CHAPTER XXIII.

THE SUCCESSION OF LIFE UPON THE GLOBE.

In conclusion, it may not be out of place if we attempt to summarise,

in the briefest possible manner, some of the principal results

which may be deduced as to the succession of life upon the earth

from the facts which have in the preceding portion of this work

been passed in review. That there was a time when the earth was

void of life is universally admitted, though it may be that the

geological record gives us no direct evidence of this. That the

globe of to-day is peopled with innumerable forms of life whose

term of existence has been, for the most part, but as it were

of yesterday, is likewise an assertion beyond dispute. Can we

in any way connect the present with the remote past, and can we

indicate even imperfectly the conditions and laws under which the

existing order was brought about? The long series of fossiliferous

deposits, with their almost countless organic remains, is the

link between what has been and what is; and if any answer to the

above question can be arrived at, it will be by the careful and

conscientious study of the facts of Palæontology. In the present

state of our knowledge, it may be safely said that anything like

a dogmatic or positive opinion as to the precise sequence of

living forms upon the globe, and still more as to the manner in

which this sequence may have been brought about, is incapable of

scientific proof. There are, however, certain general deductions

from the known facts which may be regarded as certainly established.

In the first place, it is certain that there has been a _succession_

of life upon the earth, different specific and generic types

succeeding one another in successive periods. It follows from

this, that the animals and plants with which we are familiar

as living, were not always upon the earth, but that they have

been preceded by numerous races more or less differing from them.

What is true of the species of animals and plants, is true also

of the higher zoological divisions; and it is, in the second

place, quite certain that there has been a similar _succession_

in the order of appearance of the primary groups ("sub-kingdoms,"

"classes," &c.) of animals and vegetables. These great groups

did not all come into existence at once, but they made their

appearance successively. It is true that we cannot be said to

be certainly acquainted with the first _absolute_ appearance of

any great group of animals. No one dare assert positively that

the apparent first appearance of Fishes in the Upper Silurian

is really their first introduction upon the earth: indeed, there

is a strong probability against any such supposition. To whatever

extent, however, future discoveries may push back the first advent

of any or of all of the great groups of life, there is no likelihood

that anything will be found out which will materially alter the

_relative_ succession of these groups as at present known to us.

It is not likely, for example, that the future has in store for

us any discovery by which it would be shown that Fishes were in

existence before Molluscs, or that Mammals made their appearance

before Fishes. The sub-kingdoms of Invertebrate animals were

all represented in Cambrian times--and it might therefore be

inferred that _these_ had all come simultaneously into existence;

but it is clear that this inference, though incapable of actual

disproof, is in the last degree improbable. Anterior to the Cambrian

is the great series of the Laurentian, which, owing to the

metamorphism to which it has been subjected, has so far yielded

but the singular _Eozoön_. We may be certain, however, that others

of the Invertebrate sub-kingdoms besides the Protozoa were in

existence in the Laurentian period; and we may infer from known

analogies that they appeared successively, and not simultaneously.

When we come to smaller divisions than the sub-kingdoms--such

as classes, orders, and families--a similar succession of groups

is observable. The different classes of any given sub-kingdom,

or the different orders of any given class, do not make their

appearance together and all at once, but they are introduced

upon the earth in _succession_. More than this, the different

classes of a sub-kingdom, or the different orders of a class,

_in the main succeed one another in the relative order of their

zoological rank--the lower groups appearing first and the higher

groups last_. It is true that in the Cambrian formation--the

earliest series of sediments in which fossils are abundant--we

find numerous groups, some very low, others very high, in the

zoological scale, which _appear_ to have simultaneously flashed

into existence. For reasons stated above, however, we cannot

accept this appearance as real; and we must believe that many of

the Cambrian groups of animals really came into being long before

the commencement of the Cambrian period. At any rate, in the long

series of fossiliferous deposits of later date than the Cambrian

the above-stated rule holds good as a broad generalisation--that

the lower groups, namely, precede the higher in point of time;

and though there are apparent exceptions to the rule, there are

none of such a nature as not to admit of explanation. Some of

the leading facts upon which this generalisarion is founded will

be enumerated immediately; but it will be well, in the first

place, to consider briefly what we precisely mean when we speak

of "higher" and "lower" groups.

It is well known that naturalists are in the habit of "classifying"

the innumerable animals which now exist upon the globe; or, in

other words, of systematically arranging them into groups. The

precise arrangement adopted by one naturalist may differ in minor

details from that adopted by another; but all are agreed as to

the fundamental points of classification, and all, therefore,

agree in placing certain groups in a certain sequence. What,

then, is the principle upon which this sequence is based? Why,

for example, are the Sponges placed below the Corals; these below

the Sea-urchins; and these, again, below the Shell-fish? Without

entering into a discussion of the principles of zoological

classification, which would here be out of place, it must be

sufficient to say that the sequence in question is based upon

the _relative type of organisation_ of the groups of animals

classified. The Corals are placed above the Sponges upon the

ground that, regarded as a whole, the _plan or type of structure_

of a Coral is more complex than that of a Sponge. It is not in the

slightest degree that the Sponge is in any respect less highly

organised or less perfect, as a Sponge, than is the Coral as a

Coral. Each is equally perfect in its own way; but the structural

pattern of the Coral is the highest, and therefore it occupies a

higher place in the zoological scale. It is upon this principle,

then, that the primary subdivisions of the animal kingdom (the

so-called "sub-kingdoms") are arranged in a certain order. Coming,

again, to the minor subdivisions (classes, orders, &c.) of each

sub-kingdom, we find a different but entirely analogous principle

employed as a means of classification. The numerous animals belonging

to any given sub-kingdom are formed upon the same fundamental

plan of structure; but they nevertheless admit of being arranged

in a regular series of groups. All the Shell-fish, for example,

are built upon a common plan, this plan representing the ideal

Mollusc; but there are at the same time various groups of the

_Mollusca_, and these groups admit of an arrangement in a given

sequence. The principle adopted in this case is simply of _the

relative elaboration of the common type_. The Oyster is built

upon the same ground-plan as the Cuttle-fish; but this plan is

carried out with much greater elaboration, and with many more

complexities, in the latter than in the former: and in accordance

with this, the _Cephalopoda_ constitute a higher group than the

Bivalve Shell-fish. As in the case of superiority of structural

type, so in this case also, it is not in the least that the Oyster

is an _imperfect_ animal. On the contrary, it is just as perfectly

adapted by its organisation to fill its own sphere and to meet

the exigencies of its own existence as is the Cuttle-fish; but

the latter lives a life which is, physiologically, higher than

the former, and its organisation is correspondingly increased

in complexity.

This being understood, it may be repeated that, in the main,

the succession of life upon the globe in point of _time_ has

corresponded with the relative order of succession of the great

groups of animals in _zoological rank_; and some of the more

striking examples of this may be here alluded to. Amongst the

_Echinoderms_, for instance, the two orders generally admitted to

be the "lowest" in the zoological scale--namely, the _Crinoids_

and the _Cystoids_--are likewise the oldest, both, appearing in

the Cambrian, the former slowly dying out as we approach the

Recent period, and the latter disappearing wholly before the

close of the Palæozoic period. Amongst the _Crustaceans_, the

ancient groups of the Trilobites, Ostracodes, Phyllopods,

Eurypterids, and Limuloids, some of which exist at the present

day, are all "low" types; whereas the highly-organised Decapods

do not make their appearance till near the close of the Palæozoic

epoch, and they do not become abundant till we reach Mesozoic

times. Amongst the _Mollusca_, those Bivalves which possess

breathing-tubes (the "siphonate" Bivalves) are generally admitted

to be higher than those which are destitute of these organs (the

"asiphonate" Bivalves); and the latter are especially characteristic

of the Palæozoic period, whilst the former abound in Mesozoic

and Kainozoic formations. Similarly, the Univalves with

breathing-tubes and a corresponding notch in the mouth of the

shell ("siphonostomatous" Univalves) are regarded as higher in

the scale than the round-mouthed vegetable-eating Sea-snails, in

which no respiratory siphons exist ("holostomatous" Univalves);

but the latter abound in the Palæozoic rocks--whereas the former

do not make their appearance till the Jurassic period, and their

higher groups do not seem to have existed till the close of the

Cretaceous. The _Cephalopods_, again--the highest of all the groups

of Mollusca--are represented in the Palæozoic rocks exclusively

by Tetrabranchiate forms, which constitute the lowest of the

two orders of this class; whereas the more highly specialised

Dibranchiates do not make their appearance till the commencement

of the Mesozoic. The Palæozoic Tetrabranchiates, also, are of

a much simpler type than the highly complex _Ammonitidoe_ of

the Mesozoic.

Similar facts are observable amongst the _Vertebrate animals_.

The Fishes are the lowest class of Vertebrates, and they are

the first to appear, their first certain occurrence being in

the Upper Silurian; whilst, even if the Lower Silurian and Upper

Cambrian "Conodonts" were shown to be the teeth of Fishes, there

would still remain the enormously long periods of the Laurentian

and Lower Cambrian, during which there were Invertebrates, but

no Vertebrates. The _Amphibians_, the next class in zoological

order, appears later than the Fishes, and is not represented till

the Carboniferous; whilst its highest group (that of the Frogs

and Toads) does not make its entrance upon the scene till Tertiary

times are reached. The class of the _Reptiles_, again, the next

in order, does not appear till the Permian, and therefore not

till after Amphibians of very varied forms had been in existence

for a protracted period. The _Birds_ seem to be undoubtedly later

than the Reptiles; but, owing to the uncertainty as to the exact

point of their first appearance, it cannot be positively asserted

that they preceded Mammals, as they should have done. Finally,

the Mesozoic types of _Mammals_ are mainly, if not exclusively,

referable to the _Marsupials_, one of the lowest orders of the

class; whilst the higher orders of the "Placental" Quadrupeds

are not with certainty known to have existed prior to the

commencement of the Tertiary period.

Facts of a very similar nature are offered by the succession

of Plants upon the globe. Thus the vegetation of the Palæozoic

period consisted principally of the lowly-organised groups of

the Cryptogamous or Flowerless plants. The Mesozoic formations,

up to the Chalk, are especially characterised by the naked-seeded

Flowering plants--the Conifers and the Cycads; whilst the higher

groups of the Angiospermous Exogens and Monocotyledons characterise

the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks.

Facts of the above nature--and they could be greatly multiplied--seem

to point clearly to the existence of some law of progression,

though we certainly are not yet in a position to formulate this

law, or to indicate the precise manner in which it has operated.

Two considerations, also, must not be overlooked. In the first

place, there are various groups, some of them highly organised,

which make their appearance at an extremely ancient date, but

which continue throughout geological time almost unchanged, and

certainly unprogressive. Many of these "persistent types" are

known--such as various of the _Foraminifera_, the _Linguloe_, the

_Nautili_, &c.; and they indicate that under given conditions, at

present unknown to us, it is possible for a life-form to subsist

for an almost indefinite period without any important modification

of its structure. In the second place, whilst the facts above

mentioned point to some general law of progression of the great

zoological groups, it cannot be asserted that the primeval types

_of any given group_ are necessarily "lower," zoologically speaking,

than their modern representatives. Nor does this seem to be at

all necessary for the establishment of the law in question. It

cannot be asserted, for example, that the Ganoid and Placoid Fishes

of the Upper Silurian are in themselves less highly organised

than their existing representatives; nor can it even be asserted

that the Ganoid and Placoid orders are low _groups_ of the class

_Pisces_. On the contrary, they are high groups; but then it

must be remembered that these are probably not really the first

Fishes, and that if we meet with Fishes at some future time in

the Lower Silurian or Cambrian, these may easily prove to be

representatives of the lower orders of the class. This question

cannot be further entered into here, as its discussion could be

carried out to an almost unlimited length; but whilst there are

facts pointing both ways, it appears that at present we are not

justified in asserting that the earlier types of each group--so far

as these are known to us, or really are without predecessors--are

_necessarily_ or _invariably_ more "degraded" or "embryonic" in

their structure than their more modern representatives.

It remains to consider very briefly how far Palæontology supports

the doctrine of "Evolution," as it is called; and this, too, is a

question of almost infinite dimensions, which can but be glanced at

here. Does Palæontology teach us that the almost innumerable kinds

of animals and plants which we know to have successively flourished

upon the earth in past times were produced separately and wholly

independently of each other, at successive periods? or does it

point to the theory that a large number of these supposed distinct

forms, have been in reality produced by the slow modification of a

comparatively small number of primitive types? Upon the whole, it

must be unhesitatingly replied that the evidence of Palæontology

is in favour of the view that the succession of life-forms upon

the globe has been to a large extent regulated by some orderly

and constantly-acting law of modification and evolution. Upon

no other theory can we comprehend how the fauna of any given

formation is more closely related to that of the formation next

below in the series, and to that of the formation next above,

than to that of any other series of deposits. Upon no other view

can we comprehend why the Post-Tertiary Mammals of South America

should consist principally of Edentates, Llamas, Tapirs, Peccaries,

Platyrhine Monkeys, and other forms now characterising this

continent; whilst those of Australia should be wholly referable

to the order of Marsupials. On no other view can we explain the

common occurrence of "intermediate" or "transitional" forms of

life, filling in the gaps between groups now widely distinct.

On the other hand, there are facts which point clearly to the

existence of some law other than that of evolution, and probably

of a deeper and more far-reaching character. Upon no theory of

evolution can we find a satisfactory explanation for the constant

introduction throughout geological time of new forms of life,

which do not appear to have been preceded by pre-existent allied

types; The Graptolites and Trilobites have no known predecessors,

and leave no known successors. The Insects appear suddenly in the

Devonian, and the Arachnides and Myriapods in the Carboniferous,

under well-differentiated and highly-specialised types. The

Dibranchiate Cephalopods appear with equal apparent suddenness in

the older Mesozoic deposits, and no known type of the Palæozoic

period can be pointed to as a possible ancestor. The _Hippuritidoe_

of the Cretaceous burst into a varied life to all appearance

almost immediately after their first introduction into existence.

The wonderful Dicotyledonous flora of the Upper Cretaceous period

similarly surprises us without any prophetic annunciation from

the older Jurassic.

Many other instances could be given; but enough has been said

to show that there is a good deal to be said on both sides, and

that the problem is one environed with profound difficulties.

One point only seems now to be universally conceded, and that

is, that the record of life in past time is not interrupted by

gaps other than those due to the necessary imperfections of the

fossiliferous series, to the fact that many animals are incapable

of preservation in a fossil condition, or to other causes of a

like nature. All those who are entitled to speak on this head

are agreed that the introduction of new and the destruction of

old species have been slow and gradual processes, in no sense of

the term "catastrophistic." Most are also willing to admit that

"Evolution" has taken place in the past, to a greater or less

extent, and that a greater or less number of so-called species of

fossil animals are really the modified descendants of pre-existent

forms. _How_ this process of evolution has been effected, to what

extent it has taken place, under what conditions and laws it has

been carried out, and how far it may be regarded as merely auxiliary

and supplemental to some deeper law of change and progress, are

questions to which, in spite of the brilliant generalisations

of Darwin, no satisfactory answer can as yet be given. In the

successful solution of this problem--if soluble with the materials

available to our hands--will lie the greatest triumph that

Palæontology can hope to attain; and there is reason to think

that, thanks to the guiding-clue afforded by the genius of the

author of the 'Origin of Species,' we are at least on the road

to a sure, though it may be a far-distant, victory.

APPENDIX.

TABULAR VIEW OF THE CHIEF DIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

(Extinct groups are marked with an asterisk. Groups not represented

at all as fossils are marked with two asterisks.)

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

SUB-KINGDOM I.--PROTOZOA.

Animal simple or compound; body composed of "sarcode," not definitely

segmented; no nervous system; and no digestive apparatus, beyond

occasionally a mouth and gullet.

CLASS I. GREGARINIDÆ.**

CLASS II. RHIZOPODA.

_Order_ 1. _Monera_.**

" 2. _Amoebea_.**

" 3. _Foraminifera_.

" 4. _Radiolaria_ (Polycystines, &c.)

" 5. _Spongida_ (Sponges).

CLASS III. INFUSORIA.**

SUB-KINGDOM II.--COELENTERATA.

Animal simple or compound; body-wall composed of two principal

layers; digestive canal freely communicating with the general

cavity of the body; no circulating organs, and no nervous system

or a rudimentary one; mouth surrounded by tentacles, arranged,

like the internal organs, in a "radiate" or star-like manner.

CLASS I. HYDROZOA.

_Sub-class_ 1. _Hydroida_ ("Hydroid Zoophytes"). _Ex._

Fresh-water Polypes,** Pipe-corallines (_Tubularia_), Sea-Firs

(_Sertularia_).

_Sub-class_ 2. _Siphonophora_** ("Oceanic Hydrozoa").

_Ex_. Portuguese Man-of-war (_Physalia_).

_Sub-class_ 3. _Discophora_ ("Jelly-fishes"). Only known as

fossils by impressions of their stranded carcasses.

_Sub-class_ 4. _Lucernarida_ ("Sea-blubbers"). Also only

known as fossils by impressions left in fine-grained strata.

_Sub-class_ 5. _Graptolitidoe_* ("Graptolites").

CLASS II. ACTINOZOA.

