CHAPTER VIII

Lighting Your Stage

Let us imagine that we are seated in a dimly lighted theater. The signal

rings. The curtains open and what do we see? People. What makes them

visible? Light. What makes the color? Light. What makes the interesting

shadows? Light. It is light that does all these things, makes the

picture visible and carries our thoughts and feelings into the play

which is about to begin.

By what means is all this done? By means of footlights, overhead lights,

movable strips of lights, and movable spotlights. A few years ago every

stage was lighted by footlights only. These lights threw a crude glare

on to the faces of the actors and sometimes made large ugly shadows on

the back drop. Later, when overhead lights were used with footlights,

there were no shadows at all. This was equally bad. The majority of

people did not seem to mind this, but when certain artists went to the

theater, they began to ask themselves whether there might not be some

way of remedying the glare of the footlights and of managing the

shadows. These artists began to experiment. They made little stages,

took the footlights away, and began, by means of arc lights, to light

their stages indirectly. They began to use movable spotlights behind the

scenes, and to fasten lights on to strips of wood and place these strips

wherever they felt they were necessary.

They made further experiments. They covered their lights with pieces of

different colored silks and gelatine. This not only removed the glare of

the lights but produced new and very interesting effects. Next they

turned to Nature and began to observe how she produced her wonderful

effects. They discovered that these usually came in the soft light of

early morning and late evening, in twilight and moonlight, and not in

the strong garish light of mid-day. With these observations in mind,

they went to work to reproduce some of these effects. The result of

their experiments is that, to-day, we see stage pictures as beautiful as

pictures painted by the finest artists. Lighting has now come to be such

an important factor in the producing of plays that no stage, however

small, can ignore it.

Let us now consider the kind of lighting which may be used in the

several kinds of marionette stages. The Punch and Judy stage requires no

lighting when used in daylight. But even this stage requires some

thought for its lighting when it is used in a darkened room. Your set of

Christmas-tree lights may be fastened to the top of the proscenium arch

and an extension light may be used in the same way as is shown in the

illustration. Christmas-tree lights and extension lights are all that

are necessary for the table stage and the soap-box stage. In the chapter

on “Making Your Stage” you will see how these lights are placed.

If you have made the semi-professional stage with overhead lights,

footlights, and strips, you are ready to experiment with your lighting.

Begin by asking yourself whether the scenes of your play take place

indoors or out of doors. What is the time of day and the season of the

year? Is it an out-of-door scene, representing the cold of winter, or

the heat of summer? Does your scene occur in the soft light of early

morning or in the glow of sunset? Is your scene laid in a deep cool wood

or in a warm sunny garden? All of these questions must be considered.

Now, how can you produce these varied effects of sunlight and moonlight,

coldness and warmth, somberness and gaiety? Certain colors such as red,

orange, and yellow are called warm colors, because they give the feeling

of warmth. Other colors such as green, blue, and violet are called cool,

because they give the feeling of coolness. If your scene suggests

warmth, whether indoors or out of doors, begin experimenting with warm

lights, ambers, reds, and yellows. You will find that usually a certain

number of white lights are needed with the colored lights in order to

produce the effects you seek.

[Illustration:

_Marionette Ballet, "Petroushka"_

]

Everyone knows that color produces varied emotions. We are familiar with

the effects of red which are stimulating, exciting, or irritating. The

toreador, recognizing this principle, waves a flaming red mantle before

the bull. Blue has an exactly opposite effect. It quiets and soothes,

and when it runs into violet, it becomes depressing. Experiment with

purple lights and you will find that they give a note of gloom, mystery,

or of impending disaster. Yellow is the color that brings gaiety and

light-heartedness, as you will recall when you contrast your own

feelings on a sunshiny day and on a gray day.

You will find that most out-of-door effects are produced by soft natural

lighting which gives a sense of distance and perspective to the scene.

For this effect use yellow, amber, and white lights with an occasional

blue or red. Only lights coming from several directions will produce the

subtle tones of nature. This means using footlights with discretion,

stronger lights overhead, and placing strips wherever you need them in

order to destroy the shadows which other lights may throw. Sometimes it

takes several hours of experimenting to find the right lighting for a

single scene. It means changing the position of the strips, using more

lighting or less lighting, and always asking yourself whether your

lighting is just that which your scene demands to bring out its mood.

The shadows produced by footlights may sometimes be used to give charm

or mystery to a scene. For instance, in the second scene in the

_Petrouchka Ballet_, only footlights were used. The pattern of the

shadows of the dancers falling on a neutral background was very

effective.

If your scene is laid indoors, your lighting will be somewhat determined

by the period of the play. For instance, in the third act of _Men of

Iron_, the great hall of Devlin Castle was softly lighted to suggest

candle and torch light. This effect was produced by using amber and blue

lights overhead; red, blue, white, and amber in the footlights. A strip

of blue and red lights placed upright against the proscenium frame threw

rich color against the king and those of his courtiers who stood near

the throne. This color was most pleasing when it fell upon the armor of

Myles as he knelt before the king.

Again your lighting may be determined by the kind of action. A gay scene

naturally requires bright lighting. As an illustration of this: The

royal kitchen in the _Knave of Hearts_ was made warm and gay by the use

of white and amber lights overhead, and amber, blue, and red footlights

to throw rich colors on the costumes. The fireplace gave a warm light,

and through the window could be seen the bright summer landscape.

As an illustration of a serious and somber scene, we might take the

first act of the hero tale, _Sigurd, the Volsung_. Here many blue lights

were used with a very few red and amber. The result was that the great

hall became a mysterious place in which Odin himself could appear, and a

somber enough setting for the traitorous Siggeir.

If your picture is an imaginative one, such as the garden of jewels in

_Aladdin and His Wonderful Lamp_, you are free to use your lights as you

wish, to produce a scene of enchantment.

When you have finished your experimenting, and have found the right

lighting for a scene, take a sheet of paper and make a chart. This

illustration suggests a form for you to follow.

CHART

_Name of Play_

Scene I.

Overhead lights.

Left (as seen from the audience) Right

blue, white, white, white,

blue

Footlights

Left Right

blue, red, amber, white, red,

blue

Left strip

blue, red, blue, blue

Right strip

blue,

amber,

blue, blue

Left extension

white

The stage electrician will need a chart for each scene of your play. The

changing of the lights for each scene will be his responsibility.

You will probably have little need for baby-spots unless your equipment

is very elaborate, and to use them requires almost professional

experience. Every boy who is interested in electricity knows that a

rheostat or dimmer is used for turning lights off and on gradually. They

may be purchased for a small sum or they may be made.

Every new play and every new scene presents a new problem for you to

solve. You will know that you have solved your problem when, as a group,

you can sit before each scene and feel that it is harmonious, that it

surrounds the figures with suitable atmosphere, and that your lighting

interprets the idea and mood of your play.

[Illustration:

_From A the current from one wire passes to the stationary electrode C

which is submerged in a gallon jar of water containing one eighth

teaspoon of ammonium chloride. The graduated electrodes (all

connected) are fastened to the wooden bar B which is made to slide

up and down the vertical posts at either side. Both sets of

electrodes are made of thin sheet copper. By means of the cord

(attached to the screw eye in B) which runs over the pulleys D, D

down to the spool drum E, the upper electrodes can be slowly let

down into the ammonium chloride solution, completing the circuit and

increasing it as more of the electrode surface is exposed to the

liquid. This dimmer will carry as many lights as your theater will

ever require._

]

[Illustration: [Marionette]]

[Illustration: [Marionettes]]

CHAPTER IX

Training Your Puppeteers

The stage is set. The play has been chosen. The puppets are ready. Let

us gather around the table to talk about our parts. There should be a

copy of the play in the hands of each puppeteer. Begin by reading the

play, each pupil reading the part that he has chosen. After the reading,

discuss and analyze each character, his appearance, his disposition, and

his voice.

For instance, Captain Peggoty in _The Childhood of David Copperfield_

would have a rough-and-ready seaman’s voice that would boom from his

deep chest, but his words would show generosity and kindness. Alice, in

_Alice in Wonderland_ would have a little girl’s voice, one that would

suggest wonderment, sometimes impatience, and a quaint dignity when she

tried to appear grown up. The White Rabbit’s voice would be high,

nervous, and impatient. The Caterpillar would have a slow, full,

dignified voice, while the voice of the Duchess would be gruff and

peppery. Deacon Bowman, the faithful old servant in _Men of Iron_, would

have the trembling, wavering voice of extreme old age.

How shall the right person be found for each part? One of the most

satisfactory ways is that of trying out for parts, with the group acting

as a jury. The judges must keep in mind that the voice is very important

in interpreting character and they will do well to choose the voice that

is best suited to the character. If each puppeteer takes the same

position at the table at each rehearsal, you will soon associate each

voice with a certain place. This will make it much easier to address

your lines to the proper character. The lines should be reread slowly

for the sake of better understanding. In this way, each in turn soon

comes to read the lines of his character with real appreciation. Do not

hurry over the little words. Every word should be clearly spoken. Lift

your eyes as often as you can from your manuscript. “Talk” your lines.

In almost no time you will know your lines without looking at them. When

you can speak your lines so naturally that any of your friends, with his

eyes closed, could imagine the character you are interpreting from your

voice, you are ready to take your puppet in hand.

Manipulation of your marionette is the second step in your training as a

puppeteer. You will be surprised at the amount of time this requires.

Some of the greatest puppeteers have spent months learning to manage a

single puppet. In all your practice work, avoid careless motions of your

hands, with your thoughts elsewhere. Be wholly absorbed in what you wish

to do.

[Illustration: [Marionettes]]

[Illustration: [Marionettes]]

Your puppet in the making has been so weighted that when you hold your

controller you will know the very second the puppet’s feet touch the

floor. This delicate position must be held. Hold your controller steady.

If you lower your controller after the feet have touched the floor your

puppet will sag. Behold the sagging puppet! Begin gently. Do not jerk

the strings. The least motion of the hand brings a quick response from

the puppet. In fact, puppets are just like ourselves, if handled

skilfully they will do almost anything you may wish them to do. As your

skill grows so will your pleasure in your puppet grow. Its many almost

human movements and gestures will delight you as they have delighted all

those men and women who have been its friends. If you can hold your

marionette before a mirror and practise with it, speaking your lines, as

you pull the strings, you will be surprised to see how lifelike it

becomes. You will discover that a slight movement may indicate very

strong feeling.

