.
Botany, 9, 15, 18, 43.
Bounding escarpments, 38, 40.
Bullen Newton, R., 47, 52.
Cailliaud, 8, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 33, 45, 63, 75, 76, 77, 78,
79, 80.
Cenomanian deposits, 16, 48, 49-55, 58, 59, 62, 63, 64, 66.
Chapman, F., 58, 59.
Coptic remains, 8, 46, 58, 76, 77, 78, 79.
Cretaceous deposits, 9, 10, 32, 33, 47, 48, 49-57, 58.
Crops, 44, 45.
Cultivation, 20, 37, 42, 44, 45, 46, 65.
Dakhla, Oasis, 7, 8, 9, 37, 42, 43, 44, 54, 57, 68, 69, 70.
Danian deposits, 16, 48, 55-57, 59.
Dates, 42, 43, see also Palms.
Declination of compass, 13.
Decrease in cultivated land water-supply, 44.
Delga, 17, 36.
Denise, 79.
Der el Maragh, 36.
Distribution of water, 43.
Dolerite, see Igneous rocks.
Drift sand, see Dunes.
Dunes, 17, 18, 19, 20, 24, 25, 26, 28, 30, 32, 35, 36, 41, 42, 46,
48, 65.
Earliest explorers of oasis, 8, 9.
Eastern Desert, 16, 54, 55.
Egyptian remains, 9, 72-74.
El Ayun, 42.
El Bahr, 18, 19, 22, 23, 35.
El Beled, 46.
El Gharb, 45.
El Haiss, see Ain el Haiss.
El Qasr, 8, 20, 34, 39, 40, 41, 42, 50, 68, 72, 73, 74, 75.
El Wadi, see Ain el Wadi.
Eocene deposits, 21-24, 26-38, 47, 48, 49, 50, 58-61, 68, 69.
Excavation of oasis, 16, 72.
Exports, 42, 43, 44.
Farafra Oasis, 7, 8, 9, 11, 16, 17, 29, 33, 34, 37, 40, 43, 45, 46,
48, 56, 57, 68, 69.
Faults, 21, 58.
Fayum, 9, 10, 15, 17, 21, 22, 23, 34, 35, 36, 62, 64.
Ferns, 15.
Feshn, 17, 38.
Floor of oasis, 41-46.
Folding, see Tectonics.
Formation of depression, 16, 72.
Fruit, 43, 44.
Gar el Hamra, 20, 23, 62.
Gar Marzak, see Jebel Gar Marzak.
Gennah, 79.
Geographical determinations of villages, etc., 11-13.
Geology, special description, 47-72.
Geological summary, 16, 48, 69-72.
Geology, Farafra road, 33-34, Feshn and Maghagha road, 21-24,
Minia road, 26-33.
Gharag, 35.
Ghard el Shubbab dunes, 19.
Girga, 26.
Gorringe, L., 5, 54.
Gypsum, 21, 49.
Harra village, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 53, 59, 67.
Health statistics, 44.
Heights, see Altitudes.
Hills within depression, 40, 41.
History of oasis, 7, 8.
Hot springs, 8, 43, 45.
Hume, W. F., 54.
Huye Oasis, 8, 74.
Hyde, 8.
Igneous rocks, 13, 16, 21, 22, 40, 48, 49, 50, 63, 64.
Inhabitants, 45, see Population.
Ironstone, 29, 51, 61, 62, 63, 68, 72.
Jebel Ahmar, 22, 62.
„ el Ghudda, 18, 22, 62.
„ el Hefhuf, 40, 53, 56, 58, 63, 66.
„ Gar Marzak, 19.
„ Horabi, 20, 38, 39, 40, 51, 62.
„ Mandisha, 40, 42, 63, 64.
„ Mayesra, 20, 40, 63.
„ Morabi, see Horabi.
„ Muailla, 17, 21.
Jordan, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 29, 33, 34, 41.
Jupiter Ammon temple, 8.
Kharafish, 19.
Kharga Oasis, 7, 8, 16, 32, 37, 42, 43, 44, 57, 68, 79.
Latitude determinations, 11, 12, 13.
Letorzec, 8.
Limonite, see Ironstone.
Longitude determinations, 11, 12, 13.
Lucas, A., 63.
Lyons, Capt. H. G., 9, 13, 47, 52, 60, 68.
Maghagha, 5, 11, 12, 17, 26, 29, 33, 58, 64, 72.
Magnetic Meridian, 13.
Magnetite, 13.
Mandisha, 13, 20, 26, 40, 41, 44, 49, 50, 65, 75, 78, 79, 80.
Mandisha Aguza, 44, 45.
Mangatin, 35.
Mayer Eymar, 64.
Measurement of water, 43.
Medinet el Fayum, 35.
Merharet el Fama, 80.
Mima, 11, 12, 14, 17, 24, 32, 36, 38, 60.
Mogara, 17, 20, 39.
Muailla, see Jebel Muailla.
Muller, 9.
Nasl Nadiub Lengat, 24, 25, 29, 32.
Oligocene deposits, 21, 22, 48, 61, 64; see also Post Eocene deposits.