_Order_ 1. _Zoantharia_. _Ex_. Sea-anemones**

(_Actinidoe_), Star-corals (_Astroeidoe_).

_Order_ 2. _Alcyonaria_. _Ex_. Sea-pens

(_Pennatula_), Organ-pipe Coral (_Tubipora_),

Red Coral (_Corallium_).

_Order_ 3. _Rugosa_ ("Rugose Corals").

" 4. _Ctenophora_.** _Ex_. Venus's Girdle (_Cestum_).

SUB-KINGDOM III.--ANNULOIDA.

Animals in which the digestive canal is completely shut off from

the cavity of the body; a distinct nervous system; a system of

branched "water-vessels," which usually communicate with the

exterior. Body of the adult often "radiate," and never composed

of a succession of definite rings.

CLASS I. ECHINODERMATA.

_Order_ 1. _Crinoidea_ ("Sea-lilies"). _Ex_.

Feather-star (_Comatula_), Stone-lily (_Encrinus_*).

_Order_ 2. _Blastoidea_* ("Pentremites").

" 3. _Cystoidea_* ("Globe-lilies").

" 4. _Ophiuroidea_ ("Brittle-stars"). _Ex_.

Sand-stars (_Ophiura_), Brittle-stars (_Ophiocoma_).

_Order_ 5. _Asteroidea_ ("Star-fishes"). Ex. Cross-fish

(_Uraster_), Sun-star (_Solaster_).

_Order_ 6. _Echinoidea_ ("Sea-urchins"). Ex. Sea-eggs

(_Echinus_), Heart-urchins (_Spatangus_).

_Order_ 7. _Holothuroidea_ ("Sea-cucumbers"). _Ex_.

Trepangs (_Holothuria_).

CLASS II. SCOLECIDA** (Intestinal Worms, Wheel Animalcules, &c.)

SUB-KINGDOM IV.--ANNULOSA.

Animal composed of numerous definite segments placed one behind

the other; nervous system forming a knotted cord placed along

the lower (ventral) surface of the body.

_Division A. Anarthropoda_. No jointed limbs.

CLASS I. GEPHYREA** ("Spoon-worms").

CLASS II. ANNELIDA. ("Ringed-worms"). _Ex_. Leeches**

(_Hirudinea_), Earthworms** (_Oligochoeta_),

Tube-worms (_Tubicola_), Sea-worms and

Sea-centipedes (_Errantia_).

CLASS III. CHÆTOGNATHA** ("Arrow-worms").

_Division B. Arthropoda or Articulata_. Limbs jointed to the body.

CLASS I. CRUSTACEA ("Crustaceans"). _Ex_. Barnacles and

Acorn-shells (_Cirripedia_), Water-fleas (_Ostracoda_),

Brine-shrimps and Fairy-shrimps (_Phyllopoda_), Trilobites*

(_Trilobita_), King-crabs and Eurypterids* (_Merostomata_),

Wood-lice and Slaters (_Isopoda_), Sand-hoppers

(_Amphipoda_), Lobsters, Shrimps, Hermit-crabs, and

Crabs (_Decapoda_).

CLASS II. ARACHNIDA. _Ex._ Mites (_Acarina_), Scorpions

(_Pedipalpi_), Spiders (_Araneida_).

CLASS III. MYRIAPODA. _Ex._ Centipedes (_Chilopoda_),

Millipedes and Galley-worms (_Chilignatha_).

CLASS IV. INSECTA ("Insects"). _Ex_. Field-bugs (_Hemiptera_);

Crickets, Grasshoppers, &c. (_Orthoptera_); Dragon-flies

and May-flies (_Neuroptera_); Goats and House-flies

(_Diptera_); Butterflies and Moths (_Lepidoptera_);

Bees, Wasps, and Ants (_Hymenoptera_); Beetles

(_Coleoptera_).

SUB-KINGDOM V.--MOLLUSCA.

Animal soft-bodied, generally with a hard covering or shell; no

distinct segmentation of the body; nervous system of scattered

masses.

CLASS I. POLYZOA ("Sea-Mosses"). _Ex_. Sea-mats (_Flustra_),

Lace-corals (_Fenestellidoe_*).

CLASS II. TUNICATA** ("Tunicaries"). _Ex_. Sea-squirts

(_Ascidia_).

CLASS III. BRACHIOPODA ("Lamp-shells"). _Ex_. Goose-bill

Lamp-shell (_Lingula_).

CLASS IV. LAMELLIBRANCHIATA ("Bivalves"). _Ex_. Oyster

(_Ostrea_), Mussel (_Mytilus_), Scallop (_Pecten_),

Cockle (_Cardium_).

CLASS V. GASTEROPODA ("Univalves"). _Ex_. Whelks

(_Buccinum_), Limpets (_Patella_), Sea-slugs**

(_Doris_), Land-snails (_Helix_).

CLASS VI. PTEROPODA ("Winged Snails"). Ex. _Hyalea, Cleodora_.

CLASS VII. CEPHALOPODA ("Cuttle-fishes"). _Ex_. Calamary

(_Loligo_), Poulpe (_Octopus_), Paper Nautilus

(_Arganauta_), Pearly Nautilus (_Nautilus_), Belemnites,*

Orthoceratites,* Ammonites.*

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

SUB-KINGDOM VI.--VERTEBRATA.

Body composed of definite segments arranged longitudinally one

behind the other; main masses of the nervous system placed dorsally;

a backbone or "vertebral column" in the majority.

CLASS I. PISCES ("Fishes"). _Ex_. Lancelet** (_Amphioxus_);

Lampreys and Hag-fishes (_Marsipobranchii_**); Herring,

Salmon, Perch, &c. (_Teleostei_ or "Bony Fishes");

Gar-pike, Sturgeon, &c. (_Ganoidei_); Sharks, Dog-fishes,

Rays, &c. (_Elasmobranchii_ or "Placoids").

CLASS II. AMPHIBIA ("Amphibians"). Ex. _Labyrinthodontia_,*

Cæcilians,** Newts and Salamanders (_Urodela_), Frogs and

Toads (_Anoura_).

CLASS III. REPTILIA ("Reptiles"). Ex. _Deinosauria_,*

_Pterosauria_,* _Anomodontia_,* Plesiosaurs

(_Sauropterygia_*), Ichthyosaurs (_Ichthyopterygia_*),

Tortoises and Turtles (_Chelonia_), Snakes (_Ophidia_),

Lizards (_Lacertilia_), Crocodiles (_Crocodilia_).

CLASS IV. AVES ("Birds"). _Ex_. Toothed Birds

(_Odontornithes_*); Lizard-tailed Birds (_Archoeopteryx_*);

Ducks, Geese, Gulls, &c. (_Natatores_); Storks, Herons,

Snipes, Plovers, &c. (_Grallatores_); Ostrich, Emeu,

Cassowary, Dinornis,* Æpiornis,* &c. (_Cursores_); Fowls,

Game Birds, and Doves (_Rasores_); Cuckoos, Woodpeckers,

Parrots, &c. (_Scansores_); Crows, Starlings, Finches,

Hummingbirds, Swallows, &c. (_Insessores_); Owls, Hawks,

Eagles, Vultures (_Raptores_).

CLASS V. MAMMALIA ("Quadrupeds"). _Ex_. Duck-mole and Spiny

Ant-eater (_Monotremata_**); Kangaroos, Phalangers,

Opossums, Tasmanian Devil, &c. (_Marsupialia_); Sloths,

Ant-eaters, Armadillos (_Edentata_); Manatees and Dugongs

(_Sirenia_); Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises (_Cetacea_);

Rhinoceros, Tapir, Horses, Hippopotamus, Pigs, Camels and

Llamas, Giraffes, Deer, Antelopes, Sheep, Goats, Oxen

(_Ungulata_); Hyrax (_Hyracoidea_**); Elephants,

Mastodon,* Deinotherium* (_Proboscidea_); Seals,

Walrus, Bears, Dogs, Wolves, Cats, Lions, Tigers, &c.

(_Carnivora_); Hares, Rabbits, Porcupines, Beavers,

Rats, Mice, Lemmings, Squirrels, Marmots, &c. (_Rodentia_);

Bats (_Cheiroptera_); Moles, Shrew-mice, Hedgehogs

(_Insectivora_); Lemurs, Spider-monkeys, Macaques,

Baboons, Apes (_Quadrumana_); Man (_Bimana_).

GLOSSARY.

ABDOMEN (Lat. _abdo_, I conceal). The posterior cavity of the

body, containing the intestines and others of the viscera. In

many Invertebrates there is no separation of the body-cavity

into thorax and abdomen, and it is only in the higher _Annulosa_

that a distinct abdomen can be said to exist.

ABERRANT (Lat. _aberro_, I wander away). Departing from the regular

type.

ABNORMAL (Lat. _ab_, from; _norma_, a rule). Irregular; deviating

from the ordinary standard.

ACRODUS (Gr. _akros_, high; _odous_, tooth). A genus of the

Cestraciont fishes, so called from the elevated teeth.

ACROGENS (Gr. _akros_, high; _gennao_, I produce). Plants which

increase in height by additions made to the summit of the stem

by the union of the bases of the leaves.

ACROTRETA (Gr. _akros_, high; _tretos_, pierced). A genus of

Brachiopods, so called from the presence of a foramen at the summit

of the shell.

ACTINOCRINUS (Gr. _aktin_, a ray; _krinon_, a lily). A genus of

Crinoids.

ACTINOZOA (Gr. _aktin_, a ray; and _zoön_, an animal). That division

of the _Coelenterata_ of which the Sea-anemones may be taken as

the type.

ÆGLINA (_Æglé_, a sea-nymph). A genus of Trilobites.

ÆPIORNIS (Gr. _aipus_, huge; _ornis_, bird). A genus of gigantic

Cursorial birds.

AGNOSTUS (Gr. _a_, not; _gignosko_, I know). A genus of Trilobites.

ALCES (Lat. _alces_, elk). The European Elk or Moose.

ALECTO (the proper name of one of the Furies). A genus of _Polyzoa_.

ALETHOPTERIS (Gr. _alethes_, true; _pteris_, fern). A genus of

Ferns.

ALGÆ. (Lat. _alga_, a marine plant). The order of plants comprising

the Sea-weeds and many fresh-water plants.

ALVEOLUS (Lat. _alvus_, belly). Applied to the sockets of the

teeth.

AMBLYPTERUS (Gr. _amblus_, blunt; _pteron_, fin). An order of

Ganoid Fishes.

AMBONYCHIA (Gr. _ambon_, a boss; _onux_, claw). A genus of Palæozoic

Bivalves.

AMBULACRA (Lat. _ambulacrum_, a place for walking). The perforated

spaces or "avenues" through which are protruded the tube-feet,

by means of which locomotion is effected in the _Echinodermata_.

AMMONITIDÆ. A family of Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods, so called

from the resemblance of the shell of the type-genus, _Ammonites_,

to the horns of the Egyptian God, Jupiter-Ammon.

AMORPHOZOA (Gr. _a_, without; _morphe_, shape; _zoön_, animal).

A name sometimes used to designate the _Sponges_.

AMPHIBIA (Gr. _amphi_, both; _bios_, life). The Frogs, Newts,

and the like, which have gills when young, but can always breathe

air directly when adult.

AMPHICYON (Gr. _amphi_, both--implying doubt; _kuon_, dog). An

extinct genus of _Carnivora_.

AMPHILESTES (Gr. _amphi_, both; _lestes_, a thief). A genus of

Jurassic Mammals.

AMPHISPONGIA (Gr. _amphi_, both; _spoggos_, sponge). A genus of

Silurian sponges.

AMPHISTEGINA (Gr. _amphi_, both; _stegé_, roof). A genus of

_Foraminifera_.

AMPHITHERIUM (Gr. _amphi_, both; _therion_, beast). A genus of

Jurassic Mammals.

AMPHITRAGULUS (Gr. _amphi_, both; dim. of _tragos_, goat). An

extinct genus related to the living Musk-deer.

AMPLEXUS (Lat. an Ambrace). A genus of Rugose Corals.

AMPYX (Gr. _ampux_, a wreath or wheel). A genus of Trilobites.

ANARTHROPODA (Gr. _a_, without; _arthros_, a joint; _pous_, foot).

That division of _Annulose_ animals in which there are no articulated

appendages.

ANCHITHERIUM (Gr. _agchi_, near; _therion_, beast). An extinct

genus of Mammals.

ANCYLOCERAS (Gr. _agkulos_, crooked; _ceras_, horn). A genus of

_Ammonitidoe_.

ANCYLOTHERIUM (Gr. _agkulos_, crooked; _therion_, beast). An extinct

genus of Edentate Mammals.

ANDRIAS (Gr. _andrias_, image of man). An extinct genus of tailed

Amphibians.

ANGIOSPERMS (Gr. _angeion_, a vessel; _sperma_, seed). Plants

which have their seeds enclosed in a seed-vessel.

ANNELIDA (a Gallicised form of _Annulata_). The Ringed Worms,

which form one of the divisions of the _Anarthropoda_.

ANNULARIA (Lat. _annulus_, a ring). A genus of Palæozoic plants,

with leaves in whorls.

ANNULOSA (Lat. _annulus_). The sub-kingdom comprising the

_Anarthropoda_ and the _Arthropoda_ or _Articulata_, in all of

which the body is more or less evidently composed of a succession

of rings.

ANOMODONTIA (Gr. _anomos_, irregular; _odous_, tooth). An extinct

order of Reptiles, often called _Dicynodontia_.

ANOMURA (Gr. _anomos_, irregular; _oura_, tail). A tribe of Decapod

_Crustacea_, of which the Hermit-crab is the type.

ANOPLOTHERIDÆ (Gr. _anoplos_, unarmed; _ther_, beast). A family

of Tertiary Ungulates.

ANOURA (Gr. _a_, without; _oura_, tail). The order of _Amphibia_

comprising the Frogs and Toads, in which the adult is destitute

of a tail. Often, called _Batrachia_.

ANTENNÆ (Lat. _antenna_, a yard-arm). The jointed horns or feelers

possessed by the majority of the _Articulata_.

ANTENNULES (dim. of _Antennoe_). Applied to the smaller pair of

antennæ in the _Crustacea_.

ANTHRACOSAURUS (Gr. _anthrax_, coal; _saura_, lizard). A genus

of Labyrinthodont Amphibians.

ANTHRAPALÆMON (Gr. _anthrax_, coal; _paloemon_, a prawn--originally

a proper name). A genus of long-tailed Crustaceans from the

Coal-measures.

ANTLERS. Properly the branches of the horns of the Deer tribe

(_Cervidoe_), but generally applied to the entire horns.

APIOCRINIDÆ (Gr. _apion_, a pear; _krinon_, lily). A family of

Crinoids--the "Pear-encrinites."

APTERYX (Gr. _a_, without; _pterux_, a wing). A wingless bird

of New Zealand, belong to the order _Cursores_.

AQUEOUS (Lat. _aqua_, water). Formed in or by water.

ARACHNIDA (Gr. _arachne_, a spider). A class of the _Articulata_,

comprising Spiders, Scorpions, and allied animals.

ARBORESCENT. Branched like a tree.

ARCHÆOCIDARIS (Gr. _archaios_, ancient; Lat. _cidaris_, a diadem).

A Palæozoic genus of Sea-urchins, related to the existing _Cidaris_.

ARCHÆOCYATHUS (Gr. _archaios_, ancient; _kuathos_, cup). A genus

of Palæozoic fossils allied to the Sponges.

ARCHÆOPTERYX (Gr. _archaios_, ancient; _pterux_, a wing). The

singular fossil bird which alone constitutes the order of the

_Saururoe_.

ARCTOCYON (Gr. _arctos_, bear; _kuon_, dog). An extinct genus

of Carnivora.

ARENACEOUS. Sandy, or composed of grains of sand.

ARENICOLITES (Lat. _arena_, sand; _colo_, I inhabit). A genus

founded on burrows supposed to be formed by worms resembling

the living Lobworms (_Arenicola_).

ARTICULATA (Lat. _articulus_, a joint). A division of the animal

kingdom, comprising Insects, Centipedes, Spiders, and Crustaceans,

characterised by the possession of jointed bodies or jointed

limbs. The term _Arthropoda_ is now more usually employed.

ARTIODACTYLA (Gr. _artios_, even; _daktulos_, a finger or toe).

A division of the hoofed quadrupeds (_Ungulata_) in which each

foot has an even number of toes (two or four).

ASAPHUS (Gr. _Asaphes_, obscure). A genus of Trilobites.

ASCOCERAS (Gr. _askos_, a leather bottle; _keras_, horn). A genus

of Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods.

ASIPHONATE. Not possessing a respiratory tube or siphon. (Applied

to a division of the _Lamellibranchiate_ Molluscs.)

ASTEROID (Gr. _aster_, a star; and _eidos_, form). Star-shaped,

or possessing radiating lobes or rays like a star-fish.

ASTEROIDEA. An order of _Echinodermata_, comprising the Star-fishes,

characterised by their rayed form.

ASTEROPHYLLITES (Gr. _aster_, a star; _phullon_, leaf). A genus

of Palæozoic plants, with leaves in whorls.

ASTRÆIDÆ (Gr. _Astroea_, a proper name). The family of the

Star-corals.

