Maine, his work on ancient law quoted, 351.
Mann, laws of, when written, 100.
" account of Creation, 101.
" dignity of the Brahmans, 103.
" importance of the Gayatari, 104.
" account of the twice-born man, 105.
" description of ascetic duties, 106.
" the anchorite described, 107.
" duties of the ruler described, 109.
" crimes and penalties described, 110.
" the law of castes described, 110.
" penance and expiation described, 110.
" respect for cows enjoined, 111.
" transmigration and final beatitude, 112.
Maritime character of the Scandinavians, 361.
Mars, originally an agricultural god, 330.
Materialism in Christian doctrines, derived from Egypt, 256.
Mater Matuta, Latin goddess of the dawn (note), 325, 327.
Melchisedek, king of justice and king of peace, 407.
Minerva, her name derived from an Etruscan word, 325.
goddess of mental activity, 325.
one of the three deities of the capitol, 325.
Missionary work of Christianity, why checked, 506.
Moabite inscription in the Hebrew dialect, 400.
Mohammed, recent works concerning, 448.
" lives of, by Muir, Sprenger, Weil, and others, 449.
" essays on his life by Babador, 450.
" prophecies of, in the Old Testament, 451.
" lived a private life for forty years, 454.
" his early religious tendencies, 454.
" his inspirations, 454.
" his biography in the Koran, 455.
" his mother's death, 456.
" his first converts, 457.
" protected by his tribe, 458.
" his temporary relapse, 460.
" and his followers persecuted, 461.
" his first teaching a modified Judaism, 463.
" his departure to Medina with his followers, 464.
" change in his character after the Hegira, 465.
" in his last ten years a political leader, 467.
" Goethe's view of his character, 468.
" his cruel treatment of the Jews, 469.
" his numerous wives, 470.
" his death and character, 471.
Mohammedanism, its special interest, 448.
" its essential doctrine the absolute unity of God, 472.
" its teaching concerning the Bible and Koran, 472.
" does not recognize human brotherhood, 473.
" among the Turks, its character, 473.
" promotes religious feeling, 474.
" inspires courage and resignation, 474.
" in Palestine, described by Miss Rogers, 475.
" in Central Arabia, described by Mr. Palgrave, 478.
" in Central Asia, described by M. Vambéry, 477.
" in Persia, described by Count Gobmeau, 477.
" in Egypt, described by Mr. Lane, 477.
" in Turkey, described by Mr. MacFarlane, 478, 484.
" in Northern Africa, described by Barth and Blerzey, 477,
485.
" its character given by M. Renan, 485.
" its monotheism lower than that of Judaism and Christianity, 481.
" does not convert the Aryan races, 500.
" pure from Polytheism, 502.
" has a tendency to catholicity, 503.
" a relapse to a lower stand point, 483.
" summary of its good and evil influence, 484.
Monotheism (or Dualism), the doctrine of the Avesta, 203.
Montesquieu quoted, 357.
Moses, his historic character, 409.
" described by Strabo (note), 410.
" his natural genius and temperament, 411.
" his seventy and tenderness, 412.
" his sense of justice embodied in law, 412.
" his object to teach the holiness of God, 413.
" defects of his character, 413.
" character of his monotheism, 414.
" his monotheism described by Stanley (note), 414.
" his anthropomorphic view of God, 415.
" his acquaintance with Egyptian learning, 416.
" nature of his inspiration, 417.
" political freedom secured to the Jews by his law, 418.
" object of his ceremonial law, 420.
Mythology of Scandinavia and that of Zoroaster compared, 384.
N.
Names of our week-days Scandinavian, 358.
Neptunus, origin of the name, 328.
Nestorian inscription in China, 71-78.
Njord, ruler of the winds, 378.
Northern and Southern Europe compared, 359.
Northmen in France, Spain, Italy, and Greece, 389.
Number of Christians in the world, 146.
" of Buddhists in the world, 146.
" of Jews in the world, 146.
" of Mohammedans in the world, 146.
" of Brahmans, 146.
Nyaya, system of philosophy, assumes three principles, 122.
" system of philosophy, described by Banerjea, 123.
O.
Odin, or All-father, eldest of the Æsir, 377.
" corresponds to Ormazd, 385.
" his festival in the spring, 386.
Opa, goddess of the harvest, 330.
P.
Pales, a rural god, 330.
Palestine, or the land of the Philistines, 397.
" resembles Greece and Switzerland, 397.
" its mountainous character, 397.
" a small country, 398.
" its mountains and valleys, 399.
Palgrave, note giving an extract from his book, 486.
Papacy, mediæval, good done by it, 350.
" a reproduction of the Roman state religion, 350.
Parsî religion, its influence on Judaism, 205.
" " its influence on Christianity, 204.
" " teaches a kingdom of heaven, 207.
" " still continues in Persia and India, 208.
Parthenon, the, temple of Minerva, described, 290.
Penates, gods of home, 328.
Persepolis, ruins of the palace of Xerxes at, 170.
" inscriptions of Darius and Xerxes at, 170.
" tombs of the kings of Persia at, 174.
Pharisees, Sadducets, and Essenei, 444.
Phidias, his statue of Jupiter described, 288.
Philistines, probably Pelasgi from Crete, 421.
Philosophy, early Greek, 291.
" Greek, in Asia Minor, 291.
" in Italy, 292.
Phœnicians, their language a form of Hebrew, 400.
Plato harmonizes realism and idealism, 293.
" his philosophy completes that of Socrates, 294.
" his method that of transcendentalism, 294.
" his idea of God pure and high, 295.
" Christian element in, 295.
Pliny, the elder, his view of religion, 345.
Present work, an essay, or attempt, 1.
" " companson of religions its object, 1.
Prophecy, a modification of inspiration, 438.
Prophets of the Old Testament, men of action, 440.
" politicians and constitutional lawyers, 440.
" preferred the moral law to ceremonial, 441.
" described by Dean Stanley, 441.
" their inspiration came through a common human faculty, 442.
" their predictions not always realized, 443.
" their foresight of Christianity, 443.
" developed Judaism to its highest point, 443.
Proverbs, Book of, in the Edda, 365.
Pontiffs, their authority, 336.
Positivism, its law of progress examined, 489.
Puranas, the, much read by the common people, 130.
" devoted to the worship of Vischnu, 131.
" extol the power of penances, 132.
" ideas those of the epics, 132.
" their philosophy that of the Sunkhya, 132.
R.
Ramses II. a powerful king B.C. 1400, 233.
" supposed to be the same as Sesostris, 234.
" birth of Moses during his reign, 335.
Recognition of God in nature, best element of Egyptian religion, 257.
Relation of the religion of the Avesta to the Vedas, 201.
Results of the survey of ten religions, 489.
" in regard to their resemblance and difference, 490.
Resemblance of the Roman Catholic ceremonies to those of Pagan Rome, 350.
Roman calendar, described, 332.
Roman Catholic Church, teaches an exclusive spiritualism, 143.
" " " is eminently a sacrificial system, 143.
" " " its monastic system an included Protestantism, 145.
Roman deities adopted from Greece, 326.
" " manufactured by the pontiffs, 326.
" " representing the powers of nature, 327.
" " representing human relations, 328.
" " presiding over rural occupations, 330.
" " derived from the Etruscans, 327.
" empire gave to Christianity its outward form (note), 350.
" " united the several states of Europe, 350.
" law, its influence on Western theology, 351.
" legal notions transferred to theology, 352.
" mind, wanting in spontaneity, 316.
" " serious, practical, hard, 316.
" religion, an established church, 317.
" " regarded chiefly external conduct, 317.
" " tolerant of questions of opinion, 317.
" " not a mere copy from Greece, 318.
" " described by Hegel, 318.
" " described by Cicero, 317-319.
" " described by Mommsen, 319.
" " a polytheism, with monotheism behind it, 320.
" " deified all events, 321.
Romans, as a race, whence derived, 319.
" " belong to the Aryan family, 319.
" " composed of Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans, 320.
" " related to the Pelasgi and Celts, 320.
" their oldest deities, Latin, Sabine, and Etruscan, 320.
Roman sepulchral monuments, their tone, 346.
Roman thought and Roman religion opposed, 342.
Roman worship, very elaborate and minute, 331.
" " full of festivals, 331.
" " distinguished between things sacred and profane, 331.
" " a yoke on the public life of the Romans, 334.
" " directed by the College of Pontiffs, 334.
" " chief seat in the Via Sacra, 335.
" " governed by etiquette, 335.
" " originally free from idolatry, 336.
" " acted like a charm, 340.
Rome, ancient, its legacy to Christianity, 353.
Runes, Odin's song of, in the Edda, 368.
S.
Salii, ancient priests of Mars, 336.
Sánkhya philosophy, 114.
" founded on two principles, 120.
" considered atheistic, 120.
" the basis of Buddhism, 121.
" a very ancient system, 122.
Saturnus, Saturn, god of planting, 330.
Scandinavia, consisting of what regions, 358.
" surrounded by the sea, 358.
" its adaptation to the Teutonic race, 359.
" formerly inhabited by the Cimbri, 360.
" the home of the Northmen, 361.
Scandinavian religion, a system of dualism, 362.
" " war its essential idea, 362.
" " its virtues, truth, justice, courage, 362.
Scandinavians, their early history, 355.
" described by Cæsar, 355.
" described by Tacitus, 356.
" a branch of the great German family, 357.
" their language, the Norse and its derivatives, 357.