A whole chapter could be written about the movements of the head. Let us

see how the head may show thoughtfulness. When you are thoughtful, how

do you hold your head? Release the head strings and your puppet’s head

will drop forward as yours has just done. If you wish to turn this

thoughtful pose into one of discouragement, let the shoulders droop

forward as well, so that the chest becomes hollow. How would you stand

if listening? Release the head strings and slant the controller so that

the head falls a little to one side and a little forward. How near to

this and yet how different is the attitude of craftiness and cunning. To

the listening pose you simply add a forward thrust of the head and a

hunching up of the shoulders. For the proud, erect bearing of a king,

hold your controller horizontally. If your puppet is a charming young

lady, her head will make many quick, graceful little turns. This may be

done by releasing the head strings and tipping the controller back and

forth.

We now come to the movements of the shoulders and the waist. The center

string controls the movements of the waist and is used whenever you want

your puppet to sit down, kneel down, or bow. As you know there are a

hundred different ways of sitting down. The young and old, each has his

way. So, too, have the proud and the humble, the gentle and the

boisterous. When you make your puppet sit down, unless he is very stiff

and proud, let his body settle a little. You will notice that most

people do this. When you pull the center string you must at the same

time lower the controller slightly to keep the feet from swinging off

the floor.

There are quite as many ways of bowing as there are of sitting down. A

courtier would bow from the waist, his head slightly bent; the little

princess, in her full skirts, would courtesy gracefully with her head

tilted backward.

Next, we come to that small but important thing, the hand. When one

knows how to control it, it can do such wonderful things. It can show

force or gentleness, harshness or kindness, nervous excitement or shaky

old age. It is possible for a marionette to draw a sword, practise at

the pells, engage in fist fights, and hammer at a forge. When a

marionette must hammer at a forge, as in _Sigurd, the Volsung_, and in

_Men of Iron_, be sure that it makes a heavy, steady stroke. The hammer

must be of iron. If the armorer sings a jolly rhythmic song, he can keep

time with his hammer. Suit your gestures to your words. It is the fault

of inexperienced puppeteers that they make all gestures alike.

Experienced puppeteers suit their gestures to the ideas and to the

feelings which they wish to convey.

It is when a puppet is called upon to do some unusual thing, such as

dancing, climbing a wall, fighting a duel, riding a horse in a

tournament, that difficulties appear.

Let us take the first of these—dancing. The Bear in _Men of Iron_

danced. Dainty little Lady Alice in _Men of Iron_ danced. Fat jolly

Tweedle Dee in _Alice in Wonderland_ danced. The surly old cook in the

Duchess’s kitchen danced. But imagine the differences in these dances!

Each dance expressed the character of the dancer. The Bear danced to a

lively jig whistled by his trainer. His steps were carefully worked out

in time with the tune, and when once learned were never varied. Little

Lady Alice, with dainty step and charming courtesies, danced to the tune

of a medieval love song. Tweedle Dee danced to a rollicking tune played

on an accordion. His steps were lively and when he danced across the

stage on his right foot, kicking out his left in time with the music, he

made everyone laugh. The cook’s dance was an Irish jig.

Puppets are versatile. To them belongs not only the interpretation of

the spoken word but they are equally at home in the world of pantomime,

music, and dance.

The illustrations in this book show how puppets can even perform a

ballet. Here you can see their interpretation of the colorful and

dramatic Russian ballet, _Petrouchka_. The cast of twenty-one puppets

included four principal actors, the manager, the Moor, the Ballerina,

and Petrouchka and besides these, a showman and a trained bear, an organ

grinder, and bands of gypsies.

A ballet or an opera will naturally require a different procedure than a

play, because the character analysis comes from the music. Here are the

steps by which the _Petrouchka Ballet_ was worked out:

1. The story was told to the pupils.

2. The musical score as a whole was played to them.

3. The motif for each character and incident was played to them.

4. The musical score as a whole was again played and the pupils listened

for the motifs.

5. Each character was analyzed and his probable actions upon the stage

were discussed.

6. The puppet was taken in hand and the interpretation of the music with

it was begun.

There are four scenes in this ballet. The first scene is a street fair

in a Russian village. A little theater occupies the center back stage in

which the stage manager exhibits the Moor, the Ballerina, and

Petrouchka. The scene closes with their lively dance and Petrouchka’s

declaration of love to the Ballerina.

Scene II is in Petrouchka’s box and shows his despairing love for the

Ballerina.

Scene III is in the Moor’s box and shows him playing with his ball. The

Ballerina enters and they dance together. Petrouchka rushes in and in a

jealous rage tries to kill the Moor. The Moor chases Petrouchka out of

his box.

Scene IV is again at the fair. There are gay dances by gypsies and

nounous. Petrouchka runs in, chased by the Moor who stabs him. The

people draw away and the Ballerina kneels beside him. The manager comes

in, the Moor, the Ballerina, and all the people depart. The manager

drags poor, lifeless Petrouchka toward the little theater. Suddenly up

over the little theater appears the spirit of Petrouchka, mocking and

gesticulating. The manager stands aghast.

So that you may understand how this ballet was produced, let us take the

second scene and work it out together. The scene opens with a crashing

chord as Petrouchka is thrown onto the stage. (No less than thirty times

did the puppeteer rehearse this entrance with the music.) He lay in a

motionless heap. At a few plaintive notes he lifts his head, then drops

it again. To the quick notes that follow he beats the floor with his

hands. As the music grows in volume, his despair increases, and he leaps

to his feet and rushes wildly about the room, beating frantically upon

the walls. As the music changes and becomes soft and reminiscent,

Petrouchka thinks of the Ballerina and stretches out his arms, then

sorrowfully drops his head. The motif for the Ballerina announces her

entrance. She comes in gay and light as a bird. Petrouchka, overcome

with emotion, drops on his knees before her. She continues her gay

little dance and leaves as lightly as she entered. Despair again seizes

Petrouchka, who dashes himself against the walls, then finally falls to

the ground. The curtains close.

In a gymnasium there are certain exercises that bring all the muscles of

the body into use. Likewise there are times when the whole body of a

marionette must come into action. If you want a marionette to climb a

wall, your audience must feel that the marionette is actually pulling

himself, with effort, up and over the wall. This requires a great deal

of patient practice. To make your marionette climb a wall, he must first

appear to catch hold of the wall, then to draw up one knee, then to

strain up as you would, then to throw an arm over the wall, then to pull

his body up until he can throw a leg over the wall. If this is well

done, the audience climbs the walls with the puppet.

Sometimes, puppets must appear to assist each other. For instance, when

Myles was thrown on the ground by the bully, Walter Blunt, Gascoigne,

his friend, got down on one knee beside him, threw his arm around his

shoulders, and apparently helped him to rise.

There are certain little tricks which are very effective, such as

crying, or dropping off to sleep and snoring. In the _Childhood of David

Copperfield_, Mrs. Gummage frequently lifted her apron to her eyes and

wept. As one corner of her apron was sewed to her hand, this was an easy

thing to do. Can you see her, shoulders shaking, her apron to her eyes,

sniffling, “I am a lone, lorn critter and everything goes contrary with

me?”

In the illustration, page 130, you can see how a puppet may appear to

toss a ball. This is the way it was done. One puppeteer held the Moor’s

controller while his assistant held the end of a string attached to the

ball. Through practice, these puppeteers were able to make the Moor’s

hand and the ball rise at the same moment, thereby giving the impression

that the Moor tossed the ball. When the Moor stopped playing with the

ball, the puppeteer who held the string attached to the ball let it fall

to the stage. The audience felt that the Moor was tired of playing and

had tossed the ball aside.

In this same ballet, an organ grinder appeared. The handle of the organ

was fastened to one of his hands. When the puppeteer pulled the hand

string up and down in time with the music, it seemed to the audience

that the organ was really being played. A marionette can be made to play

a flute. The flute is fastened in one hand, and a string from the flute

passed through the mouth of the marionette up through the top of its

head to the controller. When the puppeteer pulls the flute string, the

flute is raised to the mouth of the marionette.

All these effects and many others can be accomplished when you

understand the manipulation of your strings. Sometimes you may wish to

use birds, bees, butterflies, or flying dragons. If you keep the wings

in constant motion you can make your audience believe that these winged

creatures are really flying. Of course, bees and butterflies move their

wings more rapidly than birds and dragons. The more you observe flying

birds, the better you will be able to imitate them.

You have made the puppet look the part, now see that it acts the part.

You have made your hero look like a hero, now see that he acts like a

hero. You made the king look like a king. Can you make him act like a

king?

The third step in your training as a puppeteer comes when you have

acquired enough skill to manage your puppet. Then you are ready to join

your fellow puppeteers on the bridge. At first you will probably feel

that the bridge is not large enough for you alone, not to mention four

or five others. Experience will show you, however, that you can do a

great deal in a very small space. This means good management and

practice and consideration for your fellow puppeteers.

Now that the puppet is on the stage, imagine what a shock it would be to

your audience to see a great hand coming down below the proscenium arch.

To prevent this, always keep your hand, even during rehearsals, close to

your control.

While on the stage, every motion must have a reason behind it. Puppets

cannot move aimlessly about the stage any more than real actors can.

Every gesture, too, must mean something.

Now the time has come to show yourselves as real artists. Your stage is

your picture and though you change it with every move of your puppets,

you are always making it the picture. This means that you should know

what artists speak of as arrangement or composition.

[Illustration: [Stage]]

Let us suppose that you are sitting in the audience and saw two puppets

standing like this: “Oh, how stupid,” you would say. Imagine them

standing like this:

[Illustration: [Stage]]

[Illustration:

_Upper: Marionettes from "The Adventures of Alice."_

_Lower Left: Bear and Trainer from "Men of Iron."_

_Lower Right: Marionette from "Petroushka."_

]

“How interesting.” But why interesting? The first spacing was equal,

hence it was monotonous. The second was varied, therefore, more

interesting. Again you are sitting in the audience looking at the

picture and this is what you see:

[Illustration: [Stage]]

Two small figures on one side and one large figure on the other side.

How satisfying! The reason is balance. You can see by these two simple

illustrations how necessary it is to keep in mind not only the movements

of your puppets, but the positions of all the puppets on the stage. If

each puppeteer understands this and considers the relation of his puppet

to every other puppet, the audience will always see an interesting

picture.

