JOURNEYS THROUGH BOOKLAND IN ITS RELATION TO THE SCHOOL
_Reading and Language_
These books were prepared expressly for home readings, but as has been
said elsewhere, they were prepared with a definite purpose to make them
a living adjunct to school work and a strong helper in bringing the home
and the school together. To accomplish this result it was necessary that
all the studies offered in _Journeys_ should be after the most approved
methods and that there should be no selections that could not with
propriety be used in any school in the land. This principle of selection
made it necessary to exclude some selections that might have been
pleasing but at the same time were not universal in their acceptance.
Again, it was necessary to include literature that was in a sense
technical, that would apply to every class that young readers have in
school. This does not mean that there are a great many things that are
purely geographical or purely historical or that deal directly with the
study of language and literature. It means that the reader of _Journeys_
will find selections that he can use in nearly every class in school and
that those selections are in the highest degree literary. In no way does
a child learn more thoroughly that geography and history are worth
study in themselves than by meeting them clothed in the beauty of fine
writing. In no way will he be led more quickly into a love for nature in
all her manifestations and into a keen desire to study nature than by
the hand of literature. Language takes on a new interest when it becomes
evident that it is a real and necessary help to writing as the great
writers do.
Accordingly when the selections were chosen for _Journeys_, a tabulation
of school subjects was made and under each head were placed the things
that would be most helpful in school work. It was not decided finally to
keep that arrangement in the books, for a different and a better system
of grading and classification was selected. Nevertheless the selections
are there, and the object of this and the few following chapters is to
show what those selections are, how they may be used in school and how
their use at home helps in the school work of every reader.
In the grades below the high school the following subjects are
considered most important, viz.: reading, language, arithmetic,
geography, history and nature study. At the first thought one would say
that a set of books such as _Journeys_ can be of no use in the
arithmetic class, and of course their usefulness in that direction would
not justify their existence. However, there are selections in _Journeys_
that have a decided arithmetical flavor, such as, for instance, _Three
Sundays in a Week_ (Volume VI, page 453) and _The Gold Bug_ (Volume IX,
page 232). Even among the nursery rhymes is one that is purely
arithmetical (Volume I, page 41). We may, however, disregard the
arithmetic in _Journeys_, but we must not lose sight of the fact that
the method of reading discussed under the title _Close Reading_ is
exactly the method of study that every person must pursue if he is to
make any success in mathematics. In no other branch is there a call for
such close reading, and only he who can get all the meaning out of the
statement of a problem can be certain of his solution. One of the
reasons that so many children have trouble with the problems in their
arithmetic classes is that they do not read intelligently. Many a good
teacher of mathematics will tell you that a large part of her success is
due to the fact that she has spent much of the time in the class in
teaching her pupils to read understandingly. Many another could make a
vast improvement in her methods of teaching if she would spend a part of
the time of each recitation in teaching her pupils to read problems till
they thoroughly understand them before beginning to work out the
formulas. It follows then that every child who masters the art of close
reading will be helped in a great measure in all his work in
mathematics. The value of _Journeys_ in this connection is that it makes
that method of study clear and leads a child to its mastery almost
without the recognition of what he is doing. It will teach him to think
before he acts and to acquire the habit of looking for the full meaning
of everything he reads.
In this and the two following chapters will be given studies of the most
important subjects studied in the grades, showing the correlation of the
_Journeys_ material. These subjects will be treated in the following
order: Reading, Language, Nature Study, Geography and History.
A. Reading
As for the other studies with which _Journeys_ is correlated, we shall
take them up one by one and at greater length. First in importance is
reading. This is always first in importance in school, for every other
study depends upon it. In fact the prime motive of _Journeys_ is to
teach reading, and it will teach reading in the school and in the home.
The child who has read what these books have to offer in the way that
these books teach will have a power that cannot be taken from him, and
his position in class and elsewhere will be raised immediately. Besides
the fund of information he will have acquired he will have made for
himself a habit that will always benefit him. Every study in the books
from the first page to the last is a help in reading, and all the
lessons of this volume are directed to reading. But there are three or
more long chapters in this volume which take up the different methods of
reading and apply them to selections on all conceivable subjects dealt
with in _Journeys_. To these chapters on reading the teacher and the
parent who wants to be informed are directed. The treatment is simple
and not above the effort of anyone, and the method will appeal to all
high school students of literature, for it is the method of the best
teachers of that subject.
B. LANGUAGE
There are two distinct phases of the teaching of language: pupils must
be taught to speak and to write with ease, fluency and correctness.
There are very few children who do not like to talk. It is as natural to
them as to breathe. But as soon as they begin to speak we begin to
correct their speech. Much of our criticism is given publicly, at least
before other children, some of whom are known to speak more fluently and
correctly than those whose errors are being criticized. In consequence,
the children begin to doubt themselves, to hesitate, and gradually to
lose their desire to talk. In fact, so timid and reluctant do they
become that by the time they have been in school a few years many
teachers find their greatest difficulty in getting pupils to recite well
or to talk naturally. Perhaps before and after school and at recess they
will converse freely and delightfully, but as soon as their classes are
called they become reticent and ill at ease. Not all of this lack of
spirit is due to the teacher, but some of it is. In any event it is an
unfortunate condition, and the teacher is anxious to remove it.
