[Illustration: FIG. 1.――MUSIC. After an oil painting attributed to
Melozzo da Forlì (1438-1494).
National Gallery.]
BOARD OF EDUCATION, SOUTH KENSINGTON,
VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM.
MUSICAL
INSTRUMENTS
BY
CARL ENGEL
_WITH SEVENTY-EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS_
[Illustration: logo]
REVISED EDITION.
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR HIS MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE,
By WYMAN AND SONS, LIMITED, 109, FETTER LANE, E.C.
And to be purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, from
WYMAN AND SONS, LIMITED, 109, FETTER LANE, FLEET STREET, E.C. or
OLIVER AND BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT, EDINBURGH; or
E. PONSONBY, 116, GRAFTON STREET, DUBLIN.
1908.
_Price_ 1_s._ 6_d._; _in Cloth_, 2_s._ 3_d._
NOTE.
In the preparation of the revised edition of the late Dr. Engel’s
handbook, first published in 1875, care has been taken to make as few
alterations as possible and to express no views from which he might
have dissented.
The greatly enlarged chapter relating to post-mediæval instruments has
been chiefly compiled from Dr. Engel’s Descriptive Catalogue of the
musical instruments in the Museum, published in 1874.
The pages relating to the Ancient Egyptians have been revised by Dr.
W. M. Flinders Petrie, those dealing with the Greeks, Etruscans and
Romans by Dr. Cecil H. Smith, and the description of Chinese and
Japanese instruments by Dr. Stephen W. Bushell. The thanks of the
Board are due to these gentlemen for their valuable co-operation.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
NOTE iii
LIST OF CONTENTS v
“ ” ILLUSTRATIONS vii
CHAPTER I.――Introduction 1
“ II.――Pre-Historic Relics and Ancient Egyptian 9
“ III.――Assyrian and Hebrew 16
“ IV.――Greek, Etruscan and Roman 27
“ V.――Oriental 37
“ VI.――American Indian 58
“ VII.――European Instruments of the Middle Ages 83
“ VIII.――European Instruments of the Middle Ages 92
“ IX.――European Instruments of the Middle Ages 99
“ X.――Post-Mediæval Instruments 104
APPENDIX 135
INDEX 139
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIG. PAGE.
1.――MUSIC, after an oil painting attributed to Melozzo da
Forlì (1438-1494) _Frontispiece_
2.――PAINTED WOODEN HARP. Ancient Egyptian. XVIIIth
dynasty (B.C. 1450) _Facing_ 10
3.――BRONZE AND REED FLUTES. Ancient Egyptian. B.C. 600,
or later _Facing_ 12
4.――BRONZE SISTRA. Ancient Egyptian. XXIInd-XXVIth
dynasty (B.C. 1000-600) _Facing_ 14
5.――SERIES OF BELLS. Ancient Egyptian. Late Period 15
6.――A MUSE WITH A HARP, AND TWO OTHERS WITH LYRES.
From a Greek vase 29
7.――PAIR OF BRONZE FLUTES, with mouthpiece in the form of a
bust of a Mænad holding a bunch of grapes.
Greek _Facing_ 30
8.――A MUSE PLAYING THE DIAULOS. Greek 31
9.――WALL PAINTING of a youth wearing a myrtle wreath and
playing on the DOUBLE PIPES. Said to have been found
in a columbarium in the Vigna Ammendola on the Appian
Way near Rome, about 1823. British Museum _Facing_ 34
10.――TUBA, CORNU AND LITUUS. Roman 35
11.――HSÜAN. Chinese 42
12.――(_a_) CH’IN (a species of Lute). Modern Chinese
(_b_) SHÊNG (Mouth Organ). Chinese. 19th century
(_c_) YUEH-CH’IN (Moon Guitar). Chinese. 19th century
_Facing_ 42
13.――(_a_) KOTO (a species of Lute). Japanese. 19th century
(_b_) BIWA (a species of Guitar). Modern Japanese
(_c_) SÂMISEN. Japanese _Facing_ 44
14.――(_a_) SÂRINDA AND BOW. Indian (Bengal). 19th century
(_b_) RUDRA VINA. Southern Indian (Madras). 19th century
(_c_) SÂRANGI AND BOW. Southern Indian. 19th century
_Facing_ 48
15.――(_a_) KEMÁNGEH OR SITÂRA OR FIDDLE. Persian. About 1800
(_b_) NUY (Flute). Persian. 19th century
(_c_) SANTIR (Dulcimer) CASE. Persian _Facing_ 54
16.――POTTERY WHISTLES, with finger-holes. Ancient Mexican 59
17.――POTTERY FLAGEOLETS, with finger-holes. (_a_) and (_c_)
Ancient Mexican; (_b_) from the Island of Sacrificios
_Facing_ 60
18.――BONE FLUTES. Ancient Peruvian, (_a_) and (_b_) Truxillo;
(_c_) Lima _Facing_ 60
19.――HUAYRA-PUHURA, discovered in a Peruvian tomb 64
20.――WOODEN TRUMPET. Used by Indians near the Orinoco 65
21.――JURUPARIS, with and without cover. South American 66
22.――BOTUTO. Used by Indians near the Orinoco 68
23.――CITHARA. From a 9th century MS. formerly in the
monastery of St. Blasius in the Black Forest 84
24.――PSALTERIUM. From a 9th century MS. formerly in the
monastery of St. Blasius in the Black Forest 85
25.――CITHARA. From a 9th century MS. formerly in the monastery
of St. Blasius in the Black Forest 85
26.――KING PLAYING PSALTERY. After an engraving in N. X.
