Surveys in Portugal and Tunis.
After visiting, with a great deal of pleasure, Batalha, by far the finest
ecclesiastical edifice in Portugal, we reached Coimbra, than which, with
its environs, it is difficult to conceive a more beautiful prospect. The
town, with its numerous churches and academical buildings rising from
the opposite shore of the Mondego, and situated in a rich fertile plain,
backed by the lofty and picturesque hills of Busaco, clothed with wood
to their summits, with a fine old bridge in the foreground, while the
Mondego is seen winding through the valley until it is lost in the sea,
which forms the distant horizon, altogether made a picture which, for
loveliness, was unsurpassed by anything I have seen in Portugal. We found
here, a rare thing at that time in Portugal, a clean, comfortable little
hotel, near the Rocio, where Mr. Cheffins and his assistant had arrived
before us. We accordingly made preparations to start next morning at six
o’clock, on horseback, to explore a line along the coast to Oporto.
We started punctually at six, and crossed the valley of the Mondego,
which is here about three miles wide, and is quite flat. It has a rich
and fertile alluvial soil, but is frequently inundated by the floods of
the Mondego, so that the roads, such as they were, viz. extremely bad,
were formed by rough causeways raised 3 or 4 feet above the level of
the adjacent land. In fact, at the time of my visit there were no roads
worthy of the name in Portugal, except the road above mentioned, from
Cairegado to Coimbra; and upon this, what was still more extraordinary,
a regular four-horse mail-coach, like those of England, had been just
established for the first time to run from Lisbon to Coimbra, at the rate
of about seven miles an hour. Another similar road had been commenced
from Oporto to Braga, and had been carried only a few miles. In fact,
unless you had seen and visited Portugal you could hardly have conceived
such a state of things possible. All the other roads were nothing but
mere horse-tracks, in the most wretched state imaginable, full of holes
and great stones, so that you could seldom go faster than a walking pace
without danger of breaking your neck at every step, except in those
parts where the track lay through forests and open plains. Over these
the rude bullock carts jolted up and down at about the rate of half a
mile an hour, and the creaking of the axles might be heard two or three
miles off. As for inns, for the most part there were none, and the
wearied traveller had to carry everything with him, and take refuge in
some miserable cottage full of filth, which he was obliged to clear away
before he could establish himself with anything approaching to comfort.
I had heard of this before leaving England, and I took care to provide
myself with a light travelling-bed, and a canteen with the necessary
provisions.
Leaving Coimbra, we reached Aveiro the next evening, after a most
fatiguing journey of fifteen hours in the saddle; during a great portion
of our ride we were exposed to a terrific storm of rain, and lost our
way, and narrowly escaped passing the night in a pine forest. Not
far from Aveiro, Messrs. Pinto, Basto, & Co. had established a large
manufactory for porcelain and common crockery ware, which was in a very
thriving state, and the imitations of the English porcelain were very
creditable, as well as the artistic decorations; as they were well
protected by high import duties on foreign porcelain, they enjoyed a
monopoly for a time, and made considerable profits. These duties have
latterly been greatly modified, and it has not been found worth while
to continue this establishment. It has, however, I understand, answered
very well for the proprietors, who have, by this and other enterprises,
realized considerable fortunes. In fact, it was quite evident that such
an establishment, which had to import all the materials and the fuel
from England, could not compete with the superior talent and industry
of England without extraordinary protective duties, which are nothing
more or less than a heavy tax upon the country. Portugal is not a
manufacturing country. She has a most genial climate and generally a
rich soil, and can produce a variety of raw commodities which England
and the north of Europe cannot. Portugal therefore, by exporting these
articles, such as wine, oil, fruits, cork, salt, cattle, &c., can always
realize a good profit, which will enable her to import all other articles
required at a far less cost than they can be produced at home, besides
contributing materially to the State revenue. Messrs. Pinto and Basto
were not at the establishment when we visited it, but their manager had
received notice from them that we were coming, with orders to show us
everything, and to give us a handsome entertainment, which he did to the
very letter, and we returned to Aveiro much delighted with our reception.
Indeed, the manager regretted greatly that we had not stayed there the
previous night, and if we had known it, we certainly should have done so.
For although, considering all things, we were not badly off at Aveiro,
still we should have been much better off at Messrs. Pinto and Basto’s
establishment, and should have been saved the severe fatigue of the last
ten miles of our journey.
The next day we started for Oporto, and passed the thriving little town
of Ovar, situated at the north end of the Aveiro lagoon, but having a
separate entrance from the sea, formed by a small stream passing through
the town. Our railway passed along the base of the hills, which was very
favourable. From Ovar we continued near the shore through a forest of
pines for several miles; these pines would furnish excellent sleepers for
the railway at a very moderate cost. From the forest we continued along
the shore through most favourable ground, until we reached the entrance
of the Douro: the distance from Ovar being about twenty miles. From the
entrance of the Douro there was a favourable line for the railway for two
miles along the banks to Oporto, where it would have been necessary to
cross the river by a rather expensive bridge to reach the chief part of
the city. This, however, must have been done in any case, and as all the
great wine depôts or lodges, as they are called, are on the south side,
and as the wine trade of Oporto is the most important, this would have
been a great advantage; moreover, there is on the south side, near the
entrance, a much better position for docks.
Between Ovar and the Douro stands a rock surrounded by extensive sands.
On this rock is a chapel, reputed to be of peculiar sanctity, which is
annually visited by immense numbers of pilgrims. It is very curious to
see the extent to which these devotions are carried, and the occasionally
strange results. In going one day, on foot, from Mattozenhas to Oporto
during one of these festivals, I was surprised to meet a man walking, or
rather shuffling, along in an extraordinary manner, in what appeared to
me to be a sack. I immediately stopped to look at him, and gazed on him
with astonishment. Several persons, apparently friends, accompanied him,
and I inquired what it meant; I was informed that the person whom I saw
enveloped in a sack had, during a severe illness, prayed to the Saint
of the church of Mattozenhas to deliver him from his illness, promising
that if he recovered he would annually on the Saint’s fête-day walk to
the church in his grave-clothes, to return his thanks for his delivery
from death. The poor fellow seemed to be much fatigued, and no wonder, as
travelling for two miles in such hot weather over a dusty road in such an
uncomfortable costume must have been very severe work.