At home a similar condition prevails. If the parents are themselves
accurate in speech and alive to the importance of making their children
good talkers and users of correct English they will be ready with
criticism, and unless they are careful will do their share to repress
the natural frankness of child nature. Parents who have been teachers
are quite as liable to err as others are to remain in ignorance in
attempting to understand the psychology of the child mind. Freedom of
conversation on topics of interest where correct models of speech are
always before the child will accomplish more in making cultivated speech
than will twice as much direct instruction. If only parents will read
the things that the children are reading and affect an interest in those
things they can be certain of giving the best training, while they
themselves will grow in happiness and nearness to their offspring. In
the fields of literature they can stray together with the consciousness
that with all the beauty there is nothing to corrupt.
In a lesser degree, perhaps, the same facts are true in written
language, in composition. But in lessons of this type the instructor
will not find conditions so favorable: Talking is natural, writing is
artificial; to speak is instinctive, to write is an art of difficult
attainment. In the first place, a child must be taught to form strange
characters with his hand. After he acquires facility in that, he must
think, put this thoughts into words in his mind, and then laboriously
transfer his words, letter by letter, to the paper before him. Many a
child who talks well cannot write a respectable letter. His thoughts
outrun his hand, and by the time the first labored sentence is written
his ideas have fled and he must begin again. Is it any wonder that his
sentences are disconnected, his thought meager?
Just think what it means to a child to write you a letter, or even a
brief paragraph! Suppose he wants to tell you about a dog he has at
home. He begins by thinking: "My dog, Ben, is a pretty little woolly
fellow with bright eyes and long silky ears," and then his thoughts run
off vaguely into the general idea that he is going to tell you about
some very cute tricks Ben can perform. The child is all enthusiasm and
he begins writing and thinking something like this: "My (that word must
begin with a capital letter) dog ('Ben' must begin with a capital, too)
Ben is a (is that 'pritty' or 'pretty'? It's pronounced 'pritty' anyhow)
pritty (that don't look right. Scratch it out!) pretty (well, that
don't, I mean _doesn't_ look right either, but I'll leave it) (For
goodness sake, how do you spell it? 'Wooly'? 'wolly'? 'woolly'? I guess
I had it right at first) wooly fellow (where shall I put the commas?
I'll leave 'em out. Teacher can put them in if she wants them.) with
bright eyes and long slicky (no, no, that isn't right! How funny!
Scratch it out.) silky ears. (I nearly forgot the period. Now what was I
going to say next?)." When he is through, his first sentence is like
this: "My dog Ben is a pretty little wooly fellow with bright eyes and
long silky ears." He looks at his work with doubt and disgust as he
scratches his head for the next idea. He has wholly forgotten what he
intended to tell about! Later, his work, wholly unsatisfactory to
himself comes to you for criticism and you take your blue pencil or your
pen with red ink and put in the marks if any are needed, indicate the
misspelled words and sigh as you say, "Will Charlie ever learn to write
a decent composition?" Certainly he will, when his writing becomes
mechanical, when his hand makes the letters, puts in the marks, and his
lower brain spells the words for him, without disturbing the higher
cells which are occupied with his ideas.
These are the diverse problems that confront anyone who tries to teach
language to a child. We cannot solve them all, but most certainly we can
lend some assistance.
1. Oral Lessons
Success in oral language lessons rests primarily upon interest. If you
can secure interest, the children will talk freely; if you retain
interest, you can criticize freely and with good effect.
Criticisms should not be too severe and should always be impersonal. It
is not John and Mary who are being corrected, but the mistakes that John
and Mary make. You have heard both parents and teachers say, "John, why
will you persist in saying, 'I done it'? Don't you know that is wrong?
You must correct yourself." Such criticism is wholly bad. If John says
"I done it," it is because he has heard the expression and become
habituated to its use. He cannot be taught differently by berating him.
When he says, "I done it," repeat after him in a kindly inquiring voice,
"I _done_ it?" or say in a kindly way, "I did it." In either case John
will give you the correct form willingly, and when he has done so times
enough he will forget the wrong form and cease to use it.
Everyone must remember that children have heard slang and incorrect
speech almost from infancy; that the playground, the street and the home
have been steadily teaching, and that the minds of even primary children
may be filled with not only loose forms of speech, but even with profane
and indecent expressions. One of the natural correctives for such things
is the reading and telling of attractive stories, full of dramatic
power, calculated to stimulate right feeling, couched in clear and
forcible English. Elsewhere in this volume under the title _Telling
Stories_ are suggestions and good models.
From the standpoint of the language lesson, children must reproduce the
story, must "tell it back" to make it valuable to them. The instructor's
part in this reproduction may be summed up as follows:
1. Be an interested audience for the child.
2. Secure clearness. Do it by a gentle question or a remark now and
then: "I am not sure that I understand you." "Do you think I would know
what you mean if I had never read the story?" "If you were telling the
story to your playmate would she understand that?"
3. Encourage the child to use his own words, when he follows too closely
the phraseology that was given him, yet remember that one of the objects
of the exercise is to give the children the use of a wider vocabulary
and to make them appreciate and use beautiful and forcible expressions.
4. Be reasonably content with freedom of expression at first, and do not
expect too rapid improvement. You are moving against fixed habits.
5. Vary the character of the exercise. Sometimes permit one child to
tell the whole story; at other times, call upon other children, or
continue the story yourself.