Equally as important as the stage picture is the conduct of your puppets

when on the stage. They should all show interest when another puppet is

speaking. This may be done by turning the head to listen, nodding the

head to show agreement, shaking the head to show disagreement, leaning

forward to show interest. In a hundred small ways a puppet can show

life. The point is, there should be no dead puppets on the stage.

But there is a danger here. Puppets must not divert the attention of the

audience from the main character. For example, in _Men of Iron_ in the

scene showing the great hall of Devlin Castle, the minstrel is singing

before the king and his court. The jester, with his pranks and capers,

could easily have taken too much of the attention of the audience to

himself and away from the minstrel, but instead, he sat down on the

floor near the minstrel and pretended to be playing a lute. He followed

every gesture of the minstrel and when the minstrel finished his song,

rose and bowed low before the king. The jester did likewise, to the

amusement of the audience.

Good puppeteering is much like good ball playing, the interest is in the

ball but the ball always moves. It goes from player to player. Any

player who holds the ball is the center of interest, some longer and

some shorter. Your skill and cleverness can keep this sense of movement

and interest in your puppets and their play. This smoothness is

accomplished by your quickness in watching for the last words spoken by

the speaker before you, which is called your cue; and also by your

cleverness in planning ways to help out a puppeteer and his puppet who

has difficult things to do.

When the bear trainer, for example, commands his bear to stand on his

head, the boy who is holding the bear’s controller must have time enough

to make the difficult manipulation of the strings. If the puppeteers who

manage the squires make their puppets lean forward and call out in

surprise to each other, “What? A trick?” “The bear can do a trick.”

“Look.” “Bravo!” “Bravo!” (as the bear succeeds in standing on its

head), they will be of great assistance to the bear puppeteer.

Here is an illustration of the way in which you can avoid awkward

pauses. The Knave of Hearts, in the play by that name, steals some tarts

and climbs out of the window. Now you can see that his puppeteer would

need plenty of time in getting the knave through the window. Lady

Violetta, who helps him steal the tarts, shows great excitement and

cries to him to hurry, then she runs to the door, saying that she hears

someone coming. Then she runs back again. She repeats this until the

knave has made his escape. You can easily imagine how this clever trick

excited the audience.

Getting your puppet off the stage is just as important as getting it on.

Time your exits so that there is no awkward pause between the last word

spoken and the exit.

You have imagined yourself sitting in the audience seeing a picture. Now

can you imagine your disappointment when you cannot understand a single

word the puppets say? Inexperienced puppeteers are apt to think that it

is the high, loud voice that will reach the people in the last row of

seats. Experienced puppeteers know that it is the clear, full, rich

voice that carries. Address your words to those farthest away from you.

Keep in mind that your voice must travel down and out through the

proscenium arch. If your head is not lowered, your voice will strike the

curtain, which will deaden it.

Sometimes it is necessary to make the voice seem to come from a distance

and yet every word must be distinct. This can be done in a very simple

way. Bend your arm and lift it to your face, holding your mouth inside

your elbow. Now when you speak, your words seem to come from a distance.

As you slowly lift your mouth from your arm, your voice seems to come

nearer and nearer. In _Sigurd, the Volsung_, there is a scene where the

dragon, who possesses a treasure of gold, comes, at twilight, out of the

rocky crevice of a great cliff, to drink at a pool. Before he is seen,

his voice is dimly heard calling, “Gold, gold, my gold, my gold.” The

boy who spoke these lines used this trick so cleverly that his audience

shivered as the dragon appeared.

Every person knows that the greatest charm of a voice is its

naturalness. This naturalness comes to you when you let your feelings go

down the strings into your puppet. Then it is that your puppet comes to

life, is gay, sad, prankish, haughty, timid, bold, willful, cunning,

sly, or lovable. When your puppet obeys your every feeling, you and your

puppet are one.

[Illustration: [Marionette]]

[Illustration: [Stage]]

CHAPTER X

Presenting Your Play

The successful presenting of a play requires much planning and

organization. It will be necessary to choose a property man, two

assistants, a stage electrician, an inspector of the strings, one

assistant, and a prompter. It is the business of the property man to see

that the scenery and properties are in perfect condition before each

performance. He, with his assistant, sets the stage long in advance of

the performance. He changes the settings for each act. It is necessary

for him to have two assistants, one for the right and one for the left

of the stage. The property man finds places for all his properties. He

places the properties for each scene together. He places the back drops

and wings in the order in which they are to be used. Each property, when

not in use, should be in its place. Benches should be provided behind

the scenes for the puppeteers. If chairs are used, beware of squeaky

ones.

The stage electrician is responsible for the lights and the making of

all changes in lighting between acts. He must be provided with a chart

of instructions, giving the lighting plan for every scene. This plan

should be securely tacked where it can be easily referred to. The

electrician can also take care of the drawing of the curtains, which is

an important task. There should also be a sheet of cues for the drawing

of the curtains, since a scene can be spoiled by drawing the curtains

too soon, too quickly, too slowly, or too jerkily. The last words spoken

in the first scene of _Men of Iron_ were: “I will climb the wall and

fetch it.” This was the signal or cue for the electrician to close the

curtains.

The prompter ought to have a low, clear voice and ought to be a person

in whom every puppeteer has confidence. Girls usually make good

prompters because of the quality of their voices. The prompter should

stand on the bridge near the middle and always keep her eyes on the

lines. She should never fail to prompt a puppeteer the instant he needs

it. She never confuses the puppeteers by trying to prompt them when they

do not need it. She must know the play so well that she understands

every pause.

The inspector of the strings is another important person in the

organization. This office is usually well filled by a girl. If there are

a great many puppets she may need an assistant. It is her duty to test

all the strings about a half hour before the play. This is done by

placing the thumb and forefinger on the string, just under the

controller, then letting the string pass between the thumb and

forefinger as they travel down to the marionette. If there is a weak

part in the string it can be easily detected. She sees that the

fastening at the controller is secure, and that the strings hang

straight and untangled from the controller to the marionette. She should

provide a first-aid box fully equipped with scissors, thread, paper of

pins, thumb tacks, and needles. A threaded needle, with the thread the

length of the knee strings, can be pinned into the curtain so that it is

available the second it is needed. A place for everything, and

everything in its place, does much toward making your performance move

along with smoothness and rapidity. All puppeteers, including property

man, electrician, and prompter should wear gymnasium shoes. In fact,

anyone who assists behind the scenes should do the same. If you find

that your bridge stairs creak the puppeteers should remain on the bridge

throughout the scene. Before a puppeteer comes down from the bridge, he

hangs up his marionette.

Since silence is so necessary behind the scenes, it can readily be

understood how important it is to have absolutely no talking on the

bridge, or between puppeteers who are waiting behind the stage. Scenes

must be changed and properties moved almost noiselessly. If you have a

high ideal of perfection for your play, two or three weeks of daily

rehearsals will be necessary. This is especially true for any marionette

ballet, such as Petrouchka, where it is necessary to memorize the music,

because each puppeteer is dependent on the music for his cues. Before

the curtains open all marionettes that are to be in the scene should be

in their places on the stage. Hold your controller with a steady hand,

so that your marionette is motionless. Keep your puppet on its feet. Do

not let it sag. Remember the sagging puppet.

As soon as the curtains open, begin your lines. Remember that a play is

like a piece of music, it moves onward in perfect time. An awkward

pause, or hesitation, breaks the time and destroys the spell you are

weaving about your audience. Entrances and exits should be so arranged

that the marionette makes his entrance and begins to speak his lines as

soon as the speaker before him finishes his lines. We have spoken of the

spell that you are trying to weave. Let us see what has been done, so

far, toward this end. The puppets are beautifully made. The scenery is

lovely in design and color. Hands, through patient practice, have

acquired that deftness and sureness that we call skill. The voices are

well pitched and appropriate for each character.

The greatest thing, however, is yet to be done. It is to touch the

imagination of your audience. The key to this world of the imagination

is suggestion. The lights and setting give the mood. The voices and the

movements of the puppets convey the thoughts and emotions of the

characters of the play. The harmony of lights, setting, voices, and the

movements of the puppets work the spell.

In the battle scene in _Sigurd, the Volsung_, the curtains open on a

stage where a low mound and one tree is silhouetted against a twilight

sky. A bit of afterglow still lingers. On the ground are several shields

and spears and two prostrate figures. Against one of the figures lies

Sigmund, the great Norse hero. Beside him kneels his faithful wife,

Hiordis. The audience feels that, shrouded in the mysterious blue light,

are a great host of noble slain. Sigmund bids Hiordis gather up the

pieces of his broken sword to keep for his son that is to be born. Out

of the shadows, dimly seen in his “gleaming gray mantle and cloud-blue

hood,” comes Odin, to welcome Sigmund to the hall of the heroes in

Walhalla. Hiordis bows her head in silence and the audience experiences

her grief, and shares her hope for the future. The afterglow in the sky

seems to be a promise of a new day.

[Illustration: [Stage]]

[Illustration]

MASKS

[Illustration: [Mask]]

CHAPTER I

The Map of the Mask

From the map it is evident that masks have been worn in every part of

the world. They are older than the idols which primitive man made for

himself. Why he invented masks we do not exactly know. They may have

originated when man first attempted to impersonate the gods as he sought

to control nature. If you can imagine how vast and mysterious the world

of nature looked to primitive man and how he felt about all moving

things, animals, clouds, winds, flowing water, swaying trees, and

creeping vines, you can understand how he came to believe that there

were spirits dwelling in such things and that these indwelling spirits

had power to work him good or evil. Through offerings and prayers he

sought to control these mysterious spirits and make them do his will.

Death was the greatest of all mysteries. Where did the spirit go when it

left the body? It must go somewhere. Why not into an animal, or a tree,

or even into a stone? Gradually this came to be his belief. His desire

for mastery and power over the spirits led him to imagine faces more

powerful and compelling than his own which would dominate them. He was

full of invention. He invented the mask and became a god. When he wore

the mask he believed that he controlled indwelling spirits and even

coming events. This belief was true of primitive man the world over.