Next day we were off before daylight, and reached our old quarters at
Aveiro the same night. I soon saw that it would be difficult to get
a good line for the railway over this district; it was too hilly and
expensive, and would have required long tunnels through granite rocks
and heavy embankments. I therefore gave up this line, that is as far as
Ovar. After leaving Aveiro we took a new route nearer to the hills, and
with the exception of a part of the river Vouga, it was preferable to the
coast line formerly mentioned. The summit near the Busaco hills was a
little higher, but there the line was shorter, and on the hill there was
plenty of fine limestone fit for bridges and any other works. This line
evidently therefore was the best; I ordered it to be minutely surveyed
and levelled, and the result proved that my anticipations were correct.
We reached our old quarters at Coimbra, and having examined the city
again were much more pleased with it than before. The University is
a very handsome building upon an extensive scale, with an excellent
library, museum, extensive lecture rooms, and a competent establishment
of professors and lecturers. The costume of the professors and students,
although totally different from that of our own, was very appropriate;
and the method of teaching and conferring degrees was extremely good,
although a little too much savouring of sacerdotalism, but still greatly
improved in this respect to what it was only a few years before. The
city moreover was comparatively clean, and there appeared to be a degree
of outer tranquillity and prosperity about it which pleased me much. I
have seen many foreign universities, but none delighted me more than
Coimbra. After leaving Coimbra we passed through Thomar and reached the
valley of the Tagus; this we descended until we arrived at Santarem,
which is but an inconsiderable place; it is situated on the highest point
of the ridge, and bounded by precipitous rocks which abut on the Tagus,
there being a small valley on the north, also on the east and west. Being
thus isolated, it occupies an admirable position as a fortress, and
might easily be made impregnable; commanding, as it does, the country
all around, if it were properly defended, the approach of an enemy would
be extremely difficult; and if fortified according to modern ideas, with
a sufficient garrison and provisions, it might hold its own against all
comers for almost any length of time; in fact, it may be considered as
one of the keys of the kingdom. When I saw it, its works were in a very
unfinished and dilapidated state. From Santarem we proceeded down the
river to a small place termed the White House, where we embarked on board
the steamer for Lisbon. The hills on either side of the Tagus alternately
advance and recede; but the whole scenery is very rich, the soil being
highly cultivated to the very tops of the hills, and in places abounding
with cattle. In the flat country, however, bordering on the river,
malaria and intermittent fever are very common, and indeed the whole
course of the Tagus requires regulating.
We reached the Braganza at Lisbon in the evening, after a rough but
satisfactory journey. Mr. Giles was now anxious to go to England, and
a few days after our arrival he sent in a general proposal to the
Government, on the part of Peto and Betts, for making railways, and
then started in the packet for England, leaving his assistant, Mr.
O’Neil, with me, to make any further necessary explanations. The season
was getting late, and we had no time to lose, for it was now nearly the
middle of October. I saw M. Fontes several times, and he always received
me very civilly, and said that he was determined to meet Messrs. Shaw,
Waring, and Co., fairly.
Mr. O’Neil and myself then started to survey the country for lines
suitable for railways in the east and south. After being detained for
a time by heavy rains at the White House, we reached Salvatierra, a
wretched place on the left bank of the Tagus, about seven o’clock in the
evening, fully two hours after dark; it was a nasty pestilential hole,
close by the marshes; however, bad as it was, we were very glad to get
there. There was no inn in the place, but after a little inquiry we found
a shopkeeper who was willing, for a consideration, to accommodate us. We
accordingly agreed with him, and took possession; we found the rooms full
of corn, beans, &c., which we soon cleared out, swept the floors, walls,
and ceiling as well as we could, and unpacked our things. I sent out my
man for some provisions, we got a good wood fire lighted, and after about
an hour and a half had a tolerable supper, turned into bed, and slept
soundly until the morning. In fact, I never grumbled; I took the people
as I found them; they were generally very civil, and did everything in
their power to make us as comfortable as possible. I always carried
plenty of cigarettes and cigars, and distributed them liberally, not only
to the men attending the horses, but also to the people in the house and
to any casual visitors that might come in; as I had by this time acquired
some knowledge of the Portuguese language, I made myself as agreeable
as possible, and in consequence every one did the best they could to
help me. The Portuguese are a very civil, quiet people, and if you only
treat them properly, as I always did, they will do everything they can
to accommodate you. I of course also took good care of the horses and
men, and they were so much pleased that they never grumbled, and would
do anything I required. Throughout the whole of my journeys I never
had a single squabble; we all went on merrily together, and whenever I
could get a good laugh I always did, and this was not seldom. We left
Salvatierra at daylight, and proceeded over a gently undulating country,
and in three days reached the old fortress of Estremoz. The people of the
district through which we were now travelling were extremely primitive,
and in one large village, where we halted, as usual, at midday, the whole
population, it being Sunday, turned out to have a look at us.
The country here is elevated and very well cultivated. The olive-trees
are planted in regular rows, and carefully attended to, a thing I had
not before observed in Portugal, as they are generally in forests, and
left entirely to nature. The vines also were more looked after, and
some excellent wine is made here. Upon the whole this was certainly a
thriving district. We took a ride to the ridge of mountains about ten
miles to the south, which, extending east and west, separates this
district from the southern part of the Alentejo. They are covered with
verdure to the top, afford excellent pasture for sheep and cattle, and
form a very picturesque prospect. Estremoz is in a commanding position,
but its fortifications were in a dilapidated state. After having spent a
day here, we proceeded over an elevated, fertile, cultivated country, to
Elvas, on the frontier. The Government had been employed for some time
past in making a good road here, and a considerable portion had been
finished, so that we made tolerable progress, and reached Elvas soon
after midday, and found a very clean, comfortable little hotel.
Elvas is a very strong fortress, situated upon the summit of the ridge of
hills forming the western boundary of the valley of the Guadiana, which
winds through the extensive valley below, about seven miles distant, and
the boundary or frontier line between Spain and Portugal is about half
way between Elvas and the Guadiana.
The fortifications are very extensive, and upon the whole well laid
out and tolerably well kept up. There are several large outworks,
particularly that on a hill about a mile to the north, which may be said
to be the citadel. It commands the town, being situated upon the highest
part of the ridge. The view from this is very extensive, overlooking
the dreary and bare valley of the Guadiana, with Badajoz, the Spanish
frontier fortress, about nine miles distant; and farther on the bare
bleak hills of Estramadura bound the horizon. On the west you have a fine
view of this part of Portugal, whilst north and south you command the
view of this elevated ridge, which bounds the Guadiana as far as the eye
can reach.
