A SERIES OF PRACTICAL HOWS
HOW TO BREATHE
And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, and
breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man
became a living soul.[1] --THE BIBLE
These words were spoken several thousand years ago by one of the
wisest of men, who was inspired by the Master of Life to utter words
of wisdom for the guidance of the children of men. From the moment
those divine words were spoken it seems as though man has been aiming
to get along with as little of the breath of God as possible. The
divine breath is given as freely now as it was at the time of the
creation, and it is ever present to those who are willing to receive
it, as, like God's love, it is not withheld from us, but we withhold
ourselves from it. No soul is ever lost save through its own
determination to go to destruction, and no body suffers for the want
of the life-giving breath except through sin, ignorance, or
wilfulness. The great English preacher, Charles H. Spurgeon, in a
lecture to his students, thus expressed himself: "The next best thing
to the grace of God for a preacher is oxygen." As the world cannot
live without the grace of God, the body cannot exist without oxygen;
and this oxygen is the life-giving property of the air which is drawn
into the lungs and distributed through the body by means of the
blood. Correct breathing insures physical health in that it causes
the blood to circulate properly through all the veins as well as
through the arteries, thus carrying off the particles that otherwise
would remain in the system, decomposing and poisoning the body with
their dead matter. Proper breathing brightens the eye, makes ruddy
the cheek, raises the spirits, clarifies the mind, ennobles the soul,
and forms the voice. Sir George Mivart, the noted English naturalist,
voiced a self-evident fact when he said: "Of all the functions of the
body that of respiration is the most conspicuously necessary for the
maintenance of life," but while it is understood by all thinking
animals that they must breathe in order that they may live, it is not
so clearly evident to man that he must breathe correctly in order
that pure vocal tones may be produced and expressive speech formed.
_The question of breath._ This is of the greatest importance to the
speaker, as by the action of the breathing muscles the voice is
controlled in all things except modulation. Speech is breath and
voice before it becomes speech, and the form it takes as it starts on
its journey at the moment of its creation it must retain until it
ceases to exist. Breath possesses three forms, effusive, expulsive,
and explosive, and whichever of these forms it assumes at the start,
it must retain during its transition into voice and speech. After the
pressure of the breathing muscles against the lungs has forced the
breath into the larynx and produced voice through the vibration of
the vocal cords until that voice has been formed into articulated
sounds by the action of the hard and soft palate, the tongue, the
teeth, and the lips, it must remain, so far as its form is concerned,
exactly as it started. Effusive breath can produce only effusive
voice, effusive voice can be converted into only effusive speech, and
in no manner can this form be altered after the breath has been
expelled from the lungs. The voice is affected and modified by the
resonance chambers, the organs of articulation, and the mentality of
the speaker, but it must be one of the three forms, effusive,
expulsive, or explosive, and it must retain this form from its birth
to its death.
_Respiration._ Respiration is the process of taking air into the
lungs and sending it out. This process of breathing is twofold,
inhalation and exhalation. Inhalation is the taking in of the air,
and exhalation is the sending out of the breath. Normal persons
breathe about twenty times a minute; that is, they inhale twenty
times and exhale twenty times during that period. When the air is
received into the lungs, the oxygen is extracted from it, eaten up,
as it were, and distributed through the system; and, on the
exhalation, the carbonic gas and organic matter is carried out. If a
person is confined within a limited space, and little air permitted
to enter, he will soon consume most of the oxygen contained therein,
poison the atmosphere with the carbonic gas which he throws off, and
die for the want of the life-giving property--oxygen. It is estimated
that almost half the deaths are caused through improper breathing and
the inhalation of vitiated air. Five hundred cubic feet of air every
twenty-four hours is not too much for every human being.
The lungs are the organs of respiration. They are two in number, the
right and the left. The right lung possesses three distinct chambers,
and the left lung is made up of two. The average adult has a lung
capacity, in round numbers, of three hundred and fifty cubic inches,
and uses about thirty cubic inches for an ordinary inhalation and
exhalation, although it would be well if he used forty, or even
fifty, cubic inches of his capacity. There are one hundred cubic
inches of air always in the lungs of an adult which cannot be forced
out by physical exertion and the human animal live. As soon as this
reserve force of air is about to be drawn upon, nature cries out
against its use, causes the being to pant, and forces him to seek
other supplies.
The two lungs are joined to the trachea, or air tube, by means of the
bronchial tubes, and at the upper end of the trachea is the larynx,
or voice box. In the larynx are the two true vocal cords, the
vibration of which produces voice; and this voice, passing into the
mouth, is moulded into speech by the organs of articulation.
_Control of the breath._ There are muscles that act on the lungs and
regulate the entrance of air and the exit of breath. The muscles are:
pectoral, dorsal, costal, intercostal, abdominal, and the diaphragm.
The pectoral muscles hold up the chest and thus allow the air to
enter the upper lobes of the lungs. The dorsal muscles press inward
from the back and assist the abdominal muscles to regulate the action
of the diaphragm. The costal and intercostal muscles cause the ribs
to expand and contract, thus enlarging and decreasing the capacity of
the cavity that contains the lungs. The abdominal muscles act
directly on the diaphragm, causing it to fall and rise. The diaphragm
supports the lungs and is the only muscle that comes in contact with
them.
This is all the information regarding the anatomy of the breathing
muscles that is necessary to an understanding of the instructions
here given for gaining a knowledge of their proper use and management
in connection with the production of speech.
_How is one to breathe properly?_ By inflating the lungs fully from
their base to their apex.
