HISTOLOGICAL METHODS.
In the more exact investigations of the tissues, it is often necessary
to have recourse to other reagents than those we have used hitherto,
in order to bring out plainly the more obscure points of structure.
This is especially the case in studies in cell division in the higher
plants, where the changes in the dividing nucleus are very
complicated.
For studying these the most favorable examples for ready
demonstration are found in the final division of the pollen spores,
especially of some monocotyledons. An extremely good subject is
offered by the common wild onion (_Allium Canadense_), which flowers
about the last of May. The buds, which are generally partially
replaced by small bulbs, are enclosed in a spathe or sheath which
entirely conceals them. Buds two to three millimetres in length
should be selected, and these opened so as to expose the anthers.
The latter should now be removed to a slide, and carefully crushed
in a drop of dilute acetic acid (one-half acid to one-half
distilled water). This at once fixes the nuclei, and by examining
with a low power, we can determine at once whether or not we have
the right stages. The spore mother cells are recognizable by their
thick transparent walls, and if the desired dividing stages are
present, a drop of staining fluid should be added and allowed to act
for about a minute, the preparation being covered with a cover
glass. After the stain is sufficiently deep, it should be carefully
withdrawn with blotting paper, and pure water run under the cover
glass.
The best stain for acetic acid preparations is, perhaps, gentian
violet. This is an aniline dye readily soluble in water. For our
purpose, however, it is best to make a concentrated, alcoholic
solution from the dry powder, and dilute this as it is wanted. A
drop of the alcoholic solution is diluted with several times its
volume of weak acetic acid (about two parts of distilled water to
one of the acid), and a drop of this mixture added to the
preparation. In this way the nucleus alone is stained and is
rendered very distinct, appearing of a beautiful violet-blue color.
If the preparation is to be kept permanently, the acid must all be
washed out, and dilute glycerine run under the cover glass. The
preparation should then be sealed with Canada balsam or some other
cement, but previously all trace of glycerine must be removed from
the slide and upper surface of the cover glass. It is generally best
to gently wipe the edge of the cover glass with a small brush
moistened with alcohol before applying the cement.
[Illustration: FIG. 127.--_A_, pollen mother cell of the wild onion.
_n_, nucleus. _B-F_, early stages in the division of the nucleus.
_par._ nucleolus; acetic acid, gentian violet, × 350.]
If the spore mother cells are still quite young, we shall find the
nucleus (Fig. 127, _A_, _n_) comparatively small, and presenting a
granular appearance when strongly magnified. These granules, which
appear isolated, are really parts of filaments or segments, which
are closely twisted together, but scarcely visible in the resting
nucleus. On one side of the nucleus may usually be seen a large
nucleolus (called here, from its lateral position, paranucleus), and
the whole nucleus is sharply separated from the surrounding
protoplasm by a thin but evident membrane.
The first indication of the approaching division of the nucleus is
an evident increase in size (_B_), and at the same time the colored
granules become larger, and show more clearly that they are in lines
indicating the form of the segments. These granules next become more
or less confluent, and the segments become very evident, appearing
as deeply stained, much-twisted threads filling the nuclear cavity
(Fig. 127, _C_), and about this time the nucleolus disappears.
The next step is the disappearance of the nuclear membrane so that
the segments lie apparently free in the protoplasm of the cell. They
arrange themselves in a flat plate in the middle of the cell, this
plate appearing, when seen from the side, as a band running across
the middle of the cell. (Fig. 127, _D_, shows this plate as seen
from the side, _E_ seen from above.)
About the time the nuclear plate is complete, delicate lines may be
detected in the protoplasm converging at two points on opposite
sides of the cell, and forming a spindle-shaped figure with the
nuclear plate occupying its equator. This stage (_D_), is known as
the "nuclear spindle." The segments of the nuclear plate next divide
lengthwise into two similar daughter segments (_F_), and these then
separate, one going to each of the new nuclei. This stage is not
always to be met with, as it seems to be rapidly passed over, but
patient search will generally reveal some nuclei in this condition.
[Illustration: FIG. 128.--Later stages of nuclear divisions in the
pollen mother cell of wild onion, × 350. All the figures are seen from
the side, except _B_ ii, which is viewed from the pole.]
Although this is almost impossible to demonstrate, there are
probably as many filaments in the nuclear spindle as there are
segments (in this case about sixteen), and along these the nuclear
segments travel slowly toward the two poles of the spindle
(Fig. 128, _A_, _B_). As the two sets of segments separate, they are
seen to be connected by very numerous, delicate threads, and about
the time the young nuclei reach the poles of the nuclear spindle,
the first trace of the division wall appears in the form of isolated
particles (microsomes), which arise first as thickenings of these
threads in the middle of the cell, and appear in profile as a line
of small granules not at first extending across the cell, but later,
reaching completely across it (Fig. 128, _C_, _E_). These granules
constitute the young cell wall or "cell plate," and finally coalesce
to form a continuous membrane (Fig. 128, _F_).
The two daughter nuclei pass through the same changes, but in
reverse order that we saw in the mother nucleus previous to the
formation of the nuclear plate, and by the time the partition wall
is complete the nuclei have practically the same structure as the
first stages we examined (Fig. 128, _F_).[15]
[15] The division is repeated in the same way in each cell so that
ultimately four pollen spores are formed from each of the original
mother cells.
This complicated process of nuclear division is known technically as
"karyokinesis," and is found throughout the higher animals as well
as plants.
The simple method of fixing and staining, just described, while giving
excellent results in many cases, is not always applicable, nor as a
rule are the permanent preparations so made satisfactory. For
permanent preparations, strong alcohol (for very delicate tissues,
absolute alcohol, when procurable, is best) is the most convenient
fixing agent, and generally very satisfactory. Specimens may be put
directly into the alcohol, and allowed to stay two or three days, or
indefinitely if not wanted immediately. When alcohol does not give
good results, specimens fixed with chromic or picric acid may
generally be used, and there are other fixing agents which will not be
described here, as they will hardly be used by any except the
professional botanist. Chromic acid is best used in a watery solution
(five per cent chromic acid, ninety-five per cent distilled water).
For most purposes a one per cent solution is best; in this the objects
remain from three or four to twenty-four hours, depending on size, but
are not injured by remaining longer. Picric acid is used as a
saturated solution in distilled water, and the specimen may remain for
about the same length of time as in the chromic acid. After the
specimen is properly fixed it must be thoroughly washed in several
waters, allowing it to remain in the last for twenty-four hours or
more until all trace of the acid has been removed, otherwise there is
usually difficulty in staining.
As staining agents many colors are used. The most useful are
hæmatoxylin, carmine, and various aniline colors, among which may be
mentioned, besides gentian violet, safranine, Bismarck brown, methyl
violet. Hæmatoxylin and carmine are prepared in various ways, but are
best purchased ready for use, all dealers in microscopic supplies
having them in stock. The aniline colors may be used either dissolved
in alcohol or water, and with all, the best stain, especially of the
nucleus, is obtained by using a very dilute, watery solution, and
allowing the sections to remain for twenty-four hours or so in the
staining mixture.
Hæmatoxylin and carmine preparations may be mounted either in
glycerine or balsam. (Canada balsam dissolved in chloroform is the
ordinary mounting medium.) In using glycerine it is sometimes
necessary to add the glycerine gradually, allowing the water to slowly
evaporate, as otherwise the specimens will sometimes collapse owing to
the too rapid extraction of the water from the cells. Aniline colors,
as a rule, will not keep in glycerine, the color spreading and finally
fading entirely, so that with most of them the specimens must be
mounted in balsam.
Glycerine mounts must be closed, which may be done with Canada balsam
as already described. The balsam is best kept in a wide-mouthed
bottle, specially made for the purpose, which has a glass cap covering
the neck, and contains a glass rod for applying the balsam.
Before mounting in balsam, the specimen must be completely freed from
water by means of absolute alcohol. (Sometimes care must be taken to
bring it gradually into the alcohol to avoid collapsing.[16]) If an
aniline stain has been used, it will not do to let it stay more than a
minute or so in the alcohol, as the latter quickly extracts the stain.
After dehydrating, the specimen should be placed on a clean slide in a
drop of clove oil (bergamot or origanum oil is equally good), which
renders it perfectly transparent, when a drop of balsam should be
dropped upon it, and a perfectly clean cover glass placed over the
preparation. The chloroform in which the balsam is dissolved will soon
evaporate, leaving the object embedded in a transparent film of balsam
between the slide and cover glass. No further treatment is necessary.
For the finer details of nuclear division or similar studies, balsam
mounts are usually preferable.
[16] For gradual dehydrating, the specimens may be placed
successively in 30 per cent, 50 per cent, 70 per cent, 90 per cent,
and absolute alcohol.
It is sometimes found necessary in sectioning very small and delicate
organs to embed them in some firm substance which will permit
sectioning, but these processes are too difficult and complicated to
be described here.
* * * * *
The following books of reference may be recommended. This list is, of
course, not exhaustive, but includes those works which will probably
be of most value to the general student.
1. GOEBEL. Outlines of Morphology and Classification.
2. SACHS. Physiology of Plants.
3. DE BARY. Comparative Anatomy of Ferns and Phanerogams.
4. DE BARY. Morphology and Biology of Fungi, Mycetozoa, and Bacteria.
These four works are translations from the German, and take the
place of Sachs's Text-book of Botany, a very admirable work
published first about twenty years ago, and now somewhat antiquated.