Having explored this part of the country, and having satisfied ourselves
that it would be difficult to get a good line here, we turned our
attention to the southward, and again leaving Estremoz, reached the poor
but considerable village of Oçana, not many miles from the frontier. I
therefore determined to stop there for the night, and to my surprise
found that there were two or three small inns. I selected the best, and
bad was the best. I was informed that Oçana was the resort of the worst
characters of all sorts, both Portuguese and Spaniards, who made this
their head quarters, from whence they could easily cross the frontier
of either country, according as either Spain or Portugal became too hot
for them. I was told that we ought to be upon our guard, for it was not
improbable that we might be attacked in the night, or waylaid on our
route the next day, for the country through which we should have to pass
was very wild and lonely. Therefore, as is always the case, I thought the
best plan would be to put a good face upon it, and to show that we had
no fear, put confidence in the people around us, and make them friends.
I therefore invited as many as I could get, men and women, to a sort of
ball, inquired for some musicians, and found half-a-dozen with guitars,
castanettes, and tambourines, and as the inn where we were would not hold
all the guests, I engaged the other two inns also. The whole population
crowded to the balls at these inns, and I visited them alternately,
danced with the women, and made myself as agreeable as I could. Wine
and refreshments were not wanting, everything passed off in the best
manner, and nothing but mirth and good humour prevailed. Soon after
midnight I had had enough of it, and the guests below, excited by wine,
became very noisy. I told my servants, guide, and horse-keepers to have
everything ready by four o’clock on the following morning, the horses
saddled and the baggage packed, outside the town, and having previously
paid the reckoning, we quietly departed, without beat of drum, leaving
our delighted guests in the midst of their revelry, and in no disposition
to follow us. By daylight we had travelled five or six miles without
encountering any person on the way--for road there was none. We laughed
heartily at our adventure, and I was afterwards congratulated at having
succeeded so well, for we had had a narrow escape of being robbed, and
probably something worse. We passed through a wild but not unpicturesque
country, and reached Abrantes, on the Tagus, without further adventure,
on the afternoon of the second day. This is one of the most considerable
fortresses in the kingdom, situated in a commanding position of great
strength; but the works were very much neglected, and there was scarcely
any garrison. The town itself is a poor place.
As regards the country through which we had passed being adapted for a
railway, there was no doubt that a good line could be made through it,
although at considerable expense; the difficulty was how to cross the
main ridge which separated the valley of the Guadiana from that of the
Tagus. It certainly was most desirable to connect Abrantes with Elvas,
but the descent from it to the Guadiana valley was too rapid; still,
this was only a matter of expense. I thought that some more practicable
gap through the ridge might be found farther southward, but this I was
obliged to leave for future investigation.
I now determined to proceed northwards, in order to ascertain whether
a line for a railway could be obtained preferable to that which we had
previously examined when returning from Coimbra.
Having slept at our old quarters at Thomar, we proceeded to the banks
of the Zezere, which we found to be extremely lofty and falling rapidly
to the river. We proceeded for some miles along them, but the higher we
went up the river, the higher we found the hills; in fact, there was no
valley except that occupied by the river, so that we had to give up all
hopes of a line in that direction. However, in the course of a few days’
explorations we were fortunate enough to find an easily practicable line
for the northern railway, in the direction of Oporto.
In one of these expeditions we met a Portuguese gentleman dressed in the
native costume, and attended by his servant. He courteously saluted us in
good English, and then asked where we were going, and what we were doing,
which, of course, we told; he then asked, “Where do you sleep to-night?”
and when we told him, he said, “Nonsense; you cannot and you shall not
sleep there: it is not fit for a dog” (in which he was not far wrong). “I
live close by. Yon must come and sleep at my house, and leave as early
as you like to-morrow morning.” We gladly accepted his invitation. We
returned to the cottage, dressed ourselves in rather better costume,
while our new friend rode forward to receive us. His house was something
like a good farm, surrounded by a courtyard and farm-buildings, situated
in the midst of a kind of rough park. The night was very dark, and we
had some difficulty in making our way through the woods, and if it had
not been for the barking of the dogs, we should scarcely have found it.
However, we got there, and were most cordially received, shown into a
comfortable room with a blazing wood fire, and in about half an hour
after sat down to an excellent supper, with plenty of good wine.
Our host was a most excellent and well-informed man of about sixty,
of the middle size, rather stout and well-made, with a fine open
countenance. His name was Don S. de Silva. He had served in the
Portuguese army under the Duke of Wellington, and had been engaged in
several battles with the French, of which he was very proud. He took the
greatest interest in the railways, offered every assistance in his power,
and insisted upon our making his house our home whenever we came that
way. He said that after the war he had retired to his estate, and devoted
the whole of his time to farming, and that he passed a very active,
pleasant time. I think he said that his wife and family were at Lisbon,
where they frequently went, as they had many friends and connections
there. We were shown into a comfortable and clean double-bedded room,
and the only thing we required to make us thoroughly comfortable was
more blankets, for the night was excessively cold. However, I slept
soundly, and awoke next morning thoroughly refreshed. We had an excellent
breakfast, and took leave of our worthy host with many thanks for his
most hospitable entertainment.
We reached Thomar about midday, having travelled over a rather better
road than usual. Here we halted at the Old Inn for a couple of hours,
and then made the best of our way over the old road to Basquenha, before
mentioned, where we slept. The next day we hurried on by Santarem,
caught the tugboat and the steamer at the White House, and reached the
Braganza, Lisbon, the same evening, having been absent about eighteen
days; fortunately, with the exception of the first day, we had tolerably
fine weather, without which we should have had a good deal of difficulty
in making such a rough journey.
I forgot to mention that while Mr. Giles and myself went to Coimbra
and Oporto, we sent Mr. O’Neil to explore the line of the Tagus beyond
Abrantes as far as the frontier, in order to ascertain whether there
was any practicable line for a railway in that direction. Mr. O’Neil,
however, gave a very unfavourable account of it, for a few miles beyond
Abrantes the Tagus passes through a deep chasm, hemmed in on both sides
with steep, precipitous granite rocks, swarming with eagles, and wild
and desolate to a degree. There were scarcely any inhabitants save a few
shepherds, clad in goat-skins, who lived in small cottages stuck in the
clefts of the rocks, or built upon some small patches of ground close by
the margin of the river, with a few vegetables and fruits growing round
them. They were thoroughly surprised at seeing Mr. O’Neil; they said they
were never visited by strangers, and could not conceive why he had come
there. Nevertheless, they were civil, and gave him freely the best they
had, which was very little indeed, and would scarcely take anything in
return; when pressed, they said they would keep the money for his sake,
or would buy something in remembrance of him.