_How can this be accomplished?_ By bringing into use all the muscles
that act on the lungs, particularly the abdominal muscles and the
diaphragm. When inhaling there should be an expansion of the base of
the lungs; and when exhaling there should be a contraction. The upper
lobes of the lungs should be expanded all the time, the chest should
be held upward and outward, whether the person is inhaling or
exhaling; the air is first drawn into the lower lobes, then gradually
rises and forces the air out of the upper lobes, and immediately
takes its place, the upper lobes being filled with air all the time,
whereas the lower lobes are only filled immediately following the
full inhalation, as they commence to decrease in size as soon as the
air starts to rise into the upper lobes. Breathing should be
accomplished without an apparent effort, and air should be taken
whenever the speaker feels it required; he should not continue
speaking until the breath is almost exhausted, but he should
replenish while he feels confident of his ability to utter several
more words without taking another breath.
Breathing should not be audible, but the air should be allowed to
quietly and naturally enter the lungs. This can be accomplished by
expanding the abdominal muscles, thus drawing down the diaphragm,
releasing the pressure from the lungs and permitting the air to enter
them. It requires no effort to inhale. All that is necessary is to
create a vacuum in the lungs, by taking the pressure of the diaphragm
from them, and the air will flow in freely. Avoid "smelling" the air
into the lungs--take bites out of the atmosphere, as it were, and
permit the air to enter the mouth as well as the nose. Habitual mouth
breathing is wrong, and one should always breathe through the nose
when not producing voice, but when speech is required it is necessary
to allow the air to enter through both passages. Unless this is done,
the breathing will be forced and the speaker will always be short of
breath.
It is advisable to exercise physically while practicing breathing,
therefore walking, running, and climbing are great aids in building
up the organs of respiration, and when the exercising must be done
indoors, it is advisable to go through physical movements in
conjunction with the breathing. Movements of the arms that represent
swimming, bending the bow, sawing wood, chopping down trees, etc.,
are highly beneficial as aids in developing deep and full breathing,
and if one is so situated that one can row, swim, cut down trees,
etc., in reality, the exercise brought about by such means will be of
incalculable benefit in building up the breathing mechanism. Most
persons cease to breathe correctly because of a non-use of some of
the muscles and organs of respiration, and the exercises that are
here recommended will compel the employment of all the neglected
adjuncts to correct breathing, and thus bring about effective
respiration.
HOW TO PRODUCE AND USE THE VOICE
A man was not made to shut up his mind in itself, but to
give it voice and to exchange it for other minds.[2]
In order that man may enter into commerce with other men for the
exchange of mental commodities he must have a medium of
communication, and the greatest and noblest of all means is the human
voice. We are thus admonished by one who was entitled to speak, for
he knew how to convey his thought by word of mouth as well as by pen:
Remember that talking is one of the fine arts--the noblest,
the most important, and the most difficult--and that its
fluent harmonies may be spoiled by the intrusion of a
single harsh note.[3]
Let all who would excel as public speakers heed this wise warning and
seek to obtain voices capable of producing "fluent harmonies."
_What is voice?_ Voice is vocalized breath. It is formed in the
larynx, or voice box, and is produced by the breath acting on the
vocal cords and causing them to vibrate. Immediately as voice is
produced it should pass from the larynx into the mouth and be
converted into speech; one of the worst vocal faults, throatiness,
arises from a failure to do this. Voice can be modulated; that is,
its pitch can be raised and lowered, and the whole gamut of vocal
tones can be played upon by means of the change in pitch. The pitch
of the voice is regulated by the tension of the vocal cords and the
distinctive resonance chamber into which the vibration is placed.
There are three such chambers; the chest, the throat, and the head.
Voice and resonance should not be confounded. Resonance is a part of
voice, it is the spirit or essence, as it were, and enters into the
different chambers and thus affects the tone of the voice; but the
voice itself, the body of the sound, must be placed on the lips.
There are three divisions to the speaking voice, the lower, the
middle, and the upper, and by moving the tone from one division to
another the voice is modulated. As before stated, the tension of the
vocal cords and the chamber into which the resonance enters regulate
the pitch of the voice. Tones on the lower register require a lesser
tension of the vocal cords than do tones on the upper register, and
the low tones require that the resonance be placed in the cavity of
the chest, while the high tones necessitate the resonance being
placed in the head. The speaker, however, must not allow his thought
to dwell on the placing of the resonance; he must think only of
getting the speech into the air, because the resonance, or the spirit
of the voice, will enter the proper chamber if the passage is free
and the speaker thinks of where he wishes the voice to go, and pays
no attention as to whence it comes. The voice instantly obeys the
thought, if the mechanism works properly, consequently it is well for
the speaker to think of the end he has in view and not cumber the
vocal machine by worrying about the means to be employed in
accomplishing that end. While cultivating and disciplining the voice
it is necessary to think of the means, and to make a conscious effort
to use those means, but when in the act of producing speech no
conscious thought should be directed toward that act. All effort used
while in the process of producing speech must be subconscious, and
entirely free from physical effort.
_How to obtain a good voice._ Mainly by ceasing to abuse it, for most
of the vocal defects are acquired by bad habits. Improper breathing
is responsible for work begin placed upon the larynx which nature
never intended it to perform, and this overworking, or straining, of
the larynx produces throaty tones and causes an irritation of that
organ which finally develops into laryngitis. A failure to form the
sounds on the lips is the cause of mouthing, and a lack of moulding
the voice into correct sound deprives the sound of its carrying
power, because of its exit being impeded. For instance, round sounds
like _o_ require a round mould to pass through, and if, instead of
such a mould, a flat one is formed, the sound is barely able to
squeeze through after having lost half of its vitality in the effort.
Speak the word _soul_ with the lips rounded while uttering the vowel
_o_ and then attempt to speak the same word with the lips flattened
when producing that sound, and the necessity of moulding will be
instantly apparent. Shakespeare says: "Speak the speech, I pray you,
as I pronounced it to you trippingly on the tongue," and if speakers
would follow this splendid advice which Hamlet gives to the players,
throaty tones would be abolished. But how are speakers to do this? By
thoroughly developing the breathing muscles by proper exercise, so as
to enable them to perform their functions correctly, thereby taking
away the strain from the larynx and permitting the opening of the
throat, bringing the voice forward and moulding it on the lips. These
are the only means that will enable anyone to speak "trippingly on
the tongue," and the importance of so doing is forcefully expressed
by Cardinal Newman, that master of English composition, in the
following:
Our intercourse with our fellow men goes on, not by sight
but by sound, not by eyes but by ears. Hearing is the
social sense and language is the social bond.