" our inheritance from, 358.
" their manners and institutious, 387.
" their respect for women, 388.
" their Scalds, or bards, 388.
" their maritime expeditions, 389.
Sea-Kings of Norway, their discoveries, 361.
Seat of the Scandinavian race, 355.
Secrecy, the evil in Egyptian religion, 257.
Semitic races, their character and exploits, 399.
" " great navigators and discoverers, 399.
" " identity of their languages, 400.
" " nations of which they consist, 399.
" " their religion and gods, 401.
" " their tendency to monotheism, 402.
Seneca, his view of religion, 343, 344.
Serapis, the same as Osiris-Apis, 257.
Sibylline books, derived from Greece, 336.
Siculi, supposed to be Kelte (note), 320.
Silvanus, god of the woods, 330.
Siva, does not appear in the Vedas, 125.
" worshipped with Brahma and Vischnu at the present time, 127.
" worshipped in the Puranas, 132.
" girls worship him with flowers, 132.
" his wife Doorga, festival of, 134.
" men swing on hooks in honor of, 135.
Solomon, and the relapse of Judaism, 428.
" a less interesting character than David, 429.
" his unscrupulous policy, 429.
" the splendor and power of his reign, 430.
" his alliances with Egypt, Phoenicia, and Arabia, 341.
" his temple described, 432.
" his Book of Proverbs and its character, 433.
" account of his last days, 434.
" his scepticism described in Ecclesiastes, 435.
Socrates, his character and work, 293.
Sol, the sun, a Sabine deity, 327.
Soma plant of the Veda, the Haŏma, 202.
Sophocles, the most devout of the Greek tragedians, 284.
Spiritualism, in Brahmanism and Christianity, 136.
Stoics, as described by Zeller, 296.
T.
Tacitus, the spirit of his writings, 346.
Tae-Ping (or Ti-Ping) insurrection, its origin, 62.
" " its leader the heavenly prince, 62.
" " essentially a religious movement, 64.
" " based on the Bible, 65.
Tae-Pings (or Ti-Pings), their prayers, 65.
" their public religious exercises, 66.
" their moral reforms, 68.
" put down by British intervention, 68.
" worshipped one God, and believed in Jesus, 69.
Talmud, the, extracts from, 445.
Tao-te-king, its doctrines described, 54.
" resembles the system of Hegel, 54.
" its doctrine of opposites, 55.
" its resemblance to Buddhism, 55.
" its tendency to magic, 56.
Tellus, the earth, a Roman god, 330.
Tempestates, the tempests, worshipped at Rome, 327.
Terminus, an old Italian god, 330.
Three classes of Roman gods, 325.
Tiberinus, or father Tiber, a Roman god, 328.
Things, or popular assemblies of the Scandinavians, 358.
Thor, his character and prowess, 377.
" his famous mallet, 378.
" his journey to Jotunheim, 374.
" his fight with the Midgard serpent, 376.
Triad, the Hindoo, its origin, 124.
" compared with other Triads, 124.
Trinity, Christian, derived from Egypt, 255.
Trinity the, its meaning in Christianity, 500.
Truths and errors of the different systems, 21.
Tyr, the Scandinavian war god, 379.
" how he lost his hand, 380, 383.
U.
Ulphilas, the Arian, first Christian teacher of the Germans, 390.
" his translation of the Bible into Gothic tongue, 390.
V.
Vedanta philosophy assumes a single principle, 116.
" " knows no substance but God, 119.
" " described by Chunder Dutt, 118.
" " souls absorbed in God, 119.
Vedas, the, when written, 89-99.
" their chief gods, 89-99.
" traces of monotheism in, 90.
" some hymns given, 91, 92, 93, 95.
Vedic literature, divided into four periods, 95.
" " contains Chhandas, Mantras, Brâhmans, Upanishads, Sûtras,
and Vedângas, 96.
" " at first not committed to writing, 97.
Venus, an early Latin or gabine goddess, 325.
Vertumnus, god of gardens, 330.
Vesta, goddess of the hearth, 328.
Vestal Virgins, their duties, 337.
Vischnu, mentioned in the Rig-Veda as Sun-God, 125.
" his Avatars, 126.
" one of the Triad, 126.
" incarnate as Juggernaut, 133.
" worshipped as Krishna, 134, 135.
" worshipped in the Puranas, 132.
Völuspa, or wisdom of Vala, extracts from, 364.
Vulcanus, an Italian deity, 328.
W.
Wahhabee, revival in Arabia, described by Palgrave, 478.
Wedding ring, in Egypt and Christendom, 253.
Welcker, his opinion of the substance of Greek religion, 286.
Works on Scandinavian religion (note), 362.
Worship of the Scandinavians, 385.
Z.
Zend Avesta, a collection of hymns, prayers, and thanksgivings, 187.
" " extracts from the Gathas, 188.
" " extract from the Khordah Avesta, 189.
" " hymn to the star Tistrya, 190.
" " hymn to Mithra, 190.
" " a confession of sin, 191.
Zoroaster, mentioned by Plato, Diodorus, and other classic writers, 175.
" account of him by Herodotus, 175.
" account of him by Plutarch, 176.
" inquiry as to his epoch, 180.
" resided in Bactria, 181.
" spirit of his religion, 182.
" he continually appears in the Avesta, 186.
" oppressed with the sight of evil, 184.
The End.
Footnotes
[1] It is one of the sagacious remarks of Goethe, that "the eighteenth
century tended to analysis, but the nineteenth will deal with synthesis."
[2] Professor Cocker's work on "Christianity and Creek Philosophy," should
also be mentioned.
[3] James Foster has a sermon on "The Advantages of a Revelation," in
which he declares that, at the time of Christ's coming, "just notions of
God were, in general, erased from the minds of men. His worship was
debased and polluted, and scarce any traces could be discerned of the
genuine and immutable religion of nature."
[4] John Locke, in his "Reasonableness of Christianity," says that when
Christ came "men had given themselves up into the hands of their priests,
to fill their heads with false notions of the Deity, and their worship
with foolish rites, as they pleased; and what dread or craft once began,
devotion soon made sacred, and religion immutable." "In this state of
darkness and ignorance of the true God, vice and superstition held the
world." Quotations of this sort might be indefinitely multiplied. See an
article by the present writer, in the "Christian Examiner," March, 1857.
[5] Mosheim's Church History, Vol. I. Chap. I.
[6] Neander, Church History, Vol. I. p. 540 (Am. ed.).
[7] Essays and Reviews, Article VI.
[8] In this respect the type has changed.
[9] The actual depth reached in the St. Louis well, before the enterprise
was abandoned, was 3,843½ feet on August 9, 1869. This well was bored for
the use of the St. Louis County Insane Asylum, at the public expense. It
was commenced March 31, 1866, under the direction of Mr. Charles H.
Atkeson. At the depth of 1,222 feet the water became saltish, then
sulphury. The temperature of the water, at the bottom of the well, was
105°F. Toward the end of the work it seemed as if the limit of the
strength of wood and iron had been reached. The poles often broke at
points two or three thousand feet down. "Annual Report (1870) of the
Superintendent of the St. Louis County Insane Asylum."
[10] Andrew Wilson ("The Ever-Victorious Army, Blackwood, 1868") says that
"the Chinese people stand unsurpassed, and probably unequalled, in regard
to the possession of freedom and self-government." He denies that
infanticide is common in China. "Indeed," says he, "there is nothing a
Chinaman dreads so much as to die childless. Every Chinaman desires to
have as large a family as possible; and the labors of female children are
very profitable."
[11] Quoted by Mr. Meadows, who warrants the correctness of the account.
"The Chinese and their Rebellions," p. 404.
[12] Dr. Legge thus arranges the Sacred Books of China, or the Chinese
Classics:--
A. The Five _King_. [_King_ means a web of cloth, or the warp which
keeps the threads in their place.]
(a) _Yih-King_. (Changes.)
(b) _Shoo-King_. (History.)
(c) _She-King_. (Odes.)
(d) _Le-Ke-King_. (Rites.)
(e) _Ch'un-Ts'eu_. (Spring and Autumn. Annals from B.C. 721 to 480.)
B. The Four Books.
(a) _Lun-Yu_. (Analects, or Table-Talk of Confucius.)
(b) _Ta-Hio_. (Great Learning. Written by _Tsang-Sin_, a disciple
of Confucius.)
(c) _Chung-Yung_ (or Doctrine of the Mean), ascribed to _Kung-Keih_,
the grandson of Confucius.
(d) Works of _Mencius_.
After the death of Confucius there was a period in which the Sacred Books
were much corrupted, down to the _Han_ dynasty (B.C. 201 to A.D. 24),
which collected, edited, and revised them: since which time they have been
watched with the greatest care.
"The evidence is complete that the Classical Books of China have come down
from at least a century before our era, substantially the same as we have
them at present."--_Legge_, Vol. I. Chap. 1. § 2.
The Four Books have been translated into French, German, and English. Dr.
Marshman translated the Lun-Yu. Mr. Collie afterward published at Calcutta
the Four Books. But within a few years the labors of previous sinologues
have been almost superseded by Dr. Legge's splendid work, still in process
of publication. We have, as yet, only the volumes containing the Four
Books of Confucius and his successors, and a portion of the Kings. Dr.
Legge's work is in Chinese and English, with copious notes and extracts
from many Chinese commentators. In his notes, and his preliminary
dissertations, he endeavors to do justice to Confucius and his doctrines.
