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[Illustration: CLARA (WIECK) SCHUMANN.]
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WOMAN'S WORK IN MUSIC
Being an Account of Her Influence on the Art, in Ancient as well as
Modern Times; A Summary of Her Musical Compositions, in the Different
Countries of the Civilized World; and an Estimate of Their Rank in
Comparison with Those of Men
By
Arthur Elson
_Author of "A Critical History of Opera,"
"Modern Composers of Europe," etc._
Illustrated
L C PAGE & COMPANY
BOSTON PUBLISHERS
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_Copyright, 1903_
By L. C. Page & Company
(INCORPORATED)
_All rights reserved_
Third Impression, April, 1908
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_COLONIAL PRESS_
_Electrotyped and Printed by C. H. Simonds & Co._
_Boston, U. S. A._
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TO
Mrs. Louis C. Elson
TRUE TYPE OF
SELF-SACRIFICING WIFE AND MOTHER
IN A MUSICAL FAMILY,
THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED
BY HER SON
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NOTE
Acknowledgments are due to Mr. Otto Fleishner, of the Boston Public
Library, for his kindness in furnishing lists of periodical articles
bearing on the subject of this book.
The Author.
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. Ancient and Mythical 11
II. Mediæval 35
III. Wives of the Composers 61
IV. Clara and Robert Schumann 90
V. Other Musical Romances 111
VI. England 132
VII. Germany 154
VIII. France 174
IX. America 195
X. Other Countries 211
XI. Conclusion 234
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Clara (Weick) Schumann Frontispiece
Eleanor of Aquitaine 50
Richard and Cosima Wagner 88
Marie Wieck 91
Marie Antoinette 114
Sybil Sanderson 130
Maggie Okey 144
Louisa Adolpha Lebeau 164
Adele Aus der Ohe 171
Cécile-Louise-Stephanie Chaminade 174
Augusta Mary Ann Holmes 178
Mrs. H. H. A. Beach 196
Julia Rivé-King 204
Ingeborg von Bronsart 220
Teresa Carreño 232
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WOMAN'S WORK IN MUSIC
CHAPTER I.
ANCIENT AND MYTHICAL
The Church of Rome, though admitting no women to a share in performing
its services, has yet made a woman the patron saint of music. The
religions of antiquity have paid even more homage to the weaker sex in
the matter, as the multitude of musical nymphs and fostering goddesses
will show.
Of Saint Cecilia herself little is known accurately. The very apocryphal
legend states that about the year 230 a noble Roman lady of that name,
who had been converted to Christianity, was forced into an unwilling
marriage with a certain Valerian, a pagan. She succeeded in converting
her husband and his brother, but all were martyred because of their
faith. This it is stated, took place under the Prefect Almacus, but
history gives no such name. It is unfortunate, also, that the earliest
writer mentioning her, Fortunatus, Bishop of Poitiers, speaks of her as
having died in Sicily between the years 176 and 180. It is doubtful
whether she would have been known at all, in connection with the art,
but for a passing phrase in her story, which relates that she often
united instrumental music to that of her voice in sounding the praises
of the Lord. Because of these few words, she is famed throughout musical
Christendom, half the musical societies in Europe are named after her,
and Raphael's picture, Dryden's ode, Stefano Maderno's statue, and a
hundred other great art works have come into existence.
The earliest inferences of woman's influence in music are to be drawn
from the Hindoo mythology.[1] According to the tabular schedule of all
knowledge, found in the ancient Brahmin records, music as an art belongs
in the second chief division of lesser sciences, but on its mathematical
and philosophical side it is accorded a much higher position, and is
treated of in the oldest and most sacred Hindoo work, the Veda. This
authority tells us that when Brahma had lain in the original egg some
thousand billion years, he split it by the force of his thought, and
made heaven and earth from the two fragments. After this, Manu brought
into being ten great forces, whence came all the gods, goddesses, good
and evil spirits. Among the lesser deities were the genii of music
(Gandharbas) and those of the dance (Apsarasas), who furnished
entertainment for the gods before man possessed the art.
About this time the female element began to assert itself. At Brahma's
command, his consort, Sarisvati, goddess of speech and oratory, brought
music to man, incidentally giving the Hindoos their finest musical
instrument, the vina. The demigod Nared became the protector of the art,
but Maheda Chrishna performed a more material service by allowing five
keys, or modes, to spring from his head, in the shape of nymphs, while
his wife, Parbuti, produced one more. Then Brahma helped the cause along
by adding thirty lesser keys, or modes, all of them in the form of
nymphs also.