HOW TO PRODUCE SPEECH EFFECTS
The first duty of man is to speak, that is his chief
business in this world, and talk, which is the harmonious
speech of two or more, is by far the most accessible of
pleasures. It costs nothing; it is all profit; it completes
our education; it founds and fosters our friendships; and
it is by talk alone that we learn our period and
ourselves.[4]
Speech is the one great outward evidence that separates the human
from the brute, and the more this faculty is cultivated the higher
man rises in the scale of civilization. Speech permits man to clothe
the immortal thought in palpable shape and present it to other minds
exactly as it is perceived by the original thinker. It makes manifest
that which otherwise would remain in the realm of the unseen, and
permits of that communion of mind with mind which strengthens and
uplifts mankind. It is the humanizing medium, the glorifying agent,
and the magnifying reflector of the soul.
_How is speech produced?_ Speech is produced by the organs of
articulation acting on the voice, cutting it up, joining, blending,
and moulding the separate sounds, until symbols are produced that
represent thoughts.
The Greek rhetorician and orator, Gorgias, speaking more than two
thousand four hundred years ago, said:
The power of speech is mighty. Insignificant in themselves,
words accomplish the most remarkable ends. They have power
to remove fear and assuage pain. Moreover then can produce
joy and increase pity.
Words really possess the magic power ascribed to them by this master
of words, this great writer and speaker of Greece at the time when
she flourished in the magnificent days of Pericles, the days when
Athens was adorned by buildings, pictures, and statuary, and her
citizens listened to oratory that has never been surpassed. Printed
words are mighty when read by the intelligent reader, but spoken
words are mightier when voiced by the imaginative speaker. Then they
become living things, impregnated by the voice of the speaker, and
they go forth to the mind of the listener carrying their interpreted
message with them. This power of expression is what Gorgias meant in
his reference to words, and it is this life of words that we are to
consider, this explaining by tone, pitch, force, time, and color of
the voice the meaning of the spoken words.
It is the tone of voice in which a thought is uttered that gives the
thought its power for good or evil, for pleasure or for pain, for
success or failure. Words spoken in one manner will be devoid of
meaning; spoken in another, they will be illumined with the light of
reason. Words that are spoken as words will remain nothing but words,
but those that are spoken as thoughts will disappear as words, and
the ideas will step forward and be seen in the expressive countenance
and heard in the tones of the voice.
There is a soul to the voice just as there is a soul to the body, and
unless this soul rays forth its light in the form of vocal color, it
will be as devoid of spirituality, as bereft of all magnetic
influence, as is the lifeless clay after the soul has winged its
flight from the earthly habitation. It is for this reason that words
struck off at white heat often sound much better than they read; they
have leaped into existence willingly to perform their errand and,
being full of the mentality of the being who created them, they go on
their mission in a manner to carry conviction and bring about
persuasion.
_To speak effectively._ In the first place, by having good working
tools for the making of speech. This means that one must use the
muscles and organs of breath, sound, and speech in such manner as to
produce the voice with ease and utter the words distinctly and with
the desired force. Secondly, one should so master inflection,
emphasis, pitch, and color as to be able to present the thought
precisely as he conceives it. The whole vocal mechanism, in both its
physical and mental parts, must be under perfect control, and this
control can only be gained by patient practice. Attention to
technique is necessary if one desires to become an artist in any
department of life, and unless the seeker after oratorical honors
pays particular attention to controlling those different parts of the
mental and physical being that are employed in the labor of producing
speech, he will never become a master of that art. Nature may have
endowed him with exceptional powers, but unless those powers are
developed and practiced, they will be taken away. Students of oratory
are strongly advised to master deep breathing, articulation,
modulation, emphasis, and delivery, for unless they do so they will
never possess the power of conveying thought by means of the spoken
word, no matter how many or what manner of beautiful thoughts they
may have. A means of conveying the message is as necessary to the
speaker as is the possession of the message. No matter what glorious
messages speakers may have within their minds, they will do no one
but themselves any good unless they can convey those messages to
others, and a speaker without a well-trained and expressive voice is
as badly off as is a farmer with an abundant crop and no means of
getting his produce to market.
A special set of exercises for the strengthening, coloring, and
general building up of the speaking voice is here appended, and
students are urged to practice the exercises faithfully.
VOCAL EXERCISES
_Breath._ Remember that breath is the foundation of voice, and that
correct breathing is necessary to the production of correct speech.
Breathe by means of the abdominal muscles and diaphragm, thus using
the lungs from bottom to top and retaining control over the voice; at
the same time, freeing the larynx from all pressure and permitting
the vocal tone to come smoothly into the mouth, where it is
articulated into speech.
All animals, brute and human, male and female, possess organs of
respiration that are similar in their nature and that work in
precisely the same manner. It is a mistake to think that women
breathe naturally in a different manner from men. Many do so
habitually, but it is only on account of their mode of dress or
failure to take proper exercise, for all animals sustain life by
means of similar action of like organs of respiration.
_First Exercise:_ Close the mouth, draw a full breath into the lungs
through the nose, being careful not to "smell" the air in but to take
it in noiselessly; then, open the mouth and allow the breath to come
into the air, as to blowing upon a pane of glass to form a coating of
moisture. The chest must neither rise nor fall when inhaling or
exhaling, it should be held up and out all the time, the expansion
and contraction taking place at the base of the lungs. In order to
obtain this full expansion and complete contraction of the lower
lobes of the lungs during respiration, it is necessary to draw the
abdominal muscles outward on the inhalation and inward on the
exhalation. The outward action of the abdominal muscles will cause
the diaphragm to flatten, thus removing the pressure of that muscle
from the base of the lungs and permitting the air to enter all the
lobes. The inward action of the abdominal muscles will cause the
diaphragm to arch, thus pressing on the base of the lungs and forcing
out the breath. The main expansion and contraction should take place
below and around the diaphragm, that portion of the body from the
navel up to the floating ribs and extending all around the body,
bringing into play the lower costal and dorsal muscles as well as the
abdominal muscles and the diaphragm.