ASTYLOSPONGIA (Gr. _a_, without; _stulos_, a column; _spoggos_,

a sponge). A genus of Silurian Sponges.

ATHYRIS (Gr. _a_, without; _thura_, door). A genus of Brachiopods.

ATRYPA (Gr. _a_, without; _trupa_, a hole). A genus of Brachiopods.

AVES (Lat. _avis_, a bird). The class of the Birds.

AVICULA (Lat. a little bird). The genus of Bivalve Molluscs

comprising the Pearl-oysters.

AXOPHYLLUM (Gr. _axon_, a pivot; _phullon_, a leaf). A genus of

Rugose Corals.

AZOIC (Gr. _a_, without; _zoé_, life). Destitute of traces of

living beings.

BACULITES (Lat. _baculum_, a staff). A genus of the _Ammonitidoe_.

BALÆNA (Lat. a whale). The genus of the Whalebone Whales.

BALANIDÆ (Gr. _balanos_, an acorn). A family of sessile _Cirripedes_,

commonly called "Acorn-shells."

BATRACHIA (Gr. _batrachos_, a frog). Often loosely applied to

any of the _Amphibia_, but sometimes restricted to the Amphibians

as a class, or to the single order of the _Anoura_.

BELEMNITIDÆ (Gr. _belemnon_, a dart). An extinct group of

Dibranchiate Cephalopods, comprising the Belemnites and their

allies.

BELEMNOTEUTHIS (Gr. _belemnon_, a dart; _teuthis_, a cuttle-fish).

A genus allied to the Belemnites proper.

BELINURUS (Gr. _belos_, a dart; _oura_, tail). A genus of fossil

King-crabs.

BELLEROPHON (Gr. proper name). A genus of oceanic Univalves

(_Heteropoda_).

BELOTEUTHIS (Gr. _belos_, a dart; _teuthis_, a cuttle-fish). An

extinct genus of Dibranchiate Cephalopods.

BEYRICHIA (named after Prof. Beyrich). A genus of Ostracode

Crustaceans.

BILATERAL. Having two symmetrical sides.

BIMANA (Lat. _Bis_, twice; _manus_, a hand). The order of _Mammalia_

comprising man alone.

BIPEDAL (Lat. _bis_, twice; _pes_, foot). Walking upon two legs.

BIVALVE (Lat. _bis_, twice; _valvoe_, folding-doors). Composed of

two plates or valves; applied to the shell of the _Lamellibranchiata_

and _Brachiopoda_, and to the carapace of certain _Crustacea_.

BLASTOIDEA (Gr. _blastos_, a bud; and _eidos_, form). An extinct

order of _Echinodermata_, often called _Pentremites_.

BRACHIOPODA (Gr. _brachion_, an arm; _pous_, the foot). A class

or the _Molluscoida_, often called "Lamp-shells," characterised

by possessing two fleshy arms continued from the sides of the

mouth.

BRACHYURA (Gr. _brachus_, short; _oura_, tail). A tribe of the

Decapod _Crustaceans_ with short tails (_i.e._, the Crabs).

BRADYPODIDÆ. (Gr. _bradus_, slow; _podes_, feet). The family of

_Edentata_ comprising the Sloths.

BRANCHIA (Gr. _bragchia_, the gill of a fish). A respiratory organ

adapted to breathe air dissolved in water.

BRANCHIATE. Possessing gills or branchiæ.

BRONTEUS (Gr. _broné_, thunder--an epithet of Jupiter the Thunderer).

A genus of Trilobites.

BRONTOTHERIUM (Gr. _bronté_, thunder; _therion_ beast). An extinct

genus of Ungulate Quadrupeds.

BRONTOZOUM (Gr. _bronté_, thunder; _zoön_, animal). A genus founded

on the largest footprints of the Triassic Sandstones of Connecticut.

BUCCINUM (Lat. _buccinun_, a trumpet). The genus of Univalves

comprising the Whelks.

CAINOZOIC (_See_ Kainozoic.)

CALAMITES (Lat. _calamus_, a reed). Extinct plants with reed-like

stems, believed to be gigantic representatives of the _Equisetaceoe_.

CALCAREOUS (Lat. _calx_, lime). Composed of carbonate of lime.

CALICE. The little cup in which the polype of a coralligenous

Zoophyte (_Actinozoön_) is contained.

CALYMENE (Gr. _kalumené_, concealed). A genus of Trilobites.

CALYX (Lat. a cup). Applied to the cup-shaped body of a _Crinoid_

(_Echinodermata_).

CAMAROPHORIA (Gr. _kamara_, a chamber; _phero_, I carry). A genus

of Brachiopods.

CAMELOPARDALIDÆ. (Lat. _camelus_, a camel; _pardalis_, a panther).

The family of the Giraffes.

CANINE (Lat. _canis_, a dog). The eye-tooth of Mammals, or the

tooth which is placed at or close to the præmaxillary suture in

the upper jaw, and the corresponding tooth in the lower jaw.

CARAPACE. A protective shield. Applied to the upper shell of

Crabs, Lobsters, and many other _Crustacea_. Also the upper half

of the immovable case in which the body of a Chelonian is protected.

CARCHARODON (Gr. _karcharos_. rough; _odous_, tooth). A genus

of Sharks.

CARDIOCARPON (Gr. _kardia_, the heart; _karpos_, fruit). A genus

of fossil fruit from the Coal-measures.

CARDIUM (Gr. _kardia_, the heart). The genus of Bivalve Molluscs

comprising the Cockles. _Cardinia, Cardiola_, and _Cardita_ have

the same derivation.

CARNIVORA (Lat. _caro_, flesh; _voro_, I devour). An order of

the _Mammalia_. The "Beasts of Prey."

CARNIVOROUS (Lat. _caro_, flesh; _voro_, I devour). Feeding upon

flesh.

CARYOCARIS (Gr. _karua_, a nut; _karis_, a shrimp). A genus of

Phyllopod Crustaceans.

CARYOCRINUS (Gr. _karua_, a nut; _krinon_, a lily). A genus of

Cystideans.

CAUDAL (Lat. _cauda_, the tail). Belonging to the tail.

CAVICORNIA (Lat. _cavus_, hollow; _cornu_, a horn). The

"hollow-horned" Ruminants, in which the horn consists of a central

bony "horn-core" surrounded by a horny sheath.

CENTRUM (Gr. _kentron_, the point round which a circle is described

by a pair of compasses). The central portion or "body" of a vertebra.

CEPHALASPIDÆ. (Gr. _kephale_, head; _aspis_, shield). A family

of fossil fishes.

CEPHALIC (Gr. _kephale_, head). Belonging to the head.

CEPHALOPODA (Gr. _kephale_; and _podes_, feet). A class of the

_Mollusca_, comprising the Cuttle-fishes and their allies, in

which there is a series of arms ranged round the head.

CERATIOCARIS (Gr. _keras_, a horn; _karis_, a shrimp). A genus

of Phyllopod Crustaceans.

CERATITES (Gr. _keras_, a horn). A genus of _Ammonitidoe_.

CERATODUS (Gr. _keras_, a horn; _odous_, tooth). A genus of Dipnoous

fishes.

CERVICAL (Lat. _cervix_, the neck). Connected with or belonging

to the region of the neck.

CERVIDÆ (Lat. _cervus_, a stag). The family of the Deer.

CESTRAPHORI (Gr. _kestra_, a weapon; _phero_, I carry). The group

of the "Cestraciont Fishes," represented at the present day by

the Port-Jackson Shark; so called from their defensive spines.

CETACEA (Gr. _ketos_, a whale). The order of Mammals comprising

the Whales and the Dolphins.

CETIOSAURUS (Gr. _ketos_, whale; _saura_, lizard). A genus of

Deinosaurian Reptiles.

CHEIROPTERA (Gr. _cheir_, hand; _pteron_, wing). The Mammalian

order of the Bats.

CHEIROTHERIUM (Gr. _cheir_, hand; _therion_, beast). The generic

name applied originally to the hand-shaped footprints of

Labyrinthodonts.

CHEIRURUS (Gr. _cheir_, hand; _oura_, tail). A genus of Trilobites.

CHELONIA (Gr. _cheloné_, a tortoise). The Reptilian order of the

Tortoises and Turtles.

CHONETES (Gr. _choné_ or _choané_, a chamber or box). A genus

of Brachiopods.

CIDARIS (Lat. a diadem). A genus of Sea-urchins.

CLADODUS (Gr. _klados_, branch; _odous_, tooth). A genus of Fishes.

CLATHROPORA (Lat. _clathti_, a trellis; _porus_, a pore). A genus

of Lace-corals (_Polyzoa_).

CLISIOPHYLLUM (Gr. _klision_, a hut; _phullon_, leaf). A genus

of Rugose Corals.

CLYMENIA (_Clumene_, a proper name). A genus of Tetrabranchiate

Cephalopods.

COCCOSTEUS (Gr. _kokkos_, berry; _osteon_, bone). A genus of Ganoid

Fishes.

COCHLIODUS (Gr. _kochlion_, a snail-shell; _odous_, tooth). A

genus of Cestraciont Fishes.

COELENTERATA (Gr. _koilos_, hollow; _enteron_, the bowel). The

sub-kingdom which comprises the _Hydrozoa_ and _Actinozoa_. Proposed

by Frey and Leuckhart in place of the old term _Radiata_, which

included other animals as well.

COLEOPTERA (Gr. _koleos_, a sheath; _pteron_, wing). The order

of Insects (Beetles) in which the anterior pair of wings are

hardened, and serve as protective cases for the posterior pair

of membranous wings.

COLOSSOCHELYS (Gr. _kolossos_, a gigantic statue; _chelus_, a

tortoise). A huge extinct Land-tortoise.

COMATULA (Gr. _koma_, the hair). The Feather-star, so called in

allusion to its tress-like arms.

CONDYLE (Gr. _kondulos_, a knuckle). The surface by which one

bone articulates with another. Applied especially to the articular

surface or surfaces by which the skull articulates with the vertebral

column.

CONIFERÆ (Lat. _conus_, a cone; _fero_, I carry). The order of

the Firs, Pines, and their allies, in which the fruit is generally

a "cone" or "fir-apple."

CONULARIA (Lat. _conulus_, a little-cone). An extinct genus of

Pteropods.

COPRALITES (Gr. _kopros_, dung; _lithos_, stone). Properly applied

to the fossilised excrements of animals; but often employed to

designate phosphatic concretions which are not of this nature.

CORALLITE. The corallum secreted by an _Actinozoön_ which consists

of a single polype; or the portion of a composite corallum which

belongs to, and is secreted by, an individual polype.

CORALLUM (from the Latin for Red Coral). The hard structures

deposited in, or by the tissues of an _Actinozoön_,--commonly

called a "coral."

CORIACEOUS (Lat. _corium_. hide). Leathery.

CORYPHODON (Gr. _korus_, helmet; _odous_, tooth). An extinct genus

of Mammals, allied to the Tapirs.

CRANIUM (Gr. _kranion_, the skull). The bony or cartilaginous

case in which the brain is contained.

CRETACEOUS (Lat. _creta_, chalk). The formation which in Europe

contains white chalk as one of its most conspicuous members.

CRINOIDEA (Gr. _krinon_, a lily; _eidos_, form). An order of

_Echinodermata_, comprising forms which are usually stalked, and

sometimes resemble lilies in shape.

CRIOCERAS (Gr. _krios_, a ram; _keras_, a horn). A genus of

_Ammonitidoe_.

CROCODILIA (Gr. _krokodeilos_, a crocodile). An order of Reptiles.

CROSSOPTERYGIDÆ. (Gr. _krossotos_, a fringe; _pterux_, a fin). A

sub-order of Ganoids in which the paired fins possess a central

lobe.

CRUSTACEA (Lat. _crusta_, a crust). A class of Articulate animals,

comprising Crabs, Lobsters, &c., characterised by the possession

of a hard shell or crust, which they cast periodically.

CRYPTOGAMS (Gr. _kruptos_, concealed; _gamos_, marriage). A division

of plants in which the organs of reproduction are obscure and

there are no true flowers.

CTENACANTHUS (Gr. _kteis_, a comb; _akantha_, a thorn). A genus

of fossil fishes, named from its fin-spines.

CTENOID (Gr. _kteis_, a comb; _eidos_, form). Applied to those

scales of fishes the hinder margins of which are fringed with

spines or comb-like projections.

CURSORES (Lat. _curro_, I run). An order of _Aves_, comprising

birds destitute of the power of flight, but formed for running

vigorously (_e.g._, the Ostrich and Emeu).

CUSPIDATE. Furnished with small pointed eminences or "cusps."

CYATHOCRINUS (Gr. _kuathos_, a cup; _krinon_, a lily). A genus

of Crinoids.

CYATHOPHYLLUM (Gr. _kuathos_, a cup; _phullon_, a leaf). A genus

of Rugose Corals.

CYCLOID (Gr. _kuklos_, a circle; _eidos_, form). Applied to those

scales of fishes which have a regularly circular or elliptical

outline with an even margin.

CYCLOPHTHALMUS (Gr. _kuklos_, a circle; _ophthalmos_, eye). A

genus of fossil Scorpions.

CYCLOSTOMI (Gr. _kuklos_, and _stoma_, mouth). Sometimes used

to designate the Hag-fishes and Lampreys, forming the order

_Marsipobranchii_.

CYPRÆA (a name of Venus). The genus of Univalve Molluscs comprising

the Cowries.

CYRTOCERAS (Gr. _kurtos_. crooked; _keras_, horn). A genus of

Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods.

CYSTIPHYLLUM (Gr. _kustis_, a bladder; _phullon_, a leaf). A genus

of Rugose Corals.

CYSTOIDEA (Gr. _kustis_, a bladder; _eidos_, form). The

"Globe-crinoids," an extinct order of _Echinodermata_.

DADOXYLON (Gr. _dadion_, a torch; _xulon_, wood). An extinct genus

of Coniferous trees.

DECAPODA (Gr. _deka_, ten; _podes_, feet). The division of

_Crustacea_ which have ten feet; also the family of Cuttle-fishes,

in which there are ten arms or cephalic processes.

DECIDUOUS (Lat. _decido_, I fall off). Applied to parts which

fall off or are shed during the life of the animal.

DEINOSAURIA (Gr. _deinos_, terrible; _saura_, lizard). An extinct

order of Reptiles.

DEINOTHERIUM (Gr. _deinos_, terrible; _therion_, beast). An extinct

genus of Proboscidean Mammals.

DENDROGRAPTUS (Gr. _dendron_, tree; _grapho_, I write). A genus

of Graptolites.

DESMIDIÆ. Minute fresh-water plants, of a green colour, without

a siliceous epidermis.

DIATOMACEÆ (Gr. _diatemno_, I sever). An order of minute plants

which are provided with siliceous envelopes.

DIBRANCHIATA (Gr. _dis_; twice; _bragchia_, gill). The order

of _Cephalopoda_ (comprising the Cuttle-fishes, &c.) in which

only two gills are present.

DICERAS (Gr. _dis_, twice; _keras_, horn). An extinct genus of

Bivalve Molluscs.

DICTYONEMA (Gr. _diktuon_, a net; _nema_, thread). An extinct

genus of _Polyzoa_.

DICYNODONTIA (Gr. _dis_, twice; _kuon_, dog; _odous_, tooth).

An extinct order of Reptiles.

DIDYMOGRAPTUS (Gr. _didumos_, twin; _grapho_, I write). A genus

of Graptolites.

DIMORPHODON (Gr. _dis_, twice; _morphé_, shape; _oduos_, tooth).

A genus of Pterosaurian reptiles.

DINICHTHYS (Gr. _deinos_, terrible; _ichthus_, fish). An extinct

genus of Fishes.

DINOCERAS (Gr. _deinos_, terrible; _keras_, horn). An extinct

genus of Mammals.

DINOPHIS (Gr. _deinos_, terrible; _ophis_, snake). An extinct

genus of Snakes.

DINORNIS (Gr. _deinos_, terrible; _ornis_, bird). An extinct genus

of Birds.

DIPLOGRAPTUS (Gr. _diplos_, double; _grapho_, I write). A genus

of Graptolites.

DIPNOI (Gr. _dis_, twice; _pnoé_, breath). An order of Fishes,

comprising the Mud-fishes, so called in allusion to their double

mode of respiration.

DIPROTODON (Gr. _dis_, twice; _protos_, first; _odous_, tooth).

A genus of extinct Marsupials.

DIPTERA (Gr. _dis_, twice; _pteron_, wing). An order of Insects

characterised by the possession of two wings.

DISCOID (Gr. _diskos_, a quoit; _eidos_, form). Shaped like a

round plate or quoit.

DOLOMITE (named after M. Dolomieu). Magnesian limestone.

DORSAL (Lat. _dorsum_, the back). Connected with or placed upon

the back.

DROMATHERIUM (Gr. _dromaios_, nimble; _therion_, beast). A genus

of Triassic Mammals.

DRYOPITHECUS (Gr. _drus_, an oak; _pithekos_, an ape). An extinct

genus of Monkeys.

ECHINODERMATA (Gr. _echinos_; and _derma_, skin). A class of

animals comprising the Sea-urchins, Star-fishes, and others, most

of which have spiny skins.

