CONSTANTINE.――THE BANNER OF THE CROSS UNFURLED.
Helena, the Christian Empress.――Constantine, her Son, favors the
Christians.――Crumbling of the Empire.――Constantine the Christian,
and Maxentius the Pagan.――Vision of Constantine.――The Unfurled
Cross.――Christianity favored by the Court.――Licinius in the East
defends the Christians.――Writings of Eusebius.――Apostasy of
Licinius.――Cruel Persecution.
AT the commencement of the fourth century, Christianity had made such
rapid progress, that there were flourishing churches in all parts of
the Roman world, and spacious temples of worship in all the principal
cities. Indeed, in about one century after the death of Jesus Christ,
Justin Martyr wrote,――
“There exists not a people, whether Greek or Barbarian, or any
other race of men, by whatever appellation or manners they may be
distinguished, however ignorant of arts or agriculture, whether they
dwell under tents or wander about in covered wagons, among which
prayers are not offered up in the name of a crucified Jesus to the
Father and Creator of all things.”
Persecution had not been continuous, but spasmodical; at times raging
like a tempest, and again dying away into a transient calm. If any
thing went wrong, pagan superstition attributed it to the displeasure
of the idol gods. All calamities were considered as the punishment
which the gods were inflicting upon the people because the Christians
were causing the shrines of the idols to be deserted. Tertullian, an
earnest Christian pastor in Carthage, wrote,――
“If the Tiber overflowed its banks, if there were famine or plague,
if the season were hot or dry or scorching, whatever public calamity
happened, the universal cry of the populace was, ‘To the lions with the
Christians!’”
When Diocletian abdicated, he compelled Maximian also to abdicate,
and then divided the empire into halves, placing Galerius as emperor
in the East, and Constantius in the West. Galerius was a cruel, proud,
fanatical pagan, who hated the Christians. He assailed them with one of
the most bloody persecutions they had ever experienced.
Constantius had married a Christian lady, Helena. Though not himself
a Christian, he was so far influenced by his pious wife as to greatly
befriend them. In fifteen months after the enthronement of Constantius
over the Western empire, he died. The crown descended to his son
Constantine, then thirty-two years of age. This was in the year 306.
Constantine was not a Christian; but he was a humane, intelligent man,
who revered the memory of his pious mother. His father Constantius,
like Agrippa, had been almost a Christian. Like many such men now, he
had great respect for religion. There were many Christians who were
inmates of the palace. He even appointed Christians as chaplains, and
listened to their daily prayers in his behalf. All through history, we
see traces of the wonderful power of a truly Christian wife and mother.
Helena, the mother of Constantine, was so consistent in her
Christian character, that her family were constrained to recognize
her superiority, and to admire her spirit. It was doubtless her
example which mainly influenced her illustrious son to embrace the
gospel. Through her long life she was the munificent friend of the
Christians,――travelling from place to place to aid them with her money
and her personal influence. She died at the age of eighty years, a true
mother in Israel. In the palace, as in the cottage, maternal piety has
been one of the greatest blessings of earth.
Nothing now could arrest the dissolution of the old Roman world,
crumbling beneath the weight of its own corruptions. The dogs of war
were soon unleashed. Rival emperors again appeared. While Constantine
was in Britain, a general by the name of Maxentius raised the standard
of revolt against him in Italy. At the head of an army of a hundred and
eighty thousand foot, and eighteen thousand horse, he bade defiance to
Constantine.
The emperor, roused to the highest pitch of indignation, impetuously
crossed the British Channel, traversed Gaul, surmounted the Alps by
the pass of Mont Cenis, and descended into the plains of Piedmont. He
was within four hundred miles of Rome before Maxentius was aware that
he had crossed the British Channel. In accordance with the barbaric
customs of the times, Constantine, as he approached Rome, ravaged
the States which had sympathized in the revolt of Maxentius, and made
slaves of all the people. The number of captives so increased, that
hundreds of smiths were constantly employed in hammering the swords
of the vanquished into fetters.
Maxentius was an inveterate pagan. In preparing for the conflict
with Constantine, he had supplicated the aid of the Roman gods by
the most gorgeous ceremonies and the most costly sacrifices. This led
Constantine to feel that he must appeal to the God of the Christians
for support. The following remarkable narrative is recorded by
contemporary writers as given by Constantine himself.