Origin of depression, 16, 72.
Pacho, 9, 35.
Pacho Mt., 35.
Palms, 20, 37, 42, 43, 45.
Pleistocene deposits, 21, 65.
Population, 42, 44, 45.
Position of oasis, 7, of Ain el Hais, 12, 78, of Zubbo, 11, of south
end of depression, 13, 29.
Post Eocene deposits, 16, 24, 26, 28, 32, 48, 49, 51, 61, 67.
Public health, 44.
Qasr el Lamlum Bey, 17, 20.
Qasr Mayesra, 75.
Qasr Megasba, 74.
Rayan, 17, 22, 25, 35.
Recent deposits, 17-36, 65.
Roads, 17, 36; Bahnessa road, 35; Farafra road, 33-34; Fayum road,
34-35, 36; Feshn and Maghagha road, 17-21; Minia road, 24-33; Siwa
road, 34, 39.
Rohlfs Expedition, 9, 34, 35, 47.
Roman remains, 8, 15, 42, 43, 76-79.
Rubi, 35.
Salines, 37, 41, 48, 65.
Samalut, 9, 17, 35, 36, 46.
Sand dunes, see Dunes.
Sand erosion, 19, 23, 72.
Schweinfurth, 9, 19.
Senonian deposits, 48, 55, 71.
Serir, 18, 19.
Silicified wood, 22, 52, 54.
Sittra, 9, 35.
Siwa Oasis, 8, 10, 17, 34, 39, 44.
Springs, 37, 42, 46, 65, see also Ain, and Water-supply.
Statistics, 15, 42, 43, 44.
Steindorff, 7, 8, 9, 10, 73, 74, 75, 77.
Surveying operations, 5, 11-16, 17.
Tablemun, 46.
Tamarisk, 41.
Taxation, 43.
Tectonics, 16, 48, 53, 57, 61, 65-69.
Temperature of wells, 43, 45, see Hot springs.
Topography, 37-46.
Tripoli, 63.
Turonian deposits, 48, 55.
Unconformity between Eocene and Cretaceous, 16, 48, 57, 60, 61.
Underground aqueducts, see Aqueducts.
Uttiah, 35.
Uxor, 79.
Villages, 37, 42, 44, 45.
Virchow, 77.
Volcanic rocks, see Igneous rocks.
Vuta, G., 5.
Wadi Araba, 71.
„ Muailla, 17, 20.
„ Rayan, see Rayan.
Water-supply, 15, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 72.
Wells, 42, 43, 45, 46, see also Water supply and Ains.
Wilkinson, 9, 75, 77, 79, 80.
Wind erosion, see Sand erosion.
Zirkel, 63.
Zittel, 9, 19, 34, 47, 48, 49, 57, 60, 63.
Zoology, 15, 18.
Zubbo, 11, 12, 13, 20, 24, 26, 41, 42, 47, 75, 79.
* * * * *
[Illustration: BAHARIA OASIS
PLATE I.]
[Illustration: SKETCH MAP OF EGYPT Showing the Positions of the
WESTERN OASES
PLATE II.]
[Illustration: PLATE III.
BAHARIA OASIS
MAP OF THE VILLAGES AND PRINCIPAL SOURCES OF WATER IN THE NORTHERN
PART OF THE OASIS.]
[Illustration: PLATE IV.
BAHARIA OASIS
SECTION THROUGH WESTERN ESCARPMENT 11 KILOM. N. OF SOUTH END OF
DEPRESSION]
[Illustration: PLATE V.
BAHARIA OASIS
DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION FROM HILL 15 KILOMETRES NORTH-EAST OF AIN EL
HAISS TO EOCENE-CRETACEOUS JUNCTION ON DESERT TO WEST]
[Illustration: PLATE VI.
BAHARIA OASIS
Section from MANDISHA through JEBEL MAYESRA and Conical Hill to
WESTERN PLATEAU.]
[Illustration: PLATE VII.
BAHARIA OASIS
MAP OF THE SYNCLINAL FOLD FROM JEBEL HEFHUF TO ITS TERMINATION]
[Illustration: BAHARIA OASIS. SKETCH OF GEOLOGICAL SECTIONS OF
EAST SCARP.
PLATE VIII.]
Transcriber's note:
Pg. 8 (footnotes 1 and 3) Changed: _Méróe_ to: _Méroé_
Pg. 19 (footnote 20) Changed: _Gesellchaft für Erdkunde_ to:
_Gesellschaft_
Pg. 21 Changed: Lower Mokattam leds to: beds
Pg. 33 (footnote 27) Changed: _Physiche geographie_ to: _Physische_
Pg. 35 Changed: about 150 kilometres to: 350
Pg. 44 Changed: camels and raders to: traders
Pg. 51 Changed: _Neolobolites_ to: _Neolobites_
Pg. 52 Changed: _Neobolites_ to: _Neolobites_
Pg. 58 Changed: _Textularia? granien_ to: _gramen_
Pg. 77 Changed: ruin kown as to: known
Pg. 78 Changed: undergroud aqueduct to: underground
Minor changes in punctuation have been done silently.