Willemin’s _Monuments Français Inédits_, Vol. I.,
pl. 19, taken from _Hortus Deliciarum_, a MS. of the
12th century 86
27.――NABLUM. From a 9th century MS. at Angers 86
28.――FEMALE PLAYING A SPECIES OF CITOLE. From a 9th
century MS. formerly in the monastery of St. Blasius
in the Black Forest 86
29.――HARP. From a 9th century MS. formerly in the monastery
of St. Blasius in the Black Forest 87
30.――CRWTH. Welsh. 18th century _Facing_ 90
31.――ORGANISTRUM 93
32.――SACKBUT 94
33.――ORGAN. From a 12th century psalter in the library of
Trinity College, Cambridge 95
34.――ORGAN (Grand Orgue). After an engraving in N. X.
Willemin’s _Monuments Français Inédits_ 96
35.――BAS-RELIEF, representing a group of musicians, formerly
at the abbey of St. Georges de Boscherville. Late
11th century (?). After an engraving in N. X.
Willemin’s _Monuments Français Inédits_ _Facing_ 98
36.――HURDY-GURDY (Vielle). With arms of France and crowned
monogram of Henry II. on back and front. About
1550 _Facing_ 100
37.――TYMPANUM of the Glory Gate of the Cathedral of Santiago
de Compostella. Dated 1188. From a plaster cast in
the Victoria and Albert Museum _Facing_ 100
38.――MINSTREL GALLERY, Exeter Cathedral. 14th century.
From a plaster cast in the Victoria and Albert
Museum _Facing_ 102
39.――LUTE. Italian (Venetian). Beginning of the 17th century
_Facing_ 104
40.――ANGEL PLAYING A LUTE. After an oil painting by
Ambrogio da Predis. Late 15th century _Facing_ 104
41.――ARCHLUTE. Inscribed “Rauche in Chandos Street,
London, 1762” _Facing_ 104
42.――CHITARRONE. Italian. Made by Buchenberg in Rome,
anno 1614 _Facing_ 106
43.――PANDURINA. French. Second half of 16th century
_Facing_ 108
44.――GUITAR. French (?). 17th century _Facing_ 108
45.――QUINTERNA, OR CHITERNA. German. Dated 1539 _Facing_ 108
46.――CITHER. German. End of 17th century _Facing_ 108
47.――HARP THEORBO. Made by Harley. English. About 1800
_Facing_ 110
48.――HARP VENTURA. English. Early 19th century _Facing_ 110
49.――BANDURIA. English. Early 19th century _Facing_ 110
50.――HARP. Old Irish _Facing_ 110
51.――HARP. French. About 1770 _Facing_ 112
52.――VIOLIN. Said to have belonged to James I. English.
Early 17th century _Facing_ 112
53.――ANGEL PLAYING A VIOL. After an oil painting by
Ambrogio da Predis. Late 15th century _Facing_ 104
54.――VIOLA DA GAMBA. Italian. About 1600 _Facing_ 114
55.――VIOLA DA GAMBA. Italian. 17th century _Facing_ 114
56.――VIOLA DI BARDONE, OR BARITON, WITH BOW. German.
17th century _Facing_ 114
57.――VIOLA D’AMORE. Probably English. Late 17th century
_Facing_ 116
58.――DOUBLE-BASS, WITH BOW. Known as “The Giant.”
Italian. 17th century _Facing_ 116
59.――SORDINO, OR POCHETTE. Probably German. Late 17th
or early 18th century _Facing_ 118
60.――BÛCHE, OR SCHEITHOLZ. Made by Fleurot, of the Val
d’Ajol in the Vosges Mountains. Early 19th
century _Facing_ 118
61.――VIRGINAL. Formerly belonging to Queen Elizabeth.
Italian. Second half of 16th century _Facing_ 118
62.――VIRGINAL. Flemish. Second half of 16th century
_Facing_ 118
63.――SPINET. Made by Annibale dei Rossi of Milan. Italian.
Dated 1577 _Facing_ 120
64.――SPINET. Signed “Johannes Player fecit” English.
About 1700 _Facing_ 120
65.――CLAVICHORD. Inscribed “Barthold Fritz fecit, Braunschweig,
anno 1751.” German. 18th century _Facing_ 120
66.――CLAVICEMBALO. Signed “Joanes Antonius Baffo,
Venetus.” Italian. Dated 1574 _Facing_ 122
67.――CLAVECIN. Made by Pascal Taskin of Paris. French.
Dated 1786 _Facing_ 124
68.――ORGAN-HARPSICHORD, OR CLAVIORGANUM. Formerly in
the chapel of Ightham Mote, near Sevenoaks, Kent.
Probably English _Facing_ 124
69.――TRIPLE FLAGEOLET. Italian. About 1820 _Facing_ 124
70.――FLAUTO DOLCE, OR FLUTE. Ivory. Inscribed “Anciuti
a Milan, 1740” _Facing_ 124
71.――FLAGEOLET. Italian. Middle of 18th century _Facing_ 126
72.――OBOE. Made by Anciuti of Milan. Formerly in the
possession of the composer Rossini. Latter half
of 18th century _Facing_ 126
73.――BASSOON, species of. English. Late 18th, or early 19th
century _Facing_ 128
74.――THE SERPENT. Made by Gerock Wolf, in London.