Together they constitute a fairly exhaustive treatise on general
botany.--New York, McMillan & Co.
5. GRAY. Structural Botany.--New York, Ivison & Co.
6. GOODALE. Physiological Botany.--New York, Ivison & Co.
These two books cover somewhat the same ground as 1 and 2, but are
much less exhaustive.
5. STRASBURGER. Das Botanische Practicum.--Jena.
Where the student reads German, the original is to be preferred, as
it is much more complete than the translations, which are made from
an abridgment of the original work. This book and the next (7 and 8)
are laboratory manuals, and are largely devoted to methods of work.
7. ARTHUR, BARNES, and COULTER. Plant Dissection.--Holt & Co., New
York.
8. WHITMAN. Methods in Microscopic Anatomy and Embryology.--Casino
& Co., Boston.
For identifying plants the following books may be mentioned:--
Green algæ (exclusive of desmids, but including _Cyanophyceæ_ and
_Volvocineæ_).
WOLLE. Fresh-water Algæ of the United States.--Bethlehem, Penn.
Desmids. WOLLE. Desmids of the United States.--Bethlehem, Penn.
The red and brown algæ are partially described in FARLOW'S New England
Algæ. Report of United States Fish Commission, 1879.--Washington.
The _Characeæ_ are being described by Dr. F. F. ALLEN of New York. The
first part has appeared.
The literature of the fungi is much scattered. FARLOW and TRELEASE
have prepared a careful index of the American literature on the
subject.
Mosses. LESQUEREUX and JAMES. Mosses of North America.--Boston, Casino
& Co.
BARNES. Key to the Genera of Mosses.--Bull. Purdue School of Science,
1886.
Pteridophytes. UNDERWOOD. Our Native Ferns and their Allies.--Holt
& Co., New York.
Spermaphytes. GRAY. Manual of the Botany of the Northern United
States. 6th edition, 1890. This also includes the ferns, and the
liverworts.--New York, Ivison & Co.
COULTER. Botany of the Rocky Mountains.--New York, Ivison & Co.
CHAPMAN. Flora of the Southern United States.--New York, 1883.
WATSON. Botany of California.
INDEX.
_Acacia_, 209.
_Acer_, _-aceæ_. See "Maple."
Acetic acid, 3, 59, 98, 138, 230.
_Achimenes_, 218.
_Acorus_. See "Sweet-flag."
Actinomorphic, 213.
Adder-tongue, 116; Fig. 70. See also "_Erythronium_."
_Adiantum_. See "Maiden-hair."
_Adlumia_. See "Mountain-fringe."
_Æsculinæ_, 199.
_Æsculus_. See "Buckeye," "Horse-chestnut."
_Aggregatæ_, 222.
Alcohol, 5, 31, 55, 83, 230, 233.
Algæ, 4, 21.
green, 21.
red, 21, 49.
brown, 21, 41.
Alga-fungi. See "_Phycomycetes_."
_Alisma_, _-ceæ_. See "Water-plantain."
_Allium_. See "Wild onion."
Amaranth, 185.
_Amarantus_, _-aceæ_. See "Amaranth."
_Amœba_, 7; Fig. 2.
_Ampelidæ_. See "Vine."
_Ampelopsis_. See "Virginia creeper."
Anatomy, 3.
gross, Implements for study of, 3.
minute, Implements for study of, 3, 4.
Anatropous, 151.
_Andreæaceæ_, 99, 100.
Andrœcium, 148.
_Andromeda_, 211.
_Anemone_, 185.
_Angiocarpæ_, 84.
Angiosperm, 129, 143, 145.
Aniline colors, 233.
_Anisocarpæ_, 210, 213.
_Anonaceæ_. See "Custard-apple."
Anther, 148, 175, 179.
Antheridium, 27, 36, 39, 45, 51, 59, 68, 89, 96, 106, 122.
_Anthoceros_, _Anthoceroteæ_, 91; Fig. 57.
_Aphanocyclæ_, 185, 196.
_Aplectrum_, 167; Fig. 90.
_Apocynum_, _-aceæ_. See "Dog-bane."
_Apostasieæ_, 164.
Apple, 145, 171, 206; Fig. 114.
Apricot, 207.
_Aquilegia_. See "Columbine."
_Aralia_, _-aceæ_. See "Spikenard."
Archegonium, 89, 97, 105, 122, 133, 140, 144.
Archicarp, 138, 145.
_Arcyria_, 13; Fig. 5.
_Arethusa_, _Arethuseæ_, 166; Fig. 90.
_Argemone_, 191.
Aril, 189.
_Arisæma_, 78, 157; Fig. 86.
_Aristolochia_, _-aceæ_, 224.
Aroid, _Aroideæ_, 157.
Arrow-grass, 167.
Arrowhead, 167; Fig. 91.
Arrowroot, 163.
_Asarum_. See "Wild ginger."
_Asclepias_, _-daceæ_. See "Milk-weed."
_Ascobolus_, 71-73; Fig. 43.
culture of, 71.
spore fruit, 71.
archicarp, 71.
spore sacs, 72.
_Ascomycetes_, 65, 66.
Ascospore, 66.
Ascus, 66, 69.
Ash, 218; Fig. 122.
_Asimina_. See "Papaw."
_Aspidium_, Fig. 70.
_Asplenium_, 104; Fig. 70.
Aster, 224.
_Atropa_. See "Deadly nightshade."
Axil, 174.
Azalea, 210; Fig. 116.
_Azolla_, 117; Fig. 71.
Bacteria, 15, 17, 19; Fig. 8.
Balsam, _Balsamineæ_, 198.
Bamboo, 162.
_Bambusa_. See "Bamboo."
Banana, 163.
Barberry, 17, 187; Fig. 101.
Bark. See "Cortex."
_Basidiomycetes_, 77.
Basidium, 77, 80, 83.
Basswood, 195; Fig. 106.
Bast. See "Phloem."
_Batatas_. See "Sweet-potato."
_Batrachospermum_, 53; Fig. 31.
Bean, 207, 208.
Bear-grass. See "_Yucca_."
Bee, 227, 228.
Beech, 183.
Beech-drops, 218.
Beet, 184.
Beggar's-ticks, 215.
Begonia, 3, 205.
Bell-flower, 220, 226; Fig. 123.
Bellwort, 156.
_Berberis_, _-ideæ_. See "Barberry."
Bergamot oil, 234.
Berry, 145, 156.
_Betulaceæ_, 183.
_Bicornes_, 210.
_Bignonia_, _-aceæ_, 218.
Biology, 2.
Birch, 183.
Bird's-nest fungus. See "_Cyathus_."
Bishop's cap, 202; Fig. 111.
Bismarck brown, 233.
Bitter-sweet, 199; Fig. 109.
Black alder, 199.
Blackberry, 207.
Black fungi. See "_Pyrenomycetes_."
Bladder-nut, 199; Fig. 108.
Bladder-weed, 33, 217; Fig. 120.
Bleeding-heart. See "_Dicentra_."
Blood-root, 191; Fig. 103.
Blue-eyed grass, 156.
Blue-flag. See "_Iris_."
Blue-green slime, 15.
Blue valerian. See "_Polemonium_."
Borage, 215.
_Borragineæ_. See "Borage."
Bordered pits, 138.
Botany defined, 2.
systematic, 3.
_Botrychium_. See "Grape fern."
Box, 201.
Bract, 199, 222, 229.
_Brasenia_. See "Water-shield."
Breathing pore, 91, 99, 113, 130, 147, 150, 177.
_Bromeliaceæ_, 156.
Bryophyte, 86.
Buck-bean, 218.
Buckeye, 171, 199.
Buckthorn, 199.
Buckwheat, 184.
Budding, 64.
_Bulbochæte_, 28; Fig. 16.
Bulb, 146, 153, 172.
Bulrush, 161; Fig. 87.
Bundle-sheath, 110, 176.
Burning-bush. See "Spindle-tree."
Bur-reed, 159; Fig. 86.
Buttercup, 181, 185; Fig. 99.
Butterfly, 227, 228.
Button-bush, 223.
Buttonwood. See "Sycamore."
_Buxus_, _Buxaceæ_. See "Box."
Cabbage, 192.
_Cabombeæ_, 190.
Cactus, _Cactaceæ_, 203; Fig. 112.
_Cæsalpineæ_, 210.
Calcium, 2.
Calla, 157, 229.
_Callithamnion_, 50-52; Fig. 29.
general structure, 51.
tetraspores, 51.
procarp, 51.
antheridium, 51.
spores, 52.
_Callitriche_, _-chaceæ_. See "Water starwort."
_Calluna_. See "Heath."
_Calopogon_, 166; Fig. 91.
_Calycanthus_, _-aceæ_, 187; Fig. 100.
_Calycereæ_, 223.
_Calycifloræ_, 200.
Calyx, 174, 182.
Cambium, 137-138, 175.
_Campanula_. See "Bell-flower."
_Campanulaceæ_, 220.
_Campanulinæ_, 220.
Canada balsam, 230-234.
Canada thistle, 224; Fig. 125.
_Canna_, _-aceæ_, 162, 163; Fig. 88.
