A Question of Territory
"Never before has this fine country seen such troubles," said Colonel
George Washington, as he sat puffing at his pipe and looking across
the wooden flooring of his hut at Steve's long and active figure. "You
have had fighting, you tell me. You will see more. We are only just
entering upon the struggle. Tell me, Steve, what do you propose to do?"
That was a question which our hero found some difficulty in answering.
But at length he rolled over on the form and sat up to look at his
host.
"What do you advise?" he asked. "I have a letter here which I wish
to deliver at Charlestown, and I should like to find out what has
happened to my father. After that I shall join some band of scouts,
and fight the French and their Indians. I suppose they mean to drive
us all out of the country, and take it for themselves?"
There was an emphatic nod in answer to his question, and then for a
while the two sat staring at the fire, each busy with his thoughts.
For who could doubt that the total extermination of the British
colonists was intended? The French were rapidly pushing south and
east, and in front of them ran a swarm of their Indians, massacring
and slaying, and steadily pushing back the British settlers. To
understand the position of affairs, and the facts which had led up to
the moment when Steve and his friends arrived at the camp where George
Washington and his small army had settled themselves on the Alleghany
Mountains, it would be well for the reader to study a map of North
America, and trace for himself the possessions held by the French and
the English. For it must be remembered that these two nations, each
jealous of the other, and often at war with each other, had sent their
settlers and pioneers to this huge continent of North America. To
describe how the first of those settlers landed, how they fought their
way from the coast and conquered the forests, would be to enter upon a
subject which would need abundant space and more attention than can be
given here. But the history of those days is filled to repletion with
tales of gallant deeds, of perseverance against great suffering and
difficulty, and of final and glorious success. It will be sufficient
perhaps if we say, when dealing with the British colonies, that
Quakers and Puritans, together with others from England and Wales,
also Scotchmen and Irishmen, found their way to the eastern shores
of North America, and having dealt with the Indians, finally founded
states, thirteen in number, stretching from New England in the north
to infant Georgia in the south.
Let the reader glance down the eastern coast of the map, and he will
trace these thirteen States without difficulty, and will notice that,
while each has easy access to the sea, where the coast naturally
limits further extension in that direction, to the west there is a
huge sweep of country running right across to the Pacific coast, but
broken here and there by mountain and river and vast inland lakes.
Then let him take those States in their order from the north, and
ascertain what reason there was why each one should not extend to the
west till her people flooded the whole continent.
It may be admitted at once that abundance of time was one of the
main requirements for bringing about such a state of affairs, for
colonies do not grow in a day, and putting aside all natural barriers,
and those erected by the hostility of the old inhabitants, whom the
colonists will in course of time drive from their own country, many,
many years must pass before the tide of immigrants flows across the
land. For those who come first naturally select suitable places
nearest the coast, while those who come later settle within reach of
their friends, exchanging commodities with them. Later arrivals are
forced farther and farther away, till in time the settlements are
found miles and miles from the coast. Look at North America to-day.
She has added many states to those thirteen which existed in the days
when Steve sat in the log hut with George Washington. Her people
have overflowed the country, they have pushed the Red Indian back
steadily, and to-day they swarm in almost every part. The virgin
forest of that day, the haunt of the buffalo and the hunting grounds
of the Indian, now resound to the clang of the hammer, to the crash
of the train, and to the hum and roar of a thriving population.
Thousands come to the land every year to swell the throng, and paucity
of population is no longer a source of anxious thought for the
governments of the various States.
But it was in the year 1756. All told, the colonists of those thirteen
States did not exceed a million and a half, while each one of the
States may be said to have been of the size of England. It will be
realised at once that it was all that such a population could do to
colonise the neighbourhood of the coast, and that if the western
border was to extend, thousands must come out to the country. As a
matter of fact, however, few though the colonists were, their farms
extended a considerable distance from the coast, and save in the
towns, where they lived close together, the settlers were separated
by wide intervals. They placed their huts for the most part in the
fertile valleys, clinging to the rivers, thus having at hand the means
of getting their corn and produce to the coast. And slowly, as the
land was taken up, settlers took their farms farther and farther away,
till some barrier arrested further progress. Such a barrier existed,
and a glance at the map will show the position of the Alleghany
Mountains, extending from Pennsylvania down to Georgia. It was not,
of course, an obstacle which could not be surmounted, but it was for
all that an obstacle which turned the would-be farmer back, for the
simple reason that, with such a range stretching between him and the
coast, there was no possibility of his getting his produce to market.