_Second Exercise:_ Inhale as in the first exercise, then exhale
through the mouth in the form of a sigh, using a quicker and stronger
action of the abdominal muscles in forcing out the breath than was
used in the first exercise.
_Third Exercise:_ Inhale as in the previous exercise, then exhale
through the mouth in the form of an aspirated cough, being careful,
however, not to allow the whispered sound to strike upon the rim of
the larynx or to remain back in the pharynx, but bring it forward so
as to have it explode in the air and not in the throat or mouth.
Deep breathing should be practiced until it becomes automatic,
because the speaker who makes a conscious effort to control the
breathing mechanism will be stilted and artificial in his utterance.
Breathing must be absolutely subconscious, and these exercises should
be practiced until it becomes so. While practicing, a conscious
effort must be made to use the breathing muscles properly; but as
soon as this has been accomplished, the thought must be taken from
the means and the disciplined muscles will then work automatically.
VOICE
Voice is produced in the larynx, the voice box, but it must be
immediately brought into the mouth, converted into speech, and sent
on its way to perform its mission. The breath acting on the vocal
cords causes them to vibrate, and this vibration is called voice. In
producing voice no more breath should be used than is necessary to
produce the desired sound. If too much breath is used, and it escapes
through the larynx without being converted into voice, it will drown
the voice and breathy tones will be formed. Breath must always be
kept back of the voice, it must never be permitted to escape at the
sides or around the tone; if it does so escape, the tone cannot be
pure, breath will be wasted, the larynx will soon tire, and the
speech will be muffled and lack power.
_First Exercise:_ Form the sound of _m._ This is done by closing the
mouth and sending the voice sound into the cavity of the head and
then through the nose into the air. Bear in mind that you are to
produce the sound of _m_ and not speak the letter _m._ Prolong the
sound on the one pitch for ten seconds, take a full breath, and
repeat the sound, practicing in this manner for five minutes at a
time.
_Second Exercise:_ Use the voice sound of _m_ as in the previous
exercise, but instead of sustaining the one tone, vary it by
producing medium, high, and low tones. Hum a tune, keeping the mouth
closed, using the one sound of _m,_ and sending the voice through the
head passages into the air. This exercise will prove wonderfully
beneficial if it is patiently practiced. Any tune may be used for
this purpose, but be sure that the voice is brought well forward and
comes into the air through the nasal passages.
_Third Exercise:_ Hum the sound of _m,_ then open the mouth and
produce the vowel sound of _a,_ gliding from the humming sound into
the full open sound of _a_; as, _ma._ Exercise on the other four
vowels, _e, i, o, u,_ in like manner: as, _me, mi, mo, mu._
_Fourth Exercise:_ On the same pitch that you would use in asking an
ordinary question, such as "Are you going out today?" repeat the
vowels _a, e, i, o, u,_ using a full breath for each sound and
sustaining it on the same pitch, and as long as you can conveniently.
Then lower the voice to the deepest tone you can produce with ease
and repeat the exercise. Then raise the voice as high as you can
without straining and repeat the exercise. Practice in such a way as
to bring into play all the tones of the voice and gradually to
increase its compass. Avoid force in increasing the vocal range.
Produce tones only that come with ease.
_Fifth Exercise:_ Use the ordinary speaking pitch of the voice and
repeat the vowels _a, e, i, o, u_ with the explosive force; pushing
the sounds out as though they did not wish to leave and you were
compelled to keep up the pressure in order to prevent them coming
back. Be particular to press with the diaphragm only. Practice on low
and high tones also.
_Sixth Exercise:_ Repeat the exercise on the same register but use
the explosive force, shooting the sounds into the air like the report
of a pistol. Practice on low and high tones also.
It is a good plan to practice with speech the same as with voice.
That is, produce speech in the three forms, effusive, expulsive, and
explosive, and on the three registers, medium, lower, and upper. Any
matter can be used for this purpose, special material not being
necessary.
In order to bring speech forward and carry it into the air, set
before you an imaginary target and direct the voice toward it,
raising and lowering the target as you desire to raise and lower the
tone. Remember to think the voice out, as you can get it out no other
way.
How to Strengthen the Memory
If any one ask me what is the only and great art of memory,
I shall say it is exercise and labor. To learn much by
heart, to meditate much, and, if possible, daily, are the
most efficacious of all methods. Nothing is so much
strengthened by practice or weakened by neglect as memory.
--QUINTILIAN
These words, uttered by the scholarly rhetorician of Rome during the
first century of the Christian era, are as true today as when they
were first spoken. Application, concentration, association,
opposition, and use are the principal means for the effectual
training and strengthening of the memory. Many systems have been
devised for memory training, but none of them is of more than
superficial use, the majority making it more difficult to remember
the means whereby the thought is to be recalled than to remember the
thought itself. They are cumbersome, burdensome, and unworkable.
Loisette, in his much exploited system, _Assimilative Memory,_
advises paying particular attention to the location of figures in
order to remember them, and he cites the following example:
"Pike's Peak, the most famous in the chain known as the
Rocky Mountains in America, is fourteen thousand one
hundred and forty-seven feet high. . . . There are two
fourteens in these figures, and the last figure is half of
fourteen."
This is all very well in this particular instance of Pike's Peak, but
what are we to do with mountains that are ten thousand and
eighty-five feet, seven thousand and forty-nine feet, or five
thousand six hundred and fifty-one feet in height? The specific case
works out nicely, but the general case cannot be worked out at all.