The eagles appeared quite at home there, and were seldom molested, except
when they had carried off some favourite pet-lamb or kid, or had paid a
visit to the poultry. Mr. O’Neil’s report was so unfavourable that we
did not think it advisable to pursue our investigations farther in that
direction.
We had now pretty well explored the country between the Tagus and the
Douro for the north, and the Tagus and the Guadiana for the east line to
connect Portugal with Spain, and it only required that these should be
investigated to ascertain which was best. Upon my arrival at Lisbon, I
called upon M. Fontes, and reported what I had done. We had also a good
deal of conversation about their finances; arranging affairs with Shaw,
Waring, and Co.; getting good contractors for making further lines;
raising a loan in England, &c. I said with all deference that the whole
of these things might be satisfactorily settled; but that the first and
most important of all was to arrange matters with the Stock Exchange in
England, for until this was done a loan could not be obtained (and the
Government was much in want of money) without paying very high interest,
which would soon consume the revenues of the country. For example, their
stock of 50 was only nominally quoted at 18 to 20, for which they paid
3_l._ interest, or 15 per cent.; whereas, if they settled with the Stock
Exchange, their funds would at once rise to 40 or upwards, and thus they
might borrow at 7 per cent. I further ventured to hint that by free
trade--that is, lowering their import duties--the revenue would be much
benefited, and that their exports would be increased in the same ratio.
M. Fontes listened with much attention, but said nothing.
Having finished my business, I prepared to return to England, and
was told by M. Fontes that I should have an audience of the King. I
accordingly presented myself, and had an audience of his Majesty Dom
Pedro, who was an exceedingly well-informed, sensible young man, of about
twenty-one, and whose sole object and desire was the advancement and
improvement of his country, to which he devoted himself day and night.
He was exceedingly amiable and modest, and much beloved and respected,
not only by his own subjects, but by every person who had the honour of
being presented to him. His Majesty received me in the most condescending
manner, entered into the subject of railways, the great advantage they
would be to Portugal, the making of common roads to join them, the
benefit of free trade, and the necessity of improving agriculture and
extending the cultivation of vines, olives, corn, fruits, and all native
produce, as well as the improvement of the harbours, and everything else
which would advance the prosperity of the country. He had studied all
these subjects thoroughly, and was perfectly at home in them; and with
regard to the finances, he quite agreed with me. I took my leave of his
Majesty, and he shook me by the hand, and bade me farewell, trusting that
he should soon see me again.
I then called upon the Duke de Saldanha, the President of the Cabinet and
Commander-in-Chief of the Army, a very estimable man, who spoke English
very well; he had served under the Duke of Wellington during the great
Peninsular war. He spoke English perfectly, and was very popular amongst
his countrymen, and always happy to see the English. When I told him that
I was about to leave the next day for England, he said that he was very
glad to hear it. He further remarked that a Cabinet Council had been held
the day before, and that I should hear more of it before the day was over.
I returned to the Braganza, packed up my things, and was ready to leave
by the packet the next day. At nine o’clock the same evening I received
a message from M. Fontes to come to him at his office. I went there
immediately, and he said he had been ordered to proceed to England with
me, to endeavour to settle the matter in dispute between his Government
and the English Stock Exchange, and the quarrel with the railway
contractors.
We started together next morning, and on arriving in London I had the
pleasure of being partly instrumental in bringing about an arrangement
between the principal holders of Portuguese stock in England and the
Portuguese Government, to their mutual satisfaction and advantage; also
an arrangement between the Portuguese and Messrs. Shaw, Waring, and Co.,
which, as we shall see, was not subsequently ratified. M. Fontes returned
to Portugal with considerable _éclat_, having re-established the credit
of Portugal with their English stockholders, and settled the railway
difficulty, and it was thought that he and his ministry had a long and
prosperous career before them. Unfortunately, however, this turned out
quite the contrary; whether it was envy at his success, or some other
political cause, I do not know, but in the spring of the following year,
1856, Fontes and his ministry were obliged to resign, and the Marquis de
Loulé, a connection of the royal family, succeeded him. The Marquis de
Loulé was a remarkably fine, handsome man, a thorough gentleman, with
considerable talents, of imperturbable temper and great good humour; I
know no man with whom he might better be compared than the late Lord
Palmerston. Loulé, like Fontes, was equally desirous of completing the
railway system of Portugal.
I continued the surveys for a line between Coimbra and Oporto, and when
they were completed I received a tender from Messrs. Peto and Betts,
saying they would execute the line for 10,000_l._ per mile, without the
land.
As his Royal Highness the Prince Consort took considerable interest
in the improvement of Portugal, and as I had heard indirectly that
information respecting the progress of the railways would be gratifying
to him, I communicated with his Royal Highness’s secretary, and received
a command to go to Windsor. I went, and was received in the most affable
manner. The Prince was thoroughly acquainted with everything going on in
Portugal, and took great interest in the construction of railways in that
country. He thanked me for the information I had communicated, and wished
me every success.
Towards the end of August all the plans, estimates, and specifications
of the line between Coimbra and Oporto were completed, and in the month
of September I went over and presented them in person. I was very kindly
received by his Majesty and by his ministers. When I arrived, I found
that M. de Soveral, the very clever Chief Secretary of the Portuguese
Embassy in London, was home on leave. He also took the warmest interest
in the establishment of railways. The dispute with Messrs. Shaw, Waring,
and Co. had not yet been settled, and consequently no new arrangement
could be made. I had frequent meetings with the Marquis de Loulé and M.
de Soveral on the subject, and fully explained to them that it would be
impossible to get any English contractors of influence to form a new and
powerful company of English capitalists to make railways in Portugal,
unless this matter could be honourably adjusted; and I added that I
thought the terms agreed upon with M. Fontes were, upon the whole, the
best that could be adopted.
The Marquis listened with much attention to all my arguments, and finally
gave me instructions to see Messrs. Peto and Betts and their friends,
upon my return to England, in order to ascertain upon what terms they
would be willing to form a new company to complete the Northern Railway
to Oporto; and I was to inform him of the result, but not to commit
the Government in any way. He requested me, before I left Portugal, to
examine the port of Setubal, or, as the English call it, St. Ubes, a
little to the south of Lisbon.