Moreover, on the far side of that range Indians inhabited the forests,
and they were an enemy to be reckoned with and feared.
[Illustration: CANADA and OUR AMERICAN COLONY in 1755.]
Thus it happened that from Pennsylvania south to Georgia there was
every inducement to the young colonies to be satisfied with what land
they already possessed, while to the north, where the natural barrier
of the Alleghany Mountains did not exist, there were other barriers,
none the less formidable, which held the State of New York and those
of New England in check. Stretching between them and the unknown west
lay the country inhabited by the Iroquois, consisting of six nations
of Indians who had banded themselves together for purposes of offence
and defence, and who were friendly to our colonists. To think of
snatching their hunting lands from them, was to think of a relentless
and fearful war, which might damage the prosperity of the colonies.
Farther north there ran the huge river St. Lawrence, with the French
and their so-called Christian Indians for ever ready to sweep over the
frontier.
It will be realized then, that there was reason why the young States
should not extend, but in dealing with them, one must not forget the
host of trappers and hunters belonging to each State, who, like the
Indians, steadily and surely pushed on away from the settlers. For
where there were villages there was little game, and it was upon
the latter that they depended for a livelihood. And so it happened
that, while the colonies proper came to an end at the slopes of the
Alleghany mountains, the trappers clambered over the range, and
descended into the country beyond. And in course of time, when their
numbers had increased and they had driven the Indians back after many
a battle, they too formed settlements, adventurous farmers joined
them, cleared the forest, and lived the dual life of farmer and
trapper. Then the restless spirit of the hunters took them on again,
till the forests west of the mountains harboured many and many a
gallant trapper, till their solitary log huts were seen in the valley
of the Ohio, on the banks of the Monongahela, the Alleghany, and the
Kenawha.
Those were the men who knew that Indians still existed, who hunted
the bison and the bear, and fought the bloodthirsty native of the
forests in his own manner and with bitter determination. It was
these hardy fellows, men of Tom Mainwaring's stamp, trappers such
as Jim and Mac and Pete, who carried old England's banner into new
lands, and who were the very first to come in contact with the French
and their Indians. Their occupation of this valley of the Ohio won
claims for England which France could not deny and which we could not
repudiate, and though up to this date the various States had for the
most part stood aside, apathetically watching while these honest and
brave pioneers were driven back, their huts fired and their people
massacred, yet the time was now come when they and the Government in
England were to recall the fact that this valley of the Ohio was ours
by right of conquest, that it had been won by the toil and blood of
the trappers.
There remains but one other point to explain with regard to the
colonies. It may be asked why these million and a half souls looked
on so calmly while the unfortunate pioneers and trappers were hunted
and massacred, why they sat at home while the Indians swarmed to the
western slopes of the Alleghanies and over the crest, slaughtering and
destroying the settlements? It must be a matter for marvel that they
remained for the most part inert and unshaken, even while the third
line of defences was ravaged, and the bloody war brought to their very
farms and mansions.
There were many reasons for this state of affairs, and it may be said
of the Southern States that it was so long now since their fathers
and their grandfathers had driven the redskins over the Alleghany
Mountains that they had forgotten that the Indians existed. There were
no longer raids in their direction, and no fear of massacre. Then
again, those who managed the affairs of the scattered population of
these various States were more than inclined to sink patriotism and
all thought of their fellow-States in acrimonious discussions amongst
themselves, in petty squabbles over some matter which was of the
smallest actual importance, and in for ever harassing their governor.
They fought amongst themselves, squabbled with their neighbours as
to boundary lines, and wrangled while their countrymen were being
massacred, and even their own security threatened.