These modes varied in character, some of them being too fiery to be
attempted by mortals. It is related that Akbar, the emperor, once
ordered the famous singer, Naik Gobaul, to sing the Raagni, or
improvisation, of the mode of fire. The poor singer entreated for a less
dangerous task, but in vain. Then he plunged up to his neck in the
waters of the river Jumna, and began. Before he had finished half of the
song, the water around him began to boil. He paused, but, finding the
emperor's curiosity relentless, continued the strain, until at the close
his body burst into flames and was consumed. Another melody caused the
formation of clouds and the fall of rain, and a female singer is said
once to have saved Bengal from drought and famine by means of this lay.
Many other refrains had a similar power over the forces of nature; one
could make the sun disappear and bring on night at midday, while others
could change winter to spring, or rain to sunshine.
In all Indian legends, the charm of music is described as of immense
potency. All animate and inanimate nature is represented as listening
with ecstasy to the singing of Chrishna and Parbuti.[2] When Chrishna
was on earth, in the form of a shepherd, there were sixteen thousand
pastoral nymphs, or shepherdesses, who fell in love with him. They all
tried to win his heart by the power of music, and each one sang to him
in a different manner. Hence arose the sixteen thousand different keys
which were said to have existed at one time in India.
The Hindoo musical system of to-day is likewise ascribed largely to
female sources. The scale consists of seven chief tones, which are
represented by as many heavenly sisters. The names of the tones (sa, ri,
ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, corresponding to our do, re, mi, etc.) are merely
abbreviations of the names of the nymphs who preside over them. The
tones of the scale are divided into quarters, and the number of quarters
in the diatonic scale intervals is four, three, two, four, four, three,
and two. Thus the number of possible modes is vastly greater than in our
own scale, which has only semitones. There are six chief modes,
represented by six genii, while each one is married to five of the
thirty nymphs who typify the lesser modes. Each one of the genii has
eight sons, and these are wedded to a nymph apiece, making forty-eight
in all. Every member of this prolific musical family presides over
something, if it is only one of the quarter tones that form the scale.
To illustrate the method of naming, the four quarters of the fifth scale
tone (pa, or Panchama) belong to the nymphs Malina, Chapala, Lola, and
Serveretna. The next full tone (dha) is owned by Santa and her sisters.
If the higher tone, dha, should be flatted, giving it the same pitch as
the upper quarter of the lower tone, pa, the Hindoo musician would not
speak of dha as being flat, but would say instead, "Serveretna has been
introduced to the family of Santa and her sisters."
The Hindoo music of to-day is not as potent as in mythical times. The
people themselves acknowledge the decline of their art, and admit that
even in the last century or two it has deteriorated. As for the
miracle-working Ragas, or improvised songs, the people in Bengal will
say that they can probably be heard in Cashmere, while the inhabitants
of Cashmere will send the inquirer back to Bengal. Woman, too, has a
less important position than of old. "When the ancient sages made our
musical system," says an eminent Brahmin in an interview at San
Francisco, "there were many women among them; but now not one can
accomplish anything in the art."
In the traditions of ancient Egypt, music is entirely under the
patronage of male gods. Thoth, the Egyptian Hermes, invented the lyre by
striking the tendons of a dead tortoise, which had dried and stretched
in the shell. Osiris, too, the chief of the Egyptian gods, protected the
art, although Strabo says music was not allowed in his temple at
Abydos. While travelling in Ethiopia, the story runs, Osiris met a
troupe of revelling satyrs, and, being fond of singing, he admitted them
to his train of musicians. In their midst were nine young maidens,
skilled in music and various sciences, evidently the prototype of the
Grecian Muses. Horus, the son of Osiris (equivalent to the Greek Apollo)
was considered the god of Harmony.
An important mythical character was Maneros, son of the earliest
Egyptian king. He seems to hold the same position as Linus, son of
Apollo, among the Greeks. The first song of Egyptian music was a dirge
for his untimely end, and a lament for the swift passing away of youth,
spring, joy, and so on. Gradually the song itself, instead of the king's
son, began to be called Maneros, and became the well-known banquet song
of the social feasts, calling upon the guests to enjoy life while they
might. In time the song became a symbol of gaiety and merriment instead
of grief.
