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[Illustration: image of the book's cover
Spanish Arts
BY
JUAN F. RIAÑO.]
FREDERICK P. PRITCHARD
SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM ART HANDBOOKS.
SPANISH INDUSTRIAL ARTS.
_This Volume, forming one of the Series of Art Handbooks issued under
the authority of the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education, has
been prepared by_ SEÑOR JUAN F. RIAÑO, _of Madrid, whose Catalogue of
Art Objects of Spanish production in the South Kensington Museum, issued
in 1872, has proved of great value and interest._
_April, 1879._
THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS
IN SPAIN.
BY
JUAN F. RIAÑO.
WITH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS
[Illustration]
_Published for the Committee of Council on Education,_
BY
CHAPMAN AND HALL, LIMITED,
LONDON.
1890.
RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED,
LONDON AND BUNGAY.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
GOLD AND SILVER WORK 1
IRON WORK 58
BRONZES 68
ARMS 79
FURNITURE 109
IVORIES 126
POTTERY AND PORCELAIN 143
GLASS 228
TEXTILE FABRICS 250
LACE 271
ILLUSTRATIONS.
NO. PAGE
1. Votive Crown of King Swinthila, Madrid 7
2. Leaf of Triptych in Cathedral of Seville 17
3. Processional Cross, 15th century, South Kensington Museum 20
4. Chalice, 16th century, S.K.M. 30
5. Chalice, 17th century, S.K.M. 31
6. Pax, 16th century, S.K.M. 33
7. Jewel, 17th century, S.K.M. 35
8. Silver Dish, 17th century, S.K.M. 36
9. Breast Ornament set with emeralds, late 17th century, S.K.M. 37
10. Breast Ornament set with diamonds, late 17th century, S.K.M. 39
11. Moorish Keys in Cathedral of Seville 60
12. Nail heads, S.K.M. 66
13. Moorish Lamp, Archæological Museum, Madrid 72
14. Tenebrarium in Cathedral of Seville 75
15. Monstrance, dated 1537, S.K.M. 77
16. Sword of Boabdil, Villaseca Collection, Madrid 85
17. Moorish Dagger, 15th century 89
18. Rapiers, 16th and 17th centuries, S.K.M. 97
19. Breastplate, formerly in Bernal Collection 98
20. Saddle of the Cid--Armoury, Madrid 99
21. Muskets 100
22. Botica de los Templarios, from Toledo, S.K.M. 114
23. Vargueño Cabinet, 16th century, S.K.M. 121
24. Ivory cylindrical box, Moorish, 10th century, S.K.M. 128
25. Ivory rectangular box, Moorish, 10th century, S.K.M. 129
26. Ivory Casket, Moorish, 11th century, Cathedral of Pamplona 131
27. Cross of King Ferdinand I., Archæological Museum, Madrid 136
28. Samian Bowl 144
29. Plateau, (probably of Valencia), S.K.M. 152
30. Moorish Vase at the Alhambra 155
31. Tile, (probably from the Alhambra) 157
32. Hispano-Moresco Vase, 14th or 15th century, S.K.M. 159
33. Hispano-Moresco Plateau with raised ribs and studs,
15th or 16th century, S.K.M. 160
34. Hispano-Moresco Salver, 15th or 16th century, S.K.M. 161
35. Wine Jar, "Tinaja," S.K.M. 164
36. Brim of Well from Toledo, S.K.M. 166
37. Earthenware Bowl, Talavera ware, S.K.M. 174
38. Earthenware Plaque, Alcora ware, S.K.M. 194
39. Marks and Signatures of Painters who worked at Alcora 204--210
40. Room decorated with Buen-Retiro porcelain in
the Palace at Madrid 217
41. Vase, Buen Retiro porcelain, S.K.M. 220
42. Marks used at the porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro 221--223
43. Glass Vase, 16th century, S.K.M 232
44. Pilgrim's Bottle, Glass, 17th century, S.K.M. 233
45. Glass Bottle, modern, S.K.M. 237
46. Glass Vessels, S.K.M. 238
47. Glass Vase, Cadalso, 17th century, S.K.M. 239
48. Vase, Green glass with black handle and ribs,
17th century, S.K.M. 242
49. Glass Vessels, S.K.M. 245
50. Tapestry at Cathedral of Gerona, 11th century 267
_The Department of Science and Art is indebted to_ MR. JOHN MURRAY _for
the use of the Woodcuts Nos. 19, 20, 30, and 31. No. 50 is from a
Spanish Woodcut._
SPANISH INDUSTRIAL ART.