In Africa, masks were always worn in the tribal religious rites. When a

dancer wore a mask, he was no longer an individual for he felt within

himself the spirit of all his tribe. When the dance was finished, the

mask was taken from the head and worshiped like an idol. These masks

were created by the greatest artists of the tribe. They were simple,

strong, and severe, without naturalism of any kind. They exaggerated the

character of eyes, nose, and mouth in order to give intensity of

expression. They were strange, but not terrifying. They were an effort

to reveal the inner relations of man, nature, and God. They were

beautifully made out of wood, copper, bronze, and ivory.

Quite different masks are found among the primitive people of North

America. The Eskimos in Alaska make animal masks such as of the bear,

wolf, beaver, and various birds to represent their totem ancestors.

Every totemistic tribe has its own animal ancestor which it believes is

impressed upon everything around the dwelling. The Eskimos believe that

in the early days, if animals wished to assume human form, they could do

so at will by pushing up their faces or beaks, as if they were masks.

This human or man-like form they called the “inua.” It was supposed to

represent the thinking part of the animal, and, at its death, became its

shade or ghost. During the many festivals when the Eskimos wore their

animal masks, they believed that they actually became the creature that

they represented. Some of their masks were ingeniously made with double

faces, so arranged that, at certain times in the ceremony, the outer

mask which was held in place by pegs could be removed, thus symbolizing

the transformation of the animal into the man.

The Indians of California observe annual ceremonies of mourning for the

dead. Ten or more men prepare themselves to play the part of the ghosts.

Disguised with painted masks, and adorned with feathers and grasses,

they dance and sing in the village or rush about at night in the forest,

with burning torches in their hands. The relatives of the dead look upon

the maskers as their departed friends.

Other Indian tribes disguise themselves by painting their faces instead

of wearing masks. The inspiration for the painting comes from a trance

or a vision. The dancer makes his request to the leader of the ceremony.

“My Father, I have come to be painted, so that I may see my friends.

Have pity on me and paint me.” Elaborate designs in red, yellow, green,

and blue are put upon the face, with a red or yellow line upon the

parting of the hair. The designs most commonly used are sun, moon,

stars, crosses, and birds.

The Indians of Arizona and New Mexico, such as the Hopi and Zuni, are

ancestor worshipers. They believe that their dead relatives become

supernatural spirits or “cachinas” or “kokos.” They consider them

guardians that they may call upon in time of distress and need. If the

crops have suffered from drought, they bring out the sacred masks and

perform the rain dance.

The Zuni believe that the earth is watered by these departed ancestors,

who as they pass to and fro continuously over the middle plains collect

water in vases and gourd jugs from the six great waters of the world.

They are unseen by the people below, because they wear cloud masks.

The masks worn by the Zuni dancers in their great winter festivals bear

symbols characteristic of the cachinas and are repainted with great care

before each dance. Many and varied are the names of the different masks,

such as Mountain Goat-hunter Mask, Thrush Mask, Owl Mask, Buffalo Mask,

Dust-in-the-House Woman Mask, Rain-Drop-Maker Mask, Long-Life-Maker

Mask.

The ancient Aztecs wore masks decorated with turquoise and shell.

[Illustration:

_Masks_

_Indian Corn Maidens_

_Clowns_

_Japanese Characters_: _Old Woman_, _Devil Mask_, _Old Man_

]

[Illustration: MAP of the MASK]

1 _AFRICA (Congo)_

2 _ESQUIMAU_

3 _ITALY (Commedia del Arte)_

4 _ROMAN_

5 _Greece (Ancient)_

6 _ASIA (Thibet)_

7 _EGYPT_

8 _BRAZIL_

9 _NEW MEXICO (Hopi)_

10 _ARIZONA (Zuñi)_

11 _CALIFORNIA_

12 _NEW YORK (Benda)_

13 _PHILADELPHIA (Bellsnickles)_

14 _ENGLAND (Mummers)_

15 _FRANCE (Revels)_

16 _CEYLON (Lion)_

17 _NEW ORLEANS (Mardi Gras)_

18 _JAVA_

19 _SIAM_

20 _BURMA_

21 _CHINA_

22 _JAPAN (No Drama)_

In Brazil, masks were used in dances performed in honor of the dead. The

mask represented animals, birds, and insects. They obtained their

magical power by the wearer imitating the movements and actions of these

creatures. For instance, the butterfly masks came by their magic through

the dance of two men who imitated the play of these brilliant insects

fluttering on the wing, settling on sand banks and rocks. The magic of

the swallow masks came through the imitation of the swallow, and so it

was with the owl, spider, vulture, beetle, toad, jaguar mask, and

others. After the dance the masks were burned in order to drive the

indwelling spirits back to their haunts. Even idols needed masks to give

them life, and special power over disease and disaster. These masks must

be as enduring as the gods themselves, so they were made of terra cotta,

shell, and stone. Among the gifts made to Columbus when he landed in San

Salvador were some of these sacred masks.

Masks originated in Asia just as they did in Africa and America, through

man’s fears and superstitions. In India, China, Japan, and throughout

the Orient, they have been used for centuries in religious ceremonies.

Gradually they were introduced into court functions, such as wedding and

birthday celebrations, and finally animal masks were used to entertain

the common people.

The highly involved religions of these eastern peoples, with their

countless deities, brought infinite variety to their masks. Their

civilization, being old and rich in tradition, gave to the mask

subtleties and refinement of characterization that could not be

conceived of by primitive peoples. Their masks reflected their clear,

well-defined ideas, and showed their artists’ amazing ability to

recognize and analyze expressions of the human face. Tranquillity,

mirth, cunning, scorn, wrath, and subtle shades of feeling are

portrayed. The idea in the mind of the mask maker was so clear that we

are never left in doubt as to the meaning of the mask. They are

emotional interpretations, never realistic portraits.

Chinese priests used the mask in morality plays showing the rewards and

punishments that will be meted out in their many heavens, hells, and

purgatories. Their masks are usually horrible or terrifying, sometimes

humorous, rarely beautiful. They are worn by gorgeously costumed priests

who enact the plays, in pantomime, on stages erected in the temple

courtyards.

In Siam, Burma, Java, and Ceylon, the mask passed from the temple to the

theater and the strolling players. Much of its old symbolism has been

lost, and it frequently becomes merely an elaborate piece of decoration.

Probably the most beautiful masks in the world are the religious or _No_

masks of Japan. These are worn in the sacred _No_ plays, of which there

are more than two hundred. They represent the Japanese idea of the

appearance of their gods and heroes. Music, dance, and dialogue all are

used in the five or six short plays which make the _No_ cycle. The _No_

begins with the bestowing of blessings by the gods and their victory

over the demons. A short love story follows, with possibly a bit of

humor, and then a picture of the passing of life. The end is a gracious

recognition of the favor of the gods. These ancient plays are performed

out of doors on a simple platform erected against a wall on which is

painted a symbolic pine tree. Masks have been used for more than four

hundred years in these _No_ dramas.

The ancient Egyptians used the mask in their sacrificial ceremonies. In

the “Book of the Dead” ceremony one may see a priest wearing the

jackal-headed mask of Anubis, standing before the bier of the great god,

Osiris. The victims kneeling before him wear hare and hawk headed masks.

Egyptian kings wore lion, bull, and dragon masks to impress their

subjects with their mighty power. Even the mummies wore masks. On the

faces of their dead kings they placed masks of pure gold as did the

Mycenæans.

The mask, as we know it, came to us through the Greeks. In the worship

of Demeter, the earth mother of the Greeks, masks of horses, pigs, cats,

hares, and asses were used. Masks were also used in the worship of

Dionysus, with dancing, chanting, and chorus. The Greeks, being the

first people to have a theater, were also the first people to realize

that no human face could portray the sustained expression of tragedy and

comedy called for by the great rôles of their dramas. The mask became a

necessity. Thespis is credited with its invention. The mask enabled an

actor to play female rôles, to play many different characters, and to

represent his character in youth, middle life, and old age. The open

mouth characterized the Greek mask. Some scholars have believed that a

brass mouthpiece was used to amplify the voice of the actor.

The Romans appropriated the Greek mask. Virgil tells us that they hung

masks on trees at the time of sowing, in order to better the crops.

Noble Romans wore masks of their illustrious ancestors at funerals. The

impersonators riding in chariots through the streets were dressed in

rich robes of office, resplendent in purple and gold such as the dead

nobles had worn in their lifetime. When the funeral procession reached

the Forum, the maskers solemnly took their seats on the ivory chairs

placed for them on the platform of the rostra, in the sight of all the

people. This spectacle, no doubt, stirred memories of the glorious past

in the hearts of the old and fired the young with noble ambitions. It is

said that Nero wore masks resembling his own face and those of his

favorites.

With the passing of glorious Rome the mask became a degraded thing,

abhorred by the early Christians.

Throughout the Dark Ages in Europe the mask was used only in the revels,

and to celebrate the coming of the New Year and the springtime.

Gradually the spirit of revelling slipped into the Church. In England

and in France, during the XIIth Century, there was a very famous revel

called “The Feast of Fools” that began at vespers on the last day of the

year. Two equally famous revels were those of the “Boy Bishop” and the

“Feast of the Ass,” celebrated with rout and mock ritual. Such were the

excesses indulged in that Pope Innocent III, in 1207 A. D., formally

prohibited masking in the church. But it was not until the XVth Century

that these revels were effectively driven out. We hear next of the mask

in scriptural plays, such as those given at Christmas time. These plays

were performed outside the church. During the XIVth Century, we discover

the guilds or corporations of craftsmen employing the mask in their

religious plays, in honor of royal visits, and in their May Day

processions. In fact, all over Europe, at that time wherever the

mystery, miracle, or morality play was given, we are sure to find at

least occasional use of the mask.

[Illustration:

_Masks_

_Upper Row_: _Bishop_, _Queen_, _King_

_Middle Row_: _Lady-in-Waiting_, _Crusader_, _Child_

_Lower Row_: _Jester_, _Old Woman_, _Little Jack_

]

In Italy, from the XIVth to the XVIIth Century, the mask was worn by

Harlequin, Pantaloon, Pulcinella, the Doctor, and all the characters of

the _Commedia dell’arte_. In the XVIIIth Century, the comedy theaters of

France also affected the mask as a dramatic requisite.

During the XIXth Century the mask had degenerated to the crude false

faces used by Europeans or their descendants in America. In

Philadelphia, children wear masks at Thanksgiving. Masks appear at the

celebration of the Mardi Gras in New Orleans, and the old-time custom of

wearing masks at Hallowe’en still prevails.