6. If the story is a difficult one, do not ask for its reproduction
until it is thoroughly understood. Make its meaning clear by skilful
questioning, which with the answers makes an extremely valuable
conversation lesson.
7. Encourage the use of beautiful expressions, of fine figures of
speech. Do it by using such expressions yourself and by pointing them
out in the story or poem you are using.
8. Beware of spoiling a beautiful poem or an elegant prose selection by
poor reproduction. After the story has been related and the meaning made
clear have the original read several times exactly as it is written and
encourage the children to commit it to memory.
There are in _Journeys Through Bookland_ many selections suitable for
these oral lessons. For the little folks there are some of the _Nursery
Rhymes_, of Volume I, like the following:
_Little Boy Blue_, Page 33.
_Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary_, Page 30.
_Ladybird, Ladybird_, Page 12.
_Little Bo-Peep_, Page 9.
_Jack and Jill_, Page 27.
_Poor Robin_, Page 16.
_There Was a Jolly Miller_, Page 47.
_Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star_, Page 44.
In the same class may be included those beautiful poems by Stevenson and
Field, poems that every child loves and will be delighted to talk about.
For instance, the following from the same volume:
_The Swing_, Page 67.
_Singing_, Page 83.
_The Rock-a-by Lady_, Page 94.
_My Bed is a Boat_, Page 126.
_Foreign Lands_, Page 130.
_Little Blue Pigeon_, Page 133.
_The Land of Counterpane_, Page 144.
_Norse Lullaby_, Page 246.
_Where Go the Boats?_ Page 256.
_Wynken, Blynken and Nod_, Page 262.
_Keepsake Mill_, Page 349.
_The Duel_, Page 384.
The last list, however, includes many of those poems which must not be
spoiled by childish re-telling. Use them for conversation subjects and
then for reading or recitation.
The fables will be found to provide excellent material, and there need
be no fear of ruining their effect as literature:
_The Lion and the Mouse_, Volume I, page 75.
_The Wolf and the Crane_, I, 96.
_The Lark and Her Young Ones_, I, 131.
_The Cat and the Chestnuts_, I, 142.
_The Sparrow and the Eagle_, Volume II, 8.
Certain of the fairy stories are excellent; so are anecdotes concerning
men of whom the children should know; historical tales, and stories
about plants, birds and other animals. Among the great number of
selections that might be included under this head, some of the best are
the following:
1. Fairy Tales and Folk Stories:
_Silverlocks and the Three Bears_, Volume I, 101.
_The Hardy Tin Soldier_, I, 148.
_Cinderella_, I, 224.
_The Ugly Duckling_, I, 414.
_Why the Sea is Salt_, II, 484.
_The Pied Piper of Hamelin_, III, 384.
2. Biographical Stories:
_Robert Louis Stevenson_, Volume I, 128.
_Eugene Field_, I, 242.
_George Rogers Clark_, VI, 422.
_Père Marquette_, VIII, 121.
3. Myths:
_The Wonderful Gifts_, Volume I, 368.
_The Chimera_, II, 173.
_The Story of Phaethon_, II, 206.
4. Historical Tales:
_Robert Bruce and the Spider_, Volume V, 314.
_The Fall of the Alamo_, VIII, 141.
_Hervé Riel_, VIII, 168.
5. About Flowers and Plants:
_The Daffodils_, Volume VII, 1.
_Trees and Ants That Help Each Other_, VII, 306.
_A Bed of Nettles_, VIII, 209.
6. About Birds:
_Who Stole the Bird's Nest?_ Volume II, 399.
_Owls_, IX, 229.
7. About Other Animals:
_Elephant Hunting_, Volume VI, 385.
_The Buffalo_, VII, 96.
_The Pond in Winter_, VII, 280.
The longer stories you will abbreviate in telling, and the children will
still further shorten them. Try, however, to retain the spirit of each.
Do not try to tell all that is contained in the longer articles
mentioned above. Select interesting portions, a single anecdote, a few
facts that will hold attention.
At times vary the exercise by giving a very simple theme and ask the
children to make up a story to fit it. If they have difficulty, help
them to think and talk. When they see what you want some will surprise
you with their vivid imaginations and picturesque modes of expression.
Suppose you have in mind the fable _The Wind and the Sun_ (Volume I,
Page 95). You might present the idea to them in this form: "The Wind and
the Sun each tried to make a man take off his coat. The Wind tried and
failed, then the Sun tried and succeeded. Can you tell me a story about
that?" If you meet with no satisfactory response, begin questioning
somewhat in this style, and perhaps the child will answer nearly as
indicated:
Question. You don't know what I mean? Then let us tell it together. How
do you think the Wind would try to make a man take off his coat?
Answer. He would try to blow it off.
Q. How would he blow?
A. He would blow hard.
Q. Can you think of another word besides _hard_ to show how he would
blow?
A. Fierce.
Q. Fiercely. Yes, "_fiercely_" is a good word. How fiercely would he
blow?
A. Very fierce.
Q. Yes, very _fiercely_. Did you notice I said "fiercely," John? Now
can't you think of a comparison with something else that is fierce, so
that our story will sound well and people will like it?