Perhaps he does not fully succeed in this, but it is evident that he
respects the Chinese sage, and is never willingly unfair to him. If to the
books above mentioned be added the works, of Pauthier, Stanislas Julien,
Mohl, and other French sinologues, and the German works on the same
subject we have a sufficient apparatus for the study of Chinese thought.
[13] "On the top of his head was a remarkable formation, in consequence of
which he was named Kew."--Legge, Vol. I. Chap. VI. (note).
[14] Meadows, "The Chinese and their Rebellions," p. 332.
[15] Meadows, p. 342.
[16] "Le Tao-te-king, le livre de la voie et de la vertu, composé dans, la
vie siècle avant l'ère Chrétienne, par le philosophe Lao-tseu, traduit par
Stanislas Julien. Paris, 1842."
[17] "Le livre des Récompenses et des Peines. Julien, 1835."
[18] "Seyn and Nichte ist Dasselbe." Hegel.
[19] "The meek shall inherit the earth."
[20] See "La Magie et l'Astrologie, par Alfred Maury."
[21] Was it some pale reflection of this Oriental philosophy which took
form in the ode of Horace, "Integer vitæ" (i. 22), in which he describes
the portentous wolf which fled from him?
[22] Meadows, p. 28.
[23] Meadows, p. 18.
[24] Ti-Ping Tien-Kwoh; The History of the Ti-Ping Revolution, by Lin-Le,
special agent of the Ti-Ping General-in-Chief, &c. Davy and Son, London,
1866. Vol. 1. p. 806.
Mr. Andrew Wilson, author of "The Ever-Victorious Army" (Blackwood, 1868),
speaks with much contempt of Lin-Le's book. In a note (page 389) he
brings, certain charges against the author. Mr. Wilson's book is written to
glorify Gordon, Wood, and others, who accepted roving commissions against
the Ti-Pings; and of course he takes their view of the insurrection. The
accusations he brings against Lin-Le, even if correct, do not detract from
the apparent accuracy of that writer's story, nor from the weight of his
arguments.
[25] Ibid., Vol. I. p. 315. These forms are given, says the writer, partly
from memory.
[26] Hong-Kong Gazette, October 12, 1855.
[27] Intervention and Non-Intervention, by A. G. Stapleton.
[28] Official Papers of the Chinese Legation. Berlin: T. Calvary & Co.,
Oberwasser Square. 1870.
[29] From Hue's "Christianity in China."
[30] Now usually written Sákoontalá or Sákuntalá.
[31] To avoid multiplying footnotes, we refer here to the chief sources on
which we rely in this chapter. _C. Lassen_, Indische Altherthumskunde;
_Max Müller_, History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature (and other works);
_J. Muir_, Sanskrit Texts; _Pictet_, Les Origines Indo-Européennes; _Sir
William Jones_, Works, 13 vols.; _Vivian de Saint-Martin,_ Etude, &c., and
articles in the Revue Germanique; _Monier Williams_, Sakoontalá (a new
translation), the Rámayána, and the Mahá Bhárata; _Horace Hayman Wilson_,
Works (containing the Vischnu Purana, &c.); _Burnouf_, Essai sur la Vêda,
Le Bhagavata Purana; _Stephenson_, the Sanhita of the Sama Veda; _Ampère_,
La Science en Orient; _Bunsen_, Gott in der Geschichte; _Shea_ and
_Troyer_, The Dabistan; _Hardwick_, Christ and other Masters; _J. Talboys
Wheeler_, History of India from the Earliest Times; Works published by the
Oriental Translation Fund; _Max Duncker_, Die Geschichte der Arier;
_Rammohun Roy_, The Veds; _Mullens,_ Hindoo Philosophy.
[32] "The soul knows no persons."--EMERSON.
[33] All Indian dates older than 300 B.C. are uncertain. The reasons for
this one are given carefully and in full by Pictet.
[34] Our English word _daughter_, together with the Greek θυγἀτηρ, the
Zend _dughdar_, the Persian _docktar_, &c., corresponds with the Sanskrit
_duhitar_, which means both daughter and milkmaid.
[35] _Hatchet_, in Sanskrit _takshani_, in Zend _tasha_, in Persian
_tosh_, Greek τόχος, Irish _tuagh_, Old German _deksa_, Polish _tasalc_,
Russian _tesaku._ And what is remarkable, the root _tak_ appears in the
name of the hatchet in the languages of the South Sea Islanders and the
North American Indians.
[36] M. Vivien de Saint-Martin has determined more precisely than has been
done before the primitive country of the Aryans, and the route followed by
them in penetrating into India. They descended through Cabul to the
Punjaub, having previously reached Cabul from the region between the
Jaxartes and the Oxus.
[37] The Rig-Veda distinguishes the Aryans from the Dasjus. Mr. Muir
quotes a multitude of texts in which Indra is called upon to protect the
former and slay the latter.
[38] Agni, whence Ignis, in Latin.
[39] See Talboys Wheeler, "History of India."
[40] Müller's Ancient Sanskrit Literature, page 569. He adds the following
remarks: "There is nothing to prove that this hymn is of a particularly
ancient date. On the contrary, there are expressions in it which seem to
belong to a later age. But even if we assign the lowest possible date to
this and similar hymns certain it is that they existed during the Mantra
period, and before the composition of the Brâhmanas. For, to spite of all
the indications of a modern date, I see no possibility how we could
account for the allusions to it which occur in the Brâhmanas, or for its
presence in the Sanhitâs, unless we admit that this poem formed part of
the final collection of the Rig-veda-Sanhitâ, the work of the Mantra
period."
[41] Max Müller translates "breathed, breathless by itself; other than it
nothing since has been."
[42] Max Müller says, "Love fell upon it."
[43] Müller, Sanskrit Lit., p. 546.
[44] Müller, Sanskrit Lit., p. 552.
[45] Ibid., p. 553.
[46] That heat was "a form of motion" was thus early discovered.
[47] It is the opinion of Maine ("Ancient Law") and other eminent
scholars, that this code was never fully accepted or enforced in India,
and remained always an ideal of the perfect Brahmanic state.
[48] See Vivien de Saint-Martin, Revue Germanique, July 16, 1862. The
Sarasvati is highly praised in the Rig-Veda. Talboys Wheeler, II. 429.
[49] Max Müller, Sanskrit Lit., p. 425.
[50] Institutes of Hindu Law, or the Ordinances of Manu, according to the
Gloss of Calluca, Calcutta, 1796, §§ 5, 6, 7, 8.
[51] See translation of the Sanhita of the Sama-Veda, by the Rev. J.
Stevenson. London, 1842.
[52] Max Müller, "Chips," Vol. I. p. 107.
[53] Geschichte der Arier, Buch V. § 8.
[54] Lassen, I. 830.
[55] Laws of Manu (XII. 50) speaks of "the two principles of nature in the
philosophy of Kapila."
[56] Duncker, as above.
[57] Müller, Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 102.
[58] Colebrooke, Miscellaneous Essays, I. 349.
[59] Lassen, I. 834.
[60] Colebrooke, I. 350, 352.
[61] Duncker, I. 204 (third edition, 1867).
[62] The Sánkhya-Káriká, translated by Colebrooke. Oxford, 1837.
[63] Essay on the Vedanta, by Chunder Dutt. Calcutta, 1854.
[64] Colebrooke, I. 262.
[65] The Religious Aspects of Hindu Philosophy: A Prize Essay, by Joseph
Mullens, p. 43. London, 1860. See also Dialogues on the Hindu Philosophy,
by Rev. K. M. Banerjea. London, 1861.
[66] Mullens, p. 44.
[67] Duncker, I. 205. He refers to Manu, II. 160.
[68] The Bhagavat-Gita, an episode in the Maha-Bharata, in an authority
with the Vedantists.
[69] Burnouf, Introduction à l'Histoire du Buddhisme Indien, I. 511, 520.
He says that Sukya-Muni began his career with the ideas of the Sánkhya
philosophy, namely, absence of God; multiplicity and eternity of human
souls; an eternal plastic nature; transmigration; and Nirvana, or
deliverance by knowledge.
[70] Cours de l'Histoire de Philosophie, I. 200 (Paris, 1829); quoted by
Hardwick, I. 211.
[71] Karika, 8. "It is owing to the subtilty of Nature ... that it is not
apprehended by the senses."
[72] Karika, 19.
[73] Karika, 58, 62, 63, 68.
[74] Quoted from the Lalita Vistara in Dialogues on the Hindu Philosophy.
By Rev. R. M. Banerjea. London: Williams and Nordgate, 1861.
[75] Muir, Sanskrit Texts, Part IV. p. 253.
[76] Journal Am. Orient. Soc., III. 318.
[77] Even in the grammatical forms of the Sanskrit verb, this threefold
tendency of thought is indicated. It has an active, passive, and middle
voice (like that of the cognate Greek), and the reflex action of its
middle voice corresponds to the Restorer or Preserver.
[78] See Colebrooke, Lassen, &c.
[79] Lassen, I. 838; II. 446.
[80] See Muir, Sanskrit Texts, Part IV. p. 136.
[81] Lassen, Ind. Alterthum, I. 357.
[82] Max Müller, Sanskrit Lit., 37.
[83] Ibid., p. 46.
[84] Ind. Alterthum, I. 483-499. Müller, Sanskrit Lit., 62, _note_.
[85] As of the Atheist in the Ramayana, Javali, who advises Rama to
disobey his dead father's commands, on the ground that the dead are
nothing.