It is the object of this work to show how to do things and not to
controvert the advice given by other authors, its mission being
constructive and not destructive, therefore nothing further will be
said regarding the Loisette or any other system of memory training;
but specific advice will be given regarding the best way of laying
hold of and retaining what enters the mind.
_Application_ is one means of strengthening the memory. Whatever you
desire to retain, be sure you apply your mind to it until you have it
firmly impressed thereon. Do not merely see or hear a fact and then
permit it to pass into forgetfulness; but, if you wish to retain it,
apply your thought to it, think deeply and strongly on it, on all the
circumstances pertaining to it, and then pass it into the chamber of
memory, there to repose until you desire to awaken it. _Study it
carefully before putting it away._
_Concentration_ is another valuable adjunct in memory training. Focus
all your mental power upon the thing, person, or theme you wish to
remember. Bear all your mental heat upon the one spot, and you will
be able to burn through whatever keeps your object from you, and
after having once been perceived in this manner by the mental eye
that object will never be forgotten.
A lawyer may be examining a witness and ask that witness if he
remembers seeing John Smith on a certain occasion. The witness may
say he has no recollection of having done so. The lawyer may say, "Do
you not remember that on the twenty-first day of June you attended a
meeting of the directors of the Second National Bank which was called
to elect a new president?" and this part of the happenings of that
day may then bring all the other occurrences to the mind of the
witness, and he may then say, "Oh yes! John Smith gave me his check
for $500 on that date. I now remember that fact quite well." This
would be re-collecting.
_Association_ of words, events, or ideas, helps wonderfully in
strengthening the memory, in that it enables one to group together
quickly scattered parts and thus recall things in their entirety.
This is what the lawyer did for the witness when he mentioned the
meeting of the board of directors of the bank, and by means of the
association of events enabled the witness to recall that the meeting
of the directors took place on the day that Smith paid him the five
hundred, in this manner re-collecting the scattered parts of the
events of the twenty-first day of June and bringing Smith clearly
into the picture. In trying to remember any occurrence, endeavor to
bring to mind some incident in connection with it, and if successful
in so doing, the whole train of events pertaining to that occurrence
will soon move regularly along in the channels of the mind.
_Opposition._ A knowledge and use of the rule of opposition will
greatly assist the memory. Suppose an advocate should say, "The
thoughtless members of the community may censure me for entering upon
the prosecution of this case," and should desire to make the thought
more comprehensive, he could do so by placing a phrase against the
one quoted and say, "but the sober-minded men and women will surely
commend me for performing my duty as I understand it." Double and
triple oppositions may be used as aids to the memory; as: The
Biblical account of the flood states that God was angry with His
children of earth because of their many sins, and He determined to
destroy all animal life except that of the chosen few who were to
accompany Noah into the ark. After the rains had ceased and the
waters had subsided, Noah feared to return to the land, but God
dispelled that fear by placing a bow in the heavens as a covenant
between Him and man that never again would He permit a deluge of
water to visit the earth. After four years of civil war, after the
land of America had been deluged with blood, we set our Nation's flag
against the cloud as a covenant between North and South that never
again, in this dear country of ours, shall brother's hand be raised
in enmity against his brother.
The whole idea of this passage can be kept clearly in mind by setting
"deluge" against "civil war," "bow" against "flag." Keep the idea, or
the picture, before you, and there will be no difficulty in
remembering what you desire to say, nor will there be any trouble
experienced in finding words to express the idea.
When reading, do not bother about words, but dig down deep for the
thought, lay hold of it, impress it on the memory, and the substance
of what you read (the really valuable part of it) will remain with
you forever. In this letter to Mrs. Bixby, dated Nov. 21, 1864,
President Lincoln says:
I have been shown in the files of the War Department a
statement of the Adjutant General of Massachusetts, that
you are the mother of five sons who have died gloriously on
the field of battle.
The points to remember are that five brothers died gloriously on the
field of battle, and that a mother gave those treasures to her
country. The pictures to place upon memory's wall are the raging
battle, and the lonely mother at home. Those two pictures tell the
whole story, and by gazing on them the complete narrative can be
given.
_Use._ Use is another of the great aids in memory training. Employ
the mind. Keep it busy. Make it alert through exercise. Train it to
move quickly from point to point, picture to picture. Work it hard
while you work it, but give it frequent periods of rest. Do not
cumber the brain with a mass of words. Learn words by all means,
learn their meaning, relationship, and power, but do not try to
remember them merely as words. Think of them, rather, in their
relationship with one another--their power of conveying an idea or
explaining a thought, their ability to paint a picture or make clear
a point--think of them collectively and not individually, and they
can be marshalled easily in phrases and sentences where the speaker
would stumble over them in attempting to bring them forward one by
one.
_Sound Education._ A sound general education forms a splendid
foundation for a good memory, and if you have not had the benefit of
schooling in early life, you should take up a course of instructive
reading at the earliest possible moment. Study history, the sciences,
the arts. Read the lives of men--the pivotal men of all periods--and
select one, two, or three master works and thoroughly saturate
yourself with their style as well as their substance. The author has
many times recommended the Bible and Shakespeare for this purpose,
and subsequent years of experience have only strengthened his belief
in the efficiency of these immortal works.
_Reflection._ This is a great help in memory training. Continuously
hover over your subject, brood over it, keep it before the mental
camera until a perfect negative is taken, from which a positive may
be formed at any time. Accustom yourself to see your subject on every
side; use your spiritual eye so that you may see not only through but
all around your theme, and then you will be able to present it in an
intelligent and convincing manner because of your being complete
master of it. You will _know_ it.