A. A lion is fierce. We could say, "He blew as fiercely as a lion."
Q. But a lion does not blow. What does he do?
A. He tears his prey when he captures it.
Q. That's good. Now tell me how the Wind tried to make the man take off
his coat.
A. The Wind blew fiercely as a lion tears his prey.
Q. Good. Did the man take off his coat?
A. I don't think he did. I think he would try to keep it on.
Q. How hard do you think he would try?
A. As hard as he could.
Q. Did he lose it?
A. No. No matter what the Wind did I think the man would keep on his
coat.
Q. Will you please tell the story as far as we have gone?
A. The Wind and the Sun tried to make a man take off his coat. First the
Wind blew as fiercely as a lion tears his prey, but the man clung more
closely to his coat and would not let it go.
Q. That is good, but it does not satisfy me yet. I want a longer,
prettier story. Let us make believe the Wind and the Sun are two men.
Make them talk so they will seem real to us. Can't you start us?
A. One day Mr. Wind and Mr. Sun got to talking. Each one thought he was
stronger than the other. They saw a man walking along the road. He had a
big overcoat on and Mr. Wind said that he--
Q. Tell us exactly what Mr. Wind said.
A. Mr. Wind said, "I am stronger than you are. I can make that man take
off his coat. You can't!"
Q. That is a fine start. Tell us what the Sun said.
A. The Sun said that he--
Q. "That he?"
A. The Sun said, "I can make him take off his coat, and I can do it
quicker than you can."
Q. Good. Go on.
A. So they tried. Mr. Wind began. He blew as hard as he could and
whistled around the man. He blew as fiercely as a lion tears his prey,
but the man wouldn't take off his coat.
Q. What would the man do to his coat?
A. I think he'd hold on to it, button it up, draw it close around him.
Q. Good. Very good. Now tell the story as well as you can.
A. Begin at the beginning?
Q. Yes.
A. One day Mr. Wind and Mr. Sun got into a quarrel about who was the
strongest. While they were at it, a man in a heavy overcoat came walking
along the road. When Mr. Wind saw the man he said, "Now see that man
down there. I can make him take off his coat, but you can't." Mr. Sun
replied, "I don't believe you can do it, but I can, though," then Mr.
Wind said, "Well, I'll show you, you conceited thing!" So the Wind blew
and blew, fierce and loud like a lion attacking his prey, but the man
wouldn't take off his coat. He drew it around him and buttoned it up and
hung on to it.
Q. I like your story. But how many people were talking?
A. Two.
Q. Did you mean to say "_strongest_"?
A. Stronger.
It is not necessary to continue this farther, for enough has been
written to show how a story may be developed and improved with each
retelling.
The same style of work, perhaps to even better advantage, may be done
from the pictures so numerous in _Journeys Through Bookland_. In this
volume, under the title _Pictures and Their Use_, will be found
plentiful suggestions that will be helpful in conversation lessons.
2. Written Lessons
A. Introduction.
The demands of written composition are so much more severe than those of
oral composition that we must be careful not to ask more than the child
can execute with comparative ease. Before he begins to write, he should
have clear ideas of what he intends to write and should have those ideas
so arranged that they will not be confused in the process of writing.
Moreover, a child must become quite familiar with writing as an art
before he can be expected to originate ideas or forms of expression for
the purpose of writing them. It follows, then, that some of the early
written work in language may profitably consist of copying selections of
various kinds.
The titles given under the preceding section (_Oral Lessons_) will lead
to many excellent exercises for this purpose. Insist on perfect accuracy
of copy. Spelling, capitalization and punctuation must be correct. If
the original is prose, insist upon proper paragraphing; if poetry, upon
exactness in the arrangement of the lines, especially in the matter of
indentation. Children will quickly see the relation that indentation
bears to rhymes. By following with exactness, the child learns
unconsciously to observe the general rules. By occasionally calling
attention to the reasons for forms, children are taught to act
intelligently and to decide for themselves when they come to original
composition.
Rhythm is as natural as breathing, and rhyming is easy for children with
quick ears and quick thought. You will be surprised the first time you
try the exercise to see how quickly they will imitate a rhythm with
which they are familiar, and the skill they show in making rhymes. Try
it first as an oral exercise, and later ask for written lines. Much of
such work may not be profitable, but it serves well to give variety.
Making simple parodies is amusing and stimulating to thought. Sometimes
you will help by suggesting rhymes or by giving hints as to the subject
to be parodied.
Take the nursery rhyme _There Was an Old Woman_ (Volume I, page 36) for
a model. Suggest _bird_ and _nest_ as ideas for new rhymes and keep
helping until you get something like this:
There was a sweet birdie
Who built a fine nest,
A beautiful birdie
With a very red breast.
Use the same meter many times over till all become familiar with it.
Similar exercises prove highly interesting to children of all ages.
Although this is not a treatise on written language lessons, a few
general suggestions may not be out of place:
1. Be sure that the children have something interesting about which to
write.
2. Be sure that they have a good stock of ideas on the subject, or that
they know how and where to get information and can get it without great
difficulty.
3. Be sure that they write an outline of their composition or have one
thoroughly in mind before they begin on the essay itself.
4. Give plenty of time for the writing.
5. Show a decided interest in their preparation and in their
compositions.
6. Do not be severe in your criticisms. Give encouragement. Concentrate
your efforts on one or two errors at a time. Let other mistakes pass
till a more convenient time.