English. Early 19th century _Facing_ 128
75.――SERINETTE OR BIRD ORGAN. French. Period of Louis XIV.
_Facing_ 128
76.――ORGAN (Positive). German. Dated 1627 _Facing_ 128
77.――BAGPIPES. English. 18th century _Facing_ 130
78.――HANDEL’S HARPSICHORD. Made by Andreas Ruckers, of
Antwerp, 1651 _Facing_ 134
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.
I.
INTRODUCTION.
Music, in however primitive a stage of development it may be with some
nations, is universally appreciated as one of the Fine Arts. The
origin of vocal music may have been coeval with that of language; and
the construction of musical instruments evidently dates with the
earliest inventions which suggested themselves to human ingenuity.
There exist even at the present day some savage tribes in Australia
and South America who, although they have no more than the five first
numerals in their language and are thereby unable to count the fingers
of both hands together, nevertheless possess musical instruments of
their own contrivance, with which they accompany their songs and
dances.
Wood, metal, and the hide of animals are the most common substances
used in the construction of musical instruments. In tropical countries
bamboo or some similar kind of cane and gourds are especially made use
of for this purpose. The ingenuity of man has contrived to employ in
producing music, horn, bone, glass, pottery, slabs of sonorous
stone――in fact, almost all vibrating matter. The strings of
instruments have been made of the hair of animals, of silk, the
runners of creeping plants, the fibrous roots of certain trees, of
cane, catgut (which, absurdly referred to the cat, is from the sheep,
goat, lamb, camel, and some other animals), metal, etc.
The mode in which individual nations or tribes are in the habit of
embellishing their musical instruments is sometimes as characteristic
as it is singular. The negroes in several districts of Western Africa
affix to their drums human skulls. A war-trumpet of the king of
Ashantee which was brought to England is surrounded by human jawbones.
The Maoris in New Zealand carve around the mouth-hole of their
trumpets a figure intended, it is said, to represent female lips. The
materials for ornamentation chiefly employed by savages are bright
colours, beads, shells, grasses, the bark of trees, feathers, stones,
gilding, pieces of looking-glass inlaid like mosaic, etc. Uncivilised
nations are sure to consider anything which is bright and glittering
ornamental, especially if it is also scarce. Captain Tuckey saw in
Congo a negro instrument which was ornamented with part of the broken
frame of a looking-glass, to which were affixed in a semicircle a
number of brass buttons with the head of Louis XVI. on them,――perhaps
a relic of some French sailor drowned near the coast years ago.
Again, musical instruments are not infrequently formed in the shape of
certain animals. Thus, a kind of harmonicon of the Chinese represents
the figure of a crouching tiger. The Burmese possess a stringed
instrument in the shape of an alligator. Even more grotesque are the
imitations of various beasts adopted by the Javanese. The natives of
New Guinea have a singularly shaped drum, terminating in the head of a
reptile. A wooden rattle like a bird is a favourite instrument of the
Indians of Nootka Sound. In short, not only the inner construction of
the instruments and their peculiar quality of sound exhibit in most
nations certain distinctive characteristics, but it is also in great
measure true as to their outward appearance.
An arrangement of the various kinds of musical instruments in a
regular order, beginning with that kind which is the most universally
known, and progressing gradually to the least usual, gives the
following results. Instruments of percussion of indefinite
sonorousness or, in other words, pulsatile instruments which have not
a sound of a fixed pitch, as the drum, rattle, castanets, etc., are
most universal. Wind instruments of the flute kind――including pipes,
whistles, flutes, Pandean pipes, etc.――are also to be found almost
everywhere.
Much the same is the case with wind instruments of the trumpet kind.
These are often made of the horns, bones, and tusks of animals;
frequently of vegetable substances and of metal. Instruments of
percussion of definite sonorousness are chiefly met with in China,
Japan, Burmah, Siam, and Java. They not infrequently contain a series
of tones produced by slabs of wood or metal, which are beaten with a
sort of hammer, as our harmonicon is played.
Stringed instruments without a finger board, or any similar
contrivance which enables the performer to produce a number of
different tones on one string, are generally found among nations whose
musical accomplishments have emerged from the earliest state of
infancy. The strings are twanged with the fingers or with a piece of
wood, horn, metal, or any other suitable substance serving as a
_plectrum_; or are made to vibrate by being beaten with a hammer, as
our dulcimer. Stringed instruments provided with a finger-board on
which different tones are producible on one string by the performer
shortening it more or less――as on the guitar and violin――are met with
almost exclusively among nations in a somewhat advanced stage of
musical progress. Such as are played with a bow are the least common;
they are, however, known to the Chinese, Japanese, Hindus, Persians,
Arabs, and a few other nations, besides those of Europe and their
descendants in other countries.
Wind instruments of the organ kind――_i.e._, such as are constructed of
a number of tubes which can be sounded together by means of a common
mouthpiece or some similar contrivance, and upon which therefore
chords and combinations of chords, or harmony, can be produced――are
comparatively of rare occurrence. Some interesting specimens of them
exist in China, Japan, Laos, and Siam.
Besides these various kinds of sound-producing means employed in
musical performances, a few others less widely diffused could be
pointed out, which are of a construction not represented in any of our
well-known European specimens. For instance, some nations have
peculiar instruments of friction, which can hardly be classed with our
instruments of percussion. Again, there are contrivances in which a
number of strings are caused to vibrate by a current of air much as is
the case with the Æolian harp; which might with equal propriety be
considered either as stringed instruments or as wind instruments. In
short, our usual classification of all the various species into three
distinct divisions, viz., _Stringed Instruments_, _Wind Instruments_,
and _Instruments of Percussion_, is not tenable if we extend our
researches over the whole globe.