Caper family, 194.
_Capparis_, _-ideæ_. See "Caper."
_Caprifoliaceæ_, 223.
_Capsella_. See "Shepherd's-purse."
Caraway, 202.
Carbon, 2, 95.
Carbon-dioxides, 95.
Cardinal-flower. See "Lobelia."
_Carex_, 161; Fig. 87.
Carmine, 25, 233.
Carnation, 185.
Carpel, 148, 154, 175, 179.
Carpophyll. See "Carpel."
Carpospore, 51-53.
Carrot, 202.
_Caryophylleæ_. See "Pink."
_Caryophyllus_. See "Clove."
_Castalia_, 189.
Castor-bean, 200.
Catalpa, 218.
Cat-brier, 154.
Catkin, 181.
Catnip, 215.
Cat-tail, 159.
Cedar apple, Cedar rust. See "_Gymnosporangium_."
_Celastraceæ_, 199.
_Celastrus_. See "Bitter-sweet."
Celery, 3.
Cell, 6.
apical, 38, 96, 105, 115.
division, 23, 31, 229.
row, 8; Fig. 3.
mass, 8; Fig. 4.
sap, 6, 151.
Cellulose, 3.
Centaury, 219.
_Centrospermæ_, 183.
_Cephalanthus_. See "Button-bush."
_Cerastium_. See "Chick-weed."
_Ceratophyllum_. See "Horned pond-weed."
_Cercis_. See "Red-bud."
_Chamærops_. See "Palmetto."
_Chara_, 38-40; Fig. 23.
general structure, 38.
method of growth, 39.
cortex, 39.
non-sexual reproduction, 39.
oögonium, 39.
antheridium, 39, 40.
spermatozoids, 40.
germination, 40.
_Characeæ_, 21, 37, 40.
_Chareæ_, 40.
_Cheiranthus_. See "Wall-flower."
_Chenopodium_, _-aceæ_. See "Goose-foot."
Cherry, 15, 206; Fig. 114.
Chicory, 223.
Chick-weed, 185; Fig. 98.
_Chimaphila_. See "Prince's pine."
_Chionanthus_. See "Fringe-tree."
Chlorine, 2.
_Chlorococcum_, 23; Fig. 12.
Chloroform, 234.
Chloroplast, 22, 45.
Chlorophyll, 15.
Chlorophyll body. See "Chloroplast."
_Chlorophyceæ_, 21.
_Chondrus_. See "Irish moss."
_Choripetalæ_, 181, 208.
Chromic acid, 25-35, 233.
Chromoplast, 150.
_Cicinnobulus_, 69; Fig. 39.
Cilium, 8.
Cinquefoil, 206.
_Cistaceæ_. See "Rock-rose."
_Cistifloræ_, 192.
Citron, 196.
_Citrus_. See "Orange," "Lemon."
_Cladophora_, 24, 25.
structure of cells, 25.
nuclei, 25.
cell division, 25.
zoöspores, 25.
Classification, 3-9.
_Clavaria_, 85; Fig. 51.
_Claytonia_. See "Spring-beauty."
Clematis, 185.
Climbing plants, 171.
_Closterium_, 33; Fig. 20.
Clove, 205.
Clove oil, 234.
Clover, 207.
Club moss, 116.
larger, 116.
smaller, 123-126; Fig. 74.
gross anatomy, 125.
spores, 126.
prothallium, 126.
systematic position, 126.
Cluster-cup, 78.
_Cocos_. See "Palm-coco," 159.
_Coleochæte_, 28; Fig. 17.
Collateral fibro-vascular bundle, 135.
_Collema_, 76; Fig. 44.
Columella, 55.
Columbine, 186; Fig. 99.
Column, 165.
_Columniferæ_, 195.
_Commelyneæ_, 157.
_Compositæ_, 223, 224.
Compound flower, 224.
leaf, 159, 170.
Conceptacle, 45.
Cone, 131.
_Conferva_, 26.
_Confervaceæ_, 21, 24.
Conidium, 68.
Conifer, 129, 140, 141.
_Coniferæ_. See "Conifer."
_Conjugatæ_, 22-29.
Connective, 148.
_Conocephalus_. See "Liverwort, giant."
_Contortæ_, 218.
_Convolvulaceæ_, 213.
_Convolvulus_. See "Morning-glory."
_Coprinus_, 82-84; Fig. 48.
general structure, 82, 83.
young spore fruit, 83.
gills basidia, 83.
spores, 84.
Coral root, 167.
_Corallorhiza_. See "Coral root."
Coriander, 202.
Corn, 160, 161.
_Cornus_, _-aceæ_. See "Dogwood."
Corolla, 174, 182.
Cortex, 39, 130.
_Corydalis_, 192.
Cotton, 195.
Cotyledon, 134, 146, 180.
Cowslip, 211.
Coxcomb, 185.
Crab-apple, 77, 80.
Cranberry, 211.
_Crassulaceæ_, 203.
Crane's-bill, 3, 196; Fig. 107.
Cress, 192.
_Croton_, 200.
_Cruciferæ_. See "Mustard family."
_Crucifloræ_. See "_Rhœadinæ_."
Cucumber, 221.
Cucumber-tree. See "Magnolia."
_Cucurbitaceæ_. See "Gourd."
Cup fungi ("_Discomycetes_"), 71.
_Cupuliferæ_, 183.
Curl, 66.
Currant, 203.
_Cuscuta_. See "Dodder."
Custard-apple, 186.
_Cyanophyceæ_. See "Blue-green slime."
_Cyathus_, 84; Fig. 50.
_Cycad_, _-eæ_, 140.
_Cycas revoluta_, 141; Fig. 71.
_Cyclamen_, 212.
_Cynoglossum_. See "Hound's-tongue."
_Cyperaceæ_. See "Sedge."
_Cyperus_, 161.
Cypress, 142.
_Cypripedium_. See "Lady's-slipper."
_Cystopus_. See also "White rust."
_bliti_, 57; Fig. 33.
general structure, 57.
structure of filaments, 57.
non-sexual spores (conidia), 57.
germination of conidia, 58.
resting spores, 59.
oögonium, 59.
antheridium, 59.
_candidus_, 60; Fig. 34.
Daisy, 223.
Dandelion, 66, 223; Fig. 125.
_Darlingtonia_, 195.
_Datura_. See "Stramonium."
Day lily, 155.
Deadly nightshade, 215.
Dead nettle, 215; Fig. 120.
_Delphinium_. See "Larkspur."
Dermatogen, 176.
Desmid, 33, 34; Fig. 20.
Devil's apron. See "_Laminaria_."
_Dianthus_. See "Pink."
_Diatomaceæ_, 41, 42; Figs. 24, 25.
structure, 42.
movements, 42.
reproduction, 42.
_Dicentra_, 192; Fig. 103.
Dicotyledon, 145, 170, 181, 225.
_Digitalis_. See "Foxglove."
Diœcious, 88.
_Dionæa_. See "Venus's fly-trap."
_Dioscoreæ_. See "Yam."
_Dioscorea villosa_, 154.
_Diospyros_. See "Persimmon."
_Diospyrinæ_, 210.
_Dipsacus_, _-aceæ_. See "Teasel."
_Dirca_. See "Moosewood."
Ditch-moss, 167; Fig. 91.
Dodder, 214.
_Dodecatheon_. See "Shooting-star."
Dog-bane, 219; Fig. 122.
Dogwood, 202, 229; Fig. 110.
_Draparnaldia_, 26; Fig. 14.
_Drosera_ _-aceæ_. See "Sun-dew."
Drupe. See "Stone-fruit."
Duck-weed, 159; Fig. 86.
Dutchman's pipe. See "_Aristolochia_."
Earth star. See "_Geaster_."
_Ebenaceæ_ (ebony), 212.
_Echinospermum_. See "Beggar's-ticks."
_Ectocarpus_, 45, 47; Fig. 28.
Eel-grass, 168, 169; Fig. 91.
Egg apparatus, 144.
Egg cell, 27, 36, 39, 45, 90, 106, 133, 144.
Egg-plant, 215.
Eichler, 153.
Elater, 91, 122.
Elder, 224.
_Elæagnaceæ_, 206.
Elm, 183.
_Elodea_. See "Ditch-moss."
Embryo, 90, 97, 107, 133, 149, 180.
Embryology, 3.
Embryo sac, 143, 144, 151.
_Enantioblastæ_, 153, 156; Fig. 85.
Endosperm, 133, 146, 152.
Entire leaves, 170.
_Entomophthoreæ_, 57.
_Epacrideæ_, 210.
Epidermis, 91, 111, 112, 113, 122, 135, 137, 150, 177.
_Epigæa_. See "Trailing arbutus."
_Epilobium_. See "Willow-herb."
_Epiphegus_. See "Beech-drops."
Epiphyte, 166.
_Equisetum_, _-tinæ_. See "Horse-tail."
Ergot, 76.
_Erica_, _-aceæ_. See "Heath."
_Erysiphe_, 70.
_Erythræa_. See "Centaury."
_Erythronium_, 146-152; Fig. 81.
leaf, 146.
stem, 146.
root, 146.
gross anatomy of stem, 147.
flower, 148.
fruit and seed, 150.
histology of stem, 150.
of leaf, 150.
of flower, 151.
of ovule and seed, 151, 152.