[86] Preface to the Vischnu Purana, translated by Horace Hayman Wilson.
London, 1864.
[87] Duncker, Geschichte, &c., II. 318.
[88] Preface to his English translation of the Vischnu Purana.
[89] Translated by E. Burnouf into French.
[90] The Ramayana, &c., by Monier Williams Baden Professor of Sanskrit at
Oxford.
[91] Preface to the translation of the Vischnu Purana, by H. H. Wilson.
[92] Kesson, "The Cross and the Dragon" (London, 1854), quoted by
Hardwick.
[93] See Note to Chap. II. on the Nestorian inscription in China.
[94] Illustrated Handbook of Architecture, p. 67.
[95] Hardy, Eastern Monachism, p. 224. Fergusson, p. 9.
[96] Fergusson, p. 10. Cunningham, Bhilsa Topes of India.
[97] Upham, Sacred and Historical Books of Ceylon.
[98] Here are a few of the guesses:--
Cunningham, _Bhilsa Topes_.
Christians 270 millions.
Buddhist 222 "
Hassel, _Penny Cyclopædia_.
Christians 120 millions.
Jews 4 "
Mohammedans 252 "
Brahmans 111 "
Buddhists 315 "
Johnston, _Physical Atlas_.
Christians 301 millions.
Jews 5 "
Brahmans 133 "
Mohammedans 110 "
Buddhists 245 "
Perkins, _Johnson's American Atlas_.
Christians 369 millions.
Mohammedans 160 "
Jews 6 "
Buddhists 320 "
_New American Cyclopædia_.
Buddhists 290 millions.
And Professor Newmann estimates the number of Buddhists at 369 millions.
[99] Le Bouddha et sa Religion. Par J. Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire.--Eastern
Monachism. By Spence Hardy.--Burnouf, Introduction, etc.--Koeppen, Die
Religion des Buddha.
[100] The works from which this chapter has been mostly drawn are
these:--Introduction à l'Histoire du Buddhisme indien. Par E. Burnouf.
(Paris, 1844) Le Bouddha et sa Religion. Par J. Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire.
(Paris, 1860.) Eastern Monachism. By R. Spence Hardy. (London, 1850.) A
Manual of Buddhism in its Modern Development. By R. Spence Hardy. (London,
1853.) Die Religion des Buddha. Von Karl F. Koeppen. (Berlin, 1857.)
Indische Alterthumskunde. Von Christian Lassen. (Bonn, 1852.) Der
Buddhismus, Seine Dogmen, Geschichte, und Literatur. Von W. Wassiljew.
(St. Petersburg, 1860.) Ueber Buddha's Todesjahr. Von N. L. Westergaard.
(Breslau, 1862.) Gott in der Geschichte. Von C. C. J. Bunsen. (Leipzig,
1858.) The Bhilsa Topes, or Buddhist Monuments of Central India. By A.
Cunningham. (London, 1854.) Buddhism in Thibet. By Emil Schlagintweit.
(Leipzig and London, 1863.) Travels in Eastern countries by Hue and Gabet,
and others. Eeferences to Buddhism in the writings of Max Müller, Maurice,
Baur, Hardwick, Fergusson, Pritchard, Wilson, Colebrooke, etc.
[101] At the end of the fourth century of our era a Chinese Buddhist made
a pilgrimage to the birthplace of Buddha, and found the city in ruins.
Another Chinese pilgrim visited it A.D. 632, and was able to trace the
remains of the ruined palace, and saw a room which had been occupied by
Buddha. These travels have been translated from the Chinese by M.
Stanislas Julien.
[102] _Buddha_ is not a proper name, but an official title. Just as we
ought not to say Jesus Christ, but always Jesus _the_ Christ, so we should
say _Siddârtha_ the Buddha, or _Sakya-muni_ the Buddha, or _Gautama_ the
Buddha. The first of these names, Siddârtha (contracted from
_Sarvârtha-siddha_) was the baptismal name given by his father, and means
"The fulfilment of every wish." Sakya-muni means "The hermit of the race
of Sakya,"--Sakya being the ancestral name of his father's race. The name
_Gautama_ is stated by Koeppen to be "der priesterliche Beiname des
Geschlechts der Sakya,"--whatever that may mean.
[103] The Sanskrit root, whence the English "bode" and "forebode," means
"to know."
[104] Saint-Hilaire.
[105] Bhilsa Topes.
[106] Goethe, Faust.
[107] Die Persischen Keilinscriften (Leipzig, 1847.) See also the account
of the inscription at Behistun, in Lenormant's "Manual of Ancient
History."
[108] Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies.--Duncker, Geschichte des
Alterthums, B. II.--Heeren, The Persians.--Fergusson, Illustrated
Hand-Book of Architecture.--Creuzer, Schriften. See also the works of
Oppert, Hinks, Menant, and Lassen.
[109] Vendidad, Fargard, XIX.--XLVI. Spiegel, translated into English by
Bleek.
[110] Herodotus, I. 131.
[111] Herodotus, in various parts of his history.
[112] "Plutarch's Morals. Translated from the Greek by several hands.
London. Printed for W. Taylor, at the Ship in Pater-noster Eow. 1718."
This passage concerning Zoroaster is from the "Isis and Osiris" in Vol.
IV. of this old translation. We have retained the antique terminology and
spelling. (See also the new American edition of this translation. Boston,
Little and Brown, 1871.)
[113] This is the Haôma spoken of on page 202.
[114] These, with Ormazd, are the seven Amshaspands enumerated on page
197.
[115] See the account, on page 195, of these four periods of three
thousand years each.
[116] Kleuker (Anhang zum Zend Avesta) has given a full _résumé_ of the
references to Zoroaster and his religion in the Greek and Roman writers.
More recently, Professor Bapp of Tubingen has gone over the same ground in
a very instructive essay in the Zeitschrift der Deutsohen Morgenlândisshen
Gesellschaft. (Leipzig, 1865.)
[117] Anq. du Perron, Zend Avesta; Disc. Prèlim., p. vi.
[118] At the time Anquetil du Perron was thus laboring in the cause of
science in India, two other men were in the same region devoting
themselves with equal ardor to very different objects. Clive was laying
the foundations of the British dominion in India; Schwartz was giving
himself up to a life of toil in preaching the Gospel to the Hindoos. How
little would these three men have sympathized with each other, or
appreciated each other's work! And yet how important to the progress of
humanity was that of each!
[119] And with this conclusion the later scholars agree. Burnouf, Lassen,
Spiegel, Westergaard, Haug, Bunsen, Max Müller, Roth, all accept the Zend
Avesta as containing in the main, if not the actual words of Zoroaster,
yet authentic reminiscences of his teaching. The Gâthâs of the Yaçna are
now considered to be the oldest part of the Avesta, as appears from the
investigations of Haug and others. (See Dr. Martin Haug's translation and
commentary of the Five Gâthâs of Zarathustra. Leipzig, 1860.)
[120] Even good scholars often follow each other in a false direction for
want of a little independent thinking. The Greek of Plato was translated
by a long succession of writers, "Zoroaster the _son_ of Oromazes," until
some one happened to think that this genitive might imply a different
relation.
[121] Duncker (Gesch. des Alterthums, B. II.) gives at length the reasons
which prove Zoroaster and the Avesta to have originated in Bactria.
[122] Duncker (B. II. s. 483). So Döllinger.
[123] Egypt's Place in Universal History, Vol. III. p. 471.
[124] Eran, das Land zwischen dem Indus und Tigris.
[125] Journal of the Am. Or. Soc., Vol. V. No. 2, p. 353.
[126] The Gentile and Jew, Vol. I. p. 380.
[127] Five Great Monarchies, Vol. III. p. 94.
[128] Essays, &c., by Martin Haug, p. 255.
[129] Die Religion und Sitte der Perser. Von Dr. Adolf Rapp. (1865.)
[130] Bunsen, Egypt, Vol. III. p. 455.
[131] Written in the thirteenth century after Christ. An English
translation may be found in Dr. J. Wilson's "Pârsî Religion."
[132] Chips, Vol. I. p. 88.
[133] So Mr. Emerson, in one of those observations which give us a system
of philosophy in a sentence, says, "The soul knows no persons." Perhaps he
should have said, "The Spirit."
[134] Islam is, in this sense, a moral religion, its root consisting in
obedience to Allah and his prophet. Sufism, a Mohammedan mysticism, is a
heresy.
[135] Vendidad, Farg. I. 3. "Therefore Angra-Mainyus, the death-dealing,
created a mighty serpent and snow." The _serpent_ entering into the Iranic
Eden is one of the curious coincidences of the Iranic and Hebrew
traditions.
[136] Lyell, Principles of Geology (eighth edition), p. 77.
[137] Idem., p. 83. A similar change from a temperate climate to extreme
cold has taken place in Greenland within five or six centuries.
[138] The Daêvas, or evil spirits of the Zend books, are the same as the
Dêvas, or Gods of the Sanskrit religion.
[139] The Patets are formularies of confession. They are written in Pârsî,
with occasional passages inserted in Zend.
[140] Zoroast. Stud. 1863.
[141] Vendidad, Fargard XIX. 33, 44, 55.
[142] The Albordj of the Zend books is doubtless the modern range of the
Elbrooz. This mighty chain comes from the Caucasus into the northern
frontier of Persia. See a description of this region in "Histoire des
Perses, par le Comte de Gobineau. Paris, 1869."