In most of the ancient civilizations, the songs appear to have been
accompanied by clapping of hands, to mark the rhythm. There were many
actual dances, also, in ancient Egypt, as is fully proven by a number of
the old paintings. Some were like our jigs, break-downs, or clog-dances,
while others consisted of regular figures, such as forward and back,
swing, and so on, the latter kind being restricted to the lower orders.
In all of these, women must have taken a large part, and doubtless they
were responsible for some of the music. They were not allowed to play
the flute, but could indulge in the tabor and other instruments. Some of
the scenes depicted closely resemble the modern stage, and it is more
than probable that, when the audiences of to-day applaud our own ballet
scenes, they are enjoying themselves in the old Egyptian manner.
There can be no doubt that woman played an important part in music,
possibly even in composition, in many civilizations which apparently
allowed her only a restricted field of action. The Empress of Germany
recently defined woman's sphere as consisting of four
subjects,--children, clothes, cooking, and church; yet the German women
have far more influence than this official utterance would indicate. It
is not surprising, then, to find in the folios of Lepsius a reproduction
of something analogous to our conservatories of music. It represents a
course of musical instruction in the school of singers and players of
King Amenhotep IV., of the eighteenth dynasty. There are several large
and small rooms, connected with each other, and containing furniture and
musical instruments. In some are the musicians practising and teaching.
One teacher sits listening to the singing of a young girl, while another
pupil is playing the accompaniment on a harp. Still another girl stands
attentively listening to the teacher's instructions, as in a modern
class. In another place are two girls practising a dance with harp
music. In one room is a young lady having her hair dressed, while in
another a young girl has placed aside her harp and is sitting down to
lunch with a companion. All this goes to show that different
civilizations often resemble one another more than would appear at first
sight, and very probably woman's part in ancient Egyptian music was much
like that which she plays in our own to-day.
The earliest Hebrew music was undoubtedly modelled after that of Egypt.
In later Biblical times, however, there were many national instruments,
and the style of the music must have been characteristic. The Old
Testament, even in its earlier books, contains many examples of the
songs of the people. Their ancient folk-music showed three principal
styles,--the joyous bridal song, the cheerful harvest or vintage song,
and the wailing funeral song; and there are many examples of each in the
Scriptures. As there was no definite notation among the ancient Hebrews,
the actual tunes that were sung with these songs will never be known.
But it may be possible that the melodies have been preserved by rote,
for it is certain that these three schools of singing exist to-day in
Arabia and Syria. Whole villages are known to unite in a seven-day
festival of rejoicing, not unlike the one at the wedding of Samson, as
described in the fourteenth chapter of Judges.
The Song of Solomon presents an entire set of bridal songs in the
popular vein. A good example of the mourning song is found in the
opening chapter of the second book of Samuel, where David laments the
death of Saul and Jonathan. It is somewhat exceptional because of its
being rendered by a man, for in Eastern countries the professional
mourners were always women, hired for the occasion. The men might join
in the chorus of woe if they wished, but the main part of the song was
always given by the women, who were not unlike the "Keeners," heard in
Ireland on similar occasions, even down to recent times. The book of
Lamentations presents a series of funeral songs, written in imitation of
the professional lays of grief, and containing many allusions to the
mourning women. In the fifth chapter of Amos, in Habakkuk, and many
other books, are further illustrations of such folk-songs. The fifth
chapter of Isaiah begins with the cheerful style of the vintage song,
and then suddenly changes to a song of grief, forming an artistic
contrast that must have been highly effective.
In the Hebrew songs, as in the Egyptian, there must have been much
dramatic action united with the vocal work. When the word "dancing"
occurs, it generally means only gesture and pantomime. Its use is made
evident in the song of Moses, in Exodus XV. It requires little
imagination to picture Miriam using a folk-song with which her hearers
were familiar, improvising words to suit the occasion, and illustrating
the whole with successive gestures of pride, contempt, sarcasm, and
triumph, while the assembled multitude joined in the chorus at every
opportunity.
Still more evident does this union of voice and action become in the
song of Deborah and Barak, in Judges V. A possible description of the
performance of this musical comedy is given by Herder, who suggests that
"Probably verses 1-11 were interrupted by the shouts of the populace;
verses 12-27 were a picture of the battle, with a naming of the leaders
with praise or blame, and mimicking each one as named; verses 28-30 were
mockery of the triumph of Sisera, and the last verse was given as a
chorus by the whole people." According to this, the tune must certainly
have been a familiar one. The whole scene, with its extemporized words,
its clapping of hands to mark the rhythm, and its alternation of solo
and chorus, was probably not unlike the singing at some of the negro
camp-meetings on the Southern plantations.