In the north it was entirely different. The States of New York and
New England had French and French Indians on their borders, and
they had never forgotten the bitterness of former wars, nor did the
ever-present fear of an incursion help to dull their memories. We
shall see that it was to these Northern States in particular that we
are indebted for men and money, and for the initiative which first
roused the States to a sense of their duty, and the home Government to
the need for a leader and active opposition to the aims of France.
Having given some idea of the thirteen States and their condition in
and about the year 1756, let us turn to France and her possessions in
North America. And perhaps it will be of interest to go as fully into
this part as into that concerning our own colony. Let the reader run
his finger from the northernmost tip of the island of Newfoundland
along the northern shore of the St. Lawrence, and he will pass over
the route which the gallant Jacques Cartier, of St. Malo, followed
in the years 1535-36, when on a voyage commissioned by Francis I.
This bold sailor was the first known European to ascend the mighty
St. Lawrence river, a river which is of huge proportions, and which
is fed by the most gigantic reservoirs. Look at the five huge lakes,
Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, which cover a space
larger than that covered by the whole of Great Britain, and consider
that these five drain steadily into this St. Lawrence river, and you
will perhaps have some idea of the vastness of this gigantic waterway.
This Jacques Cartier cast anchor off the Isle of Orleans, which he
named the Isle of Bacchus, for it was well covered with vines, and
lay near the river St. Croix, within sight of the position where the
city of Quebec now stands. He met with a friendly reception from the
natives, and afterwards sailed up the river to Montreal, where an
Indian town was then situated. Having done more than any other white
man was known to have done, he erected a cross at St. Croix, claimed
the land for his master and for France, and duly returned home, having
completed his second voyage to these parts, a voyage commissioned,
as has been said, by Francis I., with the object of discovering a
short route to the Indies and new countries not yet discovered and
appropriated by the Spanish or the Portuguese.
Monsieur Roberval was the first lieutenant to take up his residence
in the newly-found country. It is quite unnecessary to follow his
unimportant doings there, or the fate of the immigrants who went to
join him. But it may be stated that progress was exceptionally slow,
that colonists were few and far between, and that for many years the
French population of New France was extremely small. Sometimes the new
possessions met with favour from the French court, and for a while a
new impetus was given to colonising. And gradually the interior of the
country was opened up, or rather, some superficial knowledge of it was
gained from the reports of discoverers and hunters. For here, as in
the Ohio valley, the chief inducement to the hardy pioneers to push
on was the desire to obtain furs, for which there was always a ready
sale.
But it must not be thought that their journeys took them so far that
nothing more was left to discover. Other men of the same venturesome
turn of mind were to appear upon the scene, Champlain amongst the
most noteworthy. Then, too, we must direct our attention to Nova
Scotia, the French Acadie, which attracted the eyes of the colonists
in 1604. We find that expeditions landed here and founded settlements,
and later we hear of gentlemen adventurers coming to this fertile
Acadie, there to seek their fortunes. In course of time, too, to be
precise, in the year 1625, Jesuit missionaries sailed for New France,
and we find them hereafter dominating the affairs of the colony,
ever pushing forward and boldly entering the country of the Indians.
Indeed, the history of Canada is filled with accounts of these
gallant missionaries, who struggled often alone into the forests, who
were murdered and tortured by the redskins, and who yet pressed on,
endeavouring always to bring the heathen Indian under the influence of
their religion.
Cardinal Richelieu also appears upon the scene, the great Richelieu
who dominated France, and we find him forming a trading company and
arranging to send out artisans.
It is interesting at this time to remember that England had colonists
at Massachusetts Bay, and that this country was ambitious of
obtaining more lands, and even of ousting the French. Indeed, in
the year 1628 Kirk appeared in the St. Lawrence off Quebec, and
though he did not take the place, Champlain, then the governor, had
the mortification of hearing that, in his descent of the river he
had captured four armed vessels and eighteen transports, which were
conveying those artisans whom the great Richelieu had selected. This
was a serious set back to the colonists, and was increased tenfold
in the following year, for Kirk again appeared upon the scene, and
summoned Champlain to surrender. That was the first occasion when the
broad banner of England floated over the fort of St. Louis, and the
site whereon the city of Quebec now stands. However, on returning
home, Kirk discovered that the war with France was at an end, and as
a result the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye was signed, and Charles I.
handed back to France her possessions on the St. Lawrence, and Port
Royal, in Acadie.