[143] See Burnouf, Comment, sur le Yaçna, p. 528. Flotard, La Religion
primitive des Indo-Européens. 1864.
[144] Vendidad, Fargard X. 17.
[145] See Spiegel's note to the tenth Fargard of the Vendidad.
[146] See Windischmann, "Ueber den Soma-Cultus der Arien."
[147] Perhaps one of the most widely diffused appellations is that of the
divine being. We can trace this very word _divine_ back to the ancient
root _Div_, meaning to shine. From this is derived the Sanskrit Devas, the
Zend Daêva. the Latin Deus, the German Zio, the Greek Zeus, and also
Jupiter (from Djaus-piter). See Spiegel, Zend Avesta, Einleitung, Cap. I.
[148] Spiegel, Vend. Farg. XIX. note.
[149] Vendidad, Farg. XVIII. 110. Farvardin-Yasht, XVI.
[150] Article in Revue des Deux Mondes, April, 1865.
[151] Article in Revue des Deux Mondes, April, 1865.
[152] Other Egyptologists would not agree to this antiquity.
[153] Revue des Deux Mondes, September 1, 1887.
[154] Revue des Deux Mondes, p. 195.
[155] Yet this very organic religion, "incorporate in blood and frame,"
was a preparation for Christianity; and Dr. Brugsch (Aus dem Orient, p.
73) remarks, that "exactly in Egypt did Christianity find most martyrs;
and it is no accident, but a part of the Divine plan, that in the very
region where the rock-cut temples and tombs are covered with memorials of
the ancient gods and kings, there, by their side, other numerous rock-cut
inscriptions tell of a yet more profound faith and devotion born of
Christianity."
[156] It is yet marked in the almanacs as Candlemas Day, or the
Purification of the Virgin Mary.
[157] De Rougé, Revue Archéologique, 1853.
[158] Ampère, Revue Arch. 1849, quoted by Döllinger.
[159] These designations are the Greek form of the official titles.
[160] I do not know if it has been noticed that the principle of
Swedenborg's. heaven was anticipated by Milton (Paradise Lost, V. 573),--
"What surmounts the reach
Of human sense I shall delineate so
By likening spiritual to corporeal forms,
As may express them best; _though what if Earth
Be but the shadow of Heaven, and things therein.
Each to the other like, more than on earth is thought_."
[161] Bunsen, Egypt's Place, Vol. V. p. 129, _note_.
[162] This Museum also contains three large mummies of the sacred bull of
Apis, a gold ring of Suphis, a gold necklace with the name of Menes, and
many other remarkable antiquities.
[163] Book of Job, Chap. xxix.
[164] Brugsch, as above.
[165] Lenormant, Ancient History of the East, I. 234, in the English
translation.
[166] Translated by De Rougé. See Revue Contemporaine, August, 1856.
[167] Egypt 3300 Years ago. By Lanoye.
[168] Beside the monuments and the papyri, we have as sources of
information the remains of the Egyptian historians Manetho and
Eratosthenes; the Greek accounts of Egypt by Herodotus, Plato, Diodorus
Siculus, Plutarch, Jamblichus; and the modern researches of Heeren,
Champollion, Rossalini, Young, Wilkinson. The more recent writers to be
consulted are as follows:--
Bunsen's "Ægypten's Stelle in der Weltgeschichte. Hamburg." (First volume
printed in 1845.) This great work was translated by C. C. Cottrel in five
8vo volumes, the last published in 1867, after the death of both author
and translator. The fifth volume of the translation contains a full
translation of the "Book of the Dead," by the learned Samuel Birch of the
British Museum.
Essays in the Revue Archéologique and other learned periodicals, by the
Vicomte de Rougé, Professor of Egyptian Philology at Paris. Works by M.
Chabas, M. Mariette, De Brugsch, "Aus dem Orient," etc., Samuel Sharpe, A.
Maury, Lepsius, and others.
[169] The Egyptian doctrine of transmigration differed from that of the
Hindoos in this respect, that no idea of retribution seems to be connected
with it. According to Herodotus (II. 123), the soul must pass through all
animals, fishes, insects, and birds; in short, must complete the whole
circuit of animated existence, before it again enters the body of a man;
"and this circuit of the soul," he adds, "is performed in three thousand
years." According to him, it does not begin "until the body decays." This
may give us one explanation of the system of embalming; for if the circuit
of transmigration is limited to three thousand years, and the soul cannot
leave the body till it decays (the words of Herodotus are, "the body
decaying," τοῦ σώματος δὲ καταφθίνοντος), then if embalming delays decay
for one thousand years, so much is taken off from the journey through
animals. That the soul was believed to be kept with the body as long as it
was undecayed is also expressly stated by Servius (Comm. on the Æneid of
Virgil): "The learned Egyptians preserve the corpse from decay in tombs in
order that its soul shall remain with it, and not quickly pass into other
bodies."
Hence, too, the extraordinary pains taken in ornamenting the tombs, as the
permanent homes of the dead during a long period. Diodorus says that they
ornamented the tombs as the enduring residences of mankind.
Transmigration in India was retribution, but in Egypt it seems to have
been a condition of progress. It was going back into the lower
organizations, to gather up all their varied life, to add to our own. So
Tennyson suggests,--
"If, through lower lives I came,
Though all experience past became
Consolidate in mind and frame," etc.
Beside the reason for embalming given above, there may have been the
motive arising from the respect for bodily organization, so deeply rooted
in the Egyptian mind.
[170] Animals and plants, more than anything else, and animals more than
plants, are the types of variety; they embody that great law of
differentiation, one of the main laws of the universe, the law which is
opposed to that of unity, the law of centrifugal force, expressed in our
humble proverb, "It takes all sorts of people to make a world."
[171] Maury, "Revue des Deux Mondes, 1867." "Man's Origin and Destiny, J.
P. Lesley, 1868." "Recherches sur les Monumens, etc., par M. de Rougé,
1866."
[172] Article "Ægypten," in Schenkel's Bibel-Lexicon, 1869. Duncker,
"Geschichte des Alterthums, Dritte Auflage, 1863."
[173] See Duncker, as above.
[174] Les Pasteurs en Egypt, par F. Chabas. Amsterdam, 1868.
[175] The "hornets," Ex. xxiii. 28, and Josh. xxiv. 11, 12, are not
insects, but the Hyksôs, who, driven from Egypt were overrunning Syria.
See New York Nation, article on the Hyksôs, May 13, 1869.
[176] Pap. Tallier (Bunsen IV. 671) as translated by De Rougé, Goodwin,
&c.: "In the days when the land of Egypt was held by the invaders, King
Apapi (at Avaris) set up Sutekh for his lord; he worshipped no other god
in the whole land."
[177] I follow here De Rougé, Brugsch, and Duncker, rather than Bunsen.
[178] Athenæum Français, 1856.
[179] Lesley, Man's Origin and Destiny, p. 149. Brugsch, Aus dem Orient,
p. 37.
[180] A common title on the monuments for the king is Per-aa, in the
dialect of Upper Egypt, Pher-ao in that of Lower Egypt, meaning "The lofty
house," equivalent to the modern Turkish title, "The Sublime Porte."
[181] "Ægypten und die Bücher Mosis, von Dr. Georg Ebers. Leipzig, 1868."
"Bunsen, Bibel-Werk," Erster Theil, p. 63.
[182] Æschylus calls the Egyptian sailors μελάγχιμος. Lucian calls a young
Egyptian "black-skinned," but Ammianus Marcellinus says, "Ægyptii plerique
subfusculi sunt et atrati."
[183] "Ægypten und die Bücher Mosis, von Ebers, Vol. I. p. 43."
[184] "Th. Benfey, Ueber das verhältniss der ägyptîschen Sprache zum
semitischen Sprachstamme, 1844."
[185] Ægypten, &c.
[186] "The skulls of the mummies agree with history in proving that Egypt
was peopled with a variety of tribes; and physiologists, when speaking
more exactly, have divided them into three classes. The first is the
Egyptian proper, whose skull is shaped like the heads of the ancient
Theban statues and the modern Nubians. The second is a race of men more
like the Europeans, and these mummies become more common as we approach
the Delta. These are perhaps the same as the modern Copts. The third is of
an Arab race, and are like the heads of the laborers in the
pictures."--Sharpe, Hist. of Egypt, I. 3. He refers to Morton's Crania
Ægyptiaca for his authority.
Prichard (Nat. Hist. of Man and Researches, &c.), after a full examination
of the question concerning the ethnical relations of the Egyptians, and of
Morton's craniological researches, concludes in favor of an Asiatic origin
of the Egyptians, connected with an amalgamation with the African
autocthones.
[187] "Dieser Völkerschaften gehorten der kaukasischen Race an; ihre
Sprachen waren dem Semitischen am nächsten Verwandt." G. des A. I. 11.
[188] Brugsch derives it from Ki-Ptah = worshippers of Ptah.
[189] Plato, Timæus. Herod. II. 59. Gutschmidt and others deny this
etymologic relation of Neith to Athênê.
[190] "There is a profound consolation hidden in the old Egyptian
inscribed rocks. They show us that the weird figures, half man and half
beast, which we find carved and painted there, were not the true gods of
Egypt, but politico-religious masks, concealing the true godhead. These
rocks teach that the real object of worship was the one undivided Being,
existing from the Beginning, Creator of all things, revealing himself to
the illuminated soul as the Mosaic "I AM THE I AM." It is true that this
pure doctrine was taught only to the initiated, and the stones forbid it
to be published. 'This is a hidden mystery; tell it to no one; let it be
seen by no eye, heard by no ear: only thou and thy teacher shall possess
this knowledge.'" Brugsch, Aus dem Orient, p. 69.