ECHINOIDEA (Gr. _echinos_; and _eidos_, form). An order of

_Echinodermata_, comprising the Sea-urchins.

EDENTATA (Lat. _e_, without; _dens_, tooth). An order of _Mammalia_

often called _Bruta_.

EDENTULOUS. Toothless, without any dental apparatus. Applied to

the mouth of any animal, or to the hinge of the Bivalve Molluscs.

ELASMOBRANCHII (Gr. _elasma_, a plate; _bragchia_, gill). An order

of Fishes, including the Sharks and Rays.

ENALIOSAURIA (Gr. _enalios_, marine; _saura_, lizard), Sometimes

employed as a common term to designate the extinct Reptilian

orders of the _Ichthyosauria_ and _Plesiosauria_.

EOCENE (Gr. _eos_, dawn; _kainos_, new or recent). The lowest

division of the Tertiary rocks, in which species of existing

shells are to a small extent represented.

EOPHYTON (Gr. _eos_, dawn; _phuton_, a plant). A genus of Cambrian

fossils, supposed to be of a vegetable nature.

EOZOÖN (Gr. _eos_, dawn; _zoön_, animal). A genus of chambered

calcareous organisms found in the Laurentian and Huronian formations.

EQUILATERAL (Lat. _oequus_, equal; _latus_, side). Having its

sides equal. Usually applied to the shells of the _Brachiopoda_.

When applied to the spiral shells of the _Foraminifera_, it means

that all the convolutions of the shell lie in the same plane.

EQUISETACEÆ (Lat. _equus_, horse; _seta_, bristle). A group of

Cryptogamous plants, commonly known as "Horse-tails."

EQUIVALVE (Lat. _oequus_, equal; _valvoe_, folding-doors). Applied

to shells which are composed of two equal pieces or valves.

ERRANTIA (Lat. _erro_, I wander). An order of _Annelida_, often

called _Nereidea_, distinguished by their great locomotive powers.

EUOMPHALUS (Gr. _eu_, well; _omphalos_, navel). An extinct genus

of Univalve Molluscs.

EURYPTERIDA (Gr. _eurus_, broad; _pteron_, wing). An extinct

sub-order of _Crustacea_.

EXOGYRA (Gr. _exo_, outside; _guros_, circle). An extinct genus

of Oysters.

FAUNA (Lat. _Fauni_, the rural deities of the Romans). The general

assemblage of the animals of any region or district.

FAVOSITES (Lat. _favus_, a honeycomb). A genus of Tabulate Corals.

FENESTELLIDÆ. (Lat. _fenestella_, a little window). The

"Lace-corals," a group of Palæozoic Polyzoans.

FILICES (Lat. _filix_, a fern). The order of Cryptogamic plants

comprising the Ferns.

FILIFORM (Lat. _filum_, a thread; _forma_, shape). Thread-shaped.

FLORA (Lat. _Flora_, the goddess of flowers). The general assemblage

of the plants of any region or district.

FORAMINIFERA (Lat. _foramen_, an aperture; _fero_, I carry).

An order of Protozoa, usually characterised by the possession

of a shell perforated by numerous pseudopodial apertures.

FRUGIVOROUS (Lat. _frux_, fruit; _voro_, I devour). Living upon

fruits.

FUCOIDS (Lat. _fucus_, sea-weed; Gr. _eidos_, likeness). Fossils,

often of an obscure nature, believed to be the remains of sea-weeds.

FUSULINA (Lat. _fusus_, a spindle). An extinct genus of

_Foraminifera_.

GANOID (Gr, _ganos_, splendour, brightness). Applied to those

scales or plates which are composed of an inferior layer of true

bone covered by a superior layer of polished enamel.

GANOIDEI. An order of Fishes.

GASTEROPODA (Gr. _gaster_, stomach; _pous_, foot). The class

of the Mollusca comprising the ordinary Univalves, in which

locomotion is usually effected by a muscular expansion of the

under surface of the body (the "foot").

GLOBIGERINA (Lat. _globus_, a globe; _gero_, I carry). A genus

of _Foraminifera_.

GLYPTODON (Gr. _glupho_, I engrave; _odous_, tooth). An extinct

genus of Armadillos, so named in allusion to the fluted teeth.

GONIATITES (Gr. _gonia_, angle). A genus of Tetrabranchiate

Cephalopods.

GRALLATORES (Lat. _gralloe_, stilts). The order of the long-legged

Wading Birds.

GRAPTOLITIDÆ. (Gr. _grapho_, I write; _lithos_, stone). An extinct

sub-class of the _Hydrozoa_.

GYMNOSPERMS (Gr. _gumnos_, naked; _sperma_, seed). The Conifers

and Cycads, in which the seed is not protected within a seed-vessel.

HALITHERIUM (Gr. _hals_, sea; _therion_, beast). An extinct genus

of Sea-cows (_Sirenia_).

HAMITES (Lat. _hamus_, a hook). A genus of the _Ammonitidoe_.

HELIOPHYLLUM (Gr. _helios_, the sun; _phullon_, leaf). A genus

of Rugose Corals.

HELLADOTHERIUM (Gr. _Hellas_, Greece; _therion_, beast). An extinct

genus of Ungulate Mammals.

HEMIPTERA (Gr. _hemi_, and _pteron_, wing). An order of Insects

in which the anterior wings are sometimes "hemelytra."

HESPERORNIS (Gr. _Hesperos_, the evening star; _ornis_, bird).

An extinct genus of Birds.

HETEROCERCAL (Gr. _heteros_, diverse; _kerkos_, tail). Applied

to the tail of Fishes when it is unsymmetrical, or composed of

two unequal lobes.

HETEROPODA (Gr. _heteros_, diverse; _podes_, feet). An aberrant

group of the Gasteropods, in which the foot is modified so as

to form a swimming organ.

HIPPARION (Gr. _hipparion_, a little horse). An extinct genus

of _Equidoe_.

HIPPOPOTAMUS (Gr. _hippos_, horse; _potamos_, river). A genus

of Hoofed Quadrupeds--the "River-horses."

HIPPURITIDÆ. (Gr. _hippos_, horse; _oura_, tail). An extinct family

of Bivalve Molluscs.

HOLOPTYCHIUS (Gr. _holos_, whole; _ptucé_, wrinkle). An extinct

genus of Ganoid Fishes.

HOLOSTOMATA (Gr. _holos_, whole; _stoma_, mouth). A division

of _Gasteropodous Molluscs_, in which the aperture of the shell

is rounded, or "entire."

HOLOTHUROIDEA (Gr. _holothourion_, and _eidos_, form). An order

of _Echinodermata_ comprising the Trepangs.

HOMOCERCAL (Gr. _homos_, same; _kerkol_, tail). Applied to the

tail of Fishes when it is symmetrical, or composed of two equal

lobes.

HYBODUNTS (Gr. _hubos_, curved; _odous_, tooth). A group of Fishes

of which _Hybodus_ is the type-genus.

HYDROIDA (Gr. _hudra_; and _eidos_, form). The sub-class of the

_Hydrozoa_, which comprises the animals most nearly allied to

the Hydra.

HYDROZOA (Gr. _hudra_; and _zoön_, animal). The class of the

_Coelenterata_ which comprises animals constructed after the type

of the Hydra.

HYMENOPTERA (Gr. _humen_, a membrane; _pteron_, a wing). An order

of Insects (comprising Bees, Ants, &c.) characterised by the

possession of four membranous wings.

ICHTHYODORULITE (Gr. _ichthus_, fish; _dorus_, spear; _lithos_,

stone). The fossil fin-spine of Fishes.

ICHTHYOPTERYGIA (Gr. _ichthus_; _pterux_, wing). An extinct order

of Reptiles.

ICHTHYORNIS (Gr. _ichthus_, fish; _ornis_, bird). An extinct genus

of Birds.

ICHTHYOSAURIA (Gr. _ichthus_; _saura_, lizard). Synonymous with

_Ichthyopterygia_.

IGUANODON (_Iguana_, a living lizard; Gr. _odous_, tooth). A genus

of Deinosaurian Reptiles.

INCISOR (Lat. _incido_, I cut). The cutting teeth fixed in the

intermaxillary bones of the _Mammalia_, and the corresponding

teeth in the lower jaw.

INEQUILATERAL. Having the two sides unequal, as in the case of

the shells of the ordinary bivalves (_Lamellibranchiata_). When

applied to the shells of the _Foraminifera_, it implies that

the convolutions of the shell do not lie in the same plane, but

are obliquely wound round an axis.

INEQUIVALVE. Composed of two unequal pieces or valves.

INOCERAMUS (Gr. _is_, a fibre; _keramos_, an earthen vessel).

An extinct genus of Bivalve Molluscs.

INSECTA (Lat. _inseco_, I cut into). The class of articulate animals

commonly known as Insects.

INSECTIVORA (Lat. _insectum_, an insect; _voro_, I devour). An

order of Mammals.

INSECTIVOROUS. Living upon Insects.

INSESSORES (Lat. _insedeo_, I sit upon). The order of the Perching

Birds, often called _Passeres_.

INTERAMBULACRA. The rows of plates in an _Echinoid_ which are

not perforated for the emission of the "tube-feet."

INTERMMAXILLÆ or PRÆMAXILLÆ. The two bones which are situated

between the two superior maxillæ in _Vertebrata_. In man, and

some monkeys, the præmaxillæ anchylose with the maxillæ, so as

to be irrecognisable in the adult.

INVERTEBRATA (Lat. _in_, without; _vertebra_, a bone of the back).

Animals without a spinal column or backbone.

ISOPODA. (Gr. _isos_, equal; _podes_, feet). An order of _Crustacea_

in which the feet are like one another and equal.

KAINOZOIC (Gr. _kainos_, recent; _zoe_, life). The Tertiary period

in Geology comprising those formations in which the organic remains

approximate more or less closely to the existing fauna and flora.

LABYRINTHODONTIA (Gr. _laburinthos_, a labyrinth; _odous_, tooth).

An extinct order of _Amphibia_, so called from the complex

microscopic structure of the teeth.

LACERTILIA (Lat. _lacerta_, a lizard). An order of _Reptilia_

comprising the Lizards and Slow-worms.

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA (Lat. _lamella_, a plate; Gr. _bragchia_, gill).

The class of _Mollusca_ comprising the ordinary bivalves,

characterised by the possession of lamellar gills.

LEPIDODENDRON (Gr. _lepis_, a scale; _dendron_, a tree). A genus

of extinct plants, so named from the scale-like scars upon the

stem left by the falling off of the leaves.

LEPIDOPTERA (Gr. _lepis_, a scale; _pteron_, a wing). An order

of Insects, comprising Butterflies and Moths, characterised by

possessing four wings which are usually covered with minute scales.

LEPIDOSIREN (Gr. _lepis_, a scale; _seiren_, a siren--the generic

name of the Mud-eel or _Siren lacertina_). A genus of Dipnoous

fishes, comprising the "Mud-fishes."

LEPIDOSTROBUS (Gr. _lepis_, a scale; _strobilos_, a fir-cone).

A genus founded on the cones of _Lepidodendron_.

LEPTÆNA (Gr. _leptos_. slender). A genus of Brachiopods.

LINGULA (Lat. _lingula_, a little tongue). A genus of Brachiopods.

LYCOPODIACEÆ (Gr. _lupos_, a wolf; _pous_, foot). The group of

Cryptogamic plants generally known as "Club-mosses."

MACHÆRACANTHUS (Gr. _machaira_, a sabre; _acantha_, thorn or spine).

An extinct genus of Fishes.

MACHAIRODUS (Gr. _machaira_, a sabre; _odous_, tooth). An extinct

genus of Carnivora.

MACROTHERIUM (Gr. _makros_, long; _therion_. beast). An extinct

genus of Edentata.

MACRURA (Gr. _makros_, long; _oura_, tail). A tribe of Decapod

_Crustaceans_ with long tails (e.g., the Lobster, Shrimp, &c.)

MAMMALIA (Lat. _mamma_, the breast). The class of Vertebrate animals

which suckle their young.

MANDIBLE (Lat. _mandibulum_, a jaw). The upper pair of jaws in

Insects; also applied to one of the pairs of jaws in _Crustacea_

and Spiders, to the beak of Cephalopods, the lower jaw of

Vertebrates, &c.

MANTLE. The external integument of most of the Mollusca, which

is largely developed, and forms a cloak in which the viscera

are protected. Technically called the "pallium."

MANUS (Lat. the hand). The hand of the higher Vertebrates.

MARSIPOBRANCHII (Gr. _marsipos_, a pouch; _bragchia_, gill).

The order of Fishes comprising the Hag-fishes and Lampreys, with

pouch-like gills.

MARSUPIALIA (Lat. _marsupium_, a pouch). An order of Mammals in

which the females mostly have an abdominal pouch in which the

young are carried.

MASTODON (Gr. _mastos_, nipple; _odous_, tooth). An extinct genus

of Elephantine Mammals.

MEGALONYX (Gr. _megas_, great; _onux_, nail). An extinct genus

of Edentate Mammals.

MEGALOSAURUS (Gr. _megas_, great; _saura_, lizard). A genus of

Deinosaurian Reptiles.

MEGATHERIUM (Gr. _megas_, great; _therion_, beast). An extinct

genus of Edentata.

MESOZOIC (Gr. _mesos_, middle; and _zoe_, life). The Secondary

period in Geology.

MICROLESTES (Gr. _mikros_, little; _lestes_, thief). An extinct

genus of Triassic Mammals.

MILLEPORA (Lat. _mille_, one thousand; _porus_, a pore). A genus

of "Tabulate Corals."

MIOCENE (Gr. _meion_, less; _kainol_, new). The Middle Tertiary

period.

MOLARS (Lat. _mola_, a mill). The "grinders" in man, or the teeth

in diphyodont Mammals which are not preceded by milk-teeth.

MOLLUSCA (Lat. _mollis_, soft). The sub-kingdom which includes

the Shell-fish proper, the _Polyzoa_, the _Tunicata_, and the

Lamp-shells; so called from the generally soft nature of their

bodies.

MOLLUSCOIDA (_Mollusca_; Gr. _eidos_, form). The lower division

of the _Mollusca_, comprising the _Polyzoa, Tunicata_, and

_Brachiopoda_.

MONOGRAPTUS (Gr. _monos_, single; _grapho_, I write). A genus

of Graptolites.

MYLODON (Gr. _mulos_, a mill; _odous_, tooth). An extinct genus

of Edentate Mammals.

MYRIAPODA or MYRIOPODA (Gr. _murios_, ten thousand; _podes_,

feet). A class of _Arthropoda_ comprising the Centipedes and their

allies, characterised by their numerous feet.

NATATORES (Lat. _nare_, to swim). The order of the Swimming Birds.

NATATORY (Lat. _nare_, to swim). Formed for swimming.

NAUTILOID. Resembling the shell of the _Nautilus_ in shape.

NERVURES (Lat. _nervus_, a sinew). The ribs which support the

membranous wings of insects.

NEUROPTERA (Gr. _neuron_, a nerve; _pteron_, a wing). An order

of Insects characterised by four membranous wings with numerous

reticulated nervures (_e.g._, Dragon-flies).

NEUROPTERIS (Gr. _neuron_, a nerve; _pteris_, a fern). An extinct

genus of Ferns.

NOTHOSAURUS (Gr. _nothos_, spurious; _saura_, lizard). A genus

of _Plesiosaurian_ Reptiles.

NOTOCHORD (Gr. _notos_, back; _chorde_, string). A cellular rod

which is developed in the embryo of Vertebrates immediately beneath

the spinal cord, and which is usually replaced in the adult by the

vertebral column. Often it is spoken of as the "chorda dorsalis."

NUDIBRANCHIATA (Lat. _nudus_, naked; and Gr. _bragchia_, gill).

An order of the _Gasteropoda_ in which the gills are naked.

NUMMULINA (Lat. _nummus_, a coin). A genus of _Foraminifera_,

comprising the coin-shaped "Nummulites."

OBOLELLA (Lat. dim. of _obolus_, a small coin). An extinct genus

of Brachiopods.

OCCIPITAL. Connected with the _occiput_, or the back part of the

head.

OCEANIC. Applied to animals which inhabit the open ocean (= pelagic).

ODONTOPTERYX (Gr. _oduos_, tooth; _pterux_, wing). An extinct

genus of Birds.

ODONTORNITHES (Gr. _oduos_, tooth; _ornis_, bird). The extinct

order of Birds, comprising forms with distinct teeth in sockets.

OLIGOCENE (Gr. _oligos_, few; _kainos_, new). A name used by

many Continental geologists as synonymous with the Lower Miocene.

OPHIDIA (Gr. _ophis_, a serpent). The order of Reptiles comprising

the Snakes.

OPHIUROIDEA (Gr. _ophis_, snake; _oura_, tail; _eidos_, form).

An order of _Echinodermata_, comprising the Brittle-stars and

Sand-stars.

ORNITHOSCELIDA (Gr. _ornis_, bird; _skelos_, leg). Applied by

Huxley to the Deinosaurian Reptiles, together with the genus

_Compsognathus_, on account of the bird-like character of their

hind-limbs.

ORTHIS (Gr. _orthos_, straight). A genus of Brachiopods, named

in allusion to the straight hinge-line.