7. _a._ Watch for errors:
(1) In the use of capital letters.
(2) In the use of punctuation marks; first of terminal marks, then
of the marks within a sentence.
_b._ See that every sentence is complete, with subject and predicate.
_c._ See that verbs agree with subjects, and pronouns with antecedents.
_d._ Insist that the work be paragraphed.
_e._ Watch for errors in case among the pronouns. The objective case is
troublesome.
_f._ Look for adjective forms where adverbial forms are correct.
8. Require care in all work. Neatness and legibility are essential.
9. Mark errors, do not correct them. Let the children do that. A simple
system of marks will enable you to indicate the nature of the error.
10. When the mistakes have been corrected, have a neat copy made and
preserved.
11. Try sincerely to work with your children and to secure a genuine
spirit of co-operation.
B. Literature in Written Lessons.
Indirectly, all that is said on the teaching of reading in this and
other volumes bears upon language, and you are earnestly urged to
consider it all carefully in that light. More directly, what has been
written herein on the subject of conversation lessons and oral language
is a necessary preliminary to any discussion of written work and should
be used freely in the assignment and preparation of subjects for written
exercises. The outlines for study in reading and the outlines of the
oral lessons are easily modified to become very satisfactory outlines
for compositions. The selections recommended for oral lessons are all
adapted to written work.
NARRATION. As in other instances, however, it here seems wise to give a
few suggestions specifically for the written exercises, and as a basis
for such suggestions we will take selections from _Journeys Through
Bookland_.
Robin Hood has been an interesting character for many generations of
schoolboys, and among the ballads concerning him (Volume III, page 436)
are several good selections for reading aloud. Most children know
something about Robin Hood and many of them have read full accounts, yet
probably the old ballads are not familiar. The note on page 436 gives
information about the ballads and tells what it is necessary to know
about Robin Hood himself. Suppose we take as a subject the ballad on
page 444, _Robin Hood and the Stranger_. The notes explain peculiar
expressions and give the meanings of obsolete words. There is a manly,
rough-and-tumble spirit in the ballad that boys like, and it is clean
and wholesome, as well.
Read the ballad to the children, explaining the more obscure words and
phrases as you go along. Encourage the children to ask questions
whenever they do not fully understand. Talk freely until you have made
everything clear and have secured interest. Then read the whole ballad
without interruption. Read with expression and enthusiasm. Show the
spirit and virility of the men.
Then by questions bring out the facts of the narrative in logical order
as they appear, and have each child copy them for himself. They
constitute the outline each is to write. Adapt the outline to the age
and acquirements of the child; make it as full or as brief as you
please, but make it logical and complete. Let it be similar to the
following:
1. Robin Hood goes hunting.
2. He meets a well-dressed stranger.
3. The stranger kills a deer by a remarkable shot with his bow.
4. Robin Hood invites the stranger to join his company.
5. The stranger threatens Robin Hood.
6. They prepare to fight with bows.
7. Robin Hood thinks it a pity that either should be slain, and proposes
to fight with broadswords.
8. Robin Hood strikes a heavy blow which the stranger returns with
interest.
9. Robin Hood feels great respect for the stranger's power, and asks who
he is.
10. The stranger proves to be Robin Hood's only nephew.
11. They meet Little John, who wants to fight young Gamwell.
12. Robin Hood compels peace, makes Gamwell second to Little John and
names him Scarlet.
Talk to the children freely after you have made the outline; advise them
to make the story interesting, dramatic, and not too long. Show them
that it is better to use direct discourse; that is, to make the
characters seem alive. The result will be a good _narration_, the
simplest and most common form of written discourse.
DESCRIPTION. To so describe a scene to another person that he may see it
clearly and vividly is high art. It is necessary in narration and often
lends strength to description and exposition. Accordingly, it is one of
the most important forms of composition. In no direction, perhaps, can
_Journeys Through Bookland_ be of greater assistance.
I. In the first place, the pictures are a mine of subjects for
description. The pictures themselves may be described, and many of them
will suggest other subjects for similar tasks. For instance, in Volume
V, on page 219, is a picture of Sir Galahad when the Holy Grail appears
to him. Some of the topics for description are the following:
1. The picture, _Sir Galahad_. (For suggestions as to the description of
pictures, etc., see the topic _Pictures and Their Use_, in this volume.)
2. The trees in the forest.
3. The armor of Sir Galahad and the trappings of his horse.
Again, in Volume V, on page 17, is the picture of Gulliver's _Journey to
the Metropolis_, which gives us these topics:
1. The picture.
2. The cart on which the Lilliputians transport Gulliver. (Read the
account in the story for further facts.)
Facing page 116 in the same volume is the halftone of King Arthur in
armor. To write a minute description of the armor would be an excellent
exercise, requiring close observation and not a little reading, if the
children wish to name the pieces of armor the king wears.
II. Many of the stories contain beautiful descriptive passages, which
may be studied with profit, and some of the selections are almost wholly
descriptive. An excellent example of the latter type and an exceedingly
interesting article for children is _Some Children's Books of the Past_
(Volume V, Page 101).