May not one reason for concealing this doctrine of the unity and
spirituality of God have been the stress of the African mind to variety
and bodily form? The priests feared to encounter this great current of
sentiment in the people, and so outwardly conformed to it.
[191] So says Wilkinson.
[192] The finger on the mouth symbolizes, not silence, but childhood.
[193] The name "Mut" was also given to Neith, Pacht, and Isis.
[194] Brugsch, Aus dem Orient, p. 48.
[195] See Merivale, Conversion of the Northern Nations, p. 187, note,
where he gives examples of "the inveterate lingering of Pagan usages among
the nominally converted." But many of these were sanctioned by the
Catholic Church.
[196] Kenrick, I. 372 (American edition).
[197] See for proofs, Egyptian Mythology and Egyptian Christianity, by
Samuel Sharpe, 1863.
[198] Sharpe, Egyptian Mythology and Egyptian Christianity.
[199] Sharpe, as above.
[200] The earliest form of the Christian doctrine of the atonement was
that the Devil killed Jesus in ignorance of his divine nature. The Devil
was thus deceived into doing what he had no right to do, consequently he
was obliged to pay for this by giving up the souls of sinners to which he
had a right. The Osiris myth of the death of a god, which deeply colored
the mysteries of Adonis and Eleusis, took its last form im this peculiar
doctrine of atonement.
[201] Hase, Kirchengeschichte, § 87.
[202] Which continues in Christianity, in spite of Paul's plain statement,
"Thou sowest _not_ the body which shall be."
[203] Serapis was not a god of the Pharaonic times, but came into Egypt
under the Ptolemies. But lately M. Mariette has shown that Serapis was the
dead bull Apis = Osiris-Apis. (Ὀσοραπις.)
[204] Mr. Grote (Vol. II. p. 222, American edition) refers to Strabo's
remark on the great superiority of Europe over Asia and Africa in regard
to the intersection and interpenetration of the land by the sea. He also
quotes Cicero, who says that all Greece is in close contact to the sea,
and only two or three tribes separated from it, while the Greek islands
swim among the waves with their customs and institutions. He says that the
ancients remarked the greater activity, mutability, and variety in the
life of maritime nations.
[205] Mr. Buckle is almost the only marked exception. He nowhere
recognizes the doctrine of race.
[206] The ox is, in Sanskrit _go_ or _gaûs_, in Latin _bos_, in Greek βοῦς.
The horse is, in Sanskrit _açva_, in Zend _açpa_, in Greek ἵππος, in Latin
_equus_.
The sheep is, in Sanskrit _avis_, in Latin _ovis_, in Greek ὄϊs.
The goose is, in Sanskrit _hansa_, in Latin _anser_, in Old German _kans_,
in Greek χήν.
House is, in Sanskrit _dama_, in Latin _domus_, in Greek δόμος. Door is,
in Sanskrit _dvâr_ or _duâra_, in Greek θύρα, in Irish _doras_.
Boat or ship is, in Sanskrit _naûs_, in Latin _navis_, in Greek ναύς. Oar
is, in Sanskrit _aritram_, in Greek ἐρετμός in Latin _remus_.
The Greeks distinguished themselves from the Barbarians as a grain-eating
race. Barbarians ate acorns.
[207] Herod., I. 56, 57, 146; II. 51, 171; IV. 145; V. 26; VI. 137; VII.
94; VIII. 44, 73.
[208] Maury, Histoire des Religions de la Grèce Antique, Chap. I. p. 5. He
mentions several Pelasgic words which seem to be identical with old
Italian or Etruscan names.
[209] Müller, Dorians, Introduction, § 10.
[210] Griechische Gotterlehre, Einleitung, § 6.
[211] See Müller, Dorians.
[212] Symbolik und Mythologie, Th. III., Heft 1, chap. 5, § 1.
[213] Herod. II. 50 _et seq_.
[214] Among the ancients Ονὸμα often had this force. It denoted
personality. The meaning, therefore, of Herodotus is that the Egyptians
taught the Greeks to give their deities proper names, instead of common
names. A proper name is the sign of personality.
[215] Maury, Religions de la Grèce, III. 263.
[216] Diod. Sic., I. 92-96.
[217] Gerhard, Griechische Mythologie, § 50, Vol. 1.
[218] Mr. Grote (History of Greece, Part I. Chap. 1.) maintains that
Heaven, Night, Sleep, and Dream "are Persons, just as much as Zeus and
Apollo." I confess that I can hardly understand his meaning. The first
have neither personal qualities, personal life, personal history, nor
personal experience; they appear only as vast abstractions, and so
disappear again.
[219] Keats, in his Hyperion, is the only modern poet who has caught the
spirit of the mighty Titanic deities and is able to speak
"In the large utterance of the early gods."
[220] Pictet, Les Origines Indo-Européenes.
[221] B.C. 1104. Döllinger.
[222] Die Dorier, X. 9.
[223] Ottfried Müller, Die Dorier.
[224] Varro, quoted by Maury.
[225] Dione was the female Jupiter, her name meaning simply "the goddess,"
identical with the Italic "Juno," formed from Διος.
[226] But not the same character. At Dodona he was invoked as the Eternal.
Pausanias (X. c. 12, § 5) says that the priestesses of that shrine used
this formula in their prayer: "Zeus was, Zeus is, Zeus shall be! O great
Zeus!" On Olympus he was not conceived as eternal, but only as immortal.
[227] Rev. G. W. Cox (A Manual of Mythology, London, 1867. The Mythology
of the Aryan Nations, London, 1870) has shown much ingenuity in his
efforts to trace the myths and legends of the Greeks, Germans, etc., back
to some original metaphors in the old Vedic speech, most of which relate
to the movements of the sun, and the phenomena of the heavens. It seems
probable that he carries this too far; for why cannot later ages originate
myths as well as the earlier? The analogies by which he seeks to
approximate Greek, Scandinavian, and Hindoo stories are often fanciful.
And the sun plays so overwhelming a part in this drama, that it reminds
one of the picture in "Hermann and Dorothea," of the traveller who looked
at the sun till he could see nothing else.
"Schweben sichet ihr Bild, wohin er die Blicke nur wendet."
[228] See Le Sentiment Religieux en Grèce, d'Homère à Eschyle, par Jules
Girard, Paris, 1869.
[229] Iliad, Book I. v. 600.
[230] Margaret Fuller used to distinguish Apollo and Bacchus as Genius and
Geniality.
[231] Isthmian, VI.
[232] Pythian, II.
[233] Nemean, VI.
[234] God in History, IV. 10.
[235] "Atrocem animam Catonis."--Horace.
[236] Antigonê, 450.
[237] Yet, even in Euripides, we meet a strain like that (Hecuba, line
800), which we may render as follows:--
"For, though perhaps we may be helpless slaves,
Yet are the gods most strong, and over them
Sits LAW supreme. The gods are under law,--
So do we judge,--and therefore we can live
While right and wrong stand separate forever."
[238] See the original in Herder's Greek text, Hellenische Blumenlese, and
in Cudworth's Intellectual System.
[239] Welcker, Grieschische Gotterlehre, § 25.
[240] Ottfried Müller, History of Greek Art, §§ 115, 347.
[241] Oxford Prize Poems, Poem for 1812.
[242] Ὁ μέν θεὸς εις· κοὗτος δὲ οὐκ, ὡς τινὲς ὑπονοῦσιν, ἐκτὸς τὰς
διακοσμήσεας· ἀλλ ἐν αὐτᾷ, ὅλος ἐν ὅλῳ τῷ κύκλῳ, ἐπίσκοπος πάσας γενέσες
και κράσεως τῶν ὅλων.--Clem. Alex. Cohort. ad gentes.
[243] Monotheism among the Greeks, translated in the Contemporary Review,
March, 1867. Victor Cousin, Fragments de Philosophie Ancienne.
[244] Quotations from Aristotle, in Rixner, I. § 75.
[245] See Rixner, Zeller, and the poem of Empedocles on the Nature of
Things (περὶ φάσεως), especially the commencement of the Third Book.
[246] His famous doctrine, that "man is the measure of all things," meant
that there is nothing true but that which appears to man to be so at any
moment. He taught, as we should now say, the subjectivity of knowledge.
[247] Zeller, as before cited.
[248] Geschichte der Philosophie.
[249] The sentence which Plato wrote over his door, οὐδεις ἀγεωμέτρητος
εἰσίτω, probably means, "Let no one enter who has not _definite_
thoughts." So Goethe declared that _outline_ went deepest into the
mysteries of nature.
[250] For Proofs, see Ackermann, Cudworth, Tayler Lewis, and the
New-Englander, October, 1869.
[251] Page 28, German edition.
[252] Laws, X. 893.
[253] Timæus, IX.
[254] Laws, IV. 715.
[255] Zeller, as above. Also Zeller, "Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics,"
translated by Reichel. London: Longmans, 1870.
[256] Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics, p. 140.
[257] Mr. Fergusson thinks the peristyle not intended for an ambulatory,
but is unable to assign any other satisfactory purpose.
[258] Illustrated Hand-Book of Architecture.
[259] Plutarch, quoted by Döllinger.