The collection at South Kensington contains several foreign
instruments which cannot fail to prove interesting to the musician.
Recent investigations have more and more elicited the fact that the
music of every nation exhibits some distinctive characteristics which
may afford valuable hints to a composer or performer. A familiarity
with the popular songs of different countries is advisable on account
of the remarkable originality of the airs; these mostly spring from
the heart. Hence the natural and true expression, the delightful
health and vigour by which they are generally distinguished. Our more
artificial compositions are, on the other hand, not infrequently
deficient in these charms, because they often emanate from the lingers
or the pen rather than from the heart. Howbeit, the predominance of
expressive melody and effective rhythm over harmonious combinations,
so usual in the popular compositions of various nations, would alone
suffice to recommend them to the careful attention of our modern
musicians. The same may be said with regard to the surprising variety
in construction and in manner of expression prevailing in the popular
songs and dance-tunes of different countries. Indeed, every nation’s
musical effusions exhibit a character peculiarly their own, with which
the musician would find it advantageous to familiarise himself.
Now, it will easily be understood that an acquaintance with the
musical instruments of a nation conveys a more correct idea than could
otherwise be obtained of the characteristic features of the nation’s
musical compositions. Furthermore, in many instances the construction
of the instruments reveals to us the nature of the musical intervals,
scales, modulations, and suchlike noteworthy facts. True, inquiries
like these have hitherto not received from musicians the attention
which they deserve. The adepts in most other arts are in this respect
in advance. They are convinced that useful information may be gathered
by investigating the productions even of uncivilised nations, and by
thus tracing the gradual progress of an art from its primitive infancy
to its highest degree of development.
Again, from an examination of the musical instruments of foreign
nations we may derive valuable hints for the improvement of our own;
or even for the invention of new. Several principles of construction
have thus been adopted by us from eastern nations. For instance, the
_free reed_ used in the harmonium is an importation from China. The
organ builder Kratzenstein, who lived in St. Petersburg during the
reign of Catherine II., happened to see the Chinese instrument
_cheng_, which is of this construction, and it suggested to him, about
the end of the 18th century, to apply the _free reed_ to certain organ
stops. At the present day instruments of the harmonium class have
become such universal favourites in western Europe as almost to
compete with the pianoforte.
Several other well-authenticated instances could be cited in which one
instrument has suggested the construction of another of a superior
kind. The prototype of our pianoforte was evidently the dulcimer,
known at an early time to the Arabs and Persians, who call it
_santir_. One of the old names given to the dulcimer by European
nations is _cimbal_. The Poles at the present day call it _cymbaly_,
and the Magyars in Hungary _cimbalom_. The _clavicembalo_, the
predecessor of the pianoforte, was in fact nothing but a _cembalo_
with a key board attached to it; and some of the old _clavicembali_
still preserved, exhibit the trapezium shape, the round hole in the
middle of the sound-board, and other peculiarities of the first
dulcimer. Again, the gradual development of the dulcimer from a rude
contrivance, consisting merely of a wooden board across which a few
strings are stretched, is distinctly traceable by a reference to the
musical instruments of nations in different stages of civilisation.
The same is the case with our highly perfected harp, of which curious
specimens, representing the instrument in its most primitive
condition, are still to be found among several barbarous tribes. We
might perhaps infer from its shape that it originally consisted of
nothing more than an elastic stick bent by a string. The Damaras, a
native tribe of South-western Africa, actually use their bow
occasionally as a musical instrument when they are not engaged in war
or in the chase. They tighten the string nearly in the middle by means
of a leathern thong, whereby they obtain two distinct sounds, which,
for want of a sound board, are of course very weak and scarcely
audible to anyone but the performer. Some neighbouring tribes,
however, possess a musical instrument very similar in appearance to
the bow, to which they attach a gourd, hollowed and open at the top,
which serves as a sound-board. Again, other African tribes have a
similar instrument, superior in construction only inasmuch as it
contains more than one string, and is provided with a sound-board
consisting of a suitable piece of sonorous wood. In short, the more
improved we find these contrivances the closer they approach our harp.
And it could be shown, if this were requisite for our present purpose,
that much the same gradual progress towards perfection, which we
observe in the African harp, is traceable in the harps of several
nations in different parts of the world.
Moreover, a collection of musical instruments deserves the attention
of the ethnologist as much as of the musician. Indeed, this may be
asserted of national music in general; for it gives us an insight into
the heart of man, reveals to us the feelings and predilections of
different races on the globe, and affords us a clue to the natural
affinity which exists between different families of men. Again, a
collection must prove interesting in a historical point of view.
Scholars will find among old instruments specimens which were in
common use in England at the time of Queen Elizabeth, and which are
not unfrequently mentioned in the literature of that period. In many
instances the passages in which allusion is made to them can hardly be
understood, if we are unacquainted with the shape and construction of
the instruments. Furthermore, these relics of bygone times bring
before our eyes the manners and customs of our forefathers, and assist
us in understanding them correctly.