Just before the final battle, Constantine was earnestly praying in his
tent to that God whom his mother had revealed to him. While engaged
in this act of devotion, he observed a remarkable appearance in the
heavens; when there emerged, in wonderful distinctness and effulgence,
a cross with this inscription,――“_In hoc vinces_” (“By this thou shalt
conquer”). The miraculous apparition was seen by the whole army.
Illustration: Vision of the Cross
While Constantine was pondering the significance of this sign, night
came on. In a dream, Christ appeared to the emperor with the same cross
which he had seen in the heavens, and directed him to cause a banner
to be made after that pattern, and, beneath that banner, to lead his
armies to victory over their pagan foes.
However we may explain this event, whether we regard it as a miracle,
or as the effect of the excited imagination of the emperor, this seems
to be certain,――that Constantine himself made repeated and solemn
declarations that he had seen this vision. He certainly did raise the
banner of the cross,――the first time that banner was ever raised over
his army. He taught his troops, pagans as most of them were, to seek
the aid of the God of the Christians.
Eusebius, pastor of the church at Nicomedia, one of the most eloquent
preachers and able writers of the age, records that he had this story
of the miraculous appearance of the cross from the emperor himself; and
that the emperor, conscious of the great importance of the statement,
substantiated the narrative by the solemnity of an oath. Constantine
could have had no motive to perjure himself; neither was such a crime
in accordance with his character.
Constantine, much excited by the dream of the night, which enforced the
remarkable vision of the day, rose with the earliest dawn, summoned his
principal officers into his presence, and informed them of the standard
which he wished to have immediately constructed.
A slender cross was then made,――a long pike-staff being traversed by
a cross-bar. This was gilded, and incrusted with the most precious
gems. A crown of gold and diamonds surmounted the staff. To this
there was attached a small silken banner, richly embroidered with
gold and jewels, and containing the monogram of Christ. Above and
beneath this silken standard were images in gold of the emperor and his
children. In addition to this imperial banner which rose over the tent
of the emperor, there were other similar banners on a smaller scale
constructed, one for each division of the army. The emperor had also
imprinted upon his helmet an image of the cross, and one also upon the
shield of every soldier. He summoned several bishops, or pastors, to
his presence, that they might instruct him respecting the character
of Jesus, his mission and his career. He obtained copies of the Sacred
Scriptures, and read them with great care.[180]
The 28th of October of the year 312 had arrived. Constantine had
with him but forty thousand troops; but they were veterans, and were
inspired with the utmost confidence in their leader, who was one of
the ablest of generals. When within nine miles of Rome, the emperor
encountered the army of Maxentius strongly intrenched. A terrible
battle ensued, and Maxentius was utterly routed with awful slaughter.
In endeavoring to escape across the Tiber by the Milvian Bridge, he was
crowded by the fugitives into the river. From the weight of his armor,
he sank like lead. The next day his body was dragged from the mud; and
the soldiers, having cut off his head, paraded it on a pole while
Constantine entered Rome in triumph.
Maxentius had been terribly cruel. Even while the battle had been
raging outside the walls, a mutiny had been excited against him in
Rome. The senate, and all the people, and even the routed soldiers
of Maxentius, received the conqueror with great enthusiasm. An arch
of triumph was reared to his honor, which remains with its costly
ornaments and flattering inscription to the present day. A statue of
Constantine is placed in one of the public squares of Rome, with a
cross instead of a lance in his hand.
Licinius was emperor in the East. Constantine negotiated a matrimonial
alliance between his sister Constantia and Licinius. The nuptials
were celebrated in Rome. The emperor easily influenced Licinius to
co-operate with him in issuing the following decree from the city of
Milan:――
“I, Constantine the august, and I, Licinius the august, desirous of
promoting in every way the public peace and prosperity, have deemed
it one of our first duties to regulate the worship of Deity. We do
therefore grant to Christians and all others the liberty to embrace
such religion as each one may choose, that we may draw down the favor
of Heaven upon us and upon our subjects. We have resolved not to deny
to any one the liberty to embrace the Christian faith, or any religion
which to him may seem best.”
All over the empire the officers of government were ordered no longer
to molest the Christians, but to protect them. The property which had
been wrested from them was restored; their places of worship, which had
been closed, were re-opened; and they were rendered eligible to all the
offices of honor and emolument in the empire.