[260] Buckley's translation, in Bohn's Classical Library.
[261] Ibid.
[262] Republic, II. 17. See Döllinger's discussion of this subject, in
"The Gentile and the Jew," English translation, Vol. I. p. 125.
[263] Advancement of Learning.
[264] Ottfried Müller has shown that some of these writings existed in the
time of Euripides.
[265] Cudworth's Intellectual System, I. 403 (Am. ed.). Rixner, Handbuch
der Geschichte der Philosophie, Anhang, Vol. I.
[266] Ante-Nicene Christian Library, Vol. IV. p. 71.
[267] Christianity and Greek Philosophy. By B. F. Cocker, D.D. New York:
Harper and Brothers. 1870.
[268] See Neander, Church History, Vol I. p. 88, American edition.
[269] Hegel's Philosophic in Wörtlichen Ausüzgen. Berlin, 1843.
[270] Romische Geschichte, von Theodor Mommsen, Kap. XII.
[271] Janus, Picus, Faunus, Romulus, were _indigites_. Funke, Real
Lexicon.
[272] See Niebuhr's Lectures on the History of Rome, for facts concerning
the Siculi. The sound _el_ appears in Keltic, Gael, Welsch, Welsh,
Belgians, Gauls, Galatians, etc. M. Grotefend (as quoted by Guigniaut, in
his notes to Creuzer) accepts this Keltic origin of the Siculi, believing
that they entered Italy from the northwest, and were gradually driven
farther south till they reached Sicily. Those who expelled them were the
Pelasgic races, who passed from Asia, south of the Caspian and Black Seas,
through Asia Minor and Greece, preceding the Hellenic races. This accounts
for the statement of Herodotus that the Pelasgi came from Lydia in Asia
Minor, without our being obliged to assume that they came by sea,--a fact
highly improbable. They were called Tyrrheanians, not from any city or
king of Lydia, but, as M. Lepsius believes, from the Greek τύῤῥις (Latin,
_turris_), a tower, because of their Cyclopean masonry. The Roman state,
on this supposition, may have owed its origin to the union of the two
great Aryan races, the Kelts and Pelasgi.
[273] Mythologie der Griechen und Romer, von Dr. M. W. Heffter. Leipzig,
1854.
[274] And so our word "janitor" comes to us from this very old Italian
deity.
[275] Ampère, L'Histoire Romaine.
[276] This seems to us more probable than Buttman's opinion, that the
temple of Janus was originally by the gate of the city, which gate was
open in war and closed in peace. In practice, it would probably be
different.
[277] "Quis ignorat vel dictum vel conditum a Jano Janiculum?" Solinus,
II. 3, quoted by Ampère.
[278]
"Arx mea collis erat, quem cultrix nomine nostro
Nuncupat hæc ætas, Janiculumque vocat."--Fasti, I. 245.
[279] Mater Matuta ("matutina," matinal) was a Latin goddess of the dawn,
who was absorbed into Juno, as often happened to the old Italian deities.
Hartung says: "There was no limit to the superficial levity with which the
Romans changed their worship."
[280] The Etruscans worshipped a goddess named Menerfa or
Menfra.--Heffter.
[281] Heffter, p. 525. _Cloaca_ is derived from _cluere_, which means _to
wash away._ Libertina or Libitina is the goddess of funerals.
[282] Republic, II. 19.
[283] Hartung.
[284] "Diis quos superiores et involutes vocant."--Seneca, Quæst. Nat.,
II. 41.
[285] "De re rustica"; quoted by Merivale in the Preface to The Conversion
of the Roman Empire.
[286] From the same root come our words "fate," "fanatic," etc. "Fanaticum
dicitur arbor fulmine icta."--Festus, 69.
[287] From "sacrare" or "consecrare." Hence sacrament and sacerdotal.
[288] The word "calendar" is itself derived from the Roman "Kalends," the
first day of the month.
[289] See Merivale, The Conversion of the Roman Empire, Lect. IV. p. 74.
[290] Döllinger, Gentile and Jew. Funke, Real Lexicon. Festus.
[291] Book I. 592.
[292] IV. 593.
[293] De Divinatione, II. 12, etc.
[294] A Greek epigram, recently translated, alludes to the same fact:--
"Honey and milk are sacrifice to thee,
Kind Hermes, inexpensive deity.
But Hercules demands a lamb each day,
For keeping, so he says, the wolves away.
Imports it much, meek browsers of the sod,
Whether a wolf devour you, or a god?"
[295] Gibbon, Decline and Fall, Chap. II.
[296] Conversion of the Roman Empire, Note A.
[297] "Expedit civitates falli in religione," said Varro.
[298] "Philosophia sapientiæ amor est." "Nec philosophia sine virtute, nec
sine philosophia virtus." Epist. XCI. 5.
[299] "Physica non faciunt bonos, sed doctos." Epist. CVI. 11.
[300] "Bonum est, quod ad se impetum animi secundum naturam movet." Epist.
CXVIII. 9.
[301] "Universa ex materia et Deo constant." Epist. LXV. 24.
[302] "Socii Dei sumus et membra. Prope a te Deus est, tecum est, intus
est. Sacer intra nos Spiritus sedet, malorum bonorumque nostrorum
observator et custos. Deus ad homines venit; immo, in homines." Epist.
XCII. 41, 73.
[303] Arrian's "Discourses of Epictetus," III. 24.
[304] Lectures on the History of Rome, III. 247.
[305] Monolog., X. 14.
[306] Zeller, Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics, p. 150.
[307] Quoted by Neander, Church History, I. 10 (Am. ed.).
[308] Gott in der Geschichte, Zweiter Theil, Seite 387.
[309] Tacitus, History, I. 3.
[310] Ibid., Annals, IV. 20.
[311] Ibid., Annals, VI. 22.
[312] Ibid., Agricola, 46.
[313] The Greek and the Jew, Vol. II. p. 147.
[314] Epistle to the Romans, xv. 13.
[315] "The legislation of Justinian, as far as it was original, in his
Code, Pandects, and Institutes, was still almost exclusively Roman. It
might seem that Christianity could hardly penetrate into the solid and
well-compacted body of Roman law; or rather the immutable principles of
justice had been so clearly discerned by the inflexible rectitude of the
Roman mind, and so sagaciously applied by the wisdom of her great lawyers,
that Christianity was content to acquiesce in these statutes, which she
might despair, except in some respects, of rendering more
equitable."--Milman, Latin Christianity, Vol. II. p. 11.
[316] See Ranke, History of the Popes, Chap. I., where he says that the
Roman Empire gave its outward form to Christianity (meaning _Latin_
Christianity), and that the constitution of the hierarchy was necessarily
modelled on that of the Empire.
[317] History of Latin Christianity, Vol. II. p. 100.
[318] Maine, Ancient Law, Chap. IX.
[319] "Non aliud peccare quam Deo non reddere debitum."
[320] Cæsar, Bell. Gall., I. 36, 39, 48, 50; VI. 21, 22, 23.
[321] "Præliis ambiguus, bello non victus."--Annals, II. 88.
[322] Tacitus, Germania, §§ 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9.
[323] "Illud ex libertate vitium, quod non simul, nec ut jussi,
conveniunt."--Germania, § 11.
[324] Esprit des Loix.
[325] See, for the history and religion of the Teutonic and Scandinavian
race, Cæsar; Tacitus; Grimm's Deutsche Mythologie; Geschichte und System
der Altdeutschen Religion, von Wilhelm Muller; Northern Mythology, by
Benjamin Thorpe; The Sea-Kings of Norway, by S. Laing; Manual of
Scandinavian Mythology, by G. Pigott; Literature and Romance of Northern
Europe, by William and Mary Hewitt; Die Edda, von Karl Simrock; Aryan
Mythology, by George W. Cox; Norse Tales, by Dasent, etc. But one of the
best as well as the most accessible summaries in English of this mythology
is Mallet's Northern Antiquities, in Bohn's Antiquarian Library. This
edition is edited by Mr. Blackwell with great judgment and learning.
[326] See Die Edda, von Karl Simrock. Stuttgart, 1855. Literature and
Romance of Northern Europe, by William and Mary Howitt. London, 1852.
Geschichte und System der Altdeutschen Religion, von Withelm Muller.
Gottingen, 1844. Mallet's Northern Antiquities, edited by Blackwell, in
Bohn's Antiquarian Library.
[327] Hitopadesá; or, Salutary Counsels of Vishnu Sarman. Translated fiom
the Sanskrit by Francis Johnson. London and Hertford, 1848.
[328] See Memoir of Snorro Sturleson, in Laing's Sea-Kings of Norway.
[329] It would appear from this legend that the gods are idealizations of
human will set over against the powers of nature. The battle of the gods
and giants represents the struggles of the soul against the inexorable
laws of nature, freedom against fate, the spirit with the flesh, mind with
matter, human hope with change, disappointment, loss; "the emergency of
the case with the despotism of the rule."
[330] Physical circumstances produced alterations in the mythologies,
whose origin was the same. Thus, Loki, the god of fire, belongs to the
Æsir, because fire is hostile to frost, but represents the treacherous and
evil subterranean fires, which in Iceland destroyed with lava, sand, and
boiling water more than was injured by cold.
[331] Northern Mythology, by Benjamin Thorpe.
[332] Gibbon, Chap. LVI.
[333] Smith's Dictionary of the Bible. Neander, Church History, Vol. II.
Appendix.