_The King of the Golden River_ (Volume II, page 405) and _A Christmas
Carol_ (Volume VI, page 244) are especially rich in material of this
kind. On page 408 of the former selection the King is described at his
first appearance. An analysis of the paragraph is to be found on page
445 of the same volume, under the title _First Appearance_. By comparing
the analysis and the descriptive paragraph it will be seen that the
former gives the facts only, while in the latter there are comparisons
and descriptive words that make the whole vivid and artistic.
The outline is a good description of an imaginary person. After the
children have studied paragraph and outline, give them another outline
like this:
1. General statement, or introduction.
2. Nose.
3. Cheeks.
4. Eyes.
5. Beard.
6. Hair.
7. Height.
8. Clothing.
_a._ Hat.
_b._ Coat.
_c._ Vest.
_d._ Trousers.
_e._ Shoes.
Require each child to follow the outline and to write a smooth, readable
description of a man whom he knows. Vary the exercise by asking the
children to describe some man whose picture you show; some man whom all
have seen, or, if it can be done in the proper spirit, one of the other
children who is willing to pose. Then ask them to describe some fanciful
character about whom you make a general statement, as, for example, "He
was the most amusing man I ever saw in my life," or, "He was certainly
the most dignified man in appearance and the best-dressed man I ever
saw." A comparison of the descriptions given by the different members of
the class will be amusing and instructive. Try to secure descriptions
which in style are in harmony with the subject.
III. In many of the selections the authors have not tried to describe
things very fully. In such cases you have fine opportunities to train
the imagination by asking the children to supplement the descriptions.
For instance, _On the Receipt of My Mother's Picture_ (Volume VII, page
331) raises among other subjects for descriptive writing the following:
1. Describe Cowper's mother.
2. Describe the picture he received.
3. Describe the home of his infancy.
4. Describe the "well-havened isle."
Children should be taught to look through the entire poem for facts that
bear on the topics. When writing, they must not misrepresent these facts
nor give others that contradict those in the poem. Where nothing is
said, the child may see what he likes. Such exercises tend to make
children appreciate good literature, and, when they are reading, to
visualize the things to which allusion is made.
EXPOSITION. In Volume IV, beginning on page 14, is the story of Martin
Pelaez, the Asturian, which will offer good material for a composition
of another kind. The introduction to _Cid Campeador_, page 9, will give
you information you are likely to need to answer questions.
As in the exercise just given, begin to read and make such explanatory
comments as are needed to show clearly the character of Martin. You
will, of course, need to make the story lucid to the children. Show
that--
_a._ Pelaez was a Spanish grandee of great strength and noble form.
_b._ He was a coward at heart.
_c._ Twice he ran from the enemy and avoided battle.
_d._ Both times he was asked by the Cid to sit with him at the table,
and not with the noblest knights.
_e._ The first time Martin thought it an honor to himself; the second
time, he saw it to be a grave reproof.
_f._ Thereafter he fought nobly, was seated with the great knights, and
became one of the Cid's most favored friends.
When these points have been fixed in mind, proceed to develop an outline
for the composition. It may be something like this:
_a._ The character of Martin as we first meet him in the story, with
instances to prove the nature of it.
_b._ His character after he was changed by the Cid, with evidences to
show it. Exemplified:
1. He was a coward. We know it from--
(_a_) His flight during the first battle.
(_b_) His retreat during the second battle.
(_c_) The fact that he was large, strong and well versed in arms
yet would not fight.
(_d_) The fact that he hoped to escape the notice of the Cid.
2. He was teachable. We know it because he needed but two lessons.
3. He was brave. We know it from his conduct in battle.
4. He had many noble characteristics. We know it because be became the
trusted friend of the Cid.
Put into the form of a composition, we might expect something like this:
"Martin Pelaez, when we first knew him, was an arrant coward, for though
strong, well-formed and versed in the use of arms, he more than once
fled before the enemy. He had other traits of a coward, as we may know
from his actions in hiding in his tent and hoping to escape the eye of
his master and unfairly gain the reputation of a brave knight.
"Later, however, under the wise treatment of the Cid he was made ashamed
of his cowardice, conquered it and became a courageous warrior. In fact,
he was one of the bravest and most powerful knights in the army of the
Cid.
"More than that, Martin Pelaez developed all the traits of a gentleman.
He became a good keeper of secrets, was wise in counsel and brave in
action."
The foregoing is a good example of exposition, the third of the four
forms of prose composition.
ARGUMENT. _The Boston Massacre_ by Nathaniel Hawthorne (Volume IV, page
217) offers several good questions for debate. We may select the
decision of the judges (page 223) as the one furnishing the best
opportunity. Hawthorne says, "The judges told the jury that the insults
and violence which had been offered to the soldiers justified them in
firing at the mob."
To bring the question into a form for debate we might write it, "Were
the judges right in their decision?" This leaves the question evenly
balanced, with no prejudice against either side. It might be put more
formally: "_Resolved._ That the judges were right in their decision."
The effect of stating the question in the latter form is to throw the
"burden of proof" on the negative. In other words, if the question is in
the latter form and the arguments are equally balanced, the decision
would have to be that the judges were right.
Having determined the form of the question, the children may be
separated into two groups, as nearly as possible equal in ability, and
one group may be appointed to take the side of the judges and one the
side of the soldiers.
Having arranged the preliminaries, converse with the children freely,
bringing out points equally in favor of both sides. Avoid any appearance
of favoritism. If one side is manifestly stronger than the other,
however, you may put them on a level by showing a few arguments to the
weaker side. Do this openly, so that all may understand your action.