During all these years the progress of New France had been slow, and
on the mighty St. Lawrence her colonists were lost in the immensity
of their new possessions. In Acadie they had fared little better, and
though Port Royal was handed back to them and they enjoyed peaceful
possession of the country, it was not for a great number of years, for
our fleets captured the province in 1654, and in our hands it remained
till 1667, when Charles II. gave it back to Louis XIV.
We pass over those years in Canada with the mention of few events,
amongst the most important of which was the danger which the colonists
now encountered from the Iroquois. They had a deadly feud with these
men from France, and we hear of their canoes ascending the Richelieu
and lying off Quebec itself, taunting the small garrison. These
uneventful times, however, produced scores of gallant men desirous of
pushing on into the mysterious west, and the names of Etienne Brulé
and of Nicolet loom large in the list. For a while the invasion of the
Iroquois kept these spirits close to the forts at Montreal and Quebec,
but when the Indian trouble had subsided, the Mohawks having been
dispersed, these gallant men pushed on again. They were found on the
great lakes, and to north and south of them. Hunters pushed into the
wilderness in search of skins, _coureurs de bois_, often the younger
sons of men of position in France, blazed their tracks through the
forests, intent upon discovery. And with one or other were to be found
the ubiquitous priest, bolder and more persevering than any perhaps.
The tales of these wanderers fill one with wonder and admiration,
and the history of these years of discovery teach us that the French
were wonderful hunters and explorers. They took to the forests as a
duck does to water. Often enough they associated with wandering bands
of Indians, learned their language and lived with them for months
and even years at a time, dressing in their hunting costumes. The
fascination of the wilderness cast such a spell over the colonists
that at this period, when men were sorely needed in the settlements,
when the hold which France had on her fine possessions was none of the
securest, scarcely a young colonist, be he habitant or the son of a
man of consequence, could be persuaded to remain. Threats of severe
punishment could not keep them. They broke from home ties, took their
ponderous muskets, their bullet and their powder pouches, and went off
into the forests, content to hunt and wander into a country which was
entirely strange, and to indulge in a life of freedom and adventure,
where hardship was the order of the day, and where only the strongest
and boldest survived.
But it must not be supposed that the governing powers at Quebec, in
their endeavours to retain these young men, entirely muzzled the
desire to make fresh discoveries. They fostered the idea, selected
suitable men, and equipped expeditions. Frontenac, whose name has
secured an honoured place in the history of Canada, sent Jolliet to
find that great water of which the French had heard, though it had
been but vaguely mentioned. This intrepid explorer finally launched
his canoe on the waters of the giant Missipi (as it was then spelled),
and with Marquette, a bold Jesuit, paddled down the stream. René
Robert Cavalier, Sieur de la Salle, completed this important work of
exploration, and with Tonty and Father Membré sailed down the long
stretches of the Mississippi till he reached the Gulf of Mexico. This
momentous voyage opened the eyes of the French very wide indeed, for
the travellers could tell of fertile lands stretching from the great
lakes to the gulf in the south, and of a huge expanse of country which
would give refuge one of these days to millions of wanderers pressed
out of their own native lands by the overcrowding there. However,
beyond building a few forts, nothing more of consequence was done
till we arrive at a period in which New France, now generally styled
Canada, made rapid strides under the able leadership of her governors
and the careful attention of Louis Quatorze.