A few years ago a group of artists, foremost among them W. T. Benda, who

knew the great and beautiful tradition of the mask and had felt its

strange fascination, lifted the mask to a new level of distinction.

Anyone who has had the good fortune to see one of their masks cannot

escape its spell nor can he rest until he finds an occasion to make a

mask.

[Illustration: [Mask]]

[Illustration: [Mask]]

CHAPTER II

Occasions for Wearing the Mask

We all know the thrill of wearing a mask, but an entirely new and

strange thrill awaits him who wears a mask of his own creation. Anyone

who has imagination is apt to turn away from the ordinary commercial

mask, because his fancy can picture something much more clever and

interesting.

When one looks at the calendar he is surprised to find that there are so

many days that invite the wearing of masks. The first occasion for

wearing a mask that comes to mind is Hallowe’en, that old celebration of

the eve of All Saints’ Day. The religious significance of this festival

is almost forgotten, but it still marks the fullness of the harvest time

and has long been celebrated with masks and merry-making. Even the

glowing jack-o’-lantern is a kind of mask.

For occasions such as the New Year and April Fools’ Day the mask may

express an individual idea or fancy. There are a few days, however, such

as Thanksgiving, Christmas, and Easter, for which masks must be

specially designed. These masks should represent the characters that one

associates with the occasions. When a story is woven about these

characters and then told in pantomime, by actors wearing masks, it may

be called a mask. Music and dance add much to the beauty of a mask.

Woodland, park, and garden are ideal settings for masks in spring,

summer, and autumn. Arbor Day, Shakespeare’s birthday, and May Day are

delightful occasions which stir the imagination and have rich

associations in music and literature.

Let us suppose that one wishes to celebrate Christmas with a mask.

Christmas is a Christian festival but it is being celebrated more and

more by all people who believe in brotherly love and good will. These

attributes can become the theme of the mask. The possibilities for

developing this theme of brotherly love and good will are endless. The

story may be laid in any land. It may center about the life of a great

court or about the humblest home. But wherever it is laid, the story

must have dramatic interest and touch the feelings of those who see it.

A simple mask may be just as beautiful and moving as a very elaborate

mask. Whether it is to be one or the other will depend largely upon the

size of the group that wishes to present it, and the place where it is

to be given.

Since the mask grew out of the Church, and since the Church provides a

beautiful and dignified setting, naturally it becomes a most appropriate

place for a Christmas mask. The Church has so much to offer that it is

not surprising to find it again welcoming pageantry and the mask. The

organist and choir provide the music, members with dramatic talent

perform the pantomime, sewing groups make the costumes, while those who

have a gift for crafts can make the masks and properties.

A Christmas mask, when given in a school, may require the coöperation of

all departments. The English department may find the theme and place it

in a period and give it dramatic form and train the reader and maskers

in pantomime. In the art department, the masks will be made, the

costumes and properties will be designed and decorated. The library

furnishes books and plates. The sewing department makes the costumes.

The wood-working department makes the properties. The music department

finds appropriate music and trains the chorus. The printing department

prints programs, posters, and tickets.

Here is an example of the plan and development of a Christmas mask given

for children by the pupils of a junior high school. The first

consideration was the size of the stage and its possibilities. The

second consideration was the attention of the audience. It was thought

that an entertainment that lasted an hour would not be too long. The

problem then was to find or to make a story that would develop, reach

its climax and conclusion within an hour. Naturally this story had to be

dramatic, have a simple and clearly defined plot, and its characters few

and vivid. The story chosen was laid in England in the XVth Century. The

history, art, songs, and customs of that time seemed to lend themselves

so readily to a mask. The theme chosen was unselfish love. The

characters were the King, Queen, Sage, Lady-in-Waiting, Pages, Peasant

Mother, and her son, St. George, the Dragon, the Doctor and Jack, the

Giant Killer, and the Morris dancers. Beautiful old English carols were

woven into the story, which was told by a reader, accompanied by a harp.

The mask begins with the carol “Holy Night, Silent Night.” This is sung

by a concealed chorus of boys. The curtains open, the King is seated on

his throne, his Counsellor and Page beside him. The reader begins a

story of selfishness and greed that rule throughout the kingdom and with

a dream of the unhappy King. The Sage opens his great book and counsels

the King to send forth messengers to find if anyone in all the land has

done an unselfish deed. This alone can save the kingdom. The scene

closes with the departure of the pages and the singing of the carol: “We

three Kings of the Orient are, bearing gifts, we have traveled afar.”

The second scene is laid in a humble dwelling. Here an old peasant

mother awaits the return of her son from his day’s work. The reader

tells the story of their poverty, and of the old mother’s courage in

facing the day when her son must leave her to go forth into the world.

Distant carolers are heard singing:

Good King Wenceslaus looked out on the feast of Stephen.

While the snow lay round about deep and crisp and even.

As the carolers’ voices die away, the son returns and tells a marvelous

tale. He has saved the son of a nobleman from a wild boar and as a

reward the nobleman offers to take him away to his great castle. The

mother rejoices in his good fortune, though it means their separation.

The son tells his mother that he has refused the reward in order to stay

and take care of her.

They sit down to their humble meal, and bow their heads in thanksgiving.

One of the King’s messengers enters, tells of his futile quest and asks

them if they have heard of anyone who has performed an unselfish deed.

The mother tells of her son’s devotion. The messenger rejoices and

declares that in all his wanderings he has heard of nothing but

selfishness. He bids them follow him to the court. As the curtains

close, the chorus sings: “Joy to the World.”

The third scene shows the King and Queen upon the throne, a

Lady-in-Waiting and the Counsellor attending them. The unsuccessful

messengers return, kneel before the throne, and sadly bow their heads.

The triumphant messenger returns, bringing with him the old mother and

her son. The reader tells the story of their devotion and there is

general rejoicing. The King bestows blessings and favors and then sends

for the mummers, who come in led by St. George and the Doctor with his

great bottles of pills (“red to cure, and blue to kill”) little Jack,

the Giant Killer, the terrible Dragon, and the Morris dancers.

The mummers perform the old English play of St. George and the Dragon.

The Morris men give the stick dance. At the close St. George and little

Jack beg pennies from the court, while the dancers go begging through

the audience and the chorus sings:

Here we come a wassailing among the leaves so green.

Here we come a wandering so fair to be seen.

The King steps forth and blesses all the people. They kneel reverently

as the Christmas chimes begin to ring. The King and Queen now come down

and kneel with their people, while the chorus triumphantly sings: “Hark,

the Herald Angels Sing, Glory to the New-born King.”

The Christmas mask illustrated in these pages was written about the

Crusade of St. Louis of France. It sought to re-create, through music,

pantomime, costumes, and dance, the spirit of the XVth Century. It was

inspired by the wealth of the material of this period in the Cleveland

Museum of Art. Here were examples of Gothic sculpture which gave the

note of simplicity and reverence, and at the same time accurate

information about pose, expression, costume, and line. The stained-glass

windows, enamels, and illuminated manuscripts gave suggestions for color

and color arrangement. Old Italian chests and the frames of early

Siennese paintings influenced the designs of the necessary furniture. In

the art library were found photographs and plates of sculptures of the

cathedrals of Chartres, Amiens, and Rheims. These were studied for

costumes, headdresses, ornaments, and especially for the types of faces

which were to be used in the masks. Examples of early textiles were

drawn upon for designs of costumes and background.

The King collection of books on costume at the Cleveland Historical

Society furnished references on costumes.

The rare John G. White collection of folklore and music in the Cleveland

Public Library furnished songs and chronicles of the time. In this

collection beautiful old French music of the XIth, XIIth, and XIIIth

centuries was found. The songs were translated and adapted so that they

could be sung by children. The action of the mask was made to take place

on Christmas Eve, in the year 1255, in the hall of the castle of Count

Mathew of Brittany. The mask began with a procession of forty children,

in costume, singing this XIVth Century noel:

Lead us, Lord, where He doth lie this night!

There is a Child of Mary born!

Salvation hath He brought to us,

Whom we should worship night and morn.

Lead us, Lord, a star now shineth bright!

In Bethlehem it so befell

That in a stable born He was

Pray Him for grace to serve Him well.

Show us, Lord, where angel wings are light!

The shepherds heard that Angel-song

That grace did bring from out the sky

Where Man was born mankind among.

Conditor, our Lord of Power and Might

Now let each man upon Him call,

Who sits enthroned in Heaven high,

That to His bliss He bring us all.

[Illustration:

_Masks_

_Upper_: _Mummer_, _Queen_, _Jester_

_Middle_: _Egyptian Priest_, _Persian Poet_, _Greek Maiden_

_Lower_: _Columbine and Pierrot_

]

These children made a beautiful picture as they grouped themselves

before the tall trees at the right and left of the stage. With them sat

the soloists and the orchestra. A reader dressed in the costume of the

period told the story. A group of sixteen children, masked and costumed

as the characters in the story, presented the pantomime.

This mask aimed to impress, through music and the harmony between spoken

word and gesture, the deep significance of Christmas.

[Illustration: [Mask]]

[Illustration: [Masks]]

CHAPTER III

Making the Mask

Anyone who has ever tried to make masks, knows their fascination. A

pillowcase with two holes cut in it for eyes may have been your first

mask. A paper bag may have been your second mask. What a wonderful

chance this gave you to show your originality. You may remember how you

labored to express some humorous or grotesque idea. There was the paper

nose that you cut, fitted and glued to it, and the ears that you made

for it, the mouth that you painted, and the headdress of feathers and

quills. Above all, there was the joy of wearing it and of comparing your

mask with the masks of your friends.

All masks reflect the ideas and feelings of those who make them. Great

masks have individuality and character. How does one make a mask that

has character? It is done in some such manner as this: First decide

whether your mask is to represent an imaginary character or a historical

character. If it is to represent an imaginary character you will have a

great deal of freedom in working out your idea, for no one can say,

exactly, what a goblin or demon or any fanciful creature looks like. But

if your mask is to represent a historical character the problem is quite

a different one. In that case you are guided by tradition and also by

the structure and proportions of the human face.