I accordingly proceeded to reconnoitre the port, and found that it was
formed by a river which ran a considerable distance into the interior.
St. Ubes was situated on the right bank of it, about four miles from
the bar, but the river here was so wide and shallow that it was only an
estuary. The opposite side being covered at high water, the returning ebb
and flood waters were expanded over such a wide space that the current
had not sufficient force to maintain a good channel, nor did it act upon
the bar powerfully enough to maintain a good passage over it. Moreover,
the estuary was exposed to the full effect of the south-westerly gales,
which, sweeping across the Atlantic with great violence, send a very
heavy swell across the bar, rendering it extremely dangerous to approach,
and driving a great quantity of sand into the mouth of the river; this
would materially reduce the depth, and render the navigation both
dangerous and difficult; and there was too little fresh water coming
down to be of much service in assisting the operation of the tide. I
soon saw what was necessary to be done to remedy to a great extent, if
not entirely to remove, these evils; this was confine the channel on
the opposite or sea side by a low line of wicker or fascine work, in
the first instance to the level of a little above half tide, and then
to raise it as required; the sand would soon accumulate behind it, and
thus the tidal and fresh waters, being always confined to the same
channel, would greatly improve it, and considerably lower the bar. I also
thought the channel for some distance above the town should be deepened,
embanked, and improved by dredging, and that below the town to the bar
the channel should be dredged also to assist the operation of the
current. I embodied these observations in a plan and report on my return
to Lisbon, and delivered them to the Marquis, with which he was much
satisfied.
I now prepared to return to England, in company with my friend de
Soveral; but as the latter was desirous of breaking his voyage at Oporto,
for the purpose of ascending the Douro and visiting his estates, I agreed
to accompany him. We reached Pescoa de Ragosa, a very important place
in this district, being the centre of the port wine trade. Here is held
the market where all the port wine growers assemble at the end of the
vintage, and here come all the wine merchants from Oporto, and make their
purchases for the season. The veritable port wine district is a very
remarkable country. It is situated on the banks of the Douro, which are
here composed of lofty, undulating hills, clothed with rich soil, rising
rapidly from the river, about forty miles above Oporto, where the granite
formation, on which no vines will grow, ceases. The district consists of
the transition rocks above the granite; it extends about forty miles,
as far as the cataracts of St. Joao de Pesqueira and is about five or
six miles wide, including both sides of the valley of the Douro; one
side is exposed to the morning and the other to the evening sun, and the
reflected rays make the valley like an oven during the summer months, so
that no place could be more advantageously situated for the development
of the vine. No trees are allowed to grow upon the hillsides. The vines
are like so many gooseberry or currant bushes, and they are cut down
almost to the roots so that the nutriment applied to the plant may be
developed in producing the fruit to the greatest possible extent. The
vines are planted in rows, and the intervening space is carefully weeded,
so that the whole power of the sun is concentrated upon the vines; and
it is wonderful to see the quantity of fruit borne compared to the
extent of branches and leaves. When the vintage has been made, there are
a certain number of tasters who are appointed by the Government. These
men, who neither smoke, snuff, or drink, then examine the wine, which
they do by a saucer, much indented in the bottom, of pure silver, which
enables them to judge of the colour; then they smell it, and taste it
by the touch of the tongue without drinking any. By these three tests
they pronounce the quality of the vintage, and this, combined with the
quantity, determines the price. It is said that the wine is prepared
according to a certain standard for the English market; that is, the wine
is made to resemble as near as possible a vintage that has pleased the
English, who are the great consumers of port wine; this is done either by
mixing some old approved wine with the new, or adding brandy. There has
been a great deal of argument and doubt about adulteration. I will not
take upon myself to decide, but I will say this, that a good vintage of
port wine requires no doctoring.
At Ragosa, after the vintage, all the great wine merchants of Oporto
assemble, and there make their purchases for the ensuing season. All
transactions are made in cash, for the wine growers are very important
and wealthy personages. The merchants are equally so, and take their
cash with them. I heard an anecdote when there, which says much for the
honesty of the Portuguese. M. Sandeman, one of the wealthiest and most
important wine merchants of Oporto, went up to the wine district after
the vintage one season, with his sons and friends--for it is generally
made a party of pleasure--to purchase wine for the ensuing season, and
they took 15,000_l._ in gold to make their purchases, the gold being
carried in sacks on mules, the whole party riding, as usual, for there
were no roads for carriages. The first night, having arrived at their
usual halting-place, just as they were sitting down to their supper,
old Sandeman said to his son, “George, I hope that you have taken good
care of the mules and the money?” “Yes, father,” said George; “it is
all right.” “Well, George,” said old Sandeman, “you had better go and
see.” George immediately went out to the stables, and after some minutes
came back in great consternation, and said, “Father, I can’t find the
mules with the money.” At this old Sandeman got in a great rage, and
said, “George, you shall have no supper until you find them.” The whole
party got up at the same time, and took lanterns and torches to look
after the lost money and mules. Away they went back several miles on the
road they had come, and there they found the mules, which had slipped
their halters, quietly feeding by the roadside, with the bags of gold
untouched. They returned with them to the inn with much satisfaction,
got the mules comfortably installed in their stables, having previously
relieved them of the gold bags, which they took to their bedrooms. Now
perhaps in no other country could you have found such an example of
honesty as this. It was well known before they started from Oporto that
the Sandemans were going up to the wine country to purchase wines for
the ensuing season; and as they were the most wealthy merchants of the
place, it was equally well known that they would buy the largest quantity
of wine, and would take the greatest amount of hard cash to pay for it;
therefore, if the natives wished to make a prize, here was an excellent
opportunity to do so. But quite the contrary, the natives were honest,
and had not the least idea of robbing, which they might have done, if so
disposed, most easily.
From this place we proceeded leisurely to Guimaraens, one of the ancient
capitals of Portugal. The natives appeared different from any I had seen.
The better classes were dressed in jackets, ornamented with large silver
buttons, knee-breeches, leggings, and silver-buckled shoes; having
over all a loose, blue cloth cloak, and a large, conical, broad-brimmed
black felt hat. It seemed to be a place wholly _sui generis_, and
totally separated from the rest of the world. The well-to-do people
seemed to have nothing to do but to walk leisurely about conversing
with their friends, and smoking their cigarettes. There was no trade,
no bustle, nothing, as it were, moving; it was one of those places
where a man disgusted with the world would wish to bury himself. The
repose was something surprising to a person accustomed to active life.