_Eschscholtzia_, 191.
_Eucalyptus_, 206.
_Eucyclæ_, 196, 200.
_Eudorina_, 20.
_Euglena_, 11, 19; Fig. 9.
_Euonymus_. See "Spindle-tree."
_Euphorbia_, 199; Fig. 109.
_Eurotium_, 70; Fig. 42.
Evening primrose, 206.
_Exoascus_, 66.
_Fagopyrum_. See "Buckwheat."
Feather-veined. See "Pinnate-veined."
Fern, 5, 102, 104, 116.
flowering, 118; Fig. 70.
lady, 104; Fig. 70.
maiden-hair. See "Maiden-hair fern."
ostrich. See "Ostrich-fern."
sensitive, 104.
true, 117.
water. See "Water-fern."
Fertilization, 225.
Fibre, 124, 175, 177.
Fibro-vascular bundle, 107, 110, 121, 123, 135, 136, 147, 150, 159, 174.
Fig, 183.
Figwort, 215, 216; Fig. 120.
Filament (of stamen), 148, 17.
_Filices_. See "True ferns."
_Filicineæ_. See "Fern."
Fir, 142.
Fission, 23.
_Flagellata_, 19.
Flagellum, 19.
Flax, 197; Fig. 107.
Flies, 229.
Flower, 128, 131.
Flowering-plant. See "Spermaphyte."
Forget-me-not, 215.
Four-o'clock, 183.
Foxglove, 217.
_Frangulinæ_, 199.
_Fraxinus_. See "Ash."
Fringe-tree, 218; Fig. 122.
Fruit, 145.
_Fucaceæ_, 43.
Fuchsia, 201.
_Fucus_, 42-46.
_vesiculosus_, 43; Figs. 26, 27.
general structure, 43, 44.
conceptacles, 44.
collecting plants, 44.
cells, 44.
chloroplasts, 44.
oögonium, 45.
_platycarpus_, 45.
antheridium, 45, 46.
fertilization, 46.
germination, 46.
_Fumariaceæ_. See "Fumitory."
Fumitory, 192.
_Funaria_, 93-99; Figs. 58-62.
gross anatomy, 93, 94.
protonema, 93.
"flower," 94.
structure of leaf, 94.
chloroplasts, division of, 95.
formation of starch in chloroplasts, 95.
structure of stem, 96.
root hairs, 96.
buds, 96.
antheridium spermatozoids, 96, 97.
archegonium, 97.
embryo, 98.
capsule and spores, 98, 99.
germination of spores, 99.
Fungi, culture of, 5, 54.
true. See "_Mycomycetes_."
alga. See "_Phycomycetes_."
Funiculus, 151, 175.
_Funkia_. See "Day lily."
_Galium_, 223; Fig. 124.
_Gamopetalæ_. See "_Sympetalæ_."
_Gaultheria_. See "Wintergreen."
_Gaylussacia_. See "Huckleberry."
_Geaster_, 84; Fig. 49.
Gentian, 218; Fig. 122.
Gentian violet, 4, 138, 231.
_Gentiana_, _-aceæ_. See "Gentian."
_Geranium_, _-aceæ_, 3, 171, 196; Fig. 107.
_Gerardia_, 217.
Germ cell. See "Egg cell."
_Gesneraceæ_, 218.
Ghost flower. See "Indian-pipe."
Gill, 83.
Ginger, 163.
_Gingko_, 142; Fig. 78.
_Gleditschia_. See "Honey locust."
_Gloxinia_, 218.
_Glumaceæ_, 153, 160; Fig. 87.
Glume, 162.
Glycerine, 4, 51, 55, 59, 67, 83, 98, 224, 231, 233.
_Gnetaceæ_. See "Joint fir."
Golden-rod, 224.
_Gonium_, 20.
Gooseberry, 203; Fig. 111.
Goose-foot, 184; Fig. 98.
_Gossypium_. See "Cotton."
Gourd, 221.
_Gramineæ_. See "Grass."
Grape, 171, 199; Fig. 109.
Grape fern, 116; Fig. 70.
_Graphis_, 75; Fig. 45.
Grass, 161, 225; Fig. 87.
Gray moss. See "_Tillandsia_."
Green-brier, 154.
Green-felt. See "_Vaucheria_."
Green monad, 12, 19.
Green slime, 21, 22; Fig. 11.
Ground pine, 123; Fig. 73.
Ground tissue, 110, 111, 113, 124, 137, 177, 178.
_Gruinales_, 196.
Guard cell, 113, 135, 150.
Gulf weed. See "_Sargassum_."
Gum. See "_Eucalyptus_."
_Gymnocarpæ_, 84.
Gymnosperm, 129, 141.
_Gymnosporangium_, 79-81; Fig. 47.
cedar apples, 79.
spores, 80.
_Gynandræ_, 153, 164.
Gynœcium, 148, 167.
Gynostemium. See "Column."
_Habenaria_, 166, 227; Fig. 90.
Hæmatoxylin, 233.
Hair, 8, 177.
_Haloragidaceæ_, 206.
Hazel, 182, 183, 225; Fig. 97.
Head, 181.
Heath, 211.
_Helobiæ_, 153, 167.
_Hemerocallis_. See "Day lily."
_Hemi-angiocarpæ_, 84.
Hemlock, 142; Fig. 78.
Hemp, 183.
_Hepaticæ_. See "Liverwort."
Hermaphrodite, 199.
Heterocyst, 17.
Heterostylism, 228.
_Hibiscus_, 195.
Hickory, 170, 183.
Holly, 199.
Hollyhock, 195.
Honey locust, 209.
Honeysuckle, 170, 172, 181, 223; Fig. 124.
Hop, 171, 181; Fig. 97.
Horned pond-weed, 224.
Horse-chestnut, 170, 199.
Horse-tail, 116-120.
field, 120-122; Fig. 72.
stems and tubers, 120.
fertile branches, 120.
leaves, 121.
cone, 121.
stem, 121.
sporangia and spores, 121.
sterile branches, 121.
histology of stem, 121.
of sporangia, 122.
spores, 122.
germination, prothallium, 122.
Hound's-tongue, 215; Fig. 119.
_Houstonia_, 223; Fig. 124.
_Hoya_. See "Wax-plant."
Huckleberry, 181, 211; Fig. 116.
Humming-bird, 226.
Hyacinth, 146.
_Hydnum_, 84; Fig. 51.
_Hydrangea_, _-geæ_, 202; Fig. 111.
_Hydrocharideæ_, 167.
Hydrogen, 2, 95.
_Hydropeltidinæ_, 189.
_Hydrophyllum_, _-aceæ_. See "Water-leaf."
_Hypericum_, _-aceæ_. See "St. John's-wort."
_Ilex_. See "Holly."
_Impatiens_. See "Jewel-weed," "Balsam."
India-rubber, 200.
Indian-pipe, 144, 210; Fig. 79.
Indian turnip. See "_Arisæma_."
Indusium, 118.
Inflorescence, 157.
Integument, 133, 144, 151, 180.
Intercellular space, 124, 135, 150.
Internode, 39.
Iodine, 4, 22, 31.
_Ipomœa_, 213.
_Iridaceæ_, 156.
Iris, 154, 156; Fig. 84.
Irish moss, 49.
_Isocarpæ_, 210, 212.
_Isoetes_. See "Quill-wort."
_Iulifloræ_, 181.
Ivy, 202.
Jack-in-the-pulpit. See "_Arisæma_."
Jasmine, 218.
_Jeffersonia_. See "Twin-leaf."
Jewel-weed, 197; Fig. 107.
Joint fir, 140, 142.
_Juncagineæ_, 167.
_Juncus_. See "Rush."
_Jungermanniaceæ_, 92; Fig. 57.
_Kalmia_. See "Mountain laurel."
Karyokinesis, 233.
Keel, 208.
Kelp. See "_Laminaria_."
giant. See "_Macrocystis_."
Knotgrass. See "_Polygonum_."
Labellum. See "Lip."
_Labiatæ_. See "Mint."
_Labiatifloræ_, 215.
Lady's-slipper, 164, 166, 198; Fig. 90.
Lamella, 83.
_Laminaria_, 45, 47; Fig. 28.
_Lamium_. See "Dead nettle."
Larch. See "Tamarack."
_Larix_. See "Tamarack."
Larkspur, 186, 227; Fig. 99.
Latex, 191.
Laurel, 188.
_Laurineæ_. See "Laurel."
Lavender, 215.
Leaf-green. See "Chlorophyll."
Leaf tendril, 171.
Leaf thorn, 172.
_Leguminosæ_, 207.
_Lemanea_, 53; Fig. 31.
_Lemna_. See "Duck-weed."
Lemon, 198.
_Lentibulariaceæ_, 217.
Lettuce, 223.
_Lichenes_, 73; Figs. 44, 45.
Ligula, 127.
_Ligulatæ_, 125.
Lilac, 170, 181, 218.
_Liliaceæ_, 155.
_Liliifloræ_, 153, 155; Fig. 83.
_Lilium_. See "Lily."
Lily, 146, 155.
Lily-of-the-valley, 155.
Lime. See "Linden."
Linden, 195; Fig. 106.
Linear, 159.
_Linum_, _-aceæ_. See "Flax."
Lip, 165.