There were perhaps three thousand souls in the colony prior to this
period, and it was obvious that many more were required if France was
to retain her rights there. The astute young king was the first to
recognise this, and we find him sending emigrants in large numbers,
emigrants who had been carefully selected. They consisted of young men
of the peasant class, called _habitants_, and of officers and younger
sons, for the most part unmarried. Then ship loads of peasant girls
and demoiselles were dispatched to the colony, and every inducement
offered to these men and women to marry and settle down. Indeed, young
men who failed to take notice of these inducements were harried and
taxed till they fell in with the wishes of their king. In addition
to these emigrants, men of some family were persuaded to go to the
colony, and from these smaller "gentilhommes" a Canadian noblesse was
formed, seigneurs were selected from amongst them, and a form of
feudal life commenced in the backwoods. The seigneur had a huge grant
of uncleared forest, he built his log hut or cabin, and a rough fort
to protect him against the Indians. And about this fort gathered his
_habitants_, tilling the land he allotted them, and paying their rent
in kind, a portion of corn, a few bear skins, fresh salmon from the
lake, or other commodities. Allegiance they gave to their seigneur for
the simple reason that these seigneuries were scattered and widely
separated, and self-support was their only policy, for otherwise they
would have fallen victims to the first redskin marauders.
And thus we find the possessions of France slowly being peopled, till
in the year when Steve and his friends reached the Alleghanies, the
colonists numbered some 60,000 souls, exclusive of some ten thousand
living in Acadie, once French but now English, though the _habitant_
who had filled that smiling land was French by birth and intensely
French in thought and sympathy. We find Cape Breton, an island just
north of Nova Scotia, a possession of France, with the formidable
fortress of Louisbourg situated upon it, and its ramparts bristling
with cannon. Hunters and _coureurs de bois_ had sailed across the
lakes, and knew every foot of their shores, while soldiers and agents
of France had built forts and trading posts in numerous places, had
erected stockades at certain points on the Mississippi, and were
slowly progressing in a scheme which promised soon to allow the men
descending this mighty Mississippi to join hands with men of their
blood at New Orleans, settled some time ago by the French.
Look again at the map for a moment, and see what such a line of forts
meant. It cut the northern continent into two unequal parts, leaving
France the major portion lying to the west, as well as that wide tract
between the Mississippi and the Alleghanies. It was this portion,
commencing with the valley of the Ohio, which they determined to
occupy, despite the fact that our hunters and pioneers had penetrated
its forests years before, and it was this same valley in which their
own Indians were now camping, having harried and massacred far and
wide, and set fire to all the settlements not only in the valley, but
as far as and beyond the Alleghany range.
History repeats itself, and it is strange to consider that the
constant forward movement of these persevering French was copied years
afterwards by those gallant men who opened up the great west of North
America to the thirteen colonies, that the work of exploration carried
on in Canada by hunters, by _coureurs de bois_, and by the restless
and bold spirits of the young noblesse was repeated on the far side
of the Alleghanies. Not that our trappers, even at this date, when
the French were doing their utmost to oust the British from the Ohio
valley, had been backward. They had done much, and a glance at the map
will show the reader that they had a station on Lake Ontario, Oswego
by name, which was well in advance of their own frontiers, and which,
in fact, was a bitter thorn in the side of the French. But adventurous
though our trappers were, they had not penetrated so far perhaps into
the wilderness as had the French, for the simple reason no doubt
that ways of communication were less frequent and difficult to come
across. A French trapper might enter his canoe at Quebec, and there
was water to take him hundreds of miles into the heart of the country,
to the farthest bays and creeks of the giant lakes. True, there were
mighty falls, as witness those of Niagara, but a canoe could be
carried. There were "portages" where canoes must be taken from the
water, the stores piled upon the backs of willing Indians, and the
whole outfit carried to some point above the falls. But these did not
altogether bar the great waterways, and on this account prospecting
and exploration was easier for the French. And thus we find them at
the period of this impending conflict masters of the St. Lawrence,
with strong places at Quebec, Montreal, Niagara, and Frontenac, not
to mention the huge and elaborately defended fortress at Louisbourg
on Cape Breton Island. We hear of their soldiers and trappers, with
thousands of Indians south of the great lakes, of their forts on the
Mississippi and on the river Richelieu and on Lake Champlain. In
fact, these energetic men, in spite of their paucity of numbers, were
swiftly surrounding the British, cutting off the thirteen States from
the smiling interior of America, and aiming no doubt at their final
extermination. We shall see, however, that even an apathetic people
may at last see their danger, and that England was not to be so easily
driven from a colony which had been founded by her hardy sons.