We found a pretty good inn, and a convent with a few old nuns, who were
still allowed to live there, and who employed themselves in preserving
in a particular manner a very fine sort of plum that grows in the
neighbourhood. They fetch a high price in all European markets; I bought
a few to take to England. There is a splendid old Moorish castle outside
the town, which, although in ruins, was not in a very bad state. Upon
the whole I was much pleased with the place, so totally different from
anything I had seen either in Portugal or Spain. I should have liked
much to have spent several days there, but the inexorable time would not
permit; we therefore set out the next day for Braga, and passing through
the beautiful environs, which are a perfect garden, we continued our way
through a well-cultivated and picturesque country, and reached Braga soon
after midday.
Braga, also one of the ancient capitals of Portugal, is a handsome town,
more modern than Guimaraens, also much more lively, and surrounded by
a rich, fertile, picturesque country. It is well built, with handsome
streets, and squares upon a moderate scale, with an appearance of quiet
imposing dignity. It is the residence of many old families, who seem to
enjoy their _otium cum dignitate_, and to be wholly independent of the
world. They appeared to be above the grovelling pursuits of trade, for
there was certainly little appearance of business about, yet withal we
could not help admiring its clean, comfortable, well-to-do appearance.
From here we proceeded over a tolerable road towards Viana, the sea
being about a mile distant; and the intervening space, composed of rich
alluvial soil, was well cultivated. We passed several granite crosses,
erected near the village churches, one of which was extremely elegant,
beautifully worked in a species of Corinthian style. I never saw granite
so elaborately worked as in this part of Portugal, namely, the district
between the Douro and the Minho; in fact, they have no other stone but
granite, and no other people work it so well; but then the natives
are the most docile and industrious in Portugal. They are never idle;
constantly at work, either abroad or at home, and saving money. Large
numbers emigrate to the Brazils, where by their energy and industry they
may acquire ample fortunes, and return home to their native country,
where they buy an estate, build a handsome house, and spend the remainder
of their lives in tranquillity and enjoyment.
On reaching Vigo, after passing through Viana, I found that I had to wait
two days for the steamer. I could not help remarking the superior beauty
of the Spanish as compared with the Portuguese women, a thing I could
not well understand, as the personal appearance of the men is about the
same in both countries, although the Spanish peasants are apparently more
robust than those of Portugal.
Immediately on my return I set to work to carry out the instructions of
the Marquis de Loulé, and endeavoured to obtain powerful contractors
and wealthy and influential capitalists who would form a company to
undertake the railways in Portugal. I frequently had communications with
Messrs. Peto and Betts, who with their friends were perfectly ready to
come forward to form a company, provided that Messrs. Shaw, Waring,
and Co. were satisfactorily settled with. In these negotiations M. de
Soveral was indefatigable, and of immense service, as he was perfectly
acquainted with the views of his Government, and knew what would be
acceptable to them, and what they would not agree to. At last, towards
the latter end of December, certain conditions stating the terms upon
which they would form a company and find the capital were drawn up and
signed by Messrs. Peto and Betts, and seven other well-known capitalists,
and were submitted to the Portuguese Embassy, to be transmitted to the
Government for their approval. Towards the end of January, 1857, they
answered that they generally approved of the conditions proposed, with
one or two exceptions, which Peto, Betts, and Co. agreed to alter. The
Government then sent an official letter to Count Lavradio, Ambassador in
London, requesting that Sir Moreton Peto and myself would come out to
Lisbon _immediately_, to finally conclude the arrangements, in order that
a Bill might be prepared without delay to be laid before the Portuguese
parliament. In March, 1857, I accordingly proceeded to Lisbon.
It is not my intention to enter into the unfortunate disputes between
Peto and Co. and the Portuguese Government--disputes which terminated in
the abandonment of what would have been for Portugal a great national
work. Doubtless, as in all these cases, there were faults on both sides;
and I believe that one of the main causes of the failure, on behalf of
Messrs. Peto and Betts, to carry out the works, was that their resources
were swallowed up by a great variety of speculations, some of which, as
we have seen, did not in the long run turn out very profitable, and they
were really unable to undertake them. I will proceed to relate briefly
the only other occasion on which I was connected with that firm.
But first I may mention that I completed my work on ‘British and Foreign
Harbours’ (which had occupied what little leisure I could command during
some years) in 1854, having previously, in 1847, published a monograph on
Plymouth Breakwater. I may also add, that conjunction with the late Mr.
John Plews, I constructed a considerable extension of the Cardiff Docks
for the trustees of the Marquis of Bute; as it is fully described in the
above work, I need not here further refer to it.
In the early part of 1859 I was asked to proceed to Tunis, in company
with one of Messrs. Peto and Betts’ agents, to examine into the
feasibility of constructing a railway from the Goletta to the city. I
accordingly started in March, and having embarked on board a French
steam-packet, reached Tunis after a four or five days’ passage, including
a stoppage, for some unexplained reason, of two days at Philippeville.
The view of the Bay of Tunis cannot be compared in picturesque effect
with that of Bona, which we had just left; still there is something
wild and striking about it. On the east the bay is bounded by a lofty
ridge of bare irregular hills, with a narrow strip of level marshy land
bordering the bay. On the west it is bounded by the celebrated peninsula
of Carthage. In front, to the south, there is the Goletta, or channel to
the Lagoon, surrounded by the custom house and a small town, and beyond
is the Lagoon, extending about six miles, at the farther end of which
is the city of Tunis, seated upon a gentle eminence, bristling with
minarets, and a lofty chain of hills in the background, the whole having
a wild, uncultivated appearance, so that at first sight you were puzzled
to conceive whence supplies could be obtained for feeding the metropolis
of the kingdom. We got clear of the Turkish customs after a good deal of
delay, not from any fastidiousness of the officials, for they were easy
and good-natured enough to let anything pass, but from the confused and
blundering manner in which all business is transacted. Everything was
then bundled into a large boat, which was also laden with merchandise
of all kinds, as much as it would hold. We then entered, along with a
Colonel West, who had come out upon a shooting excursion, and set sail
for the capital across the Lagoon, which was about six miles long and
four or five miles wide. The channel was nearly in the centre, and had
five or six feet of water. We passed numerous flocks of wild geese,
ducks, cranes, and flamingoes, disporting themselves in the water. We
reached the landing quay of Tunis, outside the walls, about two or three
in the afternoon, and immediately proceeded to the only hotel in the
place, kept by a Frenchman, and, upon the whole, it was very clean and
comfortable; but before we could get to it we had to wade through a sea
of filthy mud in a narrow lane that was scarcely 12 feet wide, bounded
by the city wall on the one side, and a row of miserable buildings on
the other, showing little more than bare walls, the windows looking into
small courts on the inside, which were approached by solid well-barred
gateways. It was nearly dark before we got installed in our new domicile,
and then we dined at not a bad table d’hôte in the French fashion, passed
the evening agreeably, and went to bed early, rather tired after the kind
of knocking about we had had during the day. Fortunately the weather was
fine after the great quantity of rain which had lately fallen. The next
day was fine also, and after an early breakfast we got a carriage with
a couple of horses, and drove along the west side of the Lagoon to the
Goletta in order to select the line for the railway; nothing could be
more favourable, the country being--to use a homely phrase--as flat as a
pancake, and therefore required no particular exercise of the engineer’s
art.