The old saying that "one nail drives out another" does not apply to
the mind. If a fact or picture is placed within the storehouse of the
brain, it will be at the disposal of the possessor as long as "memory
holds a seat" within the human globe. A fact cannot be clearly
grasped until it is thoroughly understood, a picture cannot be seen
unless all its details are collectively grasped by the eye, and it is
only when the fact is understood and the picture clearly seen that
they can be placed within the chambers of the mind to be brought
forth by memory at will. Some of the parts of the fact, or the
details of the picture, may be lost, they may all be scattered, and
then it is the duty of the memory to re-collect them and join them
together so as to bring to mind the image of the original fact or
picture.
A good memory is of the greatest importance to the orator; in fact,
no one who does not possess this attribute can be an orator in the
true sense of the word. Without it, the speaker must rely on written
matter; but with it, he can take those flights of fancy which memory
alone makes secure because of the assurance he possesses of his
ability to hold his facts securely in mind and return to them at any
time. He thus gains confidence.
The object of education is to train the mind, to discipline it, and
to bring it into subjection to the will. If the student accomplishes
this purpose, he will then be able to concentrate his thought, to
rivet it upon any subject, train the whole force of his intellect
upon it, and overcome what would otherwise be insurmountable. It is
for this reason that memory is so valuable to the orator. If he
possesses a good memory, he may reasonably look for the greatest
success; but if it is poor, his failure is equally certain. If,
therefore, your memory fails to answer your purpose, set to work to
strengthen it. This can be done by careful and systematic training
along the lines here set forth. Be patient, diligent, and
persevering; make use of your own thoughts--that is, think for
yourself and do not merely utter the thoughts of others--and it will
not be long before you will receive the help of that matchless
confidence which knowledge and memory alone are able to give.
Memory, like walking, breathing, thinking, and all other actions of
the body and the spirit, must be subconscious in order to be right
and serviceable to man, and any conscious thought concerning the
means to be employed in order to remember will surely bring about a
defeat of the purpose. Practice in remembering, as in all things,
makes perfect.
HOW TO ACQUIRE CONFIDENCE, AND TO CONTROL AN AUDIENCE
_Preparedness._ Instructions as to how a speaker can acquire
confidence may be summed up in one word--preparedness. He must be
sure of his audience, his subject, and himself. The way to make sure
of his audience is to study it, find out its prejudices (all
audiences possess prejudices), and endeavor to lead it without
letting it know that it is being led. There must be a master when
speaker and audience come into contact, and it is the duty of the
speaker to see that the mastery is not in the hands of the audience.
The speaker should be similar in his relationship with the audience
as is the director with the orchestra, and he should always aim to
keep the audience subject to his will. If it breaks away from him,
there will be nothing but discord, and the speech, if delivered at
all, will be a failure. If, however, the audience is hostile to the
speaker and at first refuses to listen to him, and he is capable of
resisting its onslaught, he may achieve as signal a triumph as did
Henry Ward Beecher at Liverpool, England, October 16, 1863, when,
after struggling for three hours against the turbulent mob of
southern sympathizers gathered for the avowed purpose of preventing
the delivery of his speech in behalf of the Union, he finally
mastered the disturbers, presented his cause, and won a marvellous
victory. To show the forces that Beecher had to contend with, and
over which he triumphed, the opening of the speech he then delivered
is here given, with the interruptions noted in brackets:
For more than twenty-five years I have been made perfectly
familiar with popular assemblies in all parts of my country
except the extreme South. There has not for the whole of
that time been a single day of my life when it would have
been safe for me to go South of Mason's and Dixon's line in
my own country, and for one reason: my solemn, earnest,
persistent testimony against that which I consider to be
the most atrocious thing under the sun--the system of
American slavery in a great free republic. [Cheers.] I have
passed through that early period when right of free speech
was denied to me. Again and again I have attempted to
address audiences that, for no other crime than that of
free speech, visited me with all manner of contumelious
epithets; and now since I have been in England, although I
have met with greater kindness and courtesy on the part of
most than I deserved, yet, on the other hand, I perceive
that the southern influence prevails to some extent in
England. [Applause and uproar.] It is my old acquaintance:
I understand it perfectly--[laughter]--and I have always
held it to be an unfailing truth that where a man had a
cause that would bear examination he was perfectly willing
to have it spoken about. [Applause.] And when in Manchester
I saw those huge placards: "Who is Henry Ward Beecher?"
[laughter, cries of "Quite right" and applause] and when in
Liverpool I was told that there were those blood-red
placards, purporting to say what Henry Ward Beecher had
said, and calling upon Englishmen to suppress free
speech--I tell you what I thought. I thought simply this:
"I am glad of it." [Laughter.] Why? Because if they had
felt perfectly secure that you are the minions of the South
and the slaves of slavery, they would have been perfectly
still. [Applause and uproar.] And, therefore, when I saw so
much nervous apprehension that if I were permitted to speak
[hisses and applause]--when I found they were afraid to
have me speak [hisses, laughter, and "No, no!"], when I
found they considered my speaking damaging to their cause
[applause], when I found that they appealed from facts and
reasoning to mob law [applause and uproar] I said, no man
need tell me what the heart and secret counsel of these men
are. They tremble and are afraid. [Applause, laughter,
hisses, "No, no!" and a voice, "New York mob."] Now,
personally, it is a matter of very little consequence to me
whether I speak here tonight or not. [Laughter and cheers.]
but one thing is very certain, if you do permit me to speak
here tonight you will hear very plain talking. [Applause
and hisses.] You will not find a man [interruption], you
will not find me to be a man that dared to speak about
Great Britain three thousand miles off, and then is afraid
to speak to Great Britain when he stands on her shores.
[Immense applauses and hisses.] And if I do not mistake the
tone and temper of Englishmen, they had rather have a man
who opposes them in a manly way [applause from all parts of
the hall] than a sneak who agrees with them in an unmanly
way. [Applause and "Bravo."] Now if I can carry you with me
by sound convictions, I shall be immensely glad [applause];
but if I cannot carry you with me by facts and sound
arguments, I do not wish you to go with me at all; and all
that I ask is simply fair play. [Applause, and a voice,
"You shall have it, too."]