Encourage the children to study both sides of the question and to be
fair-minded. In fact, the ordinary debate where children are appointed
to argue upon a certain side of the question does not bring into play
the same good methods of thought and judgment as the free debate, in
which each child studies both sides of the question, determines which
side he thinks the right one, and then argues for that side.
In this question urge the children to study the subject in their
histories or in any reference books that may be handy. Help them to get
at the truth of the matter. Hawthorne may show prejudice. Does he? We
may feel a bias in favor of one side or the other. Do we? Then to the
extent of that bias we are liable to be unfair and to fail in making a
sound argument.
After the children have read what they can find on the subject, ask them
to arrange their arguments in parallel columns, for and against the
judges. Something like the following may appear:
FOR AGAINST
1. The Americans 1. The English had
were the subjects of the oppressed the colonists
English, and subjects by unjust taxes and in
should be loyal. other ways (mention
them) until the time
for loyalty had ceased.
2. The colonists 2. If these colonists
were not an organized were a mob they were
body, acting legally. justified in their acts.
They were a wild mob, It was an insult and
and mobs must be worse to quarter troops
quelled or lives and upon them and they
property cannot be protected. naturally resented it.
They had had no time
to organize and make
laws. They had to act
at once.
3. The mob was 3. It is always the
composed of wild young men who lead.
young men, and most In most great movements
of the colonists did not it has been the
approve of their acts. young men who were
right.
4. The mob called 4. The soldiers forgot
the soldiers "lobster-backs," their discipline and
"red-coats," and called the colonists "rebel
other insulting names rascals" and threatened
before the soldiers to use bayonets.
spoke.
5. The mob crowded 5. The soldiers
the soldiers off the should have kept to their
sidewalk, threw snow barracks, but they paraded
and lumps of ice at the streets and
them. The young men pricked the townspeople
dared the soldiers to with their bayonets.
fire, threatened to drive
them to their barracks
and to beat them down.
6. Captain Preston 6. Captain Preston
was acting under orders, was unwise, irritating,
and he warned the colonists overbearing, and by his
that he would preserve attitude provoked the
order at any risk. colonists beyond human
endurance.
7. The firing was a 7. Captain Preston
mistake. It was not by ordered his men to fire
Captain Preston's orders. on the colonists.
8. The first shot was 8. A British sympathizer
fired by a masked man in a mask fired
who appeared on the into the crowd of unarmed
balcony of a house and colonists.
fired at the soldiers.
9. The British soldiers 9. By withdrawing
were soon withdrawn the troops the British
and everything confessed that they were
done to make the colonists in the wrong.
feel right about
the affair. This showed
that the British were
still very friendly to the
colonists, and desired
their good will.
10. Judges who were 10. The judges were
supposed to be honorable British appointees, not
men heard all the in sympathy with the
evidence and would not colonists and too much
be liable to make any prejudiced to be able to
mistake. decide fairly.
11. The judges 11. The judges knew
were so thoroughly they were wrong and
convinced that the soldiers were afraid to leave the
were not guilty question to the jury.
that they told the jury
what verdict to give.
The "points" given above show some of the really minor debatable topics
that arise under the larger question. They show, too, how differently
the same incidents may appear to different eyes. Perhaps some of the
"points" are stated unfairly, to give strength to the argument. Bare
assertions are not proofs and some of the "points" are nothing but
assertions. Opinions are not arguments. Some of the statements would
need to bolstered up by facts and "authorities" before they could be
accepted as real arguments.
Most debates are oral, but, for our purpose, they are to be considered
as written language lessons. Hence, when the arguments are marshalled as
above, the child should select the side he feels to be right and compose
his argument in proper form. Teach him to see the three parts to his
argument, namely, the introduction, the body of his argument, and the
conclusion. Tell him to make his style personal, clear, concise,
logical, strong, persuasive and convincing. Show him what each
characteristic in the above list means.
For example, the _argument_ for the judges made from the assertions
given above might be stated as follows:
_Introduction._ "That the judges were right when they pronounced Captain
Preston and the eight British soldiers not guilty of murder when they
fired on the colonial mob in what is incorrectly called the 'Boston
Massacre' will be proved in this argument."
_Body of the Argument._ "The citizens of Boston were English subjects
who had been fostered by the mother country. Since the settlement at
Plymouth in 1620 no other nation had claimed or exercised any control
over them, and I maintain that loyalty to his country is one of the
highest duties of every citizen." (It is not advisable to write here the
"body" of the argument. It would naturally be continued step by step
till the eleven "points" given above had been exhausted. If those
"points" had been brought up in the general conversation lesson every
child would be expected to add others that he had found by his own
study. Liberty of omission, arrangement and addition should always be
allowed. Originality is always at a premium.)
_Conclusion._ "I have now presented to you the reasons for my belief. I
have shown you conclusively that the colonists were British subjects and
owed unquestioning loyalty to their country; that----[Here recapitulate
briefly but forcibly the arguments, so as to present them convincingly
and at one time.] In view of all these facts I maintain that I have
shown that the judges did not err when they pronounced Captain Preston
and the eight soldiers not guilty of murder."