Foremost among the patrons of the art in Grecian mythology are the
Muses. These were not always nine in number. Originally, at Mount
Helicon, in B[oe]otia, three were worshipped,--Melete (meditation),
Mneme (memory), and Aoide (song). Three Muses were also recognized at
Delphi and Sicyon. Four are mentioned as daughters of Jupiter and
Plusia, while some accounts speak of seven Muses, daughters of Pierus.
Eight was the number known in Athens, until finally the Thracian worship
of nine spread over the whole of Greece. The parentage of these
divinities is given with as many variations as their number. Most
commonly they were considered daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne (memory),
born in Pieria at the foot of Mount Olympus. Some call them daughters of
Uranus and Gæa, others of Pierus and Antiope, still others of Apollo or
of Jupiter and Minerva. The analogy between the Muses and the nine
maidens in the Egyptian troupe of Osiris has already been noted.
In Homer's poems, the Muses have already attained their well-known abode
on Olympus, where they sing the festive songs at the banquets of the
immortals. They were supposed to inspire the mind of the bards, and in
early times the poets were perfectly sincere in invoking them and
believing in their inspiration. The Muses, in presiding over the various
branches of Grecian art, appeared unable to brook any rivalry. Thamyris,
an ancient Thracian bard, boldly challenged them to a trial of skill,
and, on being overcome by them in the contest, was deprived by them of
his sight and of the power of singing. He is represented in art as
holding a broken lyre. The nine daughters of King Pierus of Macedonia
fared no better, and after an unsuccessful contest were changed into
birds. The Muses were closely connected with Apollo, who was looked upon
as their leader. Many mountains, as well as grottos, wells, and springs
in various parts of Greece, were sacred to them.
The Sirens were another personification of the marvellous power of music
among primitive peoples. Their parentage also is variously given, though
they are usually mentioned as daughters of the river god, Achelous. They
are generally represented as maidens, with a more or less extensive
equipment of wings and other plumage. These wings were obtained at their
request when Proserpine was carried off, that they might be better able
to hunt for her. But another account says that they refused their
sympathy to Ceres, and were given their feathery coating by her in
punishment. Some writers say it was due to Aphrodite, who was angered at
their virginity. The Sirens, as well as other ambitious performers, were
rash enough to attempt a contest with the Muses, and met with the
customary defeat. The victorious nine then pounced upon the unfortunate
trio, and tore off wings and feathers.
The Sirens' chief occupation consisted in sitting on the rocks by the
sea and singing to passing mariners. According to Homer, their island
lay between Æaea and the rock of Scylla, or near the southwestern coast
of Italy; but the Roman poets place them on the Campanian coast. Their
magic power to charm all hearers was to last only until some one proved
himself able to resist their spell; and here again accounts differ.
Homer gives the credit to Ulysses, who stuffed his mariners' ears with
wax, and had them bind him to the mast. Apollonius Rhodius, however, in
the Argonautica, claims the credit for Orpheus, who saved the expedition
of the Argonauts by singing the Sirens into silence, after which the
musical damsels fell from their heights and were themselves changed into
rocks. If some of our modern musicians were put to the same test, and
condemned to death if they failed to charm their auditors, the results
would be beneficial both to art and to the cemeteries. The power of the
Sirens lasted after their death, and, like their cousins in Egyptian and
Indian lore, they used their music to charm the souls of the blessed
dead.
Leaving the realms of the supernatural, the only great name that the
student will find among the musical women of Greece is that of Sappho.
The story of her life is known only in its general outlines, and even
these have been the subject of many learned disputes. She was born near
the close of the seventh century B.C., either at Mytilene or at Eresos
in the island of Lesbos. She grew to maturity at the former place, and
became one of the two great leaders of the Æolian school of lyric
poetry. From the fragments of her poetry, and those of her great rival,
Alcæus, it is evident that the two were not envious of each other's
fame, but lived in the most friendly intercourse. Of the events of her
life, we have only two. One, referred to in the Parian marble and by
Ovid, is her flight from Mytilene to Sicily, between 604 and 592, to
escape from some unknown danger. The other is the well-known story that,
being in love with Phaon, and finding her love unrequited, she cast
herself from the Leucadian rock. This rock is a promontory on the
island of Leucas, upon which was a temple to Apollo. At the annual
festival of the god, it was the custom to cast down a criminal from this
rock into the sea. To break his fall, birds of all kinds were attached
to him, and, if he reached the sea uninjured, boats were ready to pick
him up. This apparently was a rite of expiation, and as such gave rise
to the well-known story that unfortunate lovers leaped from this rock to
seek relief from their distress. The story of Sappho and Phaon is one of
these, but it has been claimed that its authenticity vanishes at the
first breath of criticism.