ORTHOCERATIDÆ (Gr. _orthos_, straight; _keras_, horn). A family

of the _Nautilidoe_, in which the shell is straight, or nearly

so.

ORTHOPTERA (Gr. _orthos_, straight; _pteron_, wing). An order

of Insects.

OSTEOLEPIS (Gr. _osteon_, bone; _lepis_, scale). An extinct genus

of Ganoid Fishes.

OSTRACODA (Gr. _ostrakon_, a shell). An order of small Crustaceans

which are enclosed in bivalve shells.

OTODUS (Gr. _ota_, ears; _odous_, tooth). An extinct genus of

Sharks.

OUDENODON (Gr. _ouden_, none; _odous_, tooth). A genus of Dicynodont

Reptiles.

OVIBUS (Lat. _ovis_, sheep; _bos_, ox). The genus comprising the

Musk-ox.

PACHYDERMATA (Gr. _pachus_, thick; _derma_, skin). An old Mammalian

order constituted by Cuvier for the reception of the Rhinoceros,

Hippopotamus, Elephant, &c.

PALÆASTER (Gr. _palaios_, ancient; _aster_, star). An extinct

genus of Star-fishes.

PALÆOCARIS (Gr. _palaios_, ancient; _karis_, shrimp). An extinct

genus of Decapod Crustaceans.

PALÆOLITHIC (Gr. _palaios_, ancient; _lithos_, stone). Applied

to the rude stone implements of the earliest known races of men,

to the men who made these implements, or to the period at which

they were made.

PALÆONTOLOGY (Gr. _palaios_, ancient; and _logos_, discourse).

The science of fossil remains or of extinct organised beings.

PALÆOPHIS (Gr. _palaios_, ancient; _ophis_, serpent). An extinct

genus of Snakes.

PALÆOSAURUS (Gr. _palaios_, ancient; _saura_, lizard). A genus

of Thecodont Reptiles.

PALÆOTHERIDÆ. (Gr. _palaios_, ancient; _ther_, beast). A group

of Tertiary Ungulates.

PALÆOZOIC (Gr. _palaios_, ancient; and _zoe_, life). Applied to

the oldest of the great geological epochs.

PARADOXIDES (Lat. _paradoxus_, marvellous). A genus of Trilobites.

PATAGIUM (Lat. the border of a dress). Applied to the expansion

of the integument by which Bats, Flying Squirrels, and other

animals support themselves in the air.

PECOPTERIS (Gr. _peko_, I comb; _pteris_, a fern). An extinct

genus of Ferns.

PECTEN (Lat. a comb). The genus of Bivalve Molluscs comprising

the Scallops.

PECTORAL (Lat. _pectus_, chest). Connected with, or placed upon,

the chest.

PENTACRINUS (Gr. _penta_, five; _krinon_, lily). A genus of Crinoids

in which the column is five-sided.

PENTAMERUS (Gr. _penta_, five; _meros_, part). An extinct genus

of Brachiopods.

PENTREMITES (Gr. _penta_, five; _trema_, aperture). A genus of

_Blastoidea_, so named in allusion to the apertures at the summit

of the calyx.

PERENNIBRANCHIATA (Lat. _perennis_, perpetual; Gr. _bragchia_,

gill). Applied to those Amphibia in which the gills are permanently

retained throughout life.

PERISSODACTYLA (Gr. _perissos_, uneven; _daktulos_, finger).

Applied to those Hoofed Quadrupeds (_Ungulata_) in which the feet

have an uneven number of toes.

PETALOID. Shaped like the petal of a flower.

PHACOPS (Gr. _phaké_, a lentil; _ops_, the eye). A genus of

Trilobites.

PHALANGES (Gr. _phalanx_, a row). The small bones composing the

digits of the higher _Vertebrata_. Normally each digit has three

phalanges.

PHANEROGAMS (Gr. _phaneros_, visible; _gamos_, marriage). Plants

which have the organs of reproduction conspicuous, and which

bear true flowers.

PHARYNGOBRANCHII (Gr. _pharugx_, pharynx; _bragchia_, gill). The

order of Fishes comprising only the Lancelet.

PHASCOLOTHERIUM (Gr. _phaskolos_, a pouch; _therion_, a beast).

A genus of Oolitic Mammals.

PHRAGMACONE (Gr. _phragma_, a partition; and _konos_, a cone).

The chambered portion of the internal shell of a _Belemnite_.

PHYLLOPODA (Gr. _phullon_, leaf; and _pous_, foot). An order of

_Crustacea_.

PINNATE (Lat. _pinna_, a feather). Feather-shaped; or possessing

lateral processes.

PINNIGRADA (Lat. _pinna_, a feather; _gradior_, I walk). The

group of _Carnivora_, comprising the Seals and Walruses, adapted

for an aquatic life. Often called _Pinnipedia_.

PINNULÆ. (Lat. dim. of _pinna_). The lateral processes of the

arms of _Crinoids_.

PISCES (Lat. _piscis_, a fish). The class of Vertebrates comprising

the Fishes.

PLACOID (Gr. _plax_, a plate; _eidos_, form). Applied to the

irregular bony plates, grains, or spines which are found in the

skin of various fishes (_Elasmobranchii_).

PLAGIOSTOMI (Gr. _plagios_, transverse; _stoma_, mouth). The

Sharks and Rays, in which the mouth is transverse, and is placed

on the under surface of the head.

PLATYCERAS (Gr. _platus_, broad; _keras_, horn). A genus of Univalve

Molluscs.

PLATYCRINUS (Gr. _platus_, broad; _krinom_, lily). A genus of

Crinoidea.

PLATYRHINA (Gr. _platus_, broad; _rhines_, nostrils). A group

of the _Quadrumana_.

PLATYSOMUS (Gr. _platus_, wide; _soma_, body). A genus of Ganoid

Fishes.

PLEISTOCENE (Gr. _pleistos_, most; _kainos_, new). Often used

as synonymous with "Post-Pliocene."

PLEUROTOMARIA (Gr. _pleura_, the side; _tomé_, notch). A genus

of Univalve shells.

PLIOCENE (Gr. _pleion_, more; _kainos_, new). The later Tertiary

period.

PLIOPITHECUS (Gr. _pleion_, more; _pithekos_, ape). An extinct

genus of monkeys.

PLIOSAURUS (Gr. _pleion_, more; _saura_, lizard). A genus of

Plesiosaurian Reptiles.

POLYCYSTINA (Gr. _polus_, many; and _kustis_, a cyst). An order

of _Protozoa_ with foraminated siliceous shells.

POLYPARY. The hard chitinous covering secreted by many of the

_Hydrozoa_.

POLYPE (Gr. _polus_, many; _pous_, foot). Restricted to the single

individual of a simple _Actinozoön_, such as a Sea-anemone, or

to the separate zooids of a compound _Actinozoön_. Often applied

indiscriminately to any of the _Coelenterata_, or even to the

Polyzoa.

POLYPORA (Gr. _polus_, many; _poros_, a passage). A genus of

Lace-corals (_Fenestellidoe_).

POLYTHALAMOUS (Gr. _polus_; and _thalamos_, chamber). Having

many chambers; applied to the shells of _Foraminifera_ and

_Cephalopoda_.

POLYZOA (Gr. _polus_; and _zoön_, animal). A division of the

_Molluscoida_ comprising compound animals, such as the

Sea-mat--sometimes called _Bryozoa_.

PORIFERA (Lat. _porus_, pore; and _fero_, I carry). Sometimes

used to designate the _Foraminifera_, or the _Sponges_.

PRÆMOLARS (Lat. _proe_, before; _molares_, the grinders). The

molar teeth of Mammals which succeed the molars of the milk-set

of teeth. In man, the bicuspid teeth.

PROBOSCIDEA (Lat. _proboscis_, the snout). The order of Mammals

comprising the Elephants.

PROCOELOUS (Gr. _pro_, before; _koilos_, hollow). Applied to vertebræ

the bodies of which are hollow or concave in front.

PRODUCTA (Lat. _productus_, drawn out or extended). An extinct

genus of Brachiopods, in which the shell is "eared," or has its

lateral angles drawn out.

PROTICHNITES (Gr. _protos_, first; _ichnos_, footprint). Applied

to certain impressions in the Potsdam sandstone of North America,

believed to have been produced by large Crustaceans.

PROTOPHYTA (Gr. _protos_; and _phuton_, plant). The lowest division

of plants.

PROTOPLASM (Gr. _protos_; and _plasso_ I mould). The elementary

basis of organised tissues. Sometimes used synonymously for the

"sarcode" of the _Protozoa_.

PROTOROSAURUS or PROTEROSAURUS (Gr. _protos_, first; _orao_, I

see or discover; _saura_, lizard: or _proteros_, earlier; _saura_,

lizard). A genus of Permian lizards.

PROTOZOA (Gr. _protos_; and _zoön_, animal). The lowest division

of the animal kingdom.

PSAMMODUS (Gr. _psammos_, sand; _odous_, tooth). An extinct genus

of Cestraciont Sharks.

PSEUDOPODIA (Gr. _pseudos_, falsity; and _pous_, foot). The

extensions of the body-substance which are put forth by the

_Rhizopoda_ at will, and which serve for locomotion and prehension.

PSILOPHYTON (Gr. _psilos_, bare; _phuton_, plant). An extinct

genus of Lycopodiaceous plants.

PTERANODON (Gr. _pteron_, wing; _a_, without; _odous_, tooth).

A genus of Pterosaurian Reptiles.

PTERASPIS (Gr. _pteron_, wing; _aspis_, shield). A genus of Ganoid

Fishes.

PTERICHTHYS (Gr. _pteron_, wing; _ichthus_, fish). A genus of

Ganoid Fishes.

PTERODACTYLUS (Gr. _pteron_, wing; _daktulos_, finger). A genus

of Pterosaurian Reptiles.

PTEROPODA (Gr. _pteron_, wing; and _pous_, foot). A class of the

_Mollusca_ which swim by means of fins attached near the head.

PTEROSAURIA (Gr. _pteron_, wing; _saura_, lizard). An extinct

order of Reptiles.

PTILODICTYA (Gr. _ptilon_, a feather; _diktuon_, a net). An extinct

genus of _Polyzoa_.

PTYCHOCERAS (Gr. _ptucé_, a fold; _keras_, a horn). A genus of

_Ammonitidoe_.

PULMONATE. Possessing lungs.

PYRIFORM (Lat. _pyrus_, a pear; and _forma_, form). Pear-shaped.

QUADRUMANA (Lat. _quatuor_, four; _manus_, hand). The order of

Mammals comprising the Apes, Monkeys, Baboons, Lemurs, &c.

RADIATA (Lat. _radius_, a ray). Formerly applied to a large number

of animals which are now placed in separate sub-kingdoms (e.g., the

_Coelenterata_, the _Echinodermata_, the _Infusoria_, &c.)

RADIOLARIA (Lat. _radius_, a ray). A division of _Protozoa_.

RAMUS (Lat. a branch). Applied to each half or branch of the lower

jaw, or mandible, of Vertebrates.

RAPTORES (Lat. _rapto_, I plunder). The order of the Birds of

Prey.

RASORES (Lat. _rado_, I scratch). The order of the Scratching

Birds (Fowls. Pigeons, &c.)

RECEPTACULITES (Lat. _receptaculum_, a storehouse). An extinct

genus of Protozoa.

REPTILIA (Lat. _repto_, I crawl). The class of the _Vertebrata_

comprising the Tortoises, Snakes, Lizards, Crocodiles, &c.

RETEPORA (Lat. _reté_, a net; _porus_, a pore). A genus of

Lace-corals (_Polyzoa_).

RHAMPHORHYNCHUS (Gr. _rhamphos_, beak; _rhugchos_, nose). A genus

of Pterosaurian Reptiles.

RHINOCEROS (Gr. _rhis_, the nose; _keras_, horn). A genus of Hoofed

Quadrupeds.

RHIZOPODA (Gr. _rhiza_, a root; and _pous_, foot). The division

of _Protozoa_ comprising all those which are capable of emitting

pseudopodia.

RHYNCHOLITES (Gr. _rhugchos_, beak; and _lithos_, stone). Beak-shaped

fossils consisting of the mandibles of _Cephalopoda_.

RHYNCHONELLA (Gr. _rhugchos_, nose or beak). A genus of Brachiopods.

RODENTIA (Lat. _rodo_, I gnaw). An order of the Mammals; often

called _Glires_ (Lat. _glis_, a dormouse).

ROTALIA (Lat. _rota_, a wheel). A genus of _Foraminifera_.

RUGOSA (Lat. _rugosus_, wrinkled). An order of Corals.

RUMINANTIA (Lat. _ruminor_, I chew the cud). The group of Hoofed

Quadrupeds (_Ungulata_) which "ruminate" or chew the cud.

SARCODE (Gr. _sarx_, flesh; _eidos_, form). The jelly-like substance

of which the bodies of the _Protozoa_ are composed. It is an

albuminous body containing oil-granules, and is sometimes called

"animal protoplasm."

SAURIA (Gr. _saura_, a lizard). Any lizard-like Reptile is often

spoken of as a "Saurian;" but the term is sometimes restricted

to the Crocodiles alone, or to the Crocodiles and Lacertilians.

SAUROPTERYGIA (Gr. _sauro_; _pterux_, wing). An extinct order

of Reptiles, called by Huxley _Plesiosauria_, from the typical

genus _Plesiosaurus_.

SAURURÆ (Gr. _saura_; _oura_, tail). The extinct order of Birds

comprising only the _Archoeopteryx_.

SCANSORES (Lat. _scando_, I climb). The order of the Climbing

Birds (Parrots, Woodpeckers, &c.)

SCAPHITES (Lat. _scapha_, a boat). A genus of the _Ammonitidoe_.

SCOLITHUS (Gr. _skolex_, a worm; _lithos_, a stone). The vertical

burrows of sea-worms in rocks.

SCUTA (Lat. _scutum_, a shield). Applied to any shield-like plates;

especially to those which are developed in the integument of

many Reptiles.

SELACHIA or SELACHII (Gr. _selachos_, a cartilaginous fish, probably

a shark). The sub-order of _Elasmobranchii_ comprising the Sharks

and Dog-fishes.

SEPIOSTAIRE. The internal shell of the Sepia, commonly known as

the "cuttle-bone."

SEPTA. Partitions.

SERPENTIFORM. Resembling a serpent in shape.

SERTULARIDA (Lat. _sertum_, a wreath). An order of _Hydrozoa_.

SESSILE (Lat. _sedo_, I sit). Not supported upon a stalk or peduncle;

attached by a base.

SETHÆ (Lat. bristles). Bristles or long stiff hairs.

SIGILLARIOIDS (Lat. _sigilla_, little images). A group of extinct

plants of which _Sigillaria_ is the type, so called from the

seal-like markings on the bark.

SILICEOUS (Lat. _silex_, flint). Composed of flint.

SINISTRAL (Lat. _sinistra_, the left hand). Left-handed; applied

to the direction of the spiral in certain shells, which are said

to be "reversed."

SIPHON (Gr. a tube). Applied to the respiratory tubes in the

_Mollusca_; also to other tubes of different functions.

SIPHONIA (Gr. _siphon_, a tube). A genus of fossil Sponges.

SIPHONOSTOMATA (Gr. _siphon_; and _stoma_, mouth). The division

of _Gasteropodous Molluscs_ in which the aperture of the shell

is not "entire," but possesses a notch or tube for the emission

of the respiratory siphon.

SIPHUNCLE (Lat. _siphunculus_, a little tube). The tube which

connects together the various chambers of the shell of certain

_Cephalopoda_ (_e.g._, the Pearly Nautilus).

SIRENIA (Gr. _seiren_. a mermaid). The order of _Mammalia_ comprising

the Dugongs and Manatees.

SIVATHERIUM (_Siva_, a Hindoo deity; Gr. _therion_, beast). An

extinct genus of Hoofed Quadrupeds.

SOLIDUNGULA (Lat. _solidus_, solid; _ungula_, a hoof). The group

of Hoofed Quadrupeds comprising the Horse, Ass, and Zebra, in

which each foot has only a single solid hoof. Often called

_Solipedia_.

SPHENOPTERIS (Gr. _sphen_, a wedge; _pteris_, a fern). An extinct

genus of ferns.

SPICULA (Lat. _spicidum_, a point). Pointed needle-shaped bodies.

SPIRIFERA (Lat. _spira_, a spire or coil; _fero_, I carry). An

extinct genus of Brachiopods, with large spiral supports for

the "arms."

SPIRORBIS (Lat. _spira_, a spire; _orbis_, a circle). A genus

of tube-inhabiting Annelides, in which the shelly tube is coiled

into a spiral disc.

SPONGIDA (Gr. _spoggos_, a sponge). The division of _Protozoa_

commonly known as sponges.

STALACTITES (Gr. _stalasso_, I drop). Icicle-like encrustations

and deposits of lime, which hang from the roof of caverns in

limestone.

STALAGMITE (Gr. _stalagma_, a drop). Encrustations of lime formed

on the floor of caverns which are hollowed out of limestone.

STIGMARIA (Gr. _stigma_, a mark made with a pointed instrument).

A genus founded on the roots of various species of _Sigillaria_.