Of course, the form of the introduction and conclusion may vary from
that given here. Each child should be allowed the greatest freedom of
expression consistent with the facts that there must be an introduction
that states the question fairly and clearly, and a conclusion that shows
how much the contentions have been proved.
CONCLUSION. While narration, description, exposition and argument are
the four forms of prose composition, we do not find frequently that
selections are exclusively one or another. Nearly every story contains
description, and exposition is not infrequent; expositions often contain
description and narration, and arguments are often based upon narration
and exposition. Excellent language lessons may be given by examining
masterpieces to see what forms of composition they represent or which
form predominates.
Thus, in _An Exciting Canoe Race_ (Volume VII, page 79), an extract from
Cooper's _The Last of the Mohicans_, may be found several forms of
composition:
1. The story as a whole is narration.
2. On page 81 is this passage in exposition: "That's a trail that
nothing but a nose can follow; grass is a treacherous carpet for a
flying party to tread on, but wood and stone take no print from a
moccasin. Had you worn your armed boots, there might indeed have been
something to fear; but with the deerskin suitably prepared, a man may
trust himself, generally, on rocks with safety. Shove in the canoe
higher to the land, Uncas; this sand will take a stamp as easily as the
butter of the Jarmans on the Mohawk. Softly, lad, softly; it must not
touch the beach, or the knaves will know by what road we have left the
place."
3. On page 86 is this descriptive passage: "The well-known crack of a
rifle, whose ball came skipping along the placid surface of the strait,
and a shrill yell from the island interrupted his speech and announced
that their passage was discovered. In another instant several savages
were seen rushing into the canoes, which were soon dancing over the
water in pursuit. These fearful precursors of a coming struggle produced
no change in the countenances and movements of his three guides, so far
as Duncan could discover, except that the strokes of their paddles were
longer and more in unison, and caused the little bark to spring forward
like a creature possessing life and volition."
It will be observed that the paragraph just quoted is not purely
descriptive, but that it contains something of narration as well. A
single sentence of pure description is the following, to be found on
page 88: "So rapid was the progress of the light vessels that the lake
curled in their front in miniature waves and their motion became
undulating by its own velocity."
The following, from page 90, is a brief argument in conversational form,
the elementary form of debate:
"Get you then into the bottom of the canoe, you and the colonel; it will
be so much taken from the size of the mark."
"It would be but an ill example for the highest in rank to dodge, while
the warriors were under fire!"
"Lord! Lord! that is now a white man's courage! And, like too many of
his notions, not to be maintained by reason. Do you think the Sagamore
or Uncas, or even I, who am a man without a cross, would deliberate
about finding a cover in a scrimmage when an open body would do no good?
For what have the Frenchers reared up their Quebec, if fighting is
always to be done in the clearings?"
"All that you say is very true, my friend; still, our custom must
prevent us from doing as you wish."
Good selections to use for the purposes described and good subjects for
compositions are the following from _Journeys Through Bookland_:
For Narration:
1. Stories from _The Swiss Family Robinson_, Volume III, page 99.
2. _The Story of Siegfried_, III, 410.
3. _The Death of Hector_, IV, 364.
4. _Tom Brown at Rugby_, V, 469.
5. _The Recovery of the Hispaniola_, VII, 352.
6. _The Adventure of the Windmills_, VII, 438.
7. _The Adventure of the Wooden Horse_, VII, 467.
8. _The Battle of Ivry_, VIII, 76.
For Description:
1. _How the Old Woman Looked._ See _The Old Woman Who Lived in a
Shoe_, Volume I, page 35.
2. _The House in the Tree._ See _Swiss Family Robinson_, III, 141.
3. _A Forest Scene._ See _Pictures of Memory_, IV, 128.
4. _Sheridan's Horse._ See _Sheridan's Ride_, IV, 223.
5. _Christmas._ See _The Fir Tree_, II, 68, and _Christmas in Old
Time_, VI, 356.
6. _A Scene of My Childhood._ See _The Old Oaken Bucket_, VII, 11.
7. _My Old Kentucky Home._ See poem of the same name, VII, 179.
For Exposition:
1. _The Character of the Boy, Tom._ See _Tom, the Water Baby_, Volume
II, page 215.
2. _What Kind of a Man was Viking?_ See _The Skeleton in Armor_, V,
327.
3. _Exaggeration and Falsehood._ See _Baron Munchausen_, V, 403.
4. _On the construction, meaning, and sentiment in "Home, Sweet
Home."_ See VI, 221.
5. _The Strength of the Gorilla Compared with that of the Elephant._
See _A Gorilla Hunt_, VII, 247, and _Elephant Hunting_, VI, 385.
6. _The Wit of the Visitor._ See _Limestone Broth_, VI, 467.
7. _A Character Sketch of Alice and John._ See _Dream Children_. VIII,
335.
For Argument:
1. _Was the Second Traveler in the Right?_ See _The Two Travelers_,
Volume I, page 109.
2. _Were the Three Men Perfectly Healthy?_ See _We Plan a River Trip_,
V, 443.
3. _Was the Punishment of the Ancient Mariner Just?_ See _The Rime of
the Ancient Mariner_, VII, 29.
4. _Was it Sensible for Casabianca to Remain on the Burning Ship?_ See
_Casabianca_, VIII, 313.
5. _Should Warren Hastings Have Been Convicted?_ See _The Impeachment
of Warren Hastings_, IX, 32.