Public speakers should see that their subject fits the occasion, and
particularly should they make it appear as though it intimately
concerned the audience to which it is addressed. Mr. Beecher was
extremely wise in selecting the themes upon which he spoke in his
memorable tour through Great Britain in 1863, when he presented the
cause of the Federal Government of the people of England and
Scotland. When he spoke in Manchester his theme was the effect
slavery had on the manufacturing interests; in Glasgow, where were
located the shipyards where blockade-runners were being built for the
Confederate States, and the laboring classes were thus personally
concerned in the struggle between the States, he pointed out the
degraded effect slavery had upon labor; in the cultured city of
Edinburgh, he discussed the philosophy and the history of slavery;
thus presenting his subject, on each occasion that he spoke, in a
manner to interest his audiences. This showed great tact on Mr.
Beecher's part and accounts, in a large measure, for his success in
winning the masses of the people of Great Britain to the cause of the
Union.
Julius M. Mayer, ex-Attorney General of the State of New York, at a
political meeting held at Cooper Union, on November 4, 1911, after
speaking on general political topics for a considerable time, said:
"I want to discuss just one thing." A voice in the audience then
cried out: "Go ahead, then, and do it." The rebuke was deserved. The
speaker, the last on the list, had been announced to speak
specifically on one question, but instead of immediately taking up
his theme, which was the Levy Election Law, he started to discuss
matters foreign to his subject; consequently the audience, which had
listened to two long speeches by abler campaigners than Mr. Mayer,
were tired out and restless before he really took up his subject, the
result being that half the audience left before the speaker had
touched on the topic he was designated to discuss, and the other half
were not disposed to listen to him patiently. They had listened while
they were being amused by the witty speech of Job E. Hedges, enthused
by the impassioned, eloquent address of William A. Prendergast, and
would have given attention to the remarks of Mr. Mayer had he
immediately taken up his subject; but they were unwilling to listen
to an indifferent speaker discuss matters with which the majority of
them were thoroughly familiar. Let this experience of Mr. Mayer's be
a lesson to speakers, and may it admonish them not to try the
patience of an audience.
Francis P. Bent, who, at the time, was Vice-Chairman of the Board of
Aldermen of the City of New York, and who is a clever campaign
speaker, on a recent occasion quoted, in an address before a social
club, the following passage from Shakespeare's _Henry V_:
In peace there's nothing so becomes a man
As modest stillness and humility:
But when the blast of war blows in our ears,
Then imitate the action of the tiger.
This last word was scarcely out of his mouth when some one cried out:
"The Tammany Tiger?" A shout then arose from the assembly. Alderman
Bent was not one particle disconcerted, but simply replied: "My
friend, I do not suppose that Shakespeare, in writing those lines,
intended to prophesy the coming of the Tammany Tiger, nor did I
specifically have that specimen of the animal in view when I used the
quotation, but I have no hesitation in saying that of all the
fighting machines of which I have read, or with which I have come in
contact, I know of none that excelled the Tammany Tiger in its
ability to put up a good fight." He then went on with his speech,
amid the hearty applause of his audience. In this instance, Alderman
Bent typified the ready speaker.
Another occasion on which a speaker cleverly turned an interruption
recently came to the personal attention of the author. John F. Hylan,
a City Magistrate of the Borough of Brooklyn, New York City, was the
last speaker on the programme at the opening of a Democratic Club in
that section, previous to the election of 1911. His Honor had a few
pet truths in the form of facts stowed away in his brain which he
desired to impart to his Democratic brethren. Judges, as we are
informed by Shakespeare, are "full of wise saws and modern
instances," and Magistrate Hylan, whom the author has known for many
years, is no exception to the rule; consequently, he proceeded to do
his little "preaching." After enumerating many of the points he
wished to drive home, particularly some pertaining to Jeffersonian
principles, he finally said: "I know these are dry facts." A
Democratic brother here spoke up: "You bet they are; and I'm dry,
too." Of course the audience roared with laughter, and it looked as
though the dryness alluded to by the thirsty one had put an end to
the speech; but Magistrate Hylan, not one whit abashed, replied:
"Your thirst will be attended to by the steward of the club in a few
moments, and I will endeavor to moisten my remarks for you by stating
that they shall soon come to a close."
If a speaker will not antagonize his audience through lack of tact,
will keep to his subject, will be earnest in manner and language, not
overtax the patience of his listeners by needlessly prolonging his
discourse, and will put his mentality into his voice, he will surely
be rewarded with the attention of his audience, and he will be able
to sway it to his will and compel it, unknowingly, to do his bidding.
The speaker can only be sure of his subject after having considered
it on all sides. He must look through it, beneath it, above it, on
all sides of it, consider it carefully from every possible
standpoint, after which he may safely feel that he knows his subject
and is prepared to speak upon it.
In order that he may be sure of himself, the speaker must be equipped
physically, vocally, and mentally to carry out the task he has
assumed. He must have a body capable of resisting the fatigue of
standing, a voice that will serve as a vehicle for conveying the
message, and a mind of sufficient power to originate, develop, and
present the thought. All these parts may be made equal to the task of
properly performing these important duties, and the speaker who is
thus equipped will possess that perfect confidence which the
consciousness of being prepared for the work he undertakes alone can
give. If he possesses a justified confidence in his subject, in the
art of expression, and in himself, he will be the master of all
three, and by their means he will control his audience.