It will be seen that the modification which our orchestra has
undergone, in the course of scarcely more than a century, is great
indeed. Most of the instruments which were highly popular about a
hundred years ago have either fallen into disuse or are now so much
altered that they may almost be considered as new inventions. Among
Asiatic nations, on the other hand, we meet with several instruments
which have retained unchanged through many centuries their old
construction and outward appearance. At South Kensington may be seen
instruments still in use in Egypt and western Asia, precisely like
specimens represented on monuments dating from a period of three
thousand years ago. By a reference to the Eastern instruments of the
present time we obtain therefore a key for investigating the earlier
Egyptian and Assyrian representations of musical performances; and
likewise, for appreciating more exactly the biblical records
respecting the music of the Hebrews. Perhaps these evidences will
convey to some inquirers a less high opinion than they have hitherto
entertained, regarding the musical accomplishments of the Hebrew bands
in the solemn processions of King David or in Solomon’s temple; but
the opinion will be all the nearer to the truth.
There is another point of interest about such collections, and
especially that at South Kensington, which must not be left unnoticed.
Several instruments are remarkable on account of their elegant shape
and tasteful ornamentation. This is particularly the case with some
specimens from Asiatic countries. The beautiful designs with which
they are embellished may afford valuable patterns for study and for
adoption in works of art.
II.
PRE-HISTORIC RELICS AND ANCIENT EGYPTIAN.
A really complete account of all the musical instruments from the
earliest time known to us would require much more space than can here
be afforded. We can attempt only a concise historical survey. We
venture to hope that the illustrations interspersed throughout the
text will to the intelligent reader elucidate many facts which, for
the reason stated, are touched upon but cursorily.
PRE-HISTORIC RELICS.
A musical relic has been exhumed in the department of Dordogne in
France, which was constructed in an age when the fauna of France
included the reindeer, the rhinoceros and the mammoth, the hyæna, the
bear, and the cave-lion. It is a small bone somewhat less than two
inches in length, in which is a hole, evidently bored by means of one
of the little flint knives which men used before acquaintance with the
employment of metal for tools and weapons.[1] Many of these flints
were found in the same place with the bones. Only about half a dozen
of the bones, of which a considerable number have been exhumed,
possess the artificial hole.
M. Lartet surmises the perforated bone to have been used as a whistle
in hunting animals. It is the first digital phalanx of a ruminant,
drilled to a certain depth by a smooth cylindrical bore on its lower
surface near the expanded upper articulation. On applying it to the
lower lip and blowing into it a shrill sound is yielded. Three of
these phalanges are of reindeer, one is of chamois. Again, among the
relics which have been brought to light from the cave of Lombrive, in
the department of Ariège, occur several eye-teeth of the dog, which
have a hole drilled into them near the root. Probably they also yield
sounds, like those reindeer bones, or like the tube of a key. Another
whistle――or rather a pipe, for it has three finger-holes by means of
which different tones could be produced――was found in a burying-place,
dating from the stone period, in the vicinity of Poitiers in France;
it is rudely constructed from a fragment of stag’s horn. It is blown
at the end, like a _flûte à bec_, and the three-finger holes are
placed equidistantly. Four distinct tones must have been easily
obtainable on it: the lowest, when all the finger-holes were covered;
the other three, by opening the finger-holes successively. From the
character of the stone utensils and weapons discovered with this pipe
it is conjectured that the burying-place from which it was exhumed
dates from the latest time of the stone age. Therefore, however old it
may be, it is a more recent contrivance than the reindeer-bone whistle
from the cavern of the Dordogne.
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
The most ancient nations historically known possessed musical
instruments which, though in acoustic construction greatly inferior to
our own, exhibit a degree of perfection which could have been attained
only after a long period of cultivation. Many tribes of the present
day have not yet reached this stage of musical progress.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.――PAINTED WOODEN HARP. Ancient Egyptian, XVIIIth
dynasty (B.C. 1450).
British Museum.]
As regards the instruments of the ancient Egyptians we now possess
perhaps more detailed information than of those appertaining to any
other nation of antiquity. This information we owe especially to the
exactness with which the instruments are depicted in sculptures and
paintings[2]. Whoever has examined these interesting monuments with
even ordinary care cannot but be convinced that the representations
which they exhibit are faithful transcripts from life. Moreover, if
there remained any doubt respecting the accuracy of the representations
of the musical instruments it might be dispelled by existing evidence.
Several specimens have been discovered in tombs, preserved in a more
or less perfect condition.
The Egyptians possessed various kinds of harps, some of which were
elegantly shaped and tastefully ornamented. The largest were about 6½
feet high; and the small ones frequently had some sort of stand which
enabled the performer to play upon the instrument while standing. The
name of the harp was _bene_. Its frame had no front pillar; the
tension of the strings therefore cannot have been anything like so
strong as on our present harp. (Fig. 2.)
The Egyptian harps most remarkable for elegance of form and elaborate
decoration are the two which were first noticed by Bruce who found
them painted in fresco on the walls of a sepulchre at Thebes, supposed
to be the tomb of Rameses III. who reigned about 1170 B.C. Bruce’s
discovery created a sensation among musicians. The fact that at so
remote an age the Egyptians should have possessed harps which vie with
our own in elegance and beauty of form appeared to some so incredible
that the correctness of Bruce’s representations, as engraved in his
“Travels,” was greatly doubted. Sketches of the same harps, taken
subsequently and at different times from the frescoes, have since been
published, but they differ more or less from each other in appearance
and in the number of strings. A kind of triangular harp of the
Egyptians was discovered in a well-preserved condition and is now
deposited in the Louvre. It has twenty-one strings; a greater number
than is generally represented on the monuments. All these instruments,
however much they differed from each other in form, had one
peculiarity in common, namely the absence of the fore pillar.