Having so far completed our investigation we adjourned to the examination
of the ruins of Carthage, of which scarcely anything remains, except
the cisterns for supplying the city with water, which are of massive
masonry, the walls being lined on the inside with a thick coat of stucco,
which was glazed, and presented an excellent, smooth surface. These
cisterns were covered with arches, so that the water was preserved from
the action of the sun, and was thus always kept cool and in the best
state for use. The water was brought, by means of an aqueduct, from a
fine and plentiful spring close by the mountain of Kegouan, about 40
miles distant, and was carried with the requisite inclination by means
of tunnels pierced through the hills, and extensive lines of arched
aqueducts across the intervening valleys, some of these aqueducts being
above 60 feet high, and the total length of the tunnels several miles;
in fact, the whole aqueduct was a series of tunnels and bridges about
40 miles long, and is certainly a most extraordinary work, not to be
surpassed by anything of the kind in existence at the present day. The
conduit for the water was about 2 feet 6 inches wide and 3 feet deep.
In this single example we have nearly all the improvements of modern
times, namely, excellent water, an ample supply, and covered storing
reservoirs. The water required no filtering, but it has not been
ascertained whether it was distributed to each house; probably not; most
likely it was delivered to the fountains, where the natives sent for it.
As baths are known to have existed at Carthage, it is probable that the
water was supplied direct to them as well as to the houses of the more
wealthy citizens and to the palaces. Iron pipes were not then known, and
consequently they were obliged to carry the water on aqueducts, otherwise
they had no mean of resisting the hydraulic pressure.
Besides these cisterns, one cannot make out distinctly any other
remarkable buildings; but there are plenty of remains of foundations of
walls, some of them of masonry and some of them of brickwork, showing
great solidity; there are also great quantities of pottery and fragments
of marble sculpture lying about. As to the celebrated arsenals and docks,
it is still more difficult to point out satisfactorily their extent,
form, and position; but from the accounts we find in ancient writers,
and from the well-known recorded fact that the Carthaginians were a
great commercial as well as warlike nation, it is evident that they must
have possessed the means of building, sheltering, and repairing both
classes of vessels, those for commerce and those for war. These docks
and arsenals must have been on the sea-shore; the peninsula is composed
of comparatively high land, and they could not have built them anywhere
else, for the low lands which border the peninsula on the south side were
not, so far as we can learn, included within the walls of the city, and
it was not likely that they would have left such important establishments
as these, upon which in a great measure their power depended,
unprotected. I repeat, therefore, and I believe it is confirmed by most
authorities, ancient as well as modern, that these docks and arsenals
were on the sea-shore; and as they would not have built them on the
northern side of the peninsula, which is so much exposed to the strong
northerly gales, they must have placed them on the eastern shore, which
is tolerably well protected by the opposite sides of the bay. Indeed, I
walked round the northern shores of the peninsula and carefully examined
them, and could find no traces of any works having been executed there;
but upon the eastern shore I could discover traces of considerable works.
The ships of those days were comparatively small and drew but little
water, and by running out moles or breakwaters of loose stone into the
sea, a sufficient space might have been enclosed to answer the required
purposes. We know that the ancestors of the Carthaginians did this to
a great extent at Tyre, and we can have no reason to doubt that they
adopted the same system at Carthage. This is a question still open to
discussion; but I think, after what has been stated, that the arguments
are in favour of the eastern shore; and until more decisive remains have
been found elsewhere, I must adhere to my conclusion, for we must not
forget that this is the weather shore, where all such works should be
carried out, so as to afford the greatest facility for egress and ingress.
As the Bey was not then in Tunis, I determined to make use of the
interval by going to see the remains of the ancient city of Utica, about
twenty miles distant, west-north-west. My two companions were not very
well, and therefore thought that they had better remain at Tunis, in case
anything connected with our business should occur; so I determined to
go alone, as I was told that I should meet with no difficulty, for the
country was perfectly safe. I accordingly hired a carriage with three
excellent horses, and engaged a clever Frank servant, an Italian, half
Jew, half Mohammedan, who had lived many years in Tunis, and besides
English, French, and Italian, spoke the Arabic very well also. He was a
clean fellow, and was well recommended by our vice-consul. Being told
that I should find nothing on the way, I took a good provision basket
and plenty of cloaks. We started soon after noon over a wretched road,
or rather open track made by the peasants’ carts, and as the weather had
been very wet the wheels of the carriage were frequently half-way up to
the axles in mud. The country through which we passed was wild and lonely
in the extreme, not a creature to be seen. After having driven about
eight or ten miles we came to a kind of village, or cluster of about
half-a-dozen mud huts whitewashed, where there was a sort of café of the
roughest kind, and close by it there was a sort of château belonging
to some aga or district chief, surrounded by trees and a rude wall,
the whole having a most solitary and gloomy appearance. There we halted
about half an hour to refresh the horses, which were tired enough, and at
length we reached the caravanserai, a solitary building two stories high,
surrounded by a high mud wall.