Self-consciousness is the cause of many speakers failing who
otherwise are fitted for their task. The speaker must learn to avoid
thinking of himself even indirectly. He should never permit himself
to wonder what his auditors are thinking of him or his effort--should
permit no thought to wander to them in quest of finding out their
thoughts concerning him--but he should concentrate all his mental
power upon his subject in order that he may send it out to his
audience, drive it home, and command attention to his thought. If he
does this, his will be the dominant mind, his attention will all be
directed where it belongs--on his subject--and he will have no time
nor inclination to think of himself. Let him remember to think
outward and not inward; to concern himself with his subject and not
his audience; and, most of all, not himself; to keep his mentality
ever active, ever seeking his picture or his theme;
self-consciousness will then disappear, taking with it all
uncertainty and nervousness, and leaving him master of the situation
because of his being master of himself. This self-mastering is of the
utmost importance to the public speaker; therefore he should do all
in his power to cultivate and strengthen it. Without it, he is like a
ship without a rudder; but with it, he possesses not only the means
of controlling his course, but also the knowledge of directing it and
the certainty of reaching his destination. He is then the purposeful
speaker, conscious only of his ability to perform his task, and not
creating imaginary difficulties which, once created, would surely
overwhelm him.
HOW TO ACQUIRE FLUENCY OF SPEECH
A good working vocabulary is obtained best by studying words,
learning their meaning, their origin, and their connections; finding
out how many words express practically the same idea; what words are
directly opposed to other words; and, in fact, becoming perfectly
familiar with them in every way. A comparatively small number of
words, if thoroughly mastered, will be of more service to a speaker
than will a much larger number with which he is only indifferently
acquainted. It is not so much the number of tools that a workman
possesses that insures the successful performance of his work, but
the skill with which he manipulates those that he has at his
disposal. So it is with the speaker. Let him thoroughly master a
small vocabulary, because the effort he puts forth to become fully
acquainted with his limited stock of words will, in itself, increase
them and give him confidence in their use, and he will be better off
than the less informed speaker with the greater vocabulary.
An easy flow of language is secured only by practice in speaking. No
matter how many words one may have at one's disposal, they will be
valueless unless the possessor has also the courage to use them. All
who desire fluency of speech should practice continually to convey
thought by word of mouth. Enter into conversation at every favorable
opportunity with persons of education and refinement, doing as much
of the talking as the proprieties will permit, bearing in mind that
only by using a faculty is it developed and strengthened. Speak
before public gatherings as often as possible, commencing in a modest
manner by speaking for a few moments, and gradually gather confidence
and power by demonstrating to yourself that you have the ability to
acquire the art of speech. After satisfying yourself on that point,
all that remains for you to do is to go ahead and acquire it.
HOW TO ACQUIRE PROFICIENCY IN GESTURE
Gesticulation, even more than speech, should be characteristic of the
speaker, and entirely free from parade or pretense. Any gesticulation
that calls attention to itself, and not to the thought it is intended
to express, is wrong and should not be made. The aim of gesture
should be to amplify, illustrate, or strengthen the spoken word, and
it should only be employed in the furtherance of these objects.
Nothing tends more to give the speaker an appearance of affectation
than does a superabundance of gesture, and nothing makes a speaker
more awkward than does the making of ungainly gestures. The best
speakers of today use very few gestures, these being mainly
expressive of emphasis; and most strong gestures, both descriptive
and active, have been abolished by English and American orators. The
speakers of ancient days, and those of the eighteenth and the
nineteenth centuries, were profuse in the use of gesture, but the
declamatory style of delivery has given way to the colloquial form,
which does not permit of making of many gestures, particularly those
of the arms and hands, and depends more on the vocal expression than
it does on the physical. While speakers are advised to be sparing in
their use of gesture, there is a certain class that may be employed
effectively, the movements of this class not being considered by
audiences, as a rule, as gestures. These are the movements and
expressions of the face, and consist of the distinctive light of the
eye--whether languid, animated, sorrowful, gay, loving or
threatening; the play of the lips--indicating scorn, strength, or
weakness; and the state of the brow--whether smooth or contracted.
All these gestures, however, after they have been thought out and
clearly understood, may be left to be governed by the same force that
controls the coloring of the voice, and if the mentality of the
speaker so acts as to cause the voice to properly express the
thought, it will also move the body to work in harmony with it and to
correspondingly convey the idea by means of physical expression.
The question of gesticulation may easily be discussed at such length
as to make a book, but the author does not deem it wise to put forth
any new system of gesture, nor advise the use of any of the many old
ones, but will content himself with stating a few serious errors to
be avoided by all speakers, and by giving some general principles
that should be adopted: Do not put your hands in your pockets, nor
appear not to know what to do with them. Refrain from playing with
your watch chain, or running your fingers through your hair. Let your
arms hang easily at your side, and appear unconscious of the fact
that you possess hands. Do not always point upward when talking of
heaven or the sky, nor put your hand on your breast when speaking of
love or conscience. Do not attempt to describe the action of every
thing--such as the flowing of rivers, rolling of clouds, or leaping
of cataracts. Avoid using too many active gestures--that is, gestures
expressive of the action of your own mind, such as anger, fear, and
joy. Do not tear your hair, stamp your feet, nor give any other such
outward manifestation of your feelings. Keep away from reading desks,
tables, and all articles of furniture. Stand on your feet, in clear
view of the audience; look outward and upward, and let the assembly
see that you are not afraid to show yourself. Use gestures sparingly
until you find the ones that feel easy to you; and all gestures that
come without effort it is safe to consider natural, for if they feel
easy to you, they are likely to look natural and to be effective.
Finally, follow Hamlet's advice to the players:
Do not saw the air too much with your hand, thus; but use
all gently: for in the very torrent, tempest, and, as I may
say, whirlwind of your passion, you must acquire and beget
a temperance that may give it smoothness. . . . Be not too
tame neither, but let your own discretion be your tutor;
suit the action to the word, the word to the action; with
this special observance, that you o'erstep not the modesty
of nature.[5]
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Genesis, ii:7.
[2] William Ellery Channing in "Self-Culture."
[3] Oliver Wendell Holmes in "Autocrat of the Breakfast
Table."
[4] Robert Louis Stevenson.
[5] Hamlet, Act III, Scene II.