The _nefer_, a kind of guitar, was almost identical in construction
with the Tamboura at the present day in use among several eastern
nations. It was evidently a great favourite with the ancient
Egyptians, and occurs in representations of concerts dating earlier
than from B.C. 1500. The _nefer_ affords the best proof that the
Egyptians had made considerable progress in music at a very early age;
since it shows that they understood how to produce on a few strings,
by means of the finger-board, a greater number of notes than were
obtainable even on their harps. The instrument had two or four
strings, was played with a plectrum and appears to have been
sometimes, if not always, provided with frets. In the British Museum
is a fragment of a fresco obtained from a tomb at Thebes, on which two
female performers on the _nefer_ are represented. The painter has
distinctly indicated the frets.
Small pipes or flutes of the Egyptians have been discovered, made of
reed, with three, four, five, or more finger-holes. There are some
interesting examples in the British Museum; one of which has seven
holes burnt in at the side (Fig. 3). Two straws were found with it of
nearly the same length as the pipe, which is about one foot long. In
some other pipes pieces of a kind of thick straw have also been found
inserted into the tube, obviously serving for a similar purpose as the
_reed_ in our oboe or clarionet.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.――BRONZE AND REED FLUTES. Ancient Egyptian.
B.C. 600 or later.
British Museum.]
The _sebȧ_, a single flute, was of considerable length, and the
performer appears to have been obliged to extend his arms almost at
full length in order to reach the furthest finger-hole. As _sebȧ_
is also the name of the leg-bone (like the Latin _tibia_) it may be
supposed that the Egyptian flute was originally made of bone. Those,
however, which have been found are of wood or reed.
A flute-concert is painted on one of the tombs in the pyramids of
Gizeh and dates, according to Lepsius, from an age earlier than B.C.
2000. Eight musicians are performing on flutes. Three of them, one
behind the other, are kneeling and holding their flutes in exactly the
same manner. Facing these are three others, in a precisely similar
position. A seventh is sitting on the ground to the left of the six,
with his back turned towards them, but also in the act of blowing his
flute, like the others. An eighth is standing at the right side of the
group with his face turned towards them, holding his flute before him
with both hands, as if he were going to put it to his mouth, or had
just left off playing. He is clothed, while the others have only a
narrow girdle round their loins. Perhaps he is the director of this
singular band, or the _solo_ performer who is waiting for the
termination of the _tutti_ before renewing his part of the
performance. The division of the players into two sets, facing each
other, suggests the possibility that the instruments were classed
somewhat like the first and second violins, or the _flauto primo_ and
_flauto secondo_ of our orchestras. The occasional employment of the
interval of the third, or the fifth, as accompaniment to the melody,
is not unusual even with nations less advanced in music than were the
ancient Egyptians.
The Double-Pipe, called _mam_, appears to have been a very popular
instrument, if we judge from the frequency of its occurrence in the
representations of musical performances. Furthermore, the Egyptians
had, as far as is known to us, two kinds of trumpets; three kinds of
tambourines, or little hand drums; three kinds of drums, chiefly
barrel-shaped; and various kinds of gongs, bells, cymbals, and
castanets. The trumpet appears to have been usually of brass. A
peculiar wind-instrument, somewhat the shape of a champagne bottle and
perhaps made of pottery or wood, also occurs in the representations
transmitted to us.
The Egyptian drum was from two to three feet in length, covered with
parchment at both ends and braced by cords. The performer carried it
before him, generally by means of a band over his shoulder, while he
was heating it with his hands on both ends. Of another kind of drum an
actual specimen has been found in the excavations made in the year
1823 at Thebes. It was 1½ feet high and 2 feet broad, and had cords
for bracing it. A piece of catgut encircled each end of the drum,
being wound round each cord, by means of which the cords could be
tightened or slackened at pleasure by pushing the two hands of catgut
towards or from each other. It was beaten with two drumsticks slightly
bent. The Egyptians had also straight drumsticks with a handle, and a
knob at the end. The Berlin museum possesses some of these. The third
kind of drum was almost identical with the _darabuka_ of the modern
Egyptians. The Tambourine was either round, like that which is at the
present time in use in Europe as well as in the east; or it was of an
oblong square shape, slightly incurved on the four sides.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.――BRONZE SISTRA. Ancient Egyptian.
XXIInd-XXVIth dynasty (B.C. 1000-600).
The Sistrum consisted of a frame of bronze into which three or four
metal bars were loosely inserted, so as to produce a jingling noise
when the instrument was shaken. (Fig. 4.) The bars were often made in
the form of snakes, or they terminated in the head of a goose. Not
unfrequently a few metal rings were strung on the bars, to increase
the noise. The frame was sometimes ornamented with the figure of a
cat. The largest sistra which have been found are about eighteen
inches in length, and the smallest about nine inches. The sistrum was
principally used by females in religious performances. Its Egyptian
name was _seshesh_.
The Egyptian cymbals closely resembled our own in shape. There are
several pairs of them in the British museum. One pair was found in a
coffin enclosing the mummy of a sacred musician, and is deposited in
the same case with the mummy and coffin. Among the Egyptian
antiquities in the British museum are also several small bells of
bronze (Fig. 5). The largest is 2¼ inches in height, and the smallest
three-quarters of an inch. Some of them have a hole at the side near
the top wherein the clapper was fastened.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.――SERIES OF BELLS. Ancient Egyptian. Late
Period. The smaller examples were sewn on wearing
apparel.