Let us suppose that you wish to make a mask of a noble king. He probably

would have a high forehead, a straight brow, a strong, firm chin, and a

kindly mouth. Exaggerate the high forehead, the straight brow, the firm

chin, and the kindliness of the mouth, and you will find that every one

who sees your mask will be conscious of its nobility. Is your king young

or old? If he is old, there will be hollows about his eyes, nose, and

mouth, and his cheeks may be thin. If he is young, his flesh will be

firm and there will be no drawn or sagging muscles. Exaggerate the

roundness of youth and the thinness of old age, keeping the proportions

and qualities which indicate nobility.

The brow indicates mood—surprise and curiosity are shown by arched

eyebrows; sadness and grief are shown by drooping eyebrows; perplexity

and anger are shown by the drawing together of the eyebrows.

The nose is very important and demands careful study. It should be

consistent with the character. Can you imagine a noble, generous king

with a short, upturned nose?

The mouth and chin are quite as important as the brow and nose.

Beginners often have great difficulty in modeling them, because they

forget to consider the profile. The lips and chin must be built out and

shaped exactly like those of the human face.

[Illustration: [Mask]]

When you have the character of this noble king well in mind, take a

pencil and paper and make a sketch of him, front view and side view.

Keep in mind the general proportions of his face. Having made your

drawing you are ready to begin your work with clay. Measure your face

from chin to the crown of the head, and the width of your face from ear

to ear. Do this carefully, for a good mask should fit the face of the

wearer. Onto a slate or a board crush some newspapers into a mound,

about 4 by 6 inches, and 3 inches high. This paper, acting as a core,

will save your clay and insure its quick drying. Pack the clay over the

paper as in the illustration, to a depth of about 6 inches. If the

length of your face is 8½ inches, make the mound of clay 8¾ inches,

since the clay shrinks in drying. For the same reason, add an extra ¼

inch to the width. With your drawing before you, begin modeling the

clay. Remember that a face is not flat. Observe the plans of the

forehead, the cheeks, and eye sockets. The expression which you imagine

the noble king to have had should be modeled into the clay and the

wrinkles cut into the forehead and about the mouth. You must study your

mask from many angles in order to make it lifelike.

[Illustration:

_Characters from Christmas Mask_

]

If you do not finish your modeling the first day, cover the clay with

wet cloths to keep it from hardening. When you have completed your clay

model it will require twenty-four to thirty-six hours for it to dry.

From this model you are now ready to make either a papier-mâché mask or

a buckram mask. If you wish to make a papier-mâché mask cover the model

when thoroughly dry with a thin coat of vaseline. Now tear medium-weight

wrapping paper, cream and brown for instance, into pieces three or four

inches long, soak them in hot water, wring out separately, dip into

flour paste, and rub gently between the fingers until they feel like wet

chamois skin. Cover the entire surface with the cream-colored strips of

paper. The pieces may overlap but there must be no wrinkles. When the

entire surface is covered you may apply immediately a second layer. Let

this be of the brown paper. Follow this with a third layer of cream and

a fourth layer of brown. If your paper is thin, apply a fifth or even a

sixth layer to give the necessary thickness and strength. The

alternating of the cream and brown will help you to count your layers

and insures uniform thickness. Strive to keep a smooth surface and a

uniform thickness. Do not forget that in this process the last layer of

paper becomes the outer surface of your mask. After twenty-four or

thirty-six hours, the paper masks should be dry enough to remove from

the clay. Plasticine may be used instead of clay but since it does not

harden, this process necessitates making a plaster of Paris mold. The

directions for making this are given on page 66.

When you have removed the paper mask from the clay or plaster mold, cut

out the eye and nostril holes. If a mask is to be worn by a dancer, the

lips should be modeled slightly opened to permit the cutting away of the

paper between the lips.

If you decide to make a buckram mask you will require a piece of

light-colored buckram about twice the size of the face. Soften the

buckram with warm water, then place over the clay model which has been

covered with a coat of soapsuds. Press the buckram carefully, so as to

bring out all the modeling of the features, then allow to dry.

The next step is the construction of that part of the mask which will

cover the head. Here you will need assistance. While you hold the mask

to your face, your assistant will take a one-inch strip of heavy paper,

long enough to go around the back of the head, and attach it to the

outside edges of the mask, just above the ears. If this strip is

attached too low, the mask cannot be removed from the head, if too high,

the mask will not be held securely. You will soon discover that it is

necessary to put the chin into the mask first, when you put it on. A

mask should fit the face and head closely. If you follow the steps in

the illustration, you will see how this basketlike framework is

constructed and how any kind of headdress can be built up on it. When a

headdress is completed, and the inside of the mask is finished with a

lining of papier-mâché, you are ready to paint the mask. Oil paints are

the most practical. Tempera colors, however, may be used. The painting

of the mask should emphasize the character.

[Illustration: [Masks]]

Complexion is the first consideration. Faces usually are fair, sallow,

or swarthy. There are certain masks, however, that are much more

effective when they are painted symbolically. The mask of the priest of

Osiris was painted a rich green to indicate the fertility of the Nile.

The demon mask was painted a greenish-gray. Yellow, vermilion, and black

were used to heighten the terrifying aspects. Observation and experiment

will guide you in the painting of the eyes, lips, brow, and hair, and

also in the subtle violet shadows about the eyes, cheeks, and chin.

Beware of timid lines that imitate nature. They say very little when the

mask is a few feet away from you. Big, sweeping rhythmic lines make for

design and carrying power, and are to be seen in all great masks. The

inside of the mask should also be painted, decorated if you like, and

shellacked when the oil paint is thoroughly dry. This prevents the

breath from softening the papier-mâché. The outside must not be

shellacked.

The masks shown in the accompanying illustrations aimed to bring out the

most important traits of the character chosen. North American Indian

symbolism of design and color was carried out in the masks of the Corn

Maidens. Each mask was made by a different person, with a very clear

idea in mind of what she wished her mask to express. Notice how like and

yet unlike these Corn Maiden masks are. A clown’s face is supposed to

show grotesque humor. By exaggerating nose, ears, and mouth, both in

shape and color, the grotesque effects of the clown group were produced.

Cheerfulness and contented old age are characterized by two Oriental

masks shown at the bottom of the page. The demon mask grew out of a

careful study of Chinese and Japanese demon masks.

The remoteness and dignity of ancient Egypt are reflected in the mask of

the Priest of Osiris. The poetical sensitiveness of the mask of an

Oriental poet was inspired by the faces in early Persian miniatures.

There is much of wistfulness and subtle character delineation in the

mask of the jester. This mask was worn with a parti-colored costume, cap

and bells.

The possibilities of character masks are suggested by the photographs of

the “Christmas Masque” given by the children’s singing classes of the

Cleveland Museum of Art, and by the ninth grade special art class of

Fairmount Junior High School, assisted by the Music School Settlement at

the Cleveland Museum of Art, Christmas, 1925.

[Illustration: [Mask]]

[Illustration: [Costume]]

CHAPTER IV

The Costume and Setting for the Mask

Costume is a means of introducing characters, of telling time and place,

and of creating dramatic mood. A costume should be different from

ordinary clothes, and should have a characteristic quality that will

help an actor to interpret his part. Imagine Charlie Chaplin in any

other outfit than his own. Do you think this costume of his came by

chance? Much thought and experiment went into its creation. Have you

ever noticed how this artist wears his shabby, droll, almost pathetic

costume, and how he uses it to play upon your feelings? His work is an

illustrious example of a great artist’s use of costume.

There are two kinds of costumes, those which grow out of pure

imagination and those which reproduce the costumes worn in different

periods in different countries. The latter are spoken of as period

costumes. Under imaginative costumes come those of Maeterlinek’s _Blue

Bird_ which represent fire, water, milk, sugar, bread, and those of the

old morality plays, such as virtue, vice, modesty, poverty, envy, and

greed.

_Imaginative Costumes._ Three things are essential to the imaginative

costume: appropriate line, appropriate color, and appropriate material.

The kind of costume that would represent wind would require drapery, the

lines of which would suggest the movement of wind when the body was in

motion. Water, however, would require straight, downward falling lines.

The color of an imaginative costume is important. Who can imagine a

fairy in black or a gnome in white, a character representing spring in

russet brown or one representing autumn in yellow-green? Materials

likewise have their appropriate uses. Fairies are not weighted down with

velvet, neither are gnomes given costumes of gauze.

_Period Costumes._ When we come to period costumes, accurate information

is necessary. The quest leads us to libraries, with their illustrated

books, photographs, and plates; to historical and art museums with

whatever they may have of original material.

_North American Indian Costumes._ One costume that is familiar to every

American boy and girl is that of the North American Indian. We

occasionally see Indians at the circus, as traveling medicine men, or on

their reservations. Many museums are making collections of their

costumes and their arts. Government publications, such as the

beautifully illustrated ethnological reports, with information about

almost every tribe, are in most libraries. Many libraries have the

wonderful Curtis photographs. The _National Geographic_ and other

magazines have illustrations that could also be used.

[Illustration:

_Indian Costumes_

_Warrior_| | | _Maiden_| | | _Chief_

]

Considering the dramatic part that the Indian has played in American

life, what subject could be more appropriate for a mask? Indian life and

legend offer an equally vivid and colorful opportunity for the mask. The

wealth of material is inspiring. Every community in our country can find

somewhere in its history stirring events related to Indian life. What

could be more interesting than to weave these incidents of pioneer life

into masks? These could be presented by school clubs and boy and girl

scout troops, in parks and playgrounds.

[Illustration:

_Israelite Costumes_

_Priest_

_Maiden_

_Tribesman_]

]

_Bible Costumes._ A mask with characters taken from the Bible could be

very beautifully costumed. One could use pictures of the artist, Tissot,

who spent many years of his life in Palestine, sketching costumes that

he felt were similar to those of Bible times. His illustrations show how

widely the rich Eastern costumes differ from our own. The materials used

were fine, transparent linen and silk and cloth made from wool and

camels’ and goats’ hair. The various classes of people were

distinguished by difference in the richness, costliness, and simplicity

of their dress. Ornament is very characteristic of all these Oriental

costumes. The sculptured figures on one of the tombs near Thebes show

the Israelites brought before their Egyptian conquerors wearing fringed

garments. Moses commanded that fringe be worn by his people. This was

probably a survival of a still more ancient usage in the family of

Jacob. Assyrian reliefs show Israelite captives being stripped of their

ornaments, sandals, anklets, embroidered robes and tunics, girdles and

armlets, thin veils, caps of network, ear pendants, bracelets, rings,

and jewels of the nose.