_Liriodendron_. See "Tulip-tree."
_Lithospermum_. See "Puccoon."
Liverwort, 86.
classification of, 91.
horned. See "_Anthoceroteæ_."
giant, 91; Fig. 57.
Lizard-tail, 181, 183; Fig. 97.
_Lobelia_, _-aceæ_. 221; Fig. 123.
_Loganieæ_, 219.
_Lonicera_. See "Honeysuckle."
Loosestrife. See "_Lythrum_."
swamp. See "Nesæa."
Lotus. See "_Nelumbo_."
_Lychnis_, 185.
_Lycoperdon_, 84; Fig. 49.
_Lycopersicum_. See "Tomato."
_Lycopodiaceæ_. See "Ground pine."
_Lycopodinæ_. See "Club moss."
_Lycopodium_, 123.
_dendroideum_, 123, 124; Fig. 73.
stem and leaves, 123.
cones and sporangia, 123.
gross anatomy, 123.
histology, 124.
spores, 124.
_Lysimachia_. See "Moneywort."
_Lythrum_, _-aceæ_, 206, 228.
Mace, 189.
_Macrocystis_, 48.
Macrospore, 126, 127, 128, 143.
_Madotheca_, 86-90; Figs. 52-56.
gross anatomy, 86-88.
male and female plants, 87, 88.
histology of leaf and stem, 88.
antheridium, 88, 89.
archegonium, 89, 90.
embryo, 90.
spores and elaters, 90.
Magnesium, 2.
_Magnolia_, _-aceæ_, 186.
Maiden-hair fern, 109-115; Figs. 67-69.
general structure, 109.
gross anatomy of stem, 110.
histology of stem, 110, 111.
gross anatomy of leaf, 111.
histology of leaf, 111, 112.
sporangia, 113, 114.
root, 114, 115.
apical growth of root, 115.
Mallow, 171, 195; Fig. 106.
_Malva_, _-aceæ_. See "Mallow."
_Mamillaria_, Fig. 112.
Mandrake. See "May-apple."
Maple, 199; Fig. 108.
_Maranta_. See "Arrowroot."
_Marattiaceæ_. See "Ringless ferns."
_Marchantia_, 91; Fig. 57.
breathing-pores, 91.
sexual organs, 91.
buds, 91.
_Marchantiaceæ_, 91.
_Marsilia_, 118; Fig. 71.
_Martynia_, 218.
_Matthiola_. See "Stock."
May-apple, 187; Fig. 101.
May-weed, 223; Fig. 125.
_Medeola_, 155; Fig. 83.
Medullary ray, 130, 137.
_Melampsora_, 81.
_Melastomaceæ_, 206.
Melon, 221.
_Menispermum_, _-eæ_. See "Moon-seed."
_Menyanthes_. See "Buck-bean."
_Mesocarpus_, 33; Fig. 19.
Mesophyll, 135.
Methyl-violet, 4, 233.
Micropyle, 180.
Microsome, 231.
Microspore, 126, 128, 131, 138.
Mignonette, 192; Fig. 104.
Mildew. See "_Peronospora_," "_Phytophthora_," "_Perisporiaceæ_."
Milk-weed, 220; Fig. 122.
Milkwort, 199.
_Mimosa_. See "Sensitive-plant."
_Mimosaceæ_, 209, 210.
_Mimulus_, 217.
Mint, 181, 215.
_Mirabilis_. See "Four-o'clock."
Mistletoe, 224.
_Mitella_. See "Bishop's cap."
_Mitchella_. See "Partridge-berry."
Mitre-wort. See "Bishop's cap."
Mock-orange. See "_Syringa_."
Moneywort, 212; Fig. 117.
Monocotyledon, 146, 153, 225, 229.
_Monotropa_. See "Indian-pipe," "Pine-sap."
_Monotropeæ_, 210.
Moon-seed, 188; Fig. 101.
Moosewood, 206; Fig. 113.
_Morchella_. See "Morel."
Morel, 73.
Morning-glory, 171, 213; Fig. 118.
Morphology, 3.
Moss, 5, 86.
true, 93.
common. See "_Bryaceæ_."
peat. See "_Sphagnaceæ_."
Moth, 229.
Mould, black. See "_Mucorini_."
blue. See "_Penicillium_."
herbarium. See "_Eurotium_."
insect. See "_Entomophthoreæ_."
water. See "_Saprolegnia_."
Mountain-fringe, 192.
Mountain-laurel, 210; Fig. 116.
_Mucor_, 55.
mucedo, 56; Fig. 32.
_Mucor stolonifer_, 55-56.
general structure, 55.
structure of filaments, 55.
spore cases, 55.
sexual spores, 56.
_Mucorini_, 54.
Mulberry, 183.
Mullein, 217; Fig. 120.
_Musa_, _-aceæ_. See "Banana."
_Musci_. See "True mosses."
Mushroom, 82.
Mustard, 192.
_Mycomycetes_. See "True fungi."
_Myosotis_. See "Forget-me-not."
_Myristica_, _-ineæ_. See "Nutmeg."
_Myrtifloræ_, 205.
Myrtle, 205, 206.
_Myrtus_. See "Myrtle."
_Myxomycetes_. See "Slime-mould."
_Naias_. See "Pond-weed."
_Naiadeæ_, 159.
Narcissus, 146.
Nasturtium, 197, 227.
_Navicula_, 42; Fig. 24.
Nectar, 225.
Nectary, 186.
Nelumbo, 189, 190; Fig. 101.
_Nelumbieæ_, 190.
_Nemophila_, 214.
_Nepenthes_, _-eæ_. See "Pitcher plant."
_Nesæa_, 206.
Nettle. See "_Urticinæ_."
_Nicotiana_. See "Tobacco."
Night-blooming cereus, 204.
Nightshade, 215; Fig. 119.
_Nitella_, 40.
_Nitelleæ_, 40.
Node, 39.
Nucleus, 7, 31, 231.
Nuclear division, 7, 31, 231; Figs. 127, 128.
Nucleolus, 7, 231.
Nutmeg, 188.
_Nyctagineæ_, 183.
_Nymphæa_, 189; Fig. 101.
_Nymphæaceæ_, 190.
Oak, 183, 225; Fig. 97.
_Œdogonium_, 26-28; Fig. 16.
reproduction, 27.
fertilization, 28.
resting spores, 28.
_Œnothera_. See "Evening primrose."
Oil-channel, 202.
_Oleaceæ_. See "Olive."
Oleander, 219.
Olive, 218.
_Onagraceæ_, 206.
_Onoclea_, 104; Fig. 70.
Oögonium, 27, 36, 39, 45, 59, 62.
Oöphyte, 109.
Opium--opium poppy, 191.
_Ophioglosseæ_. See "Adder-tongue."
_Ophioglossum_, 116.
_Opuntia_. See "Prickly pear."
_Opuntieæ_, 203.
Orange, 198.
Orchid, 164, 166, 227; Figs. 89, 90.
_Orchideæ_, 164.
_Orchis_, 227; Fig. 89.
Organic bodies, 1.
Origanum oil, 234.
_Oscillaria_, 15, 16; Fig. 6.
movements, 15.
color, 16.
structure and reproduction, 16.
_Osmunda_. See "Flowering-fern."
Ostrich-fern, 104-109.
germination of spores, 104.
prothallium, 104, 105.
archegonium, 105, 106.
antheridium and spermatozoids, 106.
fertilization, 107.
embryo and young plant, 107, 108.
comparison with sporogonium of bryophytes, 109.
Ovary, 129, 148, 156, 202.
Ovule, 129, 131, 144, 148, 151, 179.
_Oxalis_. See "Wood-sorrel."
_Oxydendrum_, 211; Fig. 116.
Oxygen, 2, 95.
Palea, 161.
Palisade parenchyma, 178.
Palm, 157.
date, 159.
coco, 159.
_Palmæ_. See "Palm."
Palmate, 171.
Palmetto, 159.
_Pandaneæ_, 159.
_Papaveraceæ_. See "Poppy."
Papaw, 186; Fig. 100.
_Papilionaceæ_, 208.
Pappus, 223.
_Papyrus_, 161.
Paranucleus, 231.
Parasite, 54.
Parenchyma. See "Soft tissue."
_Parmelia_, 73, 75; Fig. 44.
Partridge-berry, 223, 228.
_Passiflora_. See "Passion-flower."
_Passiflorinæ_, 205.
Passion-flower, 204; Fig. 112.
Pea, 207, 208; Fig. 115.
Peach, 206.
Pear, 206.
_Pediastrum_, 23; Fig. 11.
_Pelargonium_, 197.
Peltate, 190.
_Peltigera_, 75; Fig. 45.
_Penicillium_, 71; Fig. 42.
Pepper, 183.
Perianth. See "Perigone."
Periblem, 176.
Perigone, 143, 148, 151, 170.
Perisperm, 163.
_Perisporiaceæ_, 66.
Periwinkle, 219.
_Peronospora_, 60; Fig. 35.
_Peronosporeæ_, 57.
Persimmon, 212; Fig. 117.
Petal, 148, 174, 179.
Petiole, 173.
Petunia, 215; Fig. 119.
_Peziza_, 73; Fig. 43.
_Phacelia_, 214.
_Phæophyceæ_. See "Brown algæ."
Phænogam. See "Spermaphyte."