British Museum.]
III.
ASSYRIAN AND HEBREW.
THE ASSYRIANS.
Our acquaintance with the Assyrian instruments has been derived almost
entirely from the famous bas-reliefs which have been excavated from
the mounds of Nimroud, Khorsabad, and Kouyunjik (the site of the
ancient Nineveh), situated near the river Tigris in the vicinity of
the town of Mosul in Asiatic Turkey.
The Assyrian harp was about four feet high, and appears of larger size
than it actually was on account of the ornamental appendages which
were affixed to the lower part of its frame. It must have been but
light in weight, since we find it not unfrequently represented in the
hands of persons who are playing upon it while they are dancing. Like
all the Oriental harps, modern as well as ancient, it was not provided
with a front pillar. The upper portion of the frame contained the
sound-holes, somewhat in the shape of an hourglass. Below them were
the screws, or tuning-pegs, arranged in regular order. The strings
were perhaps made of silk, like those which the Burmese use at the
present time on their harps; or they may have been of catgut, which
was used by the ancient Egyptians.
The largest assemblage of Assyrian musicians which has been discovered
on any monument consists of eleven performers upon instruments,
besides a chorus of singers. The first musician――probably the leader
of the band, as he marches alone at the head of the procession――is
playing upon a harp. Behind him are two men; one with a dulcimer and
the other with a double-pipe; then follow two men with harps. Next
come six female musicians, four of whom are playing upon harps, while
one is blowing a double-pipe and another is beating a small hand-drum
covered only at the top. Close behind the instrumental performers are
the singers, consisting of a chorus of females and children. They are
clapping their hands in time with the music, and some of the musicians
are dancing to the measure. One of the female singers is holding her
hand to her throat in the same manner as the women in Syria, Arabia,
and Persia are in the habit of doing at the present day when
producing, on festive occasions, those peculiarly shrill sounds of
rejoicing which have been repeatedly noticed by travellers.
The dulcimer is in too imperfect a state on the bas-relief to
familiarize us with its construction. The slab representing the
procession in which it occurs has been injured; the defect which
extended over a portion of the dulcimer has been repaired, and it
cannot be said that in repairing it much musical knowledge has been
evinced.
The instrument of the Trigonon species was held horizontally, and was
twanged with a rather long plectrum slightly bent at the end at which
it was held by the performer. It is of frequent occurrence on the
bas-reliefs. A number of them appear to have been generally played
together. At any rate, we find almost invariably on the monuments two
together, evidently implying “more than one,” “a number.” The left
hand of the performer seems to have been occupied in checking the
vibration of the strings when its discontinuance was required. From
the position of the strings the performer could not have struck them
as those of the dulcimer are struck. If he did not twang them, he may
have drawn the plectrum across them. Indeed, for twanging, a short
plectrum would have been more practical, considering that the strings
are placed horizontally one above the other at regular distances. It
is therefore by no means improbable that we have here a rude prototype
of the violin bow.
The lyre occurs in three different forms, and is held horizontally in
playing, or at least nearly so. Its front bar was generally either
oblique or slightly curved. The strings were tied round the bar so as
to allow of their being pushed upwards or downwards. In the former
case the tension of the strings increases, and the notes become
therefore higher; on the other hand, if the strings are pushed lower
down the pitch of the notes must become deeper. The lyre was played
with a small plectrum as well as with the fingers.
The Assyrian trumpet was very similar to the Egyptian. Furthermore, we
meet with three kinds of drums, of which one is especially noteworthy
on account of its odd shape, somewhat resembling a sugar loaf; with
the tambourine; with two kinds of cymbals; and with bells, of which a
considerable number have been found in the mound of Nimroud. These
bells, which have greatly withstood the devastation of time, are but
small in size, the largest of them being only 3¼ inches in height and
2½ inches in diameter. Most of them have a hole at the top, in which
probably the clapper was fastened. They are made of copper mixed with
14 per cent. of tin.
Instrumental music was used by the Assyrians and Babylonians in their
religious observances. This is obvious from the sculptures, and is to
some extent confirmed by the mode of worship paid by command of king
Nebuchadnezzar to the golden image; “Then an herald cried aloud, To
you it is commanded, O people, nations, and languages, that at what
time ye hear the sound of the cornet, flute, harp, sackbut, psaltery,
dulcimer, and all kinds of musick, ye fall down and worship the golden
image that Nebuchadnezzar the king has set up.” The kings appear to
have maintained at their courts musical bands, whose office it was to
perform secular music at certain times of the day or on fixed
occasions. Of king Darius we are told that, when he had cast Daniel
into the den of lions, he “went to his palace, and passed the night
fasting, neither were instruments of musick brought before him;” from
which we may conclude that his band was in the habit of playing before
him in the evening. A similar custom prevailed also at the court of
Jerusalem, at least in the time of David and Solomon; both of whom
appear to have had their royal private bands, besides a large number
of singers and instrumental performers of sacred music who were
engaged in the Temple.
THE HEBREWS.