It would be difficult to conceive a wilder or more desolate spot. In
front was an extensive marsh, half covered with water, through which the
river pursued its devious course, the banks being covered with rushes; at
the back lay the dreary country through which we had passed; to the right
the marshy plain extended to the sea, some 10 miles distant, and to the
left it stretched as far as the eye could reach, bounded by blue hills of
considerable elevation. There was not a soul in the house but the kanghè
or master, and another man and a boy. He welcomed me, however, very
civilly, and showed me to the upper floor by an outside staircase; here I
found two rooms with bare walls, brick floor, a trestle for a mattress, a
wooden table, and a couple of rude chairs; to my great delight there was
a chimney-place, in which I soon lighted a wood fire. The kanghè brought
up a couple of tolerably clean mattresses, two oil lamps, and some bread,
and water, which was all he had. This, however, was of no consequence, as
I had come provided, and after a good supper, in spite of the loneliness
of the place I slept soundly. As there, was no road any farther, it was
necessary to provide horses to go to Utica the next day, which the kanghè
said he would do. At daybreak we mounted, and were just about starting
when we were joined by an aga, a fine handsome fellow, exceedingly well
mounted. He was accompanied by two or three servants, also well mounted
and armed. The aga saluted me very courteously, and said he was proud
to see Englishmen, and that if I was fond of sporting he would be most
happy to see me at his castle, and would show me some capital sport,
wild boars, deer, partridges, quail, &c.; for this kind invitation I
thanked him, but was obliged to decline on account of want of time. We
rode together along the marshy plain, our horses at times being up to
their knees in water, and crossed the river by a rough stone bridge,
immediately beyond which we reached the high land which bounds the river
on the west. Here we parted in the most courteous manner, and I continued
along the left bank for two or three miles farther, when I reached the
ruins of Utica, situated at the foot of the hills, at a height of about
30 feet above the level of the bottom of the valley, and about a mile
distant from the left bank of the river, and 5 miles from the sea-shore,
with nothing but a dreary flat marsh intervening. Utica was originally
seated on the sea-shore, and was a port of considerable importance; the
marshes that now exist have been gradually formed during the lapse of
centuries; and in this there is nothing remarkable, as there are many
similar examples, even to a much greater extent, at the mouths of rivers
in different parts of the world.
Of the city nothing now remains but portions of the broken down walls, a
square tower near the middle, and some remains of foundations scattered
about. Nothing could be more desolate and solitary than the whole scene,
which afforded a most striking contrast to its former magnificence; and
reflecting upon its ancient compared with its present state, one could
not help remarking, “Alas, poor human nature!”
On my return from Utica I found that His Highness the Bey had consented
to receive us at his palace, distant about 12 miles from Tunis, on the
following day at eleven o’clock. We accordingly started off about eight
o’clock, and got there in good time, and were presented to the Bey--who
was seated in great state and surrounded by his officers--by our
consul, Mr. Wood, and were most graciously received. The Bey was about
fifty-five, of the middle size, rather stout, with an open, frank, kind
countenance; he conversed in Arabic with the consul in the most genial
manner, said he was glad to see us, and was much pleased at the idea of
having railways in his kingdom, about which he had heard so much; he
said he would give us every assistance in his power, and hoped that this
would lead to other European improvements, that would tend so much to the
prosperity of his country. After about twenty minutes of very agreeable
conversation we retired, very much pleased with his Highness’s courteous
reception. In front of the palace there was an encampment of about 2000
troops of all kinds, horse, foot, and artillery, whom the Bey was in the
habit of reviewing daily.
The remainder of the story is soon told. We knew perfectly well that
the French were very jealous of any foreign capital or enterprise being
introduced into Tunis, that the consul was somewhat suspicious of us,
and that he and his spies were always on the watch: we were warned of
this, and advised to be very cautious. So well was our secret kept, that
the French consul had come to the conclusion that we were nothing but a
party of ordinary travellers, and was just getting rid of his suspicions.
On the other hand, the Bey and his Divan had agreed to grant a most
favourable concession, and there can be no doubt that the line would
have succeeded admirably in every respect. But in an evil moment Messrs.
Peto’s agents discovered that they could not make a proper report to
their employers without taking levels. In vain I represented the extreme
imprudence of such a proceeding; that it was a mere surface line, without
the slightest engineering difficulty, and which did not present the least
obstacle; moreover, that the land was to be conceded free of all cost,
and that, in short, there was nothing which men of their experience
could not estimate accurately without taking the smallest measurement.
They persisted in their intention, and, of course, the moment they got
out their instruments the French consul understood the whole affair, and
in an audience with the Bey threatened him with the vengeance of France
if the concession were granted. The poor Bey had no alternative but to
submit, and there the whole matter ended.
Before leaving Tunis I saw all the different sights; amongst others,
serpent charming, which is quite a profession. The charmers display
considerable dexterity; indeed, it is a profession of long standing. The
northern portion of Africa, on account of its sandy and sultry climate,
is peculiarly well adapted for the breeding of serpents of the most
venomous kinds, and in consequence they attain an enormous size and
secrete a large amount of poison. The bites of many of the species are
fatal, and hence it has become for ages past the object of certain of the
natives to study the habits and characteristics of these reptiles and the
antidotes to cure any unfortunate individual who may by chance have been
bitten by them; indeed, the Roman armies during their campaigns in this
part of the world were always accompanied by a certain number of these
serpent charmers, and the profession exists at the present day. You find
them in Egypt and throughout the whole of the northern part of Africa,
and they not only practise the cure of serpent bites, but also collect
numbers of them for exhibition to the multitude, to show their power over
them, and by this means realize a considerable amount of money. At Tunis
I saw several of these serpent charmers, who were always surrounded by a
large crowd. They appeared to have complete control over the reptiles;
they always kept their eyes constantly upon them, and regulated their
movements by a wand in their hands, whilst an attendant boy kept time by
beating a small drum and blowing a pipe with a low monotonous sound.
I was much surprised to find the natives so very civilized; we walked
about the town, in the suburbs, and in the country, without experiencing
the smallest molestation or incivility. I was told that robberies were
very rare, and that frequently large sums of money were sent by a single
messenger on a dromedary from Tunis to Tripoli without the least danger
of being robbed. There were scarcely any palm trees to be seen, but we
had plenty of the finest dates, which were brought from the interior, I
think Tafilet.
Upon the whole I was much pleased with Tunis. It is a country possessing
great natural resources of all kinds, by which, if only properly
developed, this kingdom might be again rendered very powerful, as it
was in the time of the Carthaginians and Romans, when, it is said, it
contained above ten millions of inhabitants, whereas at present there are
little more than two millions.