GOLD AND SILVER WORK.
The Greek and Latin authors who have described the Spanish Peninsula,
state that the quantity of gold and silver ore found there was very
great, and that hence the district became an important centre of
commercial activity of Ph[oe]nicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans.
Some authors have gone so far as to assert that the Ph[oe]nicians made
the anchors of their ships of gold and silver, and that the
Carthaginians were astonished to find in Andalusia, that the mangers and
vases for holding wine and oil were made of the same materials. These
references have been constantly mentioned in ancient Spanish authors.
Ambrosio de Morales, in his "Antiguedades de España," Alcala 1577,
enters into every detail on this subject.
I have seen a specimen of this period, a bowl of an earlier and
different style to Roman silversmiths' work, which belongs to a
collector in the province of Cordova. This bowl is of a conical shape:
it is perfectly plain, and has an inscription in Iberian characters
engraved on one of its sides: there are signs outside and at the bottom
which indicate that this bowl was made on the wheel. Velazquez in his
"Ensayo sobre las letras desconocidas," Madrid, 1752, describes a silver
bowl of a similar kind, which was found in Andalusia in 1618 full of
Iberian coins: this bowl weighed ten ounces. Several ornaments, chiefly
consisting of necklaces and earrings, may be studied at the Academy of
History, and private collections, in Madrid; they have been classified
by antiquarians as belonging to this uncertain period, and are similar
in style to others which have been frequently found in England and the
north of Europe. The most interesting objects of this kind which I have
seen in Spain, are gold ornaments proceeding from Galicia; they were
found there by Sr. Villaamil, who gave a description of them in the
"Museo Español de Antiguedades," vol. iii. p. 545.
The information and remains which have reached us illustrating silver
and gold work of the Roman domination are more important; we find,
however, in this and similar artistic industries that, as a general
rule, the Romans imposed their style and system on the inhabitants of
the countries which they conquered, and it is not easy to point out any
one example which can be given as an exception to this general rule. It
is, undoubtedly, a fact that objects of all kinds in gold and silver
were used in Spain to a very great extent--for, notwithstanding the
destruction of ages, we still possess inscriptions which allude to
silver statues, and a large number of objects in the precious metals
exist in museums and private collections. See "Inscrip. Hisp. lat.," by
Dr. Emile Hübner, Berlin, 1869. Of these it will be sufficient to
mention one of the most important. It is known in the province of
Santander by the name of the dish of Otañez; and belongs to a gentleman
who lives in that locality. It was found at Otañez at the end of the
last century, buried in a stone quarry. This dish is made of silver, it
weighs thirty-three ounces, and is covered with an ornamentation of
figures in relief, some of which are gilt, representing an allegorical
subject of the source of medicinal waters. In the upper part is a nymph
who pours water from an urn over rocks; a youth collects it in a vessel;
another gives a cup of it to a sick man; another fills with it a barrel
which is placed in a four-wheeled car to which are yoked two mules. On
each side of the fountain are altars on which sacrifices and libations
are offered. Round it is the inscription: SALVS. VMERITANA, and at the
back is engraved, in confused characters, the words: L. P. CORNELIANI.
PIII....
Another very interesting silver dish may be seen at the Academia de la
Historia, Madrid. Although not of Spanish manufacture, it deserves
special notice in a description of works of this style. This dish was
found in 1847, buried in a field at Almendralejo, province of
Estremadura: it is 28-6/8 English inches in diameter, and weighs 533
ounces. It is ornamented with fine figures in relief, representing the
Emperor Theodosius appointing a magistrate. The emperor is seated on his
throne in the centre, at the sides are his sons Arcadius and Honorius,
with four soldiers of the guard, and the magistrate, who receives the
volume. In the lower part there is an allegorical representation of a
nymph holding the horn of abundance, winged angels, and ears of wheat,
probably alluding to the abundance and plenty of the empire. Round the
rim is the following inscription:--
D. N. THEODOSIVS PERPET.
AVG OB DIEM FELI CISSIMVM.
At the back, in points, are the following Greek words.