STRATUM (Lat. _stratus_, spread out; or _stratum_, a thing spread

out). A layer of rock.

STROMATOPORA (Gr. _stroma_, a thing spread out; _paras_, a passage

or pore). A Palæozoic genus of _Protozoa_.

STROPHOHENA (Gr. _strophao_, I twist; _mené_, moon). An extinct

genus of Brachiopods.

SUB-CALCAREOUS. Somewhat calcareous.

SUB-CENTRAL. Nearly central, but not quite.

SUTURE (Lat. _suo_, I sew). The line of junction of two parts

which are immovably connected together. Applied to the line where

the whorls of a univalve shell join one another; also to the lines

made upon the exterior of the shell of a chambered _Cephalopod_

by the margins of the septa.

SYRINGOPORA (Gr. _surigx_, a pipe; _poros_, a pore). A genus of

Tabulate Corals.

TABULÆ. (Lat. _tabula_, a tablet). Horizontal plates or floors

found in some Corals, extending across the cavity of the "theca"

from side to side.

TEGUMENTARY (Lat. _tegumentum_, a covering). Connected with the

integument or skin.

TELEOSAURUS (Gr. _teleios_, perfect; _saura_, lizard). An extinct

genus of Crocodilian Reptiles.

TELEOSTEI (Gr. _teleios_, perfect; _osteon_, bone). The order

of the "Bony Fishes."

TELSON (Gr. a limit). The last joint in the abdomen of _Crustacea_;

variously regarded as a segment without appendages, or as an

azygous appendage.

TENTACULITES (Lat. _tentaculum_, a feeler). A genus of _Pteropoda_.

TEREBRATULA (Lat. _terebratus_, bored or pierced). A genus of

_Brachiopoda_, so called in allusion to the perforated beak of

the ventral valve.

TEST (Lat. _testa_, shell). The shell of _Mollusca_, which are

for this reason sometimes called "_Testacea_;" also, the calcareous

case of _Echinoderms_; also, the thick leathery outer tunic in

the _Tunicata_.

TESTACEOUS. Provided with a shell or hard covering.

TESTUDINIDÆ (Lat. _testudo_, a tortoise). The family of the

Tortoises.

TETRABRANCHIATA (Gr. _tetra_, four; _bragchia_, gill). The order

of _Cephalopoda_ characterised by the possession of four gills.

TEXTULARIA. (Lat. _textilis_, woven). A genus of _Foraminifera_.

THECA (Gr. _theké_, a sheath). A genus of Pteropods.

THECODONTOSAURUS (Gr. _theké_, a sheath; _odous_, tooth; _saura_,

lizard). A genus of "Thecodont" Reptiles, so named in allusion

to the fact that the teeth are sunk in distinct sockets.

THERIODONT (Gr. _therion_, a beast; _odous_, tooth). A group of

Reptiles so named by Owen in allusion to the Mammalian character

of their teeth.

THORAX (Gr. a breastplate). The region of the chest.

THYLACOLEO (Gr. _thulakos_, a pouch; _leo_, a lion). An extinct

genus of Marsupials.

TRIGONIA (Gr. _treis_, three; _gonia_, angle). A genus of Bivalve

Molluscs.

TRIGONOCARPON (Gr. _treis_, three; _gonia_. angle; _karpos_,

fruit). A genus founded on fossil fruits of a three-angled form.

TRILOBITA (Gr. _treis_, three; _lobos_, a lobe). An extinct order

of _Crustaceans_.

TRINUCLEUS (Lat. _tris_, three; _nucleus_, a kernel). A genus

of Trilobites.

TROGONTHERIUM (Gr. _trogo_, I gnaw; _therion_, beast). An extinct

genus of Beavers.

TUBICOLA (Lat. _tuba_, a tube; and _colo_, I inhabit). The order

of _Annelida_ which construct a tubular case in which they protect

themselves.

TUBICOLOUS. Inhabiting a tube.

TUNICATA (Lat. _tunica_, a cloak). A class of _Molluscoida_ which

are enveloped in a tough leathery case or "test."

TURBINATED (Lat. _turbo_, a top). Top-shaped; conical with a round

base.

TURRILITES (Lat, _turris_, a tower). A genus of the _Ammonitidoe_.

UMBO (Lat. the boss of a shield). The beak of a bivalve shell.

UNGUICULATE (Lat. _unguis_, nail). Furnished with claws.

UNGULATA (Lat. _ungula_, hoof). The order of Mammals comprising

the Hoofed Quadrupeds.

UNGULATE. Furnished with expanded nails constituting hoofs.

UNILOCULAR (Lat. _unus_, one; and _loculus_. a little purse).

Possessing a single cavity or chamber. Applied to the shells

of _Foraminifera_ and _Mollusca_.

UNIVALVE (Lat. _unus_, one; _valvoe_, folding-doors). A shell

composed of a single piece or valve.

URODELA (Gr. _oura_, tail; _delos_, visible). The order of the

Tailed Amphibians (Newts, &c.)

VENTRAL (Lat. _venter_, the stomach). Relating to the inferior

surface of the body.

VENTRICULITES (Lat. _ventriculum_, a little stomach). A genus

of siliceous Sponges.

VERMIFORM (Lat. _vermis_, worm; and _forma_, form). Worm-like.

VERTEBRA (Lat. _verto_, I turn). One of the bony segments of the

vertebral column or backbone.

VERTEBRATA (Lat. _vertebra_, a bone of the back, from _vertere_,

to turn). The division of the Animal Kingdom roughly characterised

by the possession of a backbone.

VESICLE (Lat. _vesica_, a bladder). A little sac or cyst.

WHORL. The spiral turn of a univalve shell.

XIPHOSURA (Gr. _xiphos_, a sworn; and _oura_, tail). An order of

_Crustacea_, comprising the _Limuli_ or King-Crabs, characterised

by their long sword-like tails.

XYLOBIUS (Gr. _xulon_, wood; _bios_, life). An extinct genus of

Myriapods, named in allusion to the fact that the animal lived

on decaying wood.

ZAPHRENTIS (proper name). A genus of Rugose Corals.

ZEUGLODONTIDÆ. (Gr. _zeuglé_, a yoke; _odous_, a tooth). An extinct

family of Cetaceans, in which the molar teeth are two-fanged,

and look as if composed of two parts united by a neck.

ZOOPHYTE (Gr. _zoön_, animal; _phuton_, plant). Loosely applied

to many plant-like animals, such as Sponges, Corals, Sea-anemones,

Sea-mats, &c.

INDEX.

Acadian Group.

_Acer_.

_Acervularia_.

_Acidaspis_.

Acorn-shells.

_Acroculia_.

_Acrodus; nobilis_.

_Acrotreta_.

_Acroura_.

_Actinocrinus_.

_Æglina_.

_Æpiornis_.

_Agnostus; rex_.

_Alces malchis_.

_Alecto_.

_Alethopteris_.

_Algoe_ (_see_ Sea-weeds).

Alligators.

_Alnus_.

_Amblypterus; macropterus_.

_Ambonychia_.

_Ammonites; Humpresianus; bifrons_.

_Ammonitidoe_.

_Amphibia_; of the Carboniferous; of the Permian; of the Trias;

of the Jurassic; of the Miocene.

_Amphicyon_.

_Amphilestes_.

_Amphispongia_.

_Amphistegina_.

_Amphitherium; Prevostii_.

_Amphitragulus_.

_Amplexus; coralloides_.

_Ampyx_.

_Anachytes_.

_Anchitherium_.

_Ancyloceras; Matheronianus_.

_Ancylotherium Pentelici_.

_Andrias Scheuchzeri_.

_Angiosperms_.

Animal Kingdom, divisions of.

_Anisopus_.

_Annelida_, of the Cambrian period; of the Lower Silurian; of the

Upper Silurian; of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous.

_Annularia_.

_Anomodontia_.

_Anoplotheridoe_.

_Anoplotherium; commune_.

Ant-eaters.

Antelopes.

_Anthracosaurus Russelli_.

_Anthrapaloemon gracilis_.

_Antilocapra_.

_Antilope quadricornis_.

Antwerp Crag.

Apes.

_Apiocrinus_.

_Apteryx_.

Aqueous rocks.

_Arachnida_ of the Coal-measures.

Aralo-Caspian Beds.

_Araucaria_.

_Araucarioxylon_.

_Arca; antiqua_.

_Archoeocidaris_.

_Archoeocyathus_.

_Archoeopteryx; macrura_.

_Archoeospoerinoe_.

_Archimedes; Wortheni_.

_Archiulus_.

Arctic regions, Miocene flora of.

_Arctocyon_.

Arenaceous rocks.

_Arenicolites; didymus_.

Arenig rocks.

Argillaceous rocks.

Armadillos.

_Artiodactyle Ungulates_.

_Asaphus; tyrannus_.

_Ascoceras_.

_Aspidella_.

_Aspidura loricata_.

_Astarte borealis_.

_Asterophyllites_.

_Asterosteus_.

_Astroeidoe_.

_Astroeospongia_.

_Astylospongia; proemorsa_.

_Athyris; subtilita_.

Atlantic Ooze.

_Atrypa; congesta; hemispoerica; reticularis_.

Auger-shells.

Aurochs.

Aves (_see_ Birds).

_Avicula; cantorta; socialis_.

"Avicula contorta Beds".

_Aviculidoe_.

_Aviculopecten_.

_Axophyllum_.

Aymestry Limestone.

Azoic rocks.

_Baculites; anceps_.

Bagshot and Bracklesham Beds.

_Bakewellia_.

_Baloena_.

Bala Group.

Bala Limestone.

_Balanidoe_.

_Banksia_.

Barbadoes Earth.

Barnacles.

Bath Oolite.

Bats.

Bears.

Beaver.

Beetles.

_Belemnitella mucronata_.

_Beleminites; canaliculatus_.

_Belemnitidoe_.

_Belemnoteuthis_.

_Belinurus_.

_Bellerophon; Argo_.

_Belodon; Carolinensis_.

_Belosepia_.

_Beloteuthis subcostata_.

Bembridge Beds.

_Beryx; Lewesiensis_.

_Beyrichia; complicata_.

Bird's-eye Limestone.

Birds, of the Trias; of the Jurassic; of the Cretaceous; of

the Eocene; of the Post-Pliocene.

_Bison priscus_.

Bituminous Schists of Caithness.

Bivalves (_see_ Lamellibranchiata).

Black-lead (_see_ Graphite).

Black-River Limestone.

_Blastoidea_; of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous.

_Boidoe_.

Bolderberg Beds.

Bone-bed, of the Upper Ludlow; of the Trias.

Bony Fishes (_see_ Teleostean Fishes).

_Bos primigenius; _taurus_.

Boulder-clay.

_Bourgueticrinus_.

Bovey-Tracy Beds.

_Brachiopoda_; of the Cambrian rocks; of the Lower Silurian;

of the Upper Silurian; of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous;

of the Permian; of the Trias; of the Jurassic; of the

Cretaceous; of the Eocene.

_Brachymetopus_.

Brachyurous Crustaceans.

Bradford Clay.

Breaks in the Geological and Palæontological record.

Breccia.

Brick-earths.

Bridlington Crag.

Brittle-stars (_see_ Ophiuroidea).

_Bronteus_.

_Brontotheridoe_.

_Brontotherium ingens_.

_Brontozoum_.

_Buccinum_.

_Bucklandia_.

_Bulimus_.

Bunter Sandstein.

Butterflies.

_Byssoarca_.

Cainozoic (_see_ Kainozoic).

Calamaries.

_Calamites; cannoeformis_.

Calcaire Grossier.

Calcareous rocks; Tufa.

Calciferous Sand-rock.

_Calveria_.

_Calymene; Blumenbachii_.

_Camarophoria globulina_.

Cambrian period; rocks of, in Britain; in Bohemia; in

North America; life of.

_Camelopardalidoe_.

Camels.

_Canis lupus; Parisiensis_.

Caradoc rocks.

Carbon, origin of.

Carboniferous Limestone.

Carboniferous period; rocks of; life of.

Carboniferous Slates of Ireland.

_Carcharias_.

_Carcharodon; productus_.

_Cardinia_.

_Cardiocarpon_.

_Cardiola; fibrosa; interrupta_.

_Cardita; planicosta_.

_Cardium; Rhoeticum_.

Caribou.

_Carnivora_, of the Eocene; of the Miocene; of the Pliocene;

of the Post-Pliocene.

_Caryocaris_.

_Caryocrinus ornatus_.

_Castor fiber_.

_Castoroides Ohioensis_.

Catastrophism, theory of.

_Catopterus_.

Cauda-Galli Grit.

_Caulopteris_.

Cave-bear.

Cave-deposits.

Cave-hyæna.

Cave-lion.

Caves, formation of; deposits in.

_Cavicornia_.

Cement-stones.

_Cephalaspis_.

_Cephalopoda_, of the Cambrian period; of the Lower Silurian;

of the Upper Silurian; of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous;

of the Permian; of the Trias; of the Jurassic; of the Cretaceous;

of the Eocene; of the Miocene.

_Ceratiocaris_.

_Ceratites; nodosus_.

_Ceratodus; altus; Fosteri; serratus_.

_Ceriopora; Hamiltonensis_.

_Cerithium; _hexagonum_.

_Cervidoe_, of the Miocene period; of the Pliocene; of the

Post-Pliocene.

_Cervus; capreolus; elaphus; megaceros; tarandus_.

_Cestracion Philippi_.

Cestracionts, of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous; of the Permian;

of the Trias; of the Jurassic; of the Cretaceous.

_Cetacea_; of the Eocene; of the Miocene.

_Cetiosaurus_.

_Choeropotamus_.

_Choetetes; tumidus_.

Chain-coral.

Chalk; structure of; Foraminifera of; origin of; with flints;

without flints.

_Chama_.

_Chamoerops; Helvetica_.

Chazy Limestone.

_Cheiroptera_, of the Eocene; of the Miocene.

_Cheirotherium_.

_Cheirurus; bimucronatus_.

_Chelichnus Duncani_.

_Chelone Benstedi; planiceps_.

_Chelonia_, of the Permian; of the Jurassic; of the Cretaceous;

of the Eocene; of the Miocene.

_Chemnitzia_.

Chemung Group.

Chert.

Chillesford Beds.

_Chonetes; Hardrensis_.

_Chonophyllum_.

_Cidaris_.

Cincinnati Group.

_Cinnamomum polymorphum_.

Cinnamon-trees.

_Cladodus_.

Claiborne Beds.

_Clathropora; intertexta_.

Clay; Red, origin of.

Clay-ironstone, nodules of.

_Cleidophorus_.

_Cleodora_.

_Climacograptus_.

Clinton Formation.

_Clisiophyllum_.

_Clupeidoe_.

_Clymenia; Sedgwickii_.

Coal; structure of; mode of formation of.

Coal-measures; mineral characters of; mode of formation of;

plants of.

Coccoliths.

_Coccosteus_.

_Cochliodus; cantortus_.

_Coleoptera_.

_Colossochelys Atlas_.

_Columnaria; alveolata_.

_Comatula_.

Conclusions to be drawn from Fossils.

Concretions, calcareous; phosphatic; of clay-ironstone;

of manganese.

Conglomerate.

_Coniferoe_; wood of; of Devonian period; of the Carboniferous;

of the Permian; of the Trias; of the Jurassic period.

Coniston Flags and Grits.

Connecticut Sandstones, footprints of.

_Conocoryphe Mathewi; Sultzeri_.

Conodonts.

_Constellaria_.

Constricting serpents of the Eocene.

Contemporaneity of strata.

Continuity, theory of.

_Conularia; ornata_.

_Conulus_.

_Conus_.

Coomhola Grits.

Coprolites.

Coralline Crag.

Corallines.

_Corallium_.

Coral-rag.

Coral-reefs.

Coral-rock.

Coral-sand.

Corals; of the Lower Silurian; of the Upper Silurian; of the

Devonian; of the Carboniferous; of the Permian; of the Trias;

of the Jurassic; of the Cretaceous; of the Eocene; of the

Miocene.

_Corbula_.

Cornbrash.

Corniferous Limestone.

_Cornulites_.

Cornus.

_Coryphodon_.

Cowries.

Crabs.

Crag, Red; White; Norwich; Antwerp; Bridlington; Coralline.

_Crania; Ignabergensis_.

_Crassatella_.

_Crepidophyllum; Archiaci_.

Cretaceous period; rocks of, in Britain; in North America;

life of.

Crinoidal Limestone.

_Crinoidea_; of the Cambrian; of the Lower Silurian; of the

Upper Silurian; of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous; of the

Permian; of the Triss; of the Jurassic; of the Cretaceous;

of the Eocene.

_Crioceras; cristatum_.

_Crocodilia_; of the Trias; of the Jurassic; of the Cretaceous;

of the Eocene.

Cromer Forest-bed.

_Crossozamites_.

_Crotalocrinus_.

_Crustacea_, of the Cambrian; of the Lower Silurian; of the Upper

Silurian; of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous; of the Permian;

of the Trias; of the Jurassic; of the Cretaceous.

Cryptogams.

_Ctenacanthus_.

_Ctenodonta_.

_Cupressus_.

Cursores.

Cuttle-fishes (_see_ Dibranchiate Cephalopods).