_Phascum_, _-aceæ_, 99, 101; Fig. 65.
_Philadelphus_. See "Syringa."
Phloem, 110, 124, 135, 137, 150, 173, 176.
_Phlox_, 214; Fig. 118.
_Phœnix dactylifera_. See "Date-palm."
Phosphorus, 2.
_Phragmidium_, 81; Fig. 47.
_Physarum_, 14.
_Physianthus_, 220.
Physiology, 3.
_Phytolacca_, _-aceæ_. See "Poke-weed."
_Phytophthora_, 60.
Pickerel-weed, 156, 228; Fig. 84.
Picric acid, 156, 233.
Pig-weed. See "Amaranth."
Pine, 9, 10, 129, 142.
Pineapple, 156.
Pine-sap, 210; Fig. 116.
_Pinguicula_, 218.
Pink, 181, 185; Fig. 97.
Pink-root, 218; Fig. 122.
Pinnate (leaf), 159.
veined, 171.
_Pinnularia_, 42; Fig. 24.
_Pinus sylvestris_. See "Scotch pine."
_Piper_. See "Pepper."
_Piperineæ_, 183.
Pistil, 143, 145, 174.
Pitcher-plant, 194, 195; Fig. 105.
Pith, 130, 174, 177.
Placenta, 148, 179.
Plane, 183.
_Plantago_, _-ineæ_. See "Plantain."
Plantain, 223, 225; Fig. 121.
Plasmodium, 12.
_Plataneæ_. See "Plane."
_Platanus_. See "Sycamore."
Plerome, 176.
Plum, 207.
_Plumbago_, _-ineæ_, 212.
Pod, 156.
_Podophyllum_. See "May-apple."
_Podosphæra_, 66-70; Fig. 39.
general structure, 66.
structure of filaments, 68.
suckers, 68.
conidia, 68.
sexual organs, 68.
spore fruit, 68, 69.
spore sac, 69.
_Pogonia_, 166.
_Poinsettia_, 199.
Poison-dogwood, 198.
Poison-hemlock, 202.
Poison-ivy, 171, 198.
Poke-weed, 185; Fig. 97.
_Polemonium_, _-aceæ_, 214; Fig. 118.
Pollinium, 165.
_Polycarpæ_, 185.
_Polygala_, _-aceæ_. See "Milkwort."
_Polygonatum_. See "Solomon's Seal."
_Polygonum_, _-aceæ_, 184; Fig. 98.
_Polysiphonia_, 52; Fig. 29.
Pomegranate, 206.
Pond-scum, 22, 29, 30.
Pond-weed, 159; Fig. 86.
_Pontederia_. See "Pickerel-weed."
Poplar, 181, 183.
Poppy, 191.
_Portulaca_, _-aceæ_. See "Purslane."
Potash (caustic), 4, 5, 59, 67, 75, 97, 106, 111, 151, 176, 179, 180.
Potassium, 2.
Potato, 215.
Potato-fungus. See "_Phytophthora_."
_Potentilla_. See "Cinquefoil."
_Potomogeton_. See "Pond-weed."
Prickly-ash, 198.
Prickly fungus. See "_Hydnum_."
Prickly-pear, 204.
Prickly-poppy. See "_Argemone_."
Primrose, 211.
_Primula_, _-aceæ_. See "Primrose."
Prince's-pine, 210; Fig. 116.
Procarp, 51.
_Proteaceæ_, 205.
Prothallium, 102, 103, 114, 122, 125, 133, 144, 177.
_Protococcus_, _-aceæ_, 22, 74; Fig. 11.
Protophyte, 11.
Protoplasm, 7.
movements of, 7.
Pteridophyte, 102, 153.
_Puccinia_, 81; Fig. 47. See also "Wheat-rust."
Puccoon, 215.
Puff-ball. See "_Lycoperdon_."
Purslane, 185.
Putty-root. See "_Aplectrum_."
Pyrenoid, 25, 31.
_Pyrenomycetes_, 76.
_Pyrola_, _-aceæ_, 210.
Quince, 170.
Quill-wort, 125, 126; Fig. 74.
Raceme, 174.
Radial fibro-vascular bundles, 138, 176.
Radish, 192.
_Ranunculus_, _-aceæ_. See "Buttercup."
Raspberry, 207.
Ray-flower, 223.
Receptacle, 167, 207, 223.
Receptive spot, 106.
Red algæ, 21, 49, 52, 53; Figs. 29-31.
Red-bud, 209; Fig. 115.
Red cedar, 79, 131, 141; Fig. 78.
Red-wood, 142.
Reference-books, 235-236.
_Reseda_, _-aceæ_. See "Mignonette."
Resin, 130.
Resin-duct, 130, 135, 137.
Resting-spore, 28, 32, 37, 57.
Rheumatism-root. See "Twin-leaf."
_Rhexia_, 206.
_Rhizocarpeæ_. See "Water-fern."
Rhizoid. See "Root-hair."
Rhizome. See "Root-stock."
_Rhododendron_, 210; Fig. 116.
_Rhodophyceæ_. See "Red algæ."
_Rhodoraceæ_, 211.
_Rhœadinæ_, 190.
_Rhus_. See "Sumach."
_cotinus_. See "Smoke-tree."
_toxicodendron_. See "Poison-ivy."
_venenata_. See "Poison-dogwood."
_Ribes_, _-ieæ_, 203; Fig. 111.
_Ricciaceæ_, 91; Fig. 57.
_Richardia_. See "Calla."
_Ricinus_. See "Castor-bean."
Ringless-fern, 116.
Rock-rose, 195.
Rock-weed. See "_Fucus_."
Root, 102, 104, 114, 173.
Root-cap, 115, 175.
Root-hair, 38, 87, 91, 96, 104, 135.
Root-stock, 154, 172.
_Rosa_, _-aceæ_. See "Rose."
Rose, 181, 206; Fig. 114.
_Rosifloræ_, 206.
_Rubiaceæ_, 223.
Rush, 154, 225; Fig. 83.
Rust, white. See "_Cystopus_."
red. See "_Uredineæ_."
black. See "_Uredineæ_."
_Sabal_. See "Palmetto."
_Sabbatia_. See "Centaury."
_Saccharomycetes_. See "Yeast."
Sac fungi. See "_Ascomycetes_."
Safranine, 233.
Sage, 215; Fig. 120.
_Salicineæ_, 183.
_Salix_. See "Willow."
_Salvinia_, 118.
_Sambucus_. See "Elder."
_Sanguinaria_. See "Blood-root."
_Sapindaceæ_, 199.
_Saprolegnia_, _-aceæ_, 60-62; Fig. 36.
zoöspores, 62.
resting spores, 62.
antheridium, 62.
_Sargassum_, 48; Fig. 28.
_Sarracenia_, _-aceæ_. See "Pitcher-plant."
Sassafras, 188.
_Saururus_. See "Lizard-tail."
Saxifrage, 202.
_Saxifraginæ_, 202.
_Scabiosa_. See "Scabious."
Scabious, 224.
Scalariform, 110.
Scale-leaves, 170.
_Scenedesmus_, 24; Fig. 11.
_Schizomycetes_. See "_Bacteria_."
Schizophytes, 12, 14.
Schlerenchyma. See "Stony tissue."
_Schrankia_. See "Sensitive-brier."
_Scilla_, 151.
_Scirpus_. See "Bulrush."
_Scitamineæ_, 153, 162.
Scotch pine, 129-140; Figs. 75-77.
stems and branches, 129.
leaves, 129, 130.
gross anatomy of stem, 130.
growth-rings, 130.
roots, 131.
sporangia, 131.
cones, 132.
macrospores and prothallium, 133.
ripe cone and seeds, 133.
germination, 134.
young plant, 134.
histology of leaf, 135.
of stem, 136-138.
of root, 138.
microsporangium and pollen spores, 138, 139.
archegonium, 140.
fertilization, 140.
Scouring-rush, 122.
_Scrophularia_, _-ineæ_. See "Figwort."
Sea-lettuce, 26; Fig. 15.
Sea-rosemary, 212.
Sea-weed (brown). See "Brown algæ."
(red). See "Red algæ."
Sedge, 161; Fig. 87.
_Sedum_. See "Stonecrop."
Seed, 128, 133, 145, 150.
Seed-plant. See "Spermaphyte."
_Selaginella_, _-eæ_. See "Smaller club-moss."
Sensitive-brier, 209; Fig. 115.
Sensitive-plant, 209.
Sepal, 148, 150, 174, 179.
_Sequoia_. See "Red-wood."
Sessile leaf, 170.
_Shepherdia_, 206.
Shepherd's-purse, 173-180; Figs. 93-95.
gross anatomy of stem, 173.
leaf, 124, 173.
root, 173.
branches, 174.
flower, 174, 175.
fruit and seed, 175.
histology of root, 175, 176.
stem, 177.
leaf, 177, 178.
development of flower, 179.
ovule, 179.
embryo, 180.
Shooting-star, 212; Fig. 117.
Sieve-tube, 111, 137.
_Silene_. See "Catch-fly."
Silicon, 2.
Simple leaf, 170.
_Siphoneæ_, 22, 34.
_Sisyrinchium_. See "Blue-eyed grass."
Skunk cabbage, 157.