[Greek: POS N MET]
We can form a very good idea of the jewel work of the Visigothic period
from the discovery of the treasure of Guarrazar. These jewels were found
in 1858 at the village of this name, six miles from Toledo, on the spot
where, in the Visigothic period, a Christian sanctuary had existed. The
objects found, which may be seen at the Museum of Cluny, Paris, and
Armeria Real, Madrid, constitute the most important collection in Europe
of the jewel work of that period. No less than eleven votive crowns,
some of extraordinary magnificence; two crosses with inscriptions, and
a large number of fragments of all kinds, of gold and precious stones,
were found at Guarrazar. Unfortunately a great part of the treasure has
been lost, for the labourers, who were the first to find it, sold
several objects to the silversmiths at Toledo, who melted and destroyed
specimens of the highest artistic interest. Those that remain in Spain
are--
At the Royal Armoury of Madrid: A gold crown of Swinthila inlaid with
precious stones, with pendent cross, and inscriptions of letters hanging
from it: SVINTHILANVS REX. OFFERET. See woodcut on p. 7. A similar crown
of Theodosius, with the inscription: OFFERET MVNVSCVLVM. SCO STEFANO
ETHODOSIVS. ABBA. The cross of Lucetius with the following inscription:
+ IN NOMINE DNI. IN NOMINE SCI OFFERET LVCETIVS: E. Fragments of another
crown and of large crosses: several stones and fragments, and an
emerald, on which is engraved _en creux_ the Annunciation of the Virgin.
At the Archæological Museum, and in several private collections in
Spain, may be seen a large number of stones and pearls which were found
at Guarrazar.
Among the objects at the Archæological Museum at Madrid, a small
section, which proceed from a different locality, have also been
classified as Visigothic. They consist of necklaces, earrings, and
rings, and are less important in workmanship than those found at
Guarrazar. The student will find further details in "Museo Español de
Antiguedades," vol. vi., p. 137.
The objects forming part of the treasure of Guarrazar now in the Museum
of Cluny, Paris are: Crown of Recesvinthus, with pendent cross and
inscription: + RECESVINTHVS REX OFFERET. A similar crown, without
inscription. Four crowns formed to imitate basket work, with crosses
hanging from the centres. Three crowns, the rims of which are formed of
_repoussé_ work, only one of which is ornamented with precious stones,
and without pendent crosses. The cross of Sonnicus with the following
inscription: [sign of Maltese cross] IN [=D]I NOMINE OFFERET SONNICA
[=S C E] MARIE IN SORBACES.
Swinthila reigned from 624 to 631, A.D.; Recesvinthus from 650 to 672
A.D.; hence these crowns belong to the 7th century, and the remaining
objects are certainly of the same period.
Much has been written on these Visigothic jewels by French and Spanish
authors, the most interesting and valuable studies are:--"Descrip. du
Trésor de Guarrazar, par M. Lasteyrie. Paris. 1860." "El arte Latino
Bizantino en España y las Coronas de Guarrazar," by Señor Rios, Madrid,
1861. Consult also his article in "Monumentos Arq. de España." "Coronas
de Guarrazar que se conservan en la Armeria Real de Madrid," by Señor
Rada. Museo Español, vol. iii. Madrid, 1874.
The importance of this goldsmith's work has led these authors to discuss
several archaeological and artistic points which deserve attention. I
will also give my opinions on this subject, which in some respects
differ from those hitherto advanced. In the Middle Ages the name of
crown was equally applied to those worn on the head, to the votive
crowns hung before altars, and to the pendent lamps which were also of
this circular form. The "Etimologies" of San Isidoro help us,
unfortunately, but little on this subject; but Du Cange, in his
"Glossarium Mediæ et infimæ Latinitatis" gives us sufficient details to
understand the differences between them. I refer the student to two
works on this subject, which treat especially of crowns of light, which
none of the authors who have written on Guarrazar have consulted:
"Tratado de la Sagrada Luminaria," by Gonzalez Villar, Madrid, 1798. "De
Lucernis Pensilibus," by Fanceulli, Maceratae, 1802.
The crowns found at Guarrazar were undoubtedly votive offerings, for
they all have chains by which they were suspended in the sanctuary in
which they were found. Their size and the structure of their rims lead
us to suppose that they may have been worn on the head. The same
observation applies to a similar crown at the Cluny Museum; if so, the
chains, cross, and pendent letters were added when the crown was offered
to the sanctuary.