_Cyathocrinus_.

_Cyathophyllum_.

_Cycadopteris_.

Cycads; of the Carboniferous; of the Permian; of the Trias;

of the Jurassic; of the Cretaceous.

_Cyclas_.

_Cyclonema_.

_Cyclophthalmus senior_.

_Cyclostoma; Arnoudii_.

_Cynodraco_.

_Cyproea; elegans_.

Cypress.

_Cypridina_.

Cypridina Slates.

_Cyrena_.

_Cyrtina_.

_Cyrtoceras_.

_Cystiphyllum; vesiculosum_.

_Cystoidea_; of the Cambrian; of the Lower Silurian; of

the Upper Silurian.

Dachstein Beds.

_Dadoxylon_.

_Daonella; Lommelli_.

_Dasornis Londinensis_.

Decapod Crustaceans.

Deer.

_Deinosauria_; of the Trias; of the Jurassic; of the Cretaceous.

_Deinotherium; giganteum_.

Denbighshire Flags and Grits.

_Dendrocrinus_.

_Dendrograptus_.

Desmids.

Devonian Formation; origin of name; relation to Old Red Sandstone;

of Devonshire; of North America; life of.

_Diadema_.

Diatoms; of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous; of flints; of

Richmond Earth.

Dibranchiate Cephalopods; of the Trias; of the Jurassic; of

the Cretaceous; of the Eocene; of the Miocene.

_Diceras; arietina_.

Diceras Limestone.

_Dichobune_.

_Dichograptus; octobrachiatus_.

Dicotyledonous plants.

_Dicotyles antiquus_.

_Dicranograptus_.

_Dictyonema; sociale_.

_Dicynodon; lacerticeps_.

_Didelphys; gypsorum_.

_Didus ineptus_.

_Didymograptus; divaricatus_.

_Dikellocephalus Celticus; Minnesotensis_.

_Dimorphodon_.

_Dinichthys; Hertzeri_.

_Ditoceras; mirabilis_.

_Dinocerata_.

_Dinophis_.

_Dinornis; elephantopus; giganteus_.

_Dinosauria_ (see _Deinosauria_).

_Dinotherium_ (see _Deinotherium_).

_Diphyphyllum_.

_Diplograptus; pristis_.

_Dipnoi_.

_Diprotodon; australis_.

_Diptera_.

_Discina_.

_Discoidea; cylindrica_.

_Dithyrocaris; Scouleri_.

Dodo.

Dog whelks.

Dolomite.

Dolomitic Couglomerate of Bristol.

Dolphins.

_Dorcatherium_.

Downton Sandstone.

_Draco volans_.

Dragon-flies.

Drift, Glacial.

_Dremotherium_.

_Dromatherium sylvestre_.

_Dryandra_.

_Dryopithecus_.

Dugougs.

_Echinodermata_, of the Cambrian; of the Lower Silurian; of the

Upper Silurian; of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous; of the

Permian; of the Trias; of the Jurassic; of the Cretaceous;

of the Eocene.

_Echinoidea_; of the Upper Silurian; or the Devonian; of the

Carboniferous; of the Permian; of the Jurassic; of the

Cretaceous.

_Edentata_; of the Eocene; of the Miocene; of the Post-Pliocene.

_Edriocrinus_.

Eifel Limostone.

_Elasmobranchii_ (_See_ Placoid Fishes).

_Elasmosaurus_.

Elephants.

_Elphas; Americanus; antiquus; Falconeri; Melitensis; meridionalis;

planifrons; primigenius_.

Elk; Irish.

_Ellipsocephalus Hoffi_.

_Elotherium_.

_Emydidoe_.

_Emys_.

Enaliosaurians.

Encrinital warble.

_Encrinurus_.

_Encrinus liliiformis_.

Endogenous plants.

_Endophyllum_.

_Endothyra; Bailyi_.

Engis skull.

_Entomis_.

_Entomoconchus Scouleri_.

Eocene period; rocks of, in Britain; in France; in North

America; life of.

_Eocidaris_.

_Eophyton; Linneanum_.

Eophyton Sandstone.

_Eosaurus Acadianus_.

Eozoic rocks.

_Eozoön Bavaricum_.

_Eozoön Canadense_; appearance of, in mass; minute structure

of; affinities of, with _Foraminifera_.

_Ephemeridoe_.

_Equisetaceoe_.

_Equisetites_.

_Equidoe_.

_Equus; caballus; excelsus; fossilis_.

_Eridophyllum_.

_Eryon arctiformis_.

_Eschara_.

_Escharidoe_.

_Escharina; Oceani_.

_Estheria; tenella_.

_Eucalyptocrinus; polydactylus_.

_Eucladia_.

_Euomphalus; discors_.

_Euplectella_.

_Euproöps_.

European Bison.

_Eurypterida_; of the Upper Silurian; of the Devonian.

Even-toed Ungulates.

Exogenous plants.

_Exogyra; virgula_.

Extinction of species.

_Fagus_.

Faluns.

Fan-palms.

_Favistella_.

_Favostites; Gothlandica; hemisphoerica_.

Faxöe Limestone.

_Felis angustus; leo; speloea_.

_Fenestella; cribrosa; magnifica; retiformis_.

_Fenestellidoe_.

Ferns, of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous; of the Permian;

of the Trias; of the Jurassic; of the Cretaceous.

Fig-shells.

Fishes; of the Upper Silurian; of the Devonian; of the

Carboniferous; of the Permian; of the Trias; of the

Jurassic; of the Cretaceous; of the Eocene; of the

Miocene.

Flint; structure of; origin of; organisms of; of Chalk.

Human implements associated with bones of extinct Mammals.

Flora (_see_ Plants).

Footprints of _Cheirotherium_; of the Triassic sandstones of

Connecticut.

_Foraminifera_; of the Cambrian; of the Lower Silurian;

of the Carboniferous; of the Permian; of the Trias; of the

Jurassic; of the Cretaceous; of the Eocene; of the Miocene;

of the Post-Pliocene; of Atlantic ooze; as builders of

limestone; as forming green sands.

_Forbesiocrinus_.

Forest-bed of Cromer.

Forest-bugs.

Forest-marble.

Formation, definition of; succession of.

Fossiliferous rocks; chronological succession of.

Fossilisation, processes of.

Fossils, definition of; distinctive, of rock-groups; conclusions

to be drawn from; biological relations of.

Foxes.

Fringe-finned Ganoids.

Fucoidal Sandstone.

Fucoids.

Fuller's Earth.

_Fusulina; cylindrica_.

_Fusus_.

_Galeocerdo_.

_Galerites; albo-galerus_.

_Galestes_.

Ganoid Fishes; of the Upper Silurian; of the Devonian; of the

Carboniferous; of the Permian; of the Trias; of the Jurassic;

of the Cretaceous; of the Eocene.

Gaspé Beds.

_Gasteropoda_, of the Cambrian; of the Lower Silurian; of the

Upper Silurian; of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous; of the

Permian; of the Trias; of the Jurassic; of the Cretaceous;

of the Eocene.

_Gastornis Parisiensis_.

Gault.

Gavial.

Genesee Slates.

Geological record, breaks in the.

Giraffes.

Glacial period; deposits of.

_Glandulina_.

Glauconite.

_Glauconome; pulcherrima_.

Globe Crinoids (_see_ Cystoidea).

_Globigerina_.

Glutton.

_Glyptaster_.

_Glyptocrinus_.

_Glyptodon; clavipes_.

_Glyptoloemus_.

Goats.

_Goniatites; Jossoe_.

_Gorgonidoe_.

_Grallatores_.

Graphite; mode of occurrence of; origin of.

_Graptolites_; structure of; of the Lower Silurian; of the

Upper Silurian.

Great Oolite; Upper.

Greenland. Miocene plants of.

Greensand, Lower.

Green sands, origin of.

_Grevillea_.

_Griffithides_.

Grizzly Bear.

Groond Sloths.

_Gryphoea; incurva_.

Guelph Limestone.

_Gulo luscus; speloeus_.

Guttenstein Beds.

Gymnospermous Exogens.

Gypsum.

_Gyracanthus_.

_Gyroceras_.

_Hadrosaurus_.

_Halitherium_.

Hallstadt Beds.

_Halobia_.

_Halysites; agglomerata; catenularia_.

Hamilton formation.

_Hamites; rotundus_.

_Haplophlebium Barnesi_.

Harlech Grits.

_Harpes; ungula_.

Hastings Sands.

Headon and Osborne series.

Heart-urchins.

_Heliolites_.

_Heliophyllum; exiguum_.

_Helix_.

_Helladotherium_.

_Helopora fragilis_.

_Hemicidaris crenularis_.

_Hemiptera_.

_Hemitrochiscus paradoxus_.

Hempstead Beds.

_Hesperornis; regalis_.

_Heteropoda_; of the Lower Silurian; of the Upper Silurian;

of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous.

_Hinnites_.

_Hipparion_.

_Hippopodium_.

_Hippopotamus; amphibus; major; Sivalensis_.

_Hippothoa_.

Hippurite Marble.

_Hippurites; Toucasiana_.

_Hippuritidoe_.

_Histioderma_.

Hollow-horned Ruminants.

_Holocystis elegan_.

_Holopea; Subconica_.

_Holopella; obsoleta_.

_Holoptychius; nobilissimus_.

Holostomatous Univalves.

Holothurians.

_Holtenia_.

_Homacanthus_.

_Homalonotus; armatus_.

_Homo diluvii testis_.

Honeycomb Corals.

Hoofed Quadrupeds.

Hudson River Group.

Huronian Period; rocks of.

_Hyoena crocuta; speloea; Hipparionum_.

_Hyoenictis_.

_Hyoenodon_.

_Hyalea D'Orbignyana_.

_Hybodus_.

_Hydractinia_.

Hydroid Zoophytes.

_Hymenocaris vermicauda_.

_Hymenophyllites_.

_Hymenoptera_.

_Hyopotamus_.

_Hyperodapedon_.

_Hypsiprymnopsis_.

_Hystrix primigenius_.

_Ichthyocrinus loevis_.

_Ichthyornis; dispar_.

_Ichthyosaurus; communis_.

_Ictitherium_.

_Iguana_.

_Iguanodon; Mantelli_.

Ilfracombe Group.

_Illoenus_.

Imperfection of the palæontological record.

Inferior Oolite.

Infusorial Earth.

_Inoceramus; sulcatus_.

_Insectivora_, of the Eocene; of the Miocene.

Insects, of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous; of the Jurassic;

of the Miocene.

Irish Elk.

_Ischadites_.

Isopod Crustaceans.

Jackson Beds.

Jurassic period; rocks of; life of.

_Kaidacarpum_.

Kainozoic period.

Kangaroo.

Kelloway Rock.

Kent's Cavern, deposits in.

Keuper.

Kimmeridge Clay.

King-crabs.

_Koninckia_.

Kössen Beds.

_Labyrinthodon Joegeri_.

_Labyrinthodontia_; of the Carboniferous; of the Permian;

of the Trias.

Lace-corals.

_Lacertilia_; of the Permian; of the Trias; of the Jurassic;

of the Cretaceous.

_Loelaps_.

_Lamellibranchiata_, of the Cambrian; of the Lower Silurian;

of the Upper Silurian; of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous;

of the Permian; of the Trias; of the Jurassic; of the

Cretaceous; of the Eocene.

_Lamna_.

Lamp-shells (see _Brachiopoda_).

Land-tortoises.

_Lauraceoe_.

Laurentian period; rocks of; Lower Laurentian; Upper Laurentian;

areas occupied by Laurentian rocks; limestones of; iron-ores of;

phosphate of lime of; graphite of; life of.

Leaf-beds of the Isle of Mull.

_Leda; truncata_.

_Leguminosites Marcouanus_.

Lemming.

_Lepadidoe_.

_Lepadocrinus Gebhardi_.

_Leperditia; canadensis_.

_Lepidaster_.

_Lepidechinus_.

_Lepidesthes_.

Lepidodendroids.

_Lepidodendron; Sternberg_.

_Lepidoptera_.

_Lepidosiren_.

_Lepidosteus_.

_Lepidostrobus_.

_Lepidotus_.

_Leptoena; Liassica; sericea_.

_Leptocoelia; plano-convexa_.

Lias.

Lichas.

_Licrophycus Ottawaensis_.

Lignitic Formation of North America.

Lily-encrinite.

_Lima_.

Lime, phosphate of.

Limestone; varieties of; origin of; microscopical structure of;

Crinoidal; Foraminiferal; coralline; magnesian; metamorphic;

oolitic; pisolitic; bituminous; Laurentian.

_Limnoea; pyramidalis_.

_Limulus_.

_Lingula; Credneri_.

Lingula Flags.

_Lingulella; Davisii; ferruginea_.

_Liriodendron; Meeki_.

_Lithostrotion; irregulare_.

_Lituites_.

Lizards (see _Lacertilia_).

Llama.

Llanberis Slates.

Llandeilo rocks.

Llandovery rocks; Lower; Upper.

Lobsters.

Loess.

London Clay.

Longmynd rocks.

_Lonsdaleia_.

_Lophiodon_.

_Lophophyllum_.

Lower Cambrian; Chalk; Cretaceous; Devonian; Eocene; Greensand;

Helderberg; Laurentian rocks; Ludlow rock; Miocene; Old Red

Sandstone; Oolites; Silurian period; rocks of, in Britain; in

North America; life of.

_Loxonema_.

Ludlow rock.

_Lycopodiaceoe_.

Lynton Group.

_Lyrodesma_.

Macaques.

_Machoeracanthus major_.

_Machairodus; cultridens_.

_Maclurea; crenulata_.

_Macrocheilus_.

_Macropetalichthys; Sullivanti_.

_Macrotherium giganteum_.

_Macrurous Crustaceans_.

_Mactra_.

Maestricht Chalk.

Magnesian Limestone; nature and structure of; of the Permian

series.

Magnolia.

_Mammalia_, of the Trias; of the Jurassic; of the Eocene; of

the Miocene; of the Pliocene; of the Post-Pliocene.

Mammoth.

Man, remains of, in Post-Pliocene deposits.

Manatee.

_Mantellia; megalophylla_.

Maple.

Marble; encrinital; statuary.

Marcellus Shales.

_Mariacrinus_.

Marmots.

Marsupials; of the Trias; of the Jurassic; of the Eocene; of

the Miocene; of the Post-Pliocene.

_Marsupiocrinus_.

_Marsupites_.

_Mastodon; Americanus, angustidens; Arvenensis; longirostris;

Ohioticus; Sivalensis_.

Medina Sandstone.

_Megalichthys_.

_Megalodon_.

_Megalomus_.

_Megalonyx_.

_Megalosaurus_.

_Megatherium; Cuvieri_.

_Melania_.

_Melonites_.

Menevian Group.

_Menobranchus_.

_Meristella; cylindrica; intermedia; naviformis_.

_Mesopithecus_.

Mesozoic Period.

_Michelinia_.

_Micraster_.

_Microlestes; antiquus_.

Middle Devonian; Eocene; Oolites; Silurian.

Miliolite Limestone.

_Millepora_.

Millstone Grit.

Miocene period; rocks of, in Britain; in France; in Belgium;

in Switzerland; in Austria; in Germany; in Italy; in India;

in North America; life of.

Mitre-shells.

_Mitra_.

Moas of New Zealand.

_Modiolopsis; Solvensis_.

Molasse.

Mole.

Monkeys.

Monocotyledonous plant.

_Monograptus; priodon_.

_Monotis_.

Monte Bolca, fishes of.

_Montlivaltia_.

Mosasauroids.

_Mosasaurus; Camperi; princeps_.

Mountain Limestone.

Mud-fishes.

Mud-turtles.

Mull, Miocene strata of.

_Murchisonia; gracilis_.

_Murex.

Muschelkalk.

Musk-deer.

Musk-ox.

Musk-sheep.

_Myliobatis Edwardsii_.

_Mylodon; robustus_.

_Myophoria; lineata_.

_Myriapoda_ of the Coal.

_Nassa_.

_Natatores_.

_Natica_.

_Nautilus; Danicus; pompilius_.

Neanderthal skull.

Neocomian series.

_Neolimulus_.

_Nerinoea; Goodhallii_.

_Nerita_.

_Neuroptera_.

_Neuropteris_.

Newer Pliocene.

New Red Sandstone.

Newts.

Niagara Limestone.

_Nipadites; ellipticus_.

_Noeggerathia_.

Norwich Crag.

_Nothosaurus; mirabilis_.

_Notidanus_.

_Numenius gypsorum_.

_Nummulina; loevigata; pristina_.

_Nummulitic Limestone_.

Oak.

_Obolella; sagittalis_.

Odd-toed Ungulates.

_Odontaspis_.

_Odontopteris; Schlotheimi_.

_Odontopteryx; toliapicus_.

_Odontornithes_.

_Ogygia; Buchii_.

Older Pliocene.

_Oldhamia; antiqua_; slates of Ireland.

Old Red Sandstone; origin of name; of Scotland; relations of,

to Devonian.

_Olenus; micrurus_.

Oligocene.

_Oligoporus_.

Olive-shells.

_Omphyma_.

_Onchus; tenuistriatus_.

Oneida Conglomerate.