Slime mould, 12, 14; Fig. 5.
plasmodium, 12.
movements, 13.
feeding, 13.
spore-cases, 13.
spores, 13.
germination of spores, 14.
Smart-weed. See "_Polygonum_."
_Smilaceæ_, 155.
Smoke-tree, 198.
Smut, 64, 65.
Smut-corn. See "_Ustillago_."
Snowberry, 223.
Soft-tissue, 112.
_Solanum_, _-eæ_, 215.
Solomon's Seal, 154; Fig. 83.
Soredium, 74.
Sorus, 118.
_Spadicifloræ_, 153, 157.
Spadix, 157.
Spanish bayonet. See "_Yucca_."
_Sparganium_. See "Bur-reed."
Speedwell. See "_Veronica_."
Spermaphyte, 128-129.
Spermatozoid, 28, 36, 40, 46, 51, 89, 96, 106, 122.
Spermagonium, 79, 80.
_Sphagnum_, _-aceæ_, 99, 100.
sporogonium, 100.
leaf, 100.
Spice-bush, 188.
Spiderwort, 6, 151, 157; Fig. 85.
_Spigelia_. See "Pink-root."
Spike, 181.
Spikenard, 202; Fig. 110.
Spinach, 184.
Spindle-tree, 199; Fig. 109.
_Spirogyra_, 30-32; Fig. 18.
structure of cells, 30.
starch, 31.
cell-division, 31.
sexual reproduction, 32.
Sporangium, 55, 62, 113, 121, 122, 131, 148, 151, 179.
Spore-case. See "Sporangium."
Spore-fruit, 51, 66, 69, 70, 73, 83.
Spore-sac. See "Ascus."
Sporocarp. See "Spore-fruit."
Sporogonium, 87, 90, 102, 123.
Sporophyll, 128, 131, 148.
Sporophyte, 109.
Spring-beauty, 185; Fig. 98.
Spruce, 142.
Spurge. See "_Euphorbia_."
Squash, 221.
Staining agents, 4, 231, 233.
Stamen, 128, 143, 148, 174, 179.
Standard, 207.
_Staphylea_. See "Bladder-nut."
Starch, 31, 95, 152.
_Statice_. See "Sea-rosemary."
_Stellaria_. See "Chick-weed."
_Stemonitis_, 13; Fig. 5.
_Sticta_, 75; Fig. 45.
_Stigeoclonium_, 26; Fig. 14.
Stigma, 145, 148, 175, 179.
St. John's-wort, 195; Fig. 105.
Stock, 192.
Stoma. See "Breathing-pore."
Stonecrop, 202; Fig. 113.
Stone-fruit, 206.
Stone-wort. See "_Characeæ_."
Stony-tissue, 110.
Stramonium, 215.
Strawberry, 171, 202, 206; Fig. 113.
Style, 148, 175, 179.
_Stylophorum_, 187; Fig. 103.
Sugar, 8, 145.
Sulphur, 2.
Sumach, 198; Fig. 108.
Sun-dew, 192, 193; Fig. 104.
Sunflower, 224.
Suspensor, 180.
Sweet-flag, 157.
Sweet-potato, 214.
Sweet-scented shrub. See "_Calycanthus_."
Sweet-william, 185.
Sycamore, 183.
_Sympetalæ_, 210.
_Symphoricarpus_. See "Snowberry."
_Symplocarpus_. See "Skunk-cabbage."
Synergidæ, 144.
_Syringa_, 199; Fig. 111. See also "Lilac."
Tamarack, 142.
Tap-root, 131, 173.
_Taraxacum_. See "Dandelion."
_Taxodium_. See "Cypress."
_Taxus_. See "Yew."
Teasel, 224; Fig. 124.
_Tecoma_. See "Trumpet-creeper."
Teleuto-spore, 80, 81.
Tendril, 171.
_Terebinthinæ_, 198.
Tetraspore, 51, 52.
Thistle, 173, 223; Fig. 125.
Thorn, 172.
Thyme, 215.
_Thymeleaceæ_, 206.
_Thymelinæ_, 206.
_Tilia_, _-aceæ_. See "Linden."
_Tillandsia_, 156; Fig. 84.
Tissue, 8.
Tissue system, 115.
Toadstool, 82.
Tobacco, 215.
_Tolypella_, 40.
Tomato, 215.
Touch-me-not. See "Jewel-weed."
Tracheary tissue, 110, 121, 177.
Tracheid, 110, 138.
_Tradescantia_. See "Spiderwort."
Trailing arbutus, 211.
_Tremella_, 81; Fig. 51.
_Trichia_, 13, 14; Fig. 5.
Trichogyne, 51.
_Tricoccæ_, 199.
_Triglochin_. See "Arrow-grass."
_Trillium_, 146, 154, 155; Fig. 83.
_Triphragmium_, 81.
_Tropæolum_. See "Nasturtium."
Trumpet-creeper.
Tuber, 120, 153, 172.
_Tubifloræ_, 213.
Tulip, 146.
Tulip-tree, 187; Fig. 100.
Turnip, 192.
Twin-leaf, 187; Fig. 101.
_Typha_, _-aceæ_. See "Cat-tail."
_Ulmaceæ_. See "Elm."
_Ulva_. See "Sea-lettuce."
_Umbelliferæ_. See "Umbel-wort."
Umbel-wort, 202.
_Umbellifloræ_, 202.
_Uredineæ_, 77.
_Uromyces_, 81; Fig. 47.
_Urticinæ_, 183.
_Usnea_, 75; Fig. 45.
_Ustillagineæ_. See "Smut."
_Ustillago_, 65; Fig. 38.
_Utricularia_. See "Bladder-weed."
_Uvularia_. See "Bellwort."
_Vaccinium_. See "Cranberry."
Vacuole, 8.
Valerian, 224; Fig. 124.
_Valeriana_, _-eæ_. See "Valerian."
_Vallisneria_. See "Eel-grass."
_Vanilla_, 166.
_Vaucheria_, 34-37; Figs. 21, 22.
structure of plant, 35.
_racemosa_, 35.
non-sexual reproduction, 36.
sexual organs, 36.
fertilization, 36.
resting spores, 37.
Venus's fly-trap, 192.
_Verbascum_. See "Mullein."
_Verbena_, _-aceæ_, 218; Fig. 121.
_Veronica_, 217; Fig. 120.
Vervain. See "_Verbena_."
Vessel, 121, 135, 150, 175, 177.
_Viburnum_, 223; Fig. 124.
_Victoria regia_, 190.
_Vinca_. See "Periwinkle."
Vine, 199.
Violet, 192; Fig. 104.
_Viola_, _-aceæ_. See "Violet."
Virginia creeper, 171, 199.
_Vitis_. See "Grape."
_Vitaceæ_. See "Vine."
_Volvox_, 12, 20; Fig. 10.
_Volvocineæ_, 12, 19.
Wall-flower, 192.
Walnut, 183.
Wandering-Jew, 157.
Water fern, 117.
Water-leaf, 214; Fig. 118.
Water-lily. See "_Nymphæa_," "_Castalia_."
Water-milfoil, 206; Fig. 113.
Water mould. See "_Saprolegnia_."
Water net, 24; Fig. 11.
Water-plantain, 167.
Water-shield, 190.
Water-starwort, 200.
Wax-plant, 220.
Wheat, 78.
Wheat rust, 78, 81; Fig. 47.
_Whitlavia_, 214.
Wild ginger, 224; Fig. 126.
Wild onion, 230.
Wild parsnip, 202.
Willow, 181-183; Fig. 96.
Willow-herb, 206, 226; Fig. 113.
Wing (of papilionaceous flower), 208.
Wintergreen, 211.
_Wolffia_, 159.
Wood. See "Xylem."
Wood-sorrel, 197; Fig. 107.
Xylem, 110, 124, 135, 150, 173, 176.
Yam, 154.
Yeast, 63, 64; Fig. 37.
cause of fermentation, 63.
reproduction, 64.
systematic position, 64.
Yew, 141.
_Yucca_, 153.
_Zanthoxylum_. See "Prickly ash."
_Zingiber_, _-aceæ_. See "Ginger."
Zoölogy, 2.
Zoöspore, 25, 37, 58, 62.
_Zygnema_, 33; Fig. 19.
Zygomorphy, Zygomorphic, 164, 215, 226.
NATURAL SCIENCE.
_Elements of Physics._
A Text-book for High Schools and Academies. By ALFRED P. GAGE, A.M.,
Instructor in Physics in the English High School, Boston. 12mo.
424 pages. Mailing Price, $1.25; Introduction, $1.12; Allowance for
old book, 35 cents.
This treatise is based upon _the doctrine of the conservation of
energy_, which is made prominent throughout the work. But the leading
feature of the book--one that distinguishes it from all others--is,
that it is strictly _experiment-teaching_ in its method; _i.e._, it
leads the pupil to "read nature in the language of experiment." So far
as practicable, the following plan is adopted: The pupil is expected
to accept as _fact_ only that which he has seen or learned by personal
investigation. He himself performs the larger portion of the
experiments with _simple_ and _inexpensive_ apparatus, such as, in a
majority of cases, is in his power to construct with the aid of
directions given in the book. The experiments given are rather of the
nature of _questions_ than of illustrations, and _precede_ the
statements of principles and laws. Definitions and laws are not given
until the pupil has acquired a knowledge of his subject sufficient to
enable him to construct them for himself. The aim of the book is to
lead the pupil _to observe and to think_.