Licinius had established his capital at Constantinople, then called
Byzantium. While he was absent at Rome to obtain his bride, Maximian in
Asia crossed the Bosphorus with a powerful army in the depth of winter,
and, after a siege of eleven days, captured Byzantium. Licinius, at the
head of seventy thousand troops, marched to regain his capital. The two
armies met about fifty miles west of the city. Maximian made a solemn
vow to Jupiter, that, if he would give him the victory, he would put
every Christian man, woman, and child within his domains to death, and
thus extirpate the Christian name.
The night before the decisive battle, Licinius dreamed that an angel
appeared to him, and called upon him immediately to arise, and to pray
with his whole army to the supreme God, promising him the victory if
he should do so. The angel also dictated to him the form of the prayer
which he was to offer.
Licinius, awaking, immediately called for a secretary, and directed
him to write down the words of the prayer which had been uttered by
the angel. They were as follows:――
“Great God, we pray to thee. Holy God, we pray to thee. To thee we
commend all justice. To thee we commend our safety. To thee we commend
our subjects. To thee we commend our empire. It is through thee we live.
It is through thee alone that we can be victorious or happy. Great and
holy God, listen to our prayers. We reach forth our arms to thee. Great
and holy God, grant our prayer.”
Many copies of this prayer were taken, and distributed to the officers,
so that every soldier might learn and repeat it. The zeal of the army,
and its confidence in victory, were thus greatly augmented.
The battle took place on the first day of May, in the year 313. The
two hosts met upon a wild and barren plain called Champserain. The
soldiers of Licinius, upon a given signal, threw down their shields,
uncovered their heads, and, raising their arms to the skies, repeated
simultaneously the prayer which all had learned. Three times the
prayer was repeated, the emperor and all the officers joining in the
supplication.
The hostile army, drawn up at a little distance, heard with
astonishment the confused noise of their voices, like the rush of many
waters.
The soldiers of Licinius replaced their helmets and shields. The
war-trumpet sounded; and with waving banners, and shouts of onset, the
two armies rushed at each other. The slaughter of the army of Maximian
was such as had scarcely ever been seen before. The soldiers of
Licinius seemed endued with supernatural strength. They struck down the
opposing ranks as the mower sweeps the grass with the scythe. Maximian,
terror-stricken, threw aside his purple robes, and, dressing himself
in the clothes of a slave, escaped across the strait. He fled with
such precipitation, that in twenty-four hours he entered Nicomedia,
a hundred and sixty miles from the battle-field. There he soon died,
tortured by misery, pain, and remorse, after having in vain endeavored
to kill himself.
Constantine now joined Licinius; and they re-issued in the East the
same decree in favor of the Christians which they had already published
in the West. Constantine even entreated the Christians to rebuild
their churches. Thus wonderfully was persecution brought to an end. The
Christians were astonished at these marvels of divine power. They were
inspired with new energies. Large and beautiful churches rose upon the
ruins of those which had been destroyed. The people, influenced by the
imperial decree, crowded the churches.
The emperor wrote letters in favor of the Christians; invited the
pastors to his table, and treated them with great distinction. He
contributed liberally to the building and the ornamentation of the
churches. The widows and orphans of the martyrs were regarded with
especial favor. He gave dowries to the young girls, and married them
to wealthy and distinguished men.
It was at this time that Eusebius, Bishop of Cæsarea, the most learned
man of his age, wrote his celebrated defence of Christianity, entitled
“Demonstratio Evangelica.” In it he showed that the law of Moses was
intended for a single people, occupying a limited territory; and that
it was by no means applicable to the whole world; but that this law
of Moses invited the world to a new alliance, which was to be formed
of all peoples, under the gospel of Jesus Christ. He argued the vast
superiority of Christ to Moses; declaring that the purity of his life
proved that he was not an impostor, and that his miracles proved that
he was not a mere man. He showed that no man could doubt the reality
of these miracles, when one considered the simplicity of the disciples,
their good faith, their disinterestedness, their perseverance even unto
death, and the impossibility of imagining any motive they could have
had to deceive the world.
He showed clearly that the Christians had not received the religion
of Jesus through a blind faith and a rash credulity; but that, after
serious examination, they were fully persuaded by substantial reasons,
and were influenced by a well-founded judgment, to abandon the paganism
in which they had been educated, and to embrace the gospel of Jesus
Christ. Eusebius also wrote a history of the Church, from the birth of
Christ to that time. These works of this distinguished man have been
invaluable to succeeding generations.