Although details which appear in the handwork of these jewels betray a
certain rudeness, not uncommon in the time they were made, their beauty
and richness are truly surprising. These crowns are decorated round
their rims with rosettes of pearls and sapphires, and a delicate
ornamentation of _cloisonné_ work, which encloses a substance resembling
red glass. From the upper part are attached four chains formed of leaves
_percées à jour_, these are united to a double gold rosette with pendent
sapphires, in the centre of which is set a piece of rock crystal. In the
cross of Recesvinthus the pendant is in the form of a capital, and from
it hangs a small cross of the same style of work: from the lower rim of
the crown are suspended the letters, which are ornamented with the same
vitreous paste, _cloisonné_, and from each hang large single pearls and
sapphires.
The border of some of these crowns is formed of a net-work of small gold
massive balustrades; having between them square spaces in which pearls
and sapphires are set. Others are made simply of _repoussé_ gold, their
chief interest consisting in the ornamentation which has been so
artistically carried out. Some of them have inscriptions and a few
stones set at intervals. The pendants from these crowns are inferior in
richness to the others already described. The pendent crosses are
ornamented in the same style, either with _cloisonné_ work or _repoussé_
inscriptions.
[Illustration: VOTIVE CROWN OF KING SWINTHILA, MADRID.]
One of the most interesting results produced by the study of the
treasure of Guarrazar has been to show us the immense luxury which it
represents, if we remember the period of decay and poverty of the
Visigothic monarchy. We find this magnificence frequently alluded to by
ancient writers. The Arabs when they took possession of Toledo in the
8th century, mention in different works the immense quantity of jewels
of all kinds which they found and carried away. The gold and
silversmith's work of this period was everywhere in a very high state of
development. We find it constantly alluded to in the works of Paul
Silentiarium and other writers of the time of Justinian, and in the
inventories and references given by Du Sommerard of the jewel work
anterior to the Carlovingian period in Italy and France. The Visigothic
kings, who copied from the Eastern emperors even their legal forms,
followed this rule to a great extent in everything which bore relation
to their daily life.
The most important question is to determine the origin and locality
where these jewels were made. M. de Lasteyrie considers that jewellery
ornamented with red glass _cloisonné_ work was only made by nations of
the Germanic race. To prove this he presents, among other arguments, the
comparison of a fragment of the ornamentation which appears on the crown
of Recesvinthus, with a similar one on the Evangelistiarium of
Theodolinda in the treasure of Monza, which he considers to be of German
workmanship. These theories are untenable. Sr. Rios is of a different
opinion, and considers these jewels to have been made in Spain, owing to
the similarity of ornamentation with different specimens which occur in
Spain in architectural remains of the Roman and Visigothic periods.
Both these writers give in my opinion the decorative elements of the
crowns of Guarrazar an importance which they do not possess. The
ornamentation which most frequently occurs consists of a combination of
circles, imbrication, and palms of such an elementary kind that it would
be difficult to ascertain its origin; it appears equally in mosaic work
of the later Roman period, in vases and other objects of the best times
of Greek art, and in Asiatic and archaic works. It may be affirmed that
the ornamentation of the goldsmith's work of the north and south of
Europe are derived from a common origin; from the oriental civilization
which in the first centuries of the Middle Ages penetrated into Europe;
it may also be affirmed that its manufacture and technical proceedings
are precisely similar. Later on, the ornamentation and manufacture of
these jewels received from the western nations some slight
modifications; but this artistic industry by no means proceeded from
them.
One example will be enough to prove this. Setting apart the famous
_cloisonné pectorale_ at the Boulac Museum, Cairo, and other jewels of
the queen, Aah-Hotep, 17th century B.C.; the hawk of a similar period,
Louvre Museum (Paris), and a number of analogous objects in the British
Museum, we have enough specimens of this kind to show that _cloisonné_
work was known in the east from the very earliest period. I will draw
especial attention to the _plaque_ in the Museum of Wiesbaden, found at
Wolfsheim in 1870. It is formed of gold, with a circular and triangular
ornamentation and squares, _découpés à jour_, set with jacinths, or red
glass paste. At the back may be read an inscription in Persian
characters, which gives the name of a Sassanide king, Artachshaber, of
the 3rd century of our era. (See A. von Cohausen, "Roemischer
Schmelzenschmuck," Wiesbaden, 1873). I know no more ancient specimen in
the north of Europe of these jewels with coloured stones, nor can I give
a better example of their oriental origin. Those who may wish to make a
more profound study on this subject, can also examine the interesting
jewels with stones found at Petrossa, Wallachia, in 1835, now in the
Museum of Bucharest. They are attributed to the Visigothic King
Athanaric, who lived towards the middle of the 4th century of our era,
and are considered in the present day of undoubted Sassanide origin.