_Egyptian Costumes._ The costumes of the ancient Egyptians may easily

come into a mask of Bible times. Materials used were fine linen, cotton,

and wool. The common people wore merely a piece of linen tied around the

loins. Occasionally the skin of a tiger or leopard was thrown over the

shoulders. Both men and women wore broad collars around the neck and

over the breast. The men wore armlets, bracelets, and finger rings,

while the women added to these ornaments, diadems, girdles, and bands of

ornament around the breast and hips. The headdress was important, for it

indicated the rank of the wearer. The illustration shows the

characteristic features of their costumes.

[Illustration:

_Egyptian Costumes_

_God Osiris_| | | _Princess_| | | _King_

]

_Cretan Costumes._ If you have ever felt that the ancient costume lacked

what we call “style,” behold this snappy, chic little Cretan goddess!

With her short-sleeved, closely fitting jacket, full flounced skirt and

wasp waist, headgear, loops, and sashes. She might have been the very

latest word from Paris a generation ago.

[Illustration:

_Cretan Goddess_

]

_Greek Costumes._ When we speak of Greek costumes, we usually think of

those upon Greek statues, such as the Athena and Artemis. Since these

are in marble or in plaster of Paris, it is quite natural that we should

think of the Greek costume as being white. It is interesting to learn,

however, that Greek costumes showed a great variety of colors.

[Illustration:

_Greek Costumes: Man and Woman_

]

The favorite colors were deep purple, red, and yellow. There was a very

dark blue and a green described as the color of unripe grapes or frog

colored. The materials used, were linen, wool, sometimes cotton, and

silk. The costumes worn by the common people were of coarsely woven

wool. The finest weaving was worn by the people of wealth. Design was

important in the Greek costume. Sometimes it was an all over symmetrical

pattern or a floral or an animal pattern. Even the human figure was used

as a motif. A fragment having a naturalistic design of ducks embroidered

in gold and green on a dark brown background has been found. These

designs were sometimes woven into the material, sometimes embroidered,

and very frequently painted upon the materials. Border designs beaten

out in thin gold were not infrequently stitched onto the dress.

The chief and indispensable garment of a Greek woman was her peplos,

which was a piece of material sewed together, open at top and bottom,

and reaching from the neck to the feet. The width was equal to the

extended arms. It was fastened over the shoulders with a kind of pin or

fibula and about the waist with a girdle. Under this she wore a short

undergarment. A similar but much shorter and simpler chiton was

sometimes worn by the Greek men. The outer garment for both men and

women was a kind of cloak or mantle made from an oblong of wool, 7 or 8

feet long by 5 or 6 feet wide. There were many ways of wearing this

garment which was called the “himation.” Here is a description of the

toilet of the Goddess Hera: “Then she clad her in her fragrant robe,

that Athena wrought delicately for her, and therein set many things

beautifully made, and fastened it over her breast with clasps of gold.

And she girdled it with a girdle arrayed with a hundred tassels, and she

set earrings in her pierced ears—earrings of three drops and

glistening—and therefrom shone grace abundantly. And with a veil over

all, the peerless goddess veiled herself—a fair, new veil, bright as the

sun, and beneath her shining feet she bound goodly sandals.” (Lang,

Leaf, & Myers.)

[Illustration:

_Roman Costumes_

_Soldier_| | | _Lady_| | | _Noble_

]

_Roman Costumes._ Roman dress was patterned after the Greek. It was

unbelievably ample. The toga was a huge elliptical piece of cloth in

length three times the height of the person who wore it and in width

twice his height. Imagine the skill required to arrange this garment.

The toga was of thin white woolen stuff. When bordered with purple, it

denoted a person holding public office. A purple toga was always a mark

of high office. It was sometimes embroidered in gold. Under the toga was

worn a short garment called the tunica, which corresponded to the Greek

chiton. The dress of a Roman matron corresponded to that of a Roman man.

She wore a tunica, loose and without sleeves. Over this a stola which

was belted at the waist and had sleeves. Out of doors, she wore the

palla, which is identical with the Greek himation. Sandals and sometimes

shoes were worn on the feet. These were bright colored and sometimes

embroidered with gold and pearls. Roman jewelry lacked Greek refinement.

_Costumes of the Early Church._ What could be more dignified and

beautiful than a mask built upon the history of the early church! The

costumes for such a mask would be ecclesiastical in character and would

reflect the influences of the Eastern and Western worlds. The materials

of these costumes would be rich and colorful and of Byzantine design.

The lines of the costumes would very closely resemble the state dresses

of the Roman official dignitaries. The illustration shows how elaborate

were the vestments of a bishop. In marked contrast but equally

interesting were the habits worn by the monastic orders. Here is a brief

description of the habits of several of these:

Benedictines wore gowns of black, white, or russet cloth, with white or

black fur, and black cape and hood.

Augustines wore black cassocks under white full-sleeved tunics, over all

black cloak and hood, square black cap.

[Illustration:

_Scene from Christmas Mask given by ninth year Fairmount Junior High

School pupils at the Cleveland Museum of Art._

_Lady-in-Waiting_| | | _King_

]

Dominicans or Black Friars wore similar habit to that worn by the

Augustine monks.

Franciscans or Gray Friars wore long, loose gray cassocks girded with a

cord, a hood or cowl, and a cloak of the same.

[Illustration:

_Ecclesiastical Costumes_

_Bishop_| | | _Nun_| | | _Monk_

]

Carmelite or White Friars wore habits of white throughout, but from

about 1240 to 1290 their cloaks were parti-colored, white and red.

Crossed Friars wore blue habits with a plain red cross.

In the early church there were various orders of nuns. They lived in

convents, apart from the world, and took the vows of poverty, chastity,

and obedience. Their costumes were of extreme simplicity and dignity, in

keeping with their religious ideas. Each order had a distinctive costume

of gray, blue, brown, white, or black. The materials were wool and

linen. Note the full mantle, sleeves, and head-covering.

_Crusaders’ Costumes._ Every boy and girl who loves adventures has no

doubt been thrilled by stories of the Crusaders. The story of Richard

the Lion-hearted may come to your mind. This illustration shows you the

kind of costumes that he and other Crusaders wore. Beginning in the year

1096, and during the two hundred years which followed, there were nine

crusades. People from every country in Europe and from every class set

forth for the conquest of Jerusalem and the recovery of the Holy

Sepulcher. When these great companies of people set forth each wore the

costume of his own country and class, but upon each surcoat was worn the

cross. According to the order of Pope Urban II which read: “You are a

soldier of the Cross, wear, then, on your shoulder the blood-red sign of

Him who died for the salvation of your souls.” What a sight it must have

been! Godfrey of Bouillon set forth from his province of Lorraine with

10,000 horsemen and 80,000 infantry, all bearing this blood-red cross

upon their surcoats. Raymond of Toulouse led forth, it is said, with

160,000 horse and foot.

[Illustration:

_Crusader's Costume_

]

Out of the successes and failures of these great pilgrimages came the

experience and inspiration that created the literature, architecture,

and arts of the Middle Ages, and gave the Christian world many of its

saints and martyrs.

_XIIIth Century Costumes._ One of the greatest expressions of this

intensely religious age was the cathedrals. From the infinite number of

statues that are carved upon their façades and especially their portals

and those statues that are within the cathedrals, from the figures in

their stained-glass windows, the brass effigies in their pavements, and

their frescoes and paintings, came the most authentic and complete

information about the costumes of this period. Illuminated manuscripts

and tapestries, such as the Bayeux tapestry, are also valuable sources.

Photographs and reproductions of all this material are available. If one

is seriously interested in costume he can collect reproductions from a

surprising number of sources, such as newspapers, especially the Sunday

supplement, magazines, and postcards, and make them into a costume

scrapbook.

[Illustration:

_XIIth Century Costumes: Lady and Noble_

]

The history of England from the time of William the Conqueror to that of

King John and Magna Carta furnishes a wealth of material for the mask.

Stories of William the Conqueror, Robin Hood and his Merry Men, the

Canterbury Pilgrims and Ivanhoe, will come to your mind. English

costumes show little change from the IXth to the XIVth Century. The men

wore a sleeved tunic, rather short, partly open at the sides, confined

by a girdle. Over this tunic, usually very plain, was worn a mantle. It

was a universal custom to cross-bandage the legs from the knee down.

Pointed caps and shoes or low boots were worn. Women wore long tunics or

gowns with close-fitting sleeves, made loose and girt in about the

waist. A short tunic with very wide sleeves at the wrist was worn over

this. This garment was often richly embroidered. For the out of doors

there was an extra mantle with hood. Beautiful ornaments of gold and

bronze were worn by both men and women. Coverchiefs were worn over the

head, encircling the face and covering the throat and shoulders. The

coverchief later became the wimple. Women wore their hair flowing or in

two braids brought forward over the shoulders. The men wore flowing hair

and the two-pointed beard. The garments of royal persons were made of

very rich materials.

An illuminated portrait of Eleanor of Acquitaine represents her “with a

wimple with a circlet of gems; her under tunic fitting closely and

having tight sleeves is gathered into a rich collar about her throat;

over this dress is a long tunic, loose and flowing, bordered with

ermine, its full and open sleeves being lined with fur; and over all,

there is the ever-present mantle so adjusted that at the pleasure of the

wearer it might be drawn over the head.”

[Illustration:

_XIIIth Century Costumes: Lady and Noble_

]

Richard the Lion-hearted wore over a white under tunic a longer tunic

and an almost equally long crimson dalmatic slit up at the sides. The

latter garment had very full sleeves. The mantle of royal blue and gold

was fastened in the center over the chest by a large morse. He wore

gloves jeweled at the back of the hand, and enriched boots with spurs

attached with buckled straps.

Here is a description of a XIIIth Century costume of King John. At a

certain Christmas festival he appeared in a white damask tunic with

jeweled girdle and gloves, his mantle being of red satin embroidered

with sapphires and pearls.

[Illustration:

_XVth Century Costumes: Lady and Noble_

]

[Illustration:

_XVIth Century Costumes: Lady and Noble_

]

_XVth Century Costumes._ Romances and ballads founded upon tales of

chivalry are colorful material for the mask. These are most frequently

laid in the XIVth and XVth centuries. This was the time when heraldry

was at its height and there was great interest in armorial devices.