As regards the musical instruments of the Hebrews, we are from
biblical records acquainted with the names of many of them; but
representations to be trusted are still wanting, and it is chiefly
from an examination of the ancient Egyptian and Assyrian instruments
that we can conjecture almost to a certainty their construction and
capabilities. From various indications, which it would be too
circumstantial here to point out, we believe the Hebrews to have
possessed the following instruments:
THE HARP.――There can be no doubt that the Hebrews possessed the harp,
seeing that it was a common instrument among the Egyptians and
Assyrians. But it is uncertain which of the Hebrew names of the
stringed instruments occurring in the Bible really designates the
harp.
THE DULCIMER.――Some writers on Hebrew music consider the _nevel_ to
have been a kind of dulcimer; others conjecture the same of the
_psanterin_ mentioned in the hook of Daniel,――a name which appears to
be synonymous with the _psalterion_ of the Greeks, and from which also
the present oriental dulcimer, _santir_, may have been derived. Some
of the instruments mentioned in the book of Daniel may have been
synonymous with some which occur in other parts of the Bible under
Hebrew names; the names given in Daniel being Chaldæan. The _asor_ was
a ten-stringed instrument played with a plectrum, and is supposed to
have borne some resemblance to the _nevel_.
THE LYRE.――This instrument is represented on some Hebrew coins
generally ascribed to Judas Maccabæus, who lived in the second century
before the Christian era. There are several of them in the British
Museum; some are of silver, and the others of copper. On three of them
are lyres with three strings, another has one with five, and another
one with six strings. The two sides of the frame appear to have been
made of the horns of animals, or they may have been of wood formed in
imitation of two horns which originally were used. Lyres thus
constructed are still found in Abyssinia. The Hebrew square-shaped
lyre of the time of Simon Maccabæus is probably identical with the
_psalterion_. The _kinnor_, the favourite instrument of king David,
was most likely a lyre if not a small triangular harp. The lyre was
evidently an universally known and favoured instrument among ancient
eastern nations. Being more simple in construction than most other
stringed instruments it undoubtedly preceded them in antiquity. The
_kinnor_ is mentioned in the Bible as the oldest stringed instrument,
and as the invention of Jubal. Even if the name of one particular
stringed instrument is here used for stringed instruments in general,
which may possibly be the case, it is only reasonable to suppose that
the oldest and most universally known stringed instrument would be
mentioned as a representative of the whole class rather than any
other. Besides, the _kinnor_ was a light and easily portable
instrument; king David, according to the Rabbinic records, used to
suspend it during the night over his pillow. All its uses mentioned in
the Bible are especially applicable to the lyre. And the resemblance
of the word _kinnor_ to _kithara_, _kissar_, and similar names known
to denote the lyre, also tends to confirm the supposition that it
refers to this instrument. It is, however, not likely that the
instruments of the Hebrews――indeed their music altogether――should have
remained entirely unchanged during a period of many centuries. Some
modifications were likely to occur even from accidental causes; such,
for instance, as the influence of neighbouring nations when the
Hebrews came into closer contact with them. Thus may be explained why
the accounts of the Hebrew instruments given by Josephus, who lived in
the first century of the Christian era, are not in exact accordance
with those in the Bible. The lyres at the time of Simon Maccabæus may
probably be different from those which were in use about a thousand
years earlier, or at the time of David and Solomon, when the art of
music with the Hebrews was at its zenith.
There appears to be a probability that a Hebrew lyre of the time of
Joseph (about 1700 B.C.) is represented on an ancient Egyptian
painting[3] discovered in a tomb at Beni Hassan――which is the name of
certain grottoes on the eastern bank of the Nile. Sir Gardner
Wilkinson, in his “Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,”
observes: “If, when we become better acquainted with the
interpretation of hieroglyphics, the ‘strangers’ at Beni Hassan should
prove to be the arrival of Jacob’s family in Egypt, we may examine the
Jewish lyre drawn by an Egyptian artist. That this event took place
about the period when the inmate of the tomb lived is highly
probable――at least, if I am correct in considering Usertsen I. to be
the Pharaoh who was the patron of Joseph; and it remains for us to
decide whether the disagreement in the number of persons here
introduced, thirty-seven being written over them in hieroglyphics, is
a sufficient objection to their identity. It will not be foreign to
the present subject to introduce those figures, which are curious, if
only considered as illustrative of ancient customs at that early
period, and which will be looked upon with unbounded interest should
they ever be found to refer to the Jews. The first figure is an
Egyptian scribe, who presents an account of their arrival to a person
seated, the owner of the tomb, and one of the principal officers of
the reigning Pharaoh. The next, also an Egyptian, ushers them into his
presence; and two advance bringing presents, the wild goat or ibex and
the gazelle, the productions of their country. Four men, carrying bows
and clubs, follow, leading an ass on which two children are placed in
panniers, accompanied by a boy and four women; and, last of all,
another ass laden, and two men――one holding a bow and club, the other
a lyre, which he plays with the plectrum. All the men have beards,
contrary to the custom of the Egyptians, but very general in the East
at that period, and noticed as a peculiarity of foreign uncivilized
nations throughout their sculptures. The men have sandals, the women a
sort of boot reaching to the ankle, both which were worn by many
Asiatic people. The lyre is rude, and differs in form from those
generally used in Egypt.” In the engraving the lyre-player, another
man, and some strange animals from this group, are represented.
THE TAMBOURA.――_Minnim_, _machalath_, and _nevel_ are usually supposed
to be the names of instruments of the lute or guitar kind. _Minnim_,
however, appears more likely to imply stringed instruments in general
than any particular instrument.
THE SINGLE PIPE.――_Chalil_ and _nekeb_ were the names of the Hebrew
pipes or flutes.