C. F. EMERSON, _Prof. of Physics, Dartmouth College_: It takes up the
subject on the right plan, and presents it in a clear, yet scientific,
way.
WM. NOETLING, _Prof. of Rhetoric, Theory and Practice of Teaching,
State Normal School, Bloomsburg, Pa._: Every page of the book shows
that the author is a _real_ teacher and that he knows how to make
pupils think. I know of no other work on the subject of which this
treats that I can so unreservedly recommend to all wide-awake teachers
as this.
B. F. WRIGHT, _Supt. of Public Schools, St. Paul, Minn._: I like it
better than any text-book on physics I have seen.
O. H. ROBERTS, _Prin. of High School, San Jose, Cal._: Gage's Physics
is giving great satisfaction.
_Introduction to Physical Science._
By A. P. GAGE, Instructor in Physics in the English High School,
Boston, Mass., and Author of _Elements of Physics_, etc. 12mo.
Cloth. viii + 353 pages. With a chart of colors and spectra. Mailing
Price, $1.10; for introduction, $1.00; allowance for an old book in
exchange, 30 cents.
The great and constantly increasing popularity of Gage's _Elements of
Physics_ has created a demand for an equally good but easier book, on
the same plan, suitable for schools that can give but a limited time
to the study. The _Introduction to Physical Science_ has been prepared
to supply this demand.
ACCURACY is the prime requisite in scientific text-books. A false
statement is not less false because it is plausible, nor an
inconclusive experiment more satisfactory because it is diverting. In
books of entertainment, such things may be permissible; but in a
text-book, the first essentials are correctness and accuracy. It is
believed that the _Introduction_ will stand the closest expert
scrutiny. Especial care has been taken to restrict the use of
scientific terms, such as _force_, _energy_, _power_, etc., to their
proper significations. Terms like _sound_, _light_, _color_, etc.,
which have commonly been applied to both the effect and the agent
producing the effect have been rescued from this ambiguity.
RECENT ADVANCES in physics have been faithfully recorded, and the
relative practical importance of the various topics has been taken
into account. Among the new features are a full treatment of electric
lighting, and descriptions of storage batteries, methods of
transmitting electric energy, simple and easy methods of making
electrical measurements with inexpensive apparatus, the compound
steam-engine, etc. Static electricity, which is now generally regarded
as of comparatively little importance, is treated briefly; while
dynamic electricity, the most potent and promising physical element of
our modern civilization, is placed in the clearest light of our
present knowledge.
In INTEREST AND AVAILABILITY the _Introduction_ will, it is believed,
be found no less satisfactory. The wide use of the _Elements_ under
the most varied conditions, and, in particular, the author's own
experience in teaching it, have shown how to improve where improvement
was possible. The style will be found suited to the grades that will
use the book. The experiments are varied, interesting, clear, and of
practical significance, as well as simple in manipulation and ample in
number. Certain subjects that are justly considered difficult and
obscure have been omitted; as, for instance, certain laws relating to
the pressure of gases and the polarization of light. The
_Introduction_ is even more fully illustrated than the _Elements_.
IN GENERAL. The _Introduction_, like the _Elements_, has this distinct
and distinctive aim,--to elucidate science, instead of "popularizing"
it; to make it liked for its own sake, rather than for its gilding and
coating; and, while teaching the facts, to impart the spirit of
science,--that is to say, the spirit of our civilization and progress.
GEORGE E. GAY, _Prin. of High School, Malden, Mass._: With the matter,
both the topics and their presentation, I am better pleased than with
any other Physics I have seen.
R. H. PERKINS, _Supt. of Schools, Chicopee, Mass._: I have no doubt we
can adopt it as early as next month, and use the same to great
advantage in our schools. (_Feb. 6, 1888._)
MARY E. HILL, _Teacher of Physics, Northfield Seminary, Mass._: I like
the truly scientific method and the clearness with which the subject
is presented. It seems to me admirably adapted to the grade of work
for which it is designed. (_Mar. 5, '88._)
JOHN PICKARD, _Prin. of Portsmouth High School, N.H._: I like it
exceedingly. It is clear, straightforward, practical, and not too
heavy.
EZRA BRAINERD, _Pres. and Prof. of Physics, Middlebury College, Vt._:
I have looked it over carefully, and regard it as a much better book
for high schools than the former work. (_Feb. 6, 1888._)
JAMES A. DE BOER, _Prin. of High School, Montpelier, Vt._: I have not
only examined, but studied it, and consider it superior as a text-book
to any other I have seen. (_Feb. 10, '88._)
E. B. ROSA, _Teacher of Physics, English and Classical School,
Providence, R.I._: I think it the best thing in that grade published,
and intend to use it another year. (_Feb. 23, '88._)
G. H. PATTERSON, _Prin. and Prof. of Physics, Berkeley Sch.,
Providence, R.I._: A very practical book by a practical teacher.
(_Feb. 2, 1888._)
GEORGE E. BEERS, _Prin. of Evening High School, Bridgeport, Conn._:
The more I see of Professor Gage's books, the better I like them. They
are popular, and at the same time scientific, plain and simple, full
and complete. (_Feb. 18, 1888._)
ARTHUR B. CHAFFEE, _Prof. in Franklin College, Ind._: I am very much
pleased with the new book. It will suit the average class better than
the old edition.
W. D. KERLIN, _Supt. of Public Schools, New Castle, Ind._: I find that
it is the best adapted to the work which we wish to do in our high
school of any book brought to my notice.
C. A. BRYANT, _Supt. of Schools, Paris, Tex._: It is just the book for
high schools. I shall use it next year.
_Introduction to Chemical Science._
By R. P. WILLIAMS, Instructor in Chemistry in the English High
School, Boston. 12mo. Cloth. 216 pages. Mailing Price, 90 cents; for
introduction, 80 cents; Allowance for old book in exchange,
25 cents.
In a word, this is a working chemistry--brief but adequate. Attention
is invited to a few special features:--
1. This book is characterized by directness of treatment, by the
selection, so far as possible, of the most interesting and practical
matter, and by the omission of what is unessential.
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feature of special merit.
4. The most important experiments and those best illustrating the
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Those who try the book find its merits have not been overstated.
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All the salient points are well explained, the theories are treated of
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H. T. FULLER, _Pres. of Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Mass._: It
is clear, concise, and suggests the most important and most
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ALFRED S. ROE, _Prin. of High School, Worcester, Mass._: I am very
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FRANK M. GILLEY, _Science Teacher, High School, Chelsea, Mass._: I
have examined the proof-sheets in connection with my class work, and
after comparison with a large number of text-books, feel convinced
that it is superior to any yet published.
G. S. FELLOWS, _Teacher of Chemistry, High School, Washington, D.C._:
The author's method seems to us the ideal one. Not only are the
theoretical parts rendered clear by experiments performed by the
student himself, but there is a happy blending of theoretical and
applied chemistry as commendable as it is unusual.
J. I. D. HINES, _Prof. of Chemistry, Cumberland University, Lebanon,
Tenn._: I am very much pleased with it, and think it will give the
student an admirable introduction to the science of chemistry.
HORACE PHILLIPS, _Prin. of High School, Elkhart, Ind._: My class has
now used it three months. It proves the most satisfactory text-book in
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is very small.
O. S. WESCOTT, _Prin. North Division H. Sch., Chicago_: My chemistry
professor says it is the most satisfactory thing he has seen, and
hopes we may be able to have it in future.
_Laboratory Manual of General Chemistry._
By R. P. WILLIAMS, Instructor in Chemistry, English High School,
Boston, and author of _Introduction to Chemical Science_. 12mo.
Boards. xvi + 200 pages. Mailing Price, 30 cents; for Introduction,
25 cents.
This Manual, prepared especially to accompany the author's
_Introduction to Chemical Science_, but suitable for use with any
text-book of chemistry, gives directions for performing one hundred of
the more important experiments in general chemistry and metal
analysis, with blanks and a model for the same, lists of apparatus and
chemicals, etc.
The Manual is commended as well-designed, simple, convenient, and
cheap,--a practical book that classes in chemistry need.
W. M. STINE, _Prof. of Chemistry, Ohio University, Athens, O._: It is
a work that has my heartiest endorsement. I consider it thoroughly
pedagogical in its principles, and its use must certainly give the
student the greatest benefit from his chemical drill. (_Dec. 30,
1888._)
_Young's General Astronomy._
A Text-book for colleges and technical schools. By CHARLES A. YOUNG,
Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Astronomy in the College of New Jersey,
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The OBJECT of the author has been twofold. First and chiefly, to make
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NEW TOPICS, as indicated above, have received a full share of
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The book will be found especially well adapted for high school and
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hundred colleges adopted the work within a year from its publication.
_Young's Elements of Astronomy._
A Text-Book for use in High Schools and Academies. With a
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By GERTRUDE ELISABETH HALE. Sq. 12mo. Illus. Cloth. xiii + 85 pp.
Mailing Price, 50 cents; for Introd., 40 cents.
The aim of this book is to tell some of the most important elementary
facts of plant-life in such a way as to appeal to the child's
imagination and curiosity, and to awaken an observant interest in the
facts themselves.