It is fair to class Sappho as a musician, for in ancient Greece poetry
and music were inseparable. Of her poems, which filled nine books, only
a few fragments remain, of which the most important is a splendid ode to
Aphrodite. At Mytilene she appears to have gathered about her a large
and elegant circle of young women, who were her pupils in poetry, music,
and personal cultivation. Her influence must have been widespread, for
the list of her disciples includes names from all parts of Greece. Her
work of teaching, in the midst of her fair followers, has been compared
with that of Socrates surrounded by the flower of the Athenian youth.
The power of her poetry is shown by the story of its effect on the
rugged character of Solon, the lawmaker. Hearing for the first time one
of her pieces, sung to him by his nephew, he expressed in the most
impassioned terms the wish that he might not die before having learned
such a beautiful song.
The career of Sappho is made more wonderful by the fact that woman's
work in ancient Greece was supposed to consist only of family duties.
She taught her sons in childhood until they were sent to their regular
masters, and she guided her daughters and set them an example in doing
household duties. According to Pericles, that woman was most to be
prized of whom no one spoke, either in praise or blame. Because of
Sappho's prominence and social activity, but more especially because of
the ardent character of some of her poems, her good name has been
assailed by many modern critics. The majority, however, consider the
accusations as groundless.
Alcman, the great lyric poet of Sparta (Lydian by birth), brought the
so-called Lydian measure to its highest perfection. He was always ready
to praise women in his verses, and wrote some choruses especially for
the--
"Honey-voiced, lovely singing maidens,"
which were sung by female voices only. B[oe]otia could boast of two
great poetesses. Myrtis, a native of Anthedon, is reported to have been
the instructress of Pindar, and is said to have contended with him for
the palm of superiority. She was famous through the whole of Greece, and
many places possessed statues in honour of her. The second poetess was
Corinna, of Tanagra, sometimes called the Theban because of her long
residence at Thebes. She flourished about 490 B.C., and was a
contemporary of Pindar. Like Myrtis, she is said to have instructed him,
and is credited with having gained a victory over him in the public
games at Thebes. Only a few fragments of her work have been preserved to
us. But Pausanias, who states that she defeated Pindar no less than five
times, thinks that her personal charms may have had something to do with
the matter.
While teaching Pindar, Corinna once offered to beautify his earlier
efforts with mythological allusions. The pupil, nettled by this
criticism, soon brought to his instructress a new poem, of which the
first six stanzas touched upon every part of Theban mythology; whereupon
she cooled his enthusiasm by remarking with a smile: "One must sow seed
by the handful, not by the bagful."
Whether the character of these earlier poetesses was above reproach or
not, it is certain that in the later days of Grecian civilization music
was handed over to the most degraded classes. In Egypt the caste of
professional musicians was not held in any respect, and the art was
often merely an added accomplishment to enhance the value of slaves. So,
too, in Greece, the practice of music was given over to the Hetæræ, or
courtesans. That these women were at times able to win a high position
is amply proven by the case of Aspasia. A native of Miletus, she came to
live in Athens, and there gained the affections of the great leader
Pericles, not more by her beauty than by her high mental
accomplishments. The story of her life, and of the literary and
philosophical circle which she drew around her, is too well known to
need repetition. Another famous courtesan, though less well endowed
mentally, and evidently on a much lower plane of character, was the
famous flute-player Lamia. It was her beauty rather than her intellect
that won the great honours which she attained; and a temple dedicated to
her as Venus Lamia, as well as a signet upon which her portrait has been
preserved, bear witness to this fact.
The character of Greek music can only be conjectured. At first simple,
it was regulated on a mathematical basis by Pythagoras, who understood
the laws of vibration. Later on it developed into something more rich
and varied, and, while still devoted to unison, or melodic, effects, it
was undoubtedly full of beauty, as is the old Scotch music. Its great
development, as well as the use of many small instruments (kithara,
flute, etc.), go far to prove that music must have formed a larger part
of woman's domestic life than the actual records show.