These appeared on the rich costumes of the time, which were made from

silk, satin, velvet, and cloth of gold. Women wore very long and full

skirts, tight waists and sleeves. Rows of buttons appear on waists and

sleeves. There is a loose girdle about the hips. The horned, steeple,

and butterfly headdresses were most extravagant. Shoes had long, pointed

toes. Long mantles were popular. The costumes of the men of the same

century consisted of a tight-fitting tunic with tight sleeves, rows of

buttons, loose girdle, long hose, shoes with pointed toes. Mantles were

of the richest materials and these were splendidly adorned.

_XVIth Century Costumes._ Masks founded on the life of Columbus and the

discovery of America will require costumes following those of the XVIth

Century. The costume for men show trunk hose, a jerkin or jacket closed

at the throat, sleeves cut and slashed, and a very short coat that was

called a doublet. In addition to this there was a very full cloak or

cape that hung from the shoulder; a little flat cap was worn with this

costume. Short hair came into style early in this century. Women wore

full skirts, sometimes extended by a kind of wheellike frame of

whalebone that was known as a “farthingale,” tight waists, puffed and

slashed sleeves, and wide muffs. The world was ransacked to find stuffs

to satisfy the extravagance of the XVIth Century.

The colonial history of the United States is rich in material for

pageants and masks. What could be more vivid and interesting than the

story of the Pilgrims, Dutch founders of New York, or of the Cavaliers

of Virginia? The costumes of these periods are well known to you.

The Cavalier of the XVIIth Century continued the extravagance of the

XVIth Century. His hat was wide brimmed and befeathered. There was lace

at his neck, wrist, and boot top. His doublet let his fine cambric shirt

be seen at the waist.

[Illustration:

_XVIIth Century Costumes: Cavalier and Lady_

]

The women were equally elegant. Loose sleeves were turned up at the

elbows with bows of ribbon. A tight-fitting bodice came down over a full

skirt divided in front to show an elaborate underskirt. A wide collar

covered the shoulders. This was a time of patches, hair powder, face

paints, great feather fans, and muffs of fur, and the wearing of small

black masks, presumably as a protection from the sun.

The costume of the XVIIth Century most familiar to us is that of the

Pilgrim. It reflects the protest against the worldliness and

extravagance of the time. The hat was wide-brimmed and high-crowned,

with a wide ribbon band. Plain, wide collars of linen fell over the

shoulders of their simply cut garments, which were of home-spun linen or

wool. Not all Pilgrims wore somber gray, brown, or black. Many chose

deep red, blue, or plum color.

[Illustration:

_XVIIth Century Pilgrim Costumes_

]

The characteristic features of the XVIIIth Century costume of the French

court during the reign of Louis XV and Louis XVI are shown in the high

ornate head, dress of the women, the small waist, the wide flounced

skirt, the exquisite silk brocades, jeweled and painted fans. The men of

this period wore as elegant costumes as the women and gave much thought

to their wigs, laces, and snuffboxes.

[Illustration:

_XVIIIth Century Court Costumes_

]

The Colonial costume followed the XVIIth Century costume in America. It

was directly influenced by the fashions set by Louis XV and Louis XVI.

The costumes of the men of fashion of the colonies were made from

satins, laces, and embroideries imported from France. Their periwigs and

their enameled and jeweled snuffboxes were also French. The ladies of

this period were equally exquisite. They wore full flounced skirts over

huge whaleboned petticoats and tight bodices. Sloping shoulders,

powdered wigs, painted faces, and patches were the fashion.

[Illustration:

_XVIIIth Century Colonial Costumes_

]

When you have decided upon the costume you wish to make, then comes the

very practical problem of materials. These need not be expensive since

satins, unbleached muslin, cambric, tarlatan, cheesecloth, and oilcloth

can be made to give beautiful effects. The advantages of satin are that

it has body and texture and comes in a great range of colors. It has the

sheen of satin, and is fairly inexpensive. It can be block printed or

stenciled with gold, silver, or colors, and made to resemble the richest

fabrics. Cambric is less expensive, but has less body and texture. It,

too, can be made very effective by block printing or stenciling. Designs

taken from fine old textiles in museums or from books or plates can be

sketched or traced and then adapted for stencil or block.

Cloth of gold or silver can be made by painting muslin, gauze, or net

with gold or silver radiator paint. This can be stenciled by brushing

the stencil pattern with rabbit’s foot glue, then removing the stencil

and sprinkling the design with gold or silver powder. There are no

materials more satisfactory than unbleached muslin or cheesecloth when

they have been dyed. These are very inexpensive. The dyeing is not

difficult and gives beautiful results for the small amount of time and

effort spent. The better standard dyes are very satisfactory, and can be

used either hot or cold. By combining the dyes in the same way that you

would mix pigments (see page 94) you can produce any true tint or shade

that you wish.

Rich effects are often produced by a second and third dipping. Very

often colored cheesecloth gains by being redipped. As an illustration, a

piece of blue cheesecloth dipped in a green dye bath becomes a lovely

blue-green. Experiment with small pieces of your material before you dip

the larger pieces.

The accessories of costumes, such as chains, brooches, girdles, and

scabbards are often necessary. Beads of glass, wood, clay, macaroni, and

various seeds can be painted, enameled, or gilded, and set into

papier-mâché for crowns, brooches, bracelets, and earrings. Buttons and

glass ornaments can be used in the same way.

The design of a costume must be considered even more than its materials.

A designer is an artist who uses fabric, color, and line to create an

impression and to express an idea. He should study the play, and

understand its dramatic ideas and moods. If he does this, his costumes

will be as expressive, if properly worn, as the words of the actors.

Historic costumes reflect in a remarkable way the life, tastes, and

feelings of an earlier time. But historic costumes also require an

artist to reproduce them. The designer of an historic costume should

know a great deal about the people who first wore this particular kind

of costume and why they wore it. He will then choose suitable materials

and colors, and will try to reproduce characteristic lines and

silhouettes.

Last but not least comes the wearing of a costume. This requires two

very important things: intelligence and imagination. The wearer, as well

as the designer, should know the life, customs, and manners of the

period which the costume represents. If he does not know them how can he

move and gesture and assume the characteristic attitudes which the

period demands and bring the costume into harmonious relation with the

setting?

A mask requires but few properties. A throne, a chair, or a stool may be

sufficient, if well designed and of the proper period. A rich, colorful

hanging or rug against a neutral background will draw your stage picture

together and add dignity to a scene.

The throne and stool shown in the photograph on page 178 were made from

beaver board, after designs of Gothic furniture. The design was first

drawn on the beaver board; to the design were then glued pieces of rope

clothesline, while small rolls of papier-mâché were glued on for the

lowest relief. The entire surface was then covered with pieces of

unbleached muslin which had been soaked in whiting, glue, and warm

water. When this was dry a coat of dark earth-brown oil paint was

applied. Lastly a small amount of gold was rubbed over the design. The

result resembled rich carved wood.

Much can be done with papier-mâché in the making of minor properties,

such as croziers, maces, harps, lutes, jewel boxes, helmets, shields,

sword handles, and scabbards. Properties should add to the beauty of a

scene, never dominate it. They will be much more convincing when they

suggest rather than minutely imitate the actual object. A background may

be no more than a box hedge and still be most charming.

Everyone is familiar with the beauty of woodland settings. Masks of

spring, summer, and the harvest time of Shakespearean plays almost

demand some such setting.

Masks of winter bring us indoors. Possibly the best indoor background is

the simple gray curtain of velvet, velveteen, monks’ cloth, outing

flannel, or cambric. Against it costumes are seen to advantage and

lights of all colors may be thrown against it successfully.

Since a mask is a highly conventionalized form of drama, it is possible

to use a background painted with appropriate decorative or symbolic

designs. An illustration of this is the symbolic pine tree painted on

the wall of the temple courtyard for the Japanese _No_ dramas. Screens

of various kinds are full of possibilities. In the church or Sunday

school, classroom, auditorium, library, or settlement, in the yard,

playground, or park, ingenuity, imagination, and taste will always

create a fitting background.

[Illustration: [Tree]]

[Illustration: [Charioteers]]

CHAPTER V

The Mask with Pantomime, Music, and Dance

The wearing of masks made it difficult for the Greek actors to speak

their lines. Naturally they came to rely upon gestures quite as much as

upon words to carry their meaning to the audience. This interpretation

by gesture led to the development of the art of pantomime.

The great pantomimists had wit and humor. They knew how to take a story

and improve it in the telling. Their hands expressed more than their

words, and their gestures were a language that all understood. Masks

made it possible for each actor to assume different rôles, and his

mimicking was in keeping with the character of the mask he wore.

It was no unusual thing in the Greek towns and cities to see a jolly

company of these mimes and musicians in grotesque costumes, their faces

masked or smeared with soot, riding in chariots through the streets so

that they might advertise their plays. These plays were little dramas

and comedies in which pantomime and music played an important part.

Pantomime was popular with the Romans and for this reason despised by

the early Christians. It survived, nevertheless, through a few obscure

actors and mountebanks. Gradually these mimics and their fellows banded

themselves together. They appeared at festivals whenever they were

summoned, only to disappear afterward into the deep obscurity of a

stroller’s life.

The mimics, or jongleurs (as they were called in France in the early

Middle Ages), kept alive the tradition of dramatic entertainment. Among

the famous mimics was Taillefer, who rode into the battle of Hastings

tossing his sword into the air and catching it again, while he sang

songs of Roland and Charlemagne. In France and in England the

pantomimist was welcome in castle, in convent, and on village green.

From the Vth Century on, the Church gave much thought to forms of

dramatic public worship, and sought thereby to interest and instruct the

people. Living pictures, accompanied by songs, were used to illustrate

the gospel narrative. On great festival days, such as Christmas, Good

Friday, and Easter, the priests performed in pantomime the incidents

appropriate to the occasion. Out of these very simple rites grew the

mysteries, miracles, and the elaborate morality plays in which pantomime

played a very important part.

In addition to such sacred plays, there were no end of secular plays.

These were given all over Europe by townsfolk and peasants, in the

streets, at the fairs, and in the great halls of the castles. Among the

most popular of the English folk plays were the St. George plays. These

were acted at Christmas time by bands of masked townsmen and peasants

who called themselves mummers. Several versions of these old St. George

plays, which can still be adapted and used in a Christmas mask, have

come down to us. Among the characters are St. George, the Doctor, Little

Jack, Father Christmas, the old dragon, and the Morris men.