[334] See, for the conversion of the German races, Gibbon; Guizot, History
of Civilization; Merivale, Conversion of the German Nations; Milman, Latin
Christianity; Neander, History of the Christian Church; Hegel; Lecky,
History of European Morals.
[335] Latin Christianity, Book III. Chap. II.
[336] Palaztu, on the Western Sea. Rawlinson's Herodotus, Vol. I., p. 487.
[337] The word has been deciphered "Pulusater." Smith's Dictionary of the
Bible, Palestine.
[338] Ibid.
[339] Palestine, and the Sinaitic Peninsula. By Carl Ritter. Translated by
William L. Gage. New York. 1866.
[340] Ritter's Palestine, Vol. II. p. 315.
[341] Lynch makes it thirteen hundred feet below the surface of the
Mediterranean. See Ritter.
[342] History of Israel, translated by Russell Martineau, Vol. I. p. 231.
[343] New American Cyclopædia, art. Semitic Race.
[344] Quoted by Le Normant, Manual of Ancient History of the East, Vol. I.
p. 71.
[345] Remarks on the Phoenician Inscription of Sidon, by Professor William
W. Turner, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. VII. No. 1.
[346] Poenulus, Act V. Sc. 1.
[347] See his Essay on the People of Israel, in Studies of Religious
History and Criticism, translated by O. B. Frothingham.
[348] Except the proselytes, who are adopted children.
[349] History of the Jewish Church, Lect. I.
[350] See, for these marvellous stories, Weil, Legends of the Mussulmans.
[351] See my sermon on "Melchisedek and his Moral," in "The Hour that
Cometh," second edition.
[352] Strabo, who probably wrote in the reign of Tiberius, thus describes
Moses:--
"Moses, an Egyptian priest, who possessed a considerable tract of Lower
Egypt, unable any longer to bear with what existed there, departed
thence to Syria, and with him went out many who honored the Divine
Being. For Moses taught that the Egyptians were not right in likening
the nature of God to beasts and cattle, nor yet the Africans or even
the Greeks, in fashioning their gods in the form of men. He held that
this only was God,--that which encompasses all of us, earth and sea,
that which we call heaven, the order of the world, and the nature of
things. Of this, who that had any sense would venture to invent an
image like to anything which exists among ourselves? Far better to
abandon all statuary and sculpture, all setting apart of sacred
precincts and shrines, and to pay reverence without any image whatever.
The course prescribed was that those who have the gift of divination
for themselves or others should compose themselves to sleep within the
Temple, and those who live temperately and justly mjiy expect to
receive lome good gift from God."
[353] "Esteeming the reproach of the Christ" (that is, of the anointed,
or, the anointed people) "greater riches than the treasures of Egypt."
[354] See this well explained in The Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation,
by James B. Walker.
[355] "'Behold, when I shall come to the children of Israel, and shall say
unto them, The God of your fathers hath sent me unto you, and they shall
say, What is his name? What shall I say unto them? And God said unto
Moses, I AM THE I AM..... Thus shalt thou say unto the children of Israel,
I AM hath sent me unto you!'
"It has been observed that the great epochs of the history of the Chosen
People are marked by the several names, by which in each the Divine Nature
is indicated. In the patriarchal age we have already seen that the oldest
Hebrew form by which the most general idea of Divinity is expressed is
'El-Elohim,' 'The Strong One,' 'The Strong Ones,' 'The Strong,' 'Beth-El,'
'Peni-El,' remained even to the latest times memorials of this primitive
mode of address and worship. But now a new name, and with it a new truth,
was introduced. I am Jehovah; I appeared unto Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob,
by the name of El-Shaddai (God Almighty); but by my name Jehovah was I not
known unto them. The only certain use of it before the time of Moses is in
the name of 'Jochebed,' borne by his own mother. It was the declaration of
the simplicity, the unity, the self-existence of the Divine Nature, the
exact opposite to all the multiplied forms of idolatry, human, animal, and
celestial, that prevailed, as far as we know, everywhere else."--Stanley's
Jewish Church.
[356] A man became a prophet only by his powers of insight and foresight;
until that was certified to the people, he was no prophet to them. When it
was, it was because he _convinced_ them by his manifestation of the truth;
consequently any revision of the law by a prophet was a constitutional
amendment by the people themselves.
[357] Hitzig, Urgeschichte und Mythologie der Philister. Tacitus probably
referred to the Cretan origin of the Philistines, when he says that the
Jews were originally natives of the island of Crete. See his account of
Moses and his institutions, Historia, V. 1-6.
[358]
"Out from the heart of nature rolled
The burdens of the Bible old;
The litanies of nations came,
Like the volcano's tongue of flame,
Up from the burning core below,--
The canticles of love and woe."
Emerson, _The Problem_.
[359] See this point fully discussed in Ritter, Palestine (Am. ed.), Vol.
I. pp. 81-151.
[360] See Weil, Biblical Legends, for the Mohammedan traditions concerning
Solomon.
[361] For he perceives the idea, but not its application to himself.
[362] Neither of them perceives that he is the object of the injury.
[363] Eccles. i. 2-11.
[364] Ibid. i. 12; ii. 11.
[365] Ibid. ii. 12-20.
[366] Ibid. ii. 24.
[367] Ibid. iii. 1-11.
[368] Ibid. iii. 18-21.
[369] Ibid. iv. 1-3.
[370] Ibid. iv. 9-12.
[371] Ibid. v. 1-7, 18.
[372] Ibid. vi.
[373] Eccles. vii. 2, 10, 15, 16.
[374] Ibid. vii. 26-28.
[375] Ibid. viii. 2, 3, 4, 11, 14(ix. 2, 3), 15, 17.
[376] Ibid. xi. 1, 2, 6.
[377] Ibid. xii. 1-8, 9, 12, 13.
[378] Döllinger, The Gentile and the Jew.
[379] See article on the Talmud, Quarterly Review, 1867.
[380] An anecdote was recently related of a little girl, five years old,
who was seen walking along the road, looking up into the trees. Being
asked what she was seeking, she replied: "Mamma told me God was
everywhere, but I cannot see him in that tree." The faith of the
patriarchs was like that of this child,--not false, but unenlightened.
[381] "And the Lord said, Who shall persuade Ahab, that he may go up and
fall at Ramoth-Gilead? And one said on this manner, and another said on
that manner. And there came forth a spirit, and stood before the Lord, and
said, I will persuade him. And the Lord said unto him, Wherewith? And he
said, I will go forth, and I will be a lying spirit in the mouth of all
his prophets. And he said, Thou shalt persuade him, and prevail also: go
forth and do so."
[382] See Greg, The Creed of Christendom, Chap. V. Also, The Spirit of the
Bible, by Edward Higginson.
[383] Mohammed der Prophet, sein Leben und seine Lehre. Stuttgart, 1843.
[384] Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes, avant l'Islamisme, pendant l'époque
de Mahomet, et jusqu'à la réduction de toutes les tribus sous la loi
mussulmane. Paris. 3 vols. 8vo. 1847-48.
[385] Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammed, etc. Von A. Sprenger. Berlin,
1861.
[386] Sprenger, Vorrede, p. xii.
[387] The Life of Mahomet and History of Islam. By William Muir, Esq.
London, 1858.
[388] A Series of Essays on the Life of Mohammed, and Subjects subsidiary
thereto. By Syed Ahmed Khan Bahador. London: Trabner & Co. 1870.
[389]
"Quo fit ut omnis
Votiva pateat velut descripta tabella
Vita senis."
HORACE.
[390] The same remark will apply to Cromwell.
[391] "Mohammed once asked Hassan if he had made any poetry about Abu
Bakr, and the poet repeated these lines; whereupon Mohammed laughed so
heartily as to show his back teeth, and said, 'Thou hast spoken truly, O
Hassan! It is just as thou hast said.'"--Muir, Vol. II. p. 256.
[392] Muir, Vol. II. p. 128.
[393] Koran, Sura 80.
[394] Mahomet and the Origin of Islam. Studies of Religious History.
Translated by O. B. Frothingham.
[395] Lewes, Life of Goethe, Vol. I. p. 207.
[396] Mahomet et le Coran, par J. Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire, Paris, 1865,
p. 114.
[397] Les Religions et les Philosophies dans L'Asíe Centrale. Par M. le
Comte Gobineau. Paris.
[398] A Year's Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia. By William
Gifford Palgrave. Third edition. 1866. London.
[399] Article in Revue des Deux Mondes, January 15, 1868.
[400] Studies in Religious History and Criticism. The Future of Religion
in Modem Society.
[401] Ibid., "The Part of the Semitic People in the History of
Civilization."
[402] Ibid. The Future of Religion in Modern Society, The Origins of
Islamism.
[403] The Sympathy of Religions, an Address by Thomas Wentworth Higginson.
Boston, 1871.
[404] Job i. 6, 12; ii. 1; Zech. iii. 1; 1 Chron. xxi. 1.
[405] In the passages where Satan or the Devil is mentioned, the truth
taught is the same, and the moral result the same, whether we interpret
the phrase as meaning a personal being, or the principle of evil. In many
of these passages a personal being cannot be meant: for example, John vi.
70; Matt. xvi. 23; Mark viii. 33; 1 Cor. v. 5; 2 Cor. xii. 7; 1 Thess. ii.
18; 1 Tim. i. 20; Heb. ii. 14.
[406] Exodus vi. 2.
[407] Exodus iii. 14.
End of Project Gutenberg's Ten Great Religions, by James Freeman Clarke