Roman civilization borrowed much from Greece, especially in the matter
of art. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that the musical status
of Rome, especially in her later days, was a mere replica of that of
Greece. In the instrumental field, we find the lyre of less importance,
but the flute (a term that included reed instruments also) was
constantly used in ceremonial and sacrificial music. Trumpets were in
use at all triumphal processions, while in the days of the empire the
well-known but problematical water-organ became popular. Although the
Roman domestic conditions admitted of more freedom than those of Greece,
it is doubtful if the women took any important part in performance or
composition of music. There are no great poetesses on the Roman roll of
honour, while there are many on that of Greece.
Rome differed from Greece in having its poetry and music written by
different authors, while in Greece both words and notes emanated from
the same brain. But even among men the Romans possessed no important
composers. The names of those who wrote music to the plays of Terence
and Plautus (the plays themselves being imitations of the Greek) are
known to history, but the composers possessed no position of
consequence. If the men received no great homage, there must have been
little incentive for women to strive in the musical field.
As in Greece, female slaves played a large part in the world of
art,--with this difference, that in Rome the masters were usually on a
lower plane of cultivation than their own slaves. Dancing was an adjunct
to music, though often practised as a separate branch of entertainment,
and brought to a high state of perfection in its pantomimic form.
The position of woman in the far East was inferior even to her station
in Greece and Rome. In China, for example, everything feminine was held
in contempt. This had its influence on the musical system of the
Chinese, according to one of their legends. After the invention of
music, the formation of various instruments, and the composition of many
songs, all due to more or less mythical emperors, Hoang-Ti, who reigned
about the year 2600 B. C., decided to have the art scientifically
investigated and its rules formulated. In his day music was practised,
but not understood in its natural elements. The emperor therefore
ordered Ling-Lun to look into the matter.
This dignitary, about whose work many anecdotes exist, travelled to
Northwestern China, and took up his abode on a high mountain, near a
bamboo grove. On cutting a stalk and excavating the pith between two of
the joints, he found that the tube gave the exact pitch of the normal
human voice, and also the sound given by the waters of the Hoang-Ho,
which had its source near the scene. Thus was discovered the fundamental
tone of the scale.
Meanwhile, the Foang-Hoang, or sacred bird of Chinese mythology,
appeared with its mate and perched upon a neighbouring tree. The male
bird sang a scale of several tones, while the female sang another
composed of different tones. The first note of the male bird coincided
in pitch with Ling-Lun's bamboo tube, and by cutting other tubes the
erudite investigator proceeded to reproduce all the tones of both. By
combining these, he was able to form a complete chromatic scale. But,
owing to the prejudice against the weaker sex, the tones of the female
(called feminine tones even to-day) were discarded in favour of those
of the male bird. The latter, the basis of Chinese music, correspond to
the black keys of our piano, while the former were equivalent to the
white, or diatonic, notes of our scale.
That Chinese music, based on this pentatonic scale, need not be at all
displeasing, is proved by many of the old Scotch tunes, which are built
on the same system. An excellent illustration of its rhythmic structure,
frequent iterations, and melodic character may be found in our own
familiar tune, "There is a happy land, far, far away." The harsh quality
that Europeans often find in Chinese performances is undoubtedly not a
necessary adjunct, as the same criticism may be made upon many of our
own street singers or brass bands.
The Chinese, like many other ancient nations, have a great contempt for
the caste of musicians and actors, although enjoying the drama keenly.
Parents have almost unlimited power over their children, and may sell
them as slaves, or even in some cases kill them; but they are not
allowed to sell them to the troupes of strolling comedians or to
magicians. Any one convicted of doing this, or aiding in the
transaction, is punished by one hundred blows of the bamboo. Any person
of free parentage marrying an actor or actress receives the same
punishment. Yet, while musicians connected with the stage are held
under the ban, those who devote themselves to the religious rites
receive the highest esteem. These, however, cannot be women.
The music of Japan, though built on the chromatic scale, was much the
same as that of China. Actors and musicians command hardly more respect
in the island than on the Continent. Women play a negative part in both
countries, if we except the Geishas, who entertain in the tea-houses.
But Japan has made such rapid strides in civilization recently that it
may not be impossible for woman to develop the activity that she has
already shown in Western lands.