A nominal Christian emperor was now upon the throne at Rome. Paganism
had received its death-blow. But a system the growth of centuries,
interwoven into poetry, eloquence, statuary, and all the manners and
customs of life, could not die easily. It lingered still for ages in
its dying struggles, and made several convulsive efforts to obtain a
new lease of life.
But the conversion of Constantine, a Roman emperor, to Christianity,
was one of the most important events in the history of the Christian
Church. It invested the new religion, in the eyes of the community,
with dignity. It emboldened the timid, and inspired the resolute with
new zeal. The pagans complained that nearly all were forsaking the
worship of the gods, and joining themselves to the Christian party.
Constantine manifested a noble spirit of toleration. He made no attempt
to suppress the rites of paganism by force. “Those,” he said in one
of his edicts, “who are desirous of continuing slaves to the ancient
superstition, have perfect liberty for the public exercise of their
worship.”
Very resolutely he protected the Christians from outrage. Several
Jews became converts to Christianity. The Jews persecuted them with
vituperation and abuse. The emperor issued a decree, that any persons
who should in future be guilty of a similar crime should be burned at
the stake.
The Roman world was now, as we have mentioned, divided into two
portions; and there were two emperors,――Constantine in the west, and
Licinius in the east. Gradually rivalry sprang up between them. As
Constantine had embraced Christianity, Licinius decided to rally to his
support all the energies of paganism. He first caused gross slanders to
be circulated against the Christian pastors.
He then forbade them to enter any house of the pagans, lest they should
convert them. Next he forbade their holding any councils, or visiting
each other’s churches. Growing more and more zealous in his persecution,
he banished all Christians from his palace, sending several into exile,
confiscating their property, and threatening them with death.
He forbade all women from meeting in the same assemblies or churches
with the men, or from listening to any prayers or religious teachings
from men. Finally he forbade the Christians from holding any religious
meetings whatever in the cities: they were allowed to meet only in the
open air in the country, the emperor saying mockingly, “that the open
air of the fields was more healthy than the confined air of a room.”
When one enters upon a career of wickedness, he invariably presses on
with ever-increasing impetuosity. Licinius now issued a decree, that
every man in governmental employ should offer sacrifices to the pagan
gods. The wrath of Licinius was directed mainly against the bishops,
or pastors, in consequence of the affection which they manifested for
Constantine. Many churches were torn down; others were shut up. Several
bishops were put to death: their bodies, cut into small fragments,
were thrown into the water as food for fishes. The Christians in dismay
began to fly from the cities and villages, and to seek refuge among the
mountains.
In the city of Sébaste, in Armenia, there were in one of the regiments
forty young men who were Christians. The governor, Agricola, ordered
them to sacrifice to the idols. Unitedly and firmly they refused. The
governor, having exhausted the power of promises and menaces, devised
a new form of torture and death.
It was a cold climate, and mid-winter. In a night of freezing wind and
bitter cold, these forty young men were exposed, with no clothing, upon
a high scaffold swept by the wintry blast. By the side of the scaffold
was a room, in which were glowing fires, ample clothing, and a warm
bath. Any one who would renounce Christ might descend from the scaffold,
and immediately enjoy all the comforts which warmth and clothing could
give.
The young men encouraged each other, saying, that, after a few hours
of suffering, they would all meet in a happy, heavenly home. One only
of the number failed: in the intensity of his anguish he denied Christ,
descended from the scaffold, and plunged into a warm bath, where he
instantly died. One of the attendants in charge of the baths was so
moved by this, that he immediately declared himself a Christian, and,
divesting himself of his clothing, took his place upon the scaffold,
by the side of the freezing disciples. The morning came. They were all
nearly dead, with their extremities badly frozen. A huge funeral-pyre
was erected: the still-breathing bodies were placed upon it; the torch
was applied, and their bodies were burned to ashes.
One of the young men, of vigorous constitution, had not suffered so
much as the rest from the cold. The executioners tried to persuade
him to recant, and to save himself from the fire. His Christian mother
stood by. Nerved by that sublime faith which seemed to inspire the
early Christians in those days of martyrdom, she said,――
“Go, my son, and finish with your comrades this short journey, that you
may not be one of the last to appear in the presence of your God.”
In the mean time, Constantine was more and more favoring the Christians.
He issued edicts recommending the universal observance of the Lord’s
day; he abolished all those laws which forbade Christians when dying to
bequeath their property to the Church; and he forbade the _cross_ from
ever again being used as an instrument of punishment.