_Onychodus; sigmoides_.

Oolitic limestone, structure of; mode of formation of.

Oolitic rocks (_see_ Jurassic).

Ooze, Atlantic.

_Ophidia_; of the Eocene.

_Ophiuroidea_, of the Lower Silurian; of the Upper Silurian;

of the Carboniferous; of the Trias; of the Jurassic.

Opossum.

_Orbitoides_.

Oriskany Sandstone.

_Ormoxylon_.

_Orohippus_.

_Orthis; biforata; Davidsoni; elegantula; flabellulum; Hicksii;

lenticularis; plicatella; resupinata; subquadrala; testudinaria_.

_Orthoceras; crebriseptum_.

_Orthonota_.

_Orthoptera_.

_Osmeroides; Mantelli_.

_Osmerus_.

_Ostealepis_.

_Ostracode_ Crustaceans of the Cambrian; of the Lower Silurian;

of the Upper Silurian; of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous;

of the Permian; of the Trias; of the Jurassic; of the Cretaceous.

_Ostrea acuminata; Couloni; deltoidea; distorta; expansa, gregarea;

Marshii_.

_Otodus; obtiquus_.

_Otozamites_.

_Otozoum_.

_Oudenodon; Bainii_.

_Ovibos moschatus_.

Oxford Clay.

_Oxyrhina; xiphodon_.

Oysters.

_Pachyphyllum_.

_Paloearca_.

_Paloeaster; Ruthveni_.

_Palasterina; primoeva_.

_Paloechinus; ellipticus_.

_Paloeocaris; typus_.

_Paloeocoma; Colvini_.

_Paloeocoryne_.

Palæolithic man, remains of.

_Paloeomanon_.

_Paloeoniscus_.

_Paloeontina Oolitica_.

Palæontological evidence as to Evolution.

Palæontological record, imperfection of the.

Palæontology, definition of.

_Paloeonyctis_.

_Paloeophis; toliapictus; typhoeus_.

_Paloeoreas_.

_Paloeosaurus; platyodon_.

_Paloeosiren Beinerti_.

_Paloeotherium; magnum_.

_Paloeoxylon_.

Palæozoic period.

Palms.

_Paludina_.

_Pandaneoe_.

_Pandanus_.

_Paradoxides; Bohemicus_.

_Parasmilia_.

_Parkeria_.

Pear Encrinite.

Pearly Nautilus.

Peccaries.

_Pecopteris_.

_Pecten Groenlandicus; Islandicus; Valoniensis_.

Penarth Beds.

_Pennatulidoe_.

_Pentacrinus; caput-medusoe; fasciculosus_.

_Pentamerus; galeatus; Knightii_.

_Pentremites_ (_see_ Blastoidea).

_Pentremites conoideus; pyriformis_.

Perching Birds.

_Percidoe_.

_Periechocrinus_.

_Perissodactyle Ungulates_.

Permian period; rocks of, in Britain; in North America;

life of.

Persistent types of life.

_Petalodus_.

_Petraster_.

Petroleum, origin of.

Pezophaps.

_Phacops; Downingioe; granulatus; loevis; latifrons;

longicaudatus; rana_.

_Phoenopora ensiformis_.

Phalangers.

Phanerogams.

_Phaneropleuron_.

_Phascolotherium_.

_Pheronema_.

_Phillipsastroea_.

_Phillipsia; seminifera_.

_Pholadomya_.

_Phormosoma_.

_Phorus_.

Phosphate of lime, concretions of; disseminated in rocks; origin of.

_Phyllograptus; typus_.

_Phyllopoda_, of the Cambrian; of the Lower Silurian; of the

Upper Silurian; of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous; of the

Permian; of the Trias.

_Phyllopora_.

_Physa; columnaris_.

Pigs.

Pilton Group.

_Pinites_.

_Pisces (_see_ Fishes).

_Pisolite_.

Pisolitic Limestone of France.

_Placodus; gigas_.

Placoid Fishes; of the Upper Silurian; of the Devonian; of

the Carboniferous; of the Permian; of the Trias; of the

Jurassic; of the Cretaceous; of the Eocene; of the Miocene.

_Plagiaulax_.

_Planolites; vulgaris_.

_Planorbis_.

Plants, of the Cambrian; of the Lower Silurian; of the Upper

Silurian; of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous; of the

Permian; of the Trias; of the Jurassic; of the Cretaceous;

of the Eocene; of the Miocene.

_Plasmopora_.

_Platanus; aceroides_.

_Platephemera antiqua_.

_Platyceras; dumosum; multisinuatum; ventricosum_.

_Platycrinus; tricontadactylus_.

_Platyostoma; Niagarense_.

Platyrhine Monkeys.

_Platyschisma helicites_.

_Platysomus; gibbosus_.

_Platystoma_.

Pleistocene period; climate of.

_Plesiosaurus; dolichodeirus_.

_Pleurocystites squamosus_.

_Pleurotoma_.

_Pleurotomaria_.

_Plicatula_.

Pliocene period; rocks of, in Britain; in Belgium; in

Italy; in North America; life of.

_Pliopithecus; antiquus_.

_Pliosaurus_.

_Podocarya_.

_Podozamites; lanceolatus_.

Polir-schiefer.

_Polycystina_; of Barbadoes-earth.

_Polypora; dendroides_.

_Polypterus_.

_Polystomella_.

_Polytremacis_.

_Polyzoa_, of the Cambrian; of the Lower Silurian; of the

Upper Silurian; of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous; of the

Permian; of the Trias; of the Cretaceous; of the Miocene.

_Populus_.

_Porcellia_.

Porcupines.

Portage Group.

Port-Jackson Shark.

Portland beds.

Post-Glacial deposits.

Post-Pliocene period.

Post-Tertiary period.

_Poteriocrinus_.

Potsdam Sandstone.

Pre-Glacial deposits.

_Prestwichia; rotundata_.

_Primitia; strangulata_.

Primordial Trilobites.

Primordial zone.

_Proboscidea_, of the Miocene; of the Pliocene; of the

Post-Pliocene.

_Producta; horrida; longispina; semireticulata_.

_Productella_.

_Productidoe_.

_Proëtus_.

Prong-buck.

_Protaster; Sedgwickii_.

_Proteaceoe_.

_Proteus_.

_Protichnites_.

_Protocystites_.

_Protornis Glarisiensis_.

_Protorosaurus; Speneri_.

_Protospongia; fenestrata_.

_Prototaxites; Logani_.

_Psammobia_.

_Psammodus_.

_Psaronius_.

_Pseudocrinus bifasciatus_.

_Psilophyton; princeps_.

_Pteranodon; longiceps_.

_Pteraspis; Banksii_.

_Pterichthys; cornutus_.

_Pterinoea; subfalcata_.

_Pteroceras_.

_Pterodactylus; crassirostris_.

_Pterophyllum; Joegeri_.

_Pteropoda_, of the Cambrian; of the Lower Silurian; of

the Upper Silurian; of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous;

of the Permian; of the Jurassic.

_Pterosauria_; of the Jurassic; of the Cretaceous.

_Pterygotus Anglicus_.

_Ptilodictya; acuta; falciformis; raripora; Schafferi_.

_Ptychoceras; Emericianum_.

_Ptychodus_.

_Pupa vetusta_.

Purbeck Beds; Mammals of.

_Puryuroidea_.

_Pycnodus_.

_Pyrula_.

_Quadrumana_, of the Eocene; of the Miocene; of the

Pliocene; of the Post-Pliocene.

Quadrupeds (_see_ Mammalia).

Quaternary period.

Quebec Group.

_Quercus_.

Rabbits.

_Rana_.

_Raptores_.

_Rasores_.

Recent period.

_Reptaculites_.

Red clays, origin of.

Red Coral.

Red Crag.

Red Deer.

Reindeer.

_Remopleurides_.

Reptiles; of the Permian; of the Trias; of the Jurassic; of

the Cretaceous; of the Eocene.

_Retepora; Ehrenbergi; Phillipsi_.

_Retiolites_.

_Retzia_.

_Rhætic Beds_.

_Rhamphorhynchus; Bucklandi_.

_Rhinoceridoe_.

_Rhinoceros Etruscus; leptorhinus; megarhinus; tichorhinus_.

_Rhinopora verrucosa_.

_Rhizodus_.

_Rhombus minimus_.

Rhyncholites.

_Rhynchonella; cuneata; neglecta; pleurodon; varians.

_Rhynchosaurus; articeps.

Rice-shells.

Richmond Earth.

Ringed Worms (_see_ Annelida).

River-gravels, high-level and low-level.

_Robulina_.

Rocks, definition of; divisions of; igneous; aqueous;

mechanically-formed; chemically-formed; organically-formed;

arenaceous; argillaceous; calcareous; siliceous.

_Rodentia_, of the Eocene; of the Miocene; of the

Post-Pliocene.

Roebuck.

_Rostellaria_.

_Rotalia; Boueana_.

Rugose Corals; of the Lower Silurian; of the Upper Silurian;

of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous; of the Permian; of

the Upper Greensand.

Rupelian Clay.

_Sabal major_.

Sabre-toothed Tiger.

_Saccammina_.

_Saccosoma.

Salamanders.

Salina Group.

_Salix; Meeki_.

_Salmonidoe_.

_Sao hirsuta_.

_Sassafras cretacea_.

_Sauropterygia_.

_Scalaria; Groenlandica_.

_Scaphites; oequalis_.

_Schizodus_.

Schoharie Grit.

_Scolecoderma_.

_Scoliostoma_.

_Scolithus; Canadensis_.

Scorpions of the Coal-measures.

Scorpion-shells.

Screw-pines.

_Scutella; subrotunda_.

Sea-cows (_see_ Sirenia).

Sea-lilies (_see_ Crinoidea).

Sea-lizards (_see_ Enaliosaurians).

Seals.

Sea-mats and Sea-mosses (_see_ Polyzoa).

Sea-shrubs (_see_ Gorgonidæ).

Sea-urchins (_see_ Echinoidea).

Sea-weeds.

Secondary period.

Sedimentary rocks.

_Semnopithecus_.

Septaria.

_Sequoia; Couttsioe; gigantea; Langsdorffii_.

_Serolis_.

Serpents (_see_ Ophidia).

_Serpulites_.

Sewâlik Hills (_see_ Siwâlik Hills).

Sheep.

Shell-sands.

_Sigillaria; Groeseri_.

Sigillarioids.

Silicates, infiltration of the shells of Foraminifera by.

Siliceous rocks.

Siliceous Sponges.

Silicification.

Silurian period (_see_ Lower Silurian and Upper Silurian).

_Simosaurus; Gaillardoti_.

_Siphonia; ficus_.

Siphonostomatous Univalves.

_Siphonotreta_.

_Sirenia_; of the Eocene; of the Miocene.

_Siren lacertina_.

_Sivatherium; giganteum_.

Siwâlik Hills, Miocene strata of.

Skiddaw Slates.

Sloths.

_Smilax_.

_Smithia_.

Snakes (_see_ Ophidia).

Soft Tortoises.

_Solarium_.

Solenhofen Slates.

Solitaire.

_Spalacotherium_.

_Spatangus_.

_Sphoerospongia_.

_Sphagodus_.

_Sphenodon_.

_Sphenopteris_.

Spiders of the Coal-measures.

Spider-shells.

Spindle-shells.

_Spirifera; crispa; disjuncta; hysterica; mucronata; Niagarensis;

rostrata; sculptilis; trigonalis_.

_Spiriferidoe_.

_Spirophyton cauda-Galli_.

_Spirorbis; Arkonensis; Carbonarus; laxus; Lewisii; omphalodes;

spinulifera_.

_Spirulirostra_.

_Spondylus; spinosus_.

Sponges, of the Cambrian; of the Lower Silurian; of the Upper

Silurian; of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous; of the Permian;

of the Trias; of the Jurassic; of the Cretaceous.

_Spongilla_.

_Spongillopsis_.

_Spongophyllum_.

Spore-eases, of Cryptogams in the Ludlow rocks; in the Coal.

Squirrels.

_Stagonolepis_.

Staircase-shell.

Stalactite.

Stalagmite.

Star-corals.

Star-fishes.

St Cassian Beds.

_Stephanophyllia_.

_Stereognathus_.

_Stigmaria; ficoides_.

Stonesfield Slate; Mammals of.

Strata, contemporaneity of.

Stratified rock.

_Streptelasma_.

_Streptorhynchus_.

_Stromatopora; rugosa; tuberculata_.

_Strombodes; pentagonus_.

_Strombus_.

_Strophalosia_.

_Strophodus_.

_Strophomena; alternata; deltoidea; filitexta; rhomboidalis;

Subplana_.

Sub-Apennine Beds.

Sub-Carboniferous rocks.

Succession of life upon the globe.

_Suida_.

Sulphate of lime.

_Sus Erymanthius; scrofa_.

_Synastroea_.

_Synhelia Sharpeana_.

_Synocladia; virgulacea_.

_Syringopora; ramulosa_.

Tabulate Corals; of the Lower Silurian; of the Upper Silurian;

of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous; of the Permian.

_Talpa Europoea_.

_Tapiridoe_.

Tapirs.

_Tapirus Arvernensis_.

_Taxocrinus tuberculatus_.

_Taxodium_.

_Teleosaurus_.

Teleostean Fishes; of the Cretaceous.

_Telerpeton Elginense_.

_Tellina proxima_.

_Tentaculites; ornatus_.

_Terebra_.

_Terebratella; Astleriana_.

_Terebratula; digona; elongata; hastata; quadrifida;

sphoeroidalis_.

_Terebratulina; caput-serpentis; striata_.

Termites.

Terrapins.

Tertiary period.

Tertiary rocks, classification of.

_Testudinidoe_.

Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods; of the Cambrian; of the Lower

Silurian; of the Upper Silurian; of the Devonian; of the

Carboniferous; of the Permian; of the Trias; of the Jurassic;

of the Cretaceous; of the Eocene; of the Miocene.

_Textularia; Meyeriana_.

Thanet Sands.

_Theca_.

_Theca Davidii_.

_Thecidium_.

Thecodont Reptiles.

_Thecodontosaurus; antiquus_.

_Thecosmilia annularis_.

_Thelodus_.

Theriodont Reptiles.

_Thylacoleo_.

Tile-stones.

_Titanotherium_.

Toothed Birds.

Tortoises.

_Tragoceras_.

Travertine.

Tree-Ferns, of the Devonian; of the Coal-measures.

Tremadoc Slates.

_Trematis_.

Trenton Limestone.

_Trianthrus Beckii_.

Triassic period; rocks of, in Britain; in Germany; in the

Austrian Alps; in North America; life of.

_Triconodon_.

_Trigonia_.

_Trigoniadoe_.

_Trigonocarpum; ovatum_.

Trilobites; of the Cambrian; of the Lower Silurian; of the

Upper Silurian; of the Devonian; of the Carboniferous.

_Trimerellidoe_.

_Trinucleus; concentricus_.

_Trionycidoe_.

_Triton_.

_Trochocyathus_.

_Trochonema_.

_Trogontherium; Cuvieri_.

Trumpet-shells.

Tulip-tree.

_Turbinolia sulcata_.

_Turbinolidoe_.

_Turrilites; catenulatus_.

_Turritella_.

Turtles.

_Typhis tubifer_.

_Ullmania selaginoides_.

Unconformability of strata.

Under-clay of coal.

_Ungulata_, of the Eocene; of the Miocene; of the

Pliocene; of the Post-Pliocene.

Uniformity, doctrine of.

_Unio_.

Univalves (_see_ Gasteropoda).

Upper Cambrian; Chalk; Cretaceous; Devonian; Eocene; Greensand;

Helderberg; Laurentian; Llandovery; Ludlow rock; Miocene;

Oolites; Silurian period; rocks of, in Britain; in North

America; life of.

_Ursus arctos; Arvernensis; ferox; speloea_.

_Ursus_.

Valley-gravels, high-level and low-level.

_Vanessa Pluto_.

_Varanidoe_.

Vegetation (_see_ Plants).

_Ventriculites; simplex_.

Venus's Flower-basket.

_Vermilia_.

_Vespertilio Parisiensis_.

Vicksburg Beds.

Vines.

Vitreous Sponges.

_Voltzia; heterophylla_.

_Voluta; elongata_.

Volutes.

_Walchia; piniformis_.

Walrus.

Wealden Beds.

_Wellingtonia_.

Wenlock Beds; Limestone; Shale.

Wentle-traps.

Werfen Beds.

Whalebone Whales.

Whales.

Whelks.

White Chalk; structure of; origin of.

White Crag.

White River Beds.

Wild Boar.

_Williamsonia_.

Winged Lizards (_see_ Pterosauria).

Winged Snails (_see_ Pteropods).

Wing-shells.

Wolf.

Wolverine.

Wombats.

Woolhope Limestone.

Woolly Rhinoceros.

Woolwich and Reading Beds.

Worm-burrows.

_Xanthidia_.

_Xenoneura antiquorum_.

_Xiphodon_.

_Xylobius; Sigillarioe_.

_Zamia spiralis_.

_Zamites_.

_Zaphrentis; cornicula; Stokesi; vermicularis_.

_Zeacrinus_.

Zechstein.

_Zeuglodon; cetoides_.