The artistic and technical origin of the jewels of Guarrazar must be
looked for in the East; their manufacture was most probably Spanish. On
part of these jewels, inscriptions of the names of the _donatarios_
appear, and it is highly improbable that they were made in another
country. We cannot imagine the extraordinary magnificence of the
Visigothic court, so similar to that of Constantinople and other
contemporary ones, without the presence at each of a group of artists
whose task was to satisfy these demands.
The Visigothic style continued to be followed in Spain at the court of
the Christian kings, until the 11th century, notwithstanding the Moorish
invasion, and the poverty of the kingdom. The specimens at the treasury
of the cathedral of Oviedo, and others which will be described farther
on, will give a good idea of the manufacture of jewels of this period.
Among the relics which are kept in the shrine called the _Camara Santa_,
at Oviedo, are two most interesting gold processional crosses studded
with stones, which are known by the names of _Cruz de los Angeles_, and
_Cruz de la Victoria_ or _de Pelayo_. The _Cruz de los Angeles_ is
16-1/2 inches high, by 16 inches wide, it is covered at the back with an
ornamentation in fine filigree work, set with different stones. In the
front are five medallions, and an inscription in the vacant spaces.
Among the gems there is a good cameo, and seven engraved stones in the
Gnostic style. (Consult "Monumentos Arquitectonicos de España, Camara
Santa"). The inscription on this cross shows us that it was made, A.D.
808.
"Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei
Offeret Adefonsus humilis servus Xpi
Hoc signo tuetur pius
Hoc signo vincitur inimicus
Quisquis auferre presumpserit mihi
Fulmine divino intereat ipse
Nisi libens ubi voluntas dederit mea
Hoc opus perfectum est in Era DCCCXLVI."
The cross of Victory is supposed to have been the same wooden one borne
by Don Pelayo when he began, early in the 8th century, his struggles
against the Mahomedan invasion, it was decorated in the next century
with gold platings and precious stones. It is 36 inches high by 28-1/2
inches wide; the ornamentation is similar to the former one, and in the
vacant spaces at the back appears the following inscription, by which
we learn it was made at the Castle of Gauzon, Asturias, A.D. 828.
"Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei, quod offerent
Famuli Christi Adefonsus princeps et Scemæna Regina
Quisquis auferre hoc donoria nostra presumpserit
Fulmine divino intereat ipse
Hoc opus perfectum et concessum est
Santo Salvatori Oventense sedis
Hoc signo tuetur pius, hoc vincitur inimicus
Et opera us est in castello Gauzon anno regni nostri.
XLII. discurrente Era DCCCLXVI."
Another most interesting object at this shrine is Don Fruela's casket,
which is ornamented with agates set in gold, and is similar in style.
The inscription, which appears outside, gives the date A.D. 910.
"Operatum est Era DCCCCXLVIII."
A diptych which belongs to the same shrine may also be mentioned. It was
given by Bishop Don Gonzalo, who was bishop of Oviedo from A.D. 1162 to
1175. Round it are the words--_Gundisalvus Episcopus me jussit fieri._
This diptych is 5 inches long by 7 wide: it is ornamented with ivory
figures, stones, crystals and engraved gems. Although I do not consider
it to be of Spanish workmanship, it is necessary to mention the splendid
_Arca Santa_, in which it is believed many of the relics were taken to
Oviedo. It is covered with silver plates, with _repoussé_ and chiselled
work representing different religious subjects: the Crucifixion, Our
Lord surrounded by the attributes of the Evangelists, saints, apostles,
angels, and a fine ornamental border with letters, imitating Cufic
inscriptions. This splendid casket is 3 feet 9-1/2 inches long, by 3 and
3-1/2 wide, and 28-1/2 inches high, and appears to have been made
between the 10th and 12th centuries. The figures are similar in style to
the paintings and sculpture of this period, and it is highly probable
that it may have been the work of Italian artists. The Cufic inscription
is illegible, and is interrupted in the angles by the symbols of the
Evangelists. This style of simulated inscriptions was frequently used by
Italian artists.
A cross of the same style as those already described exists at the
cathedral of Santiago. It is made of wood covered with gold platings and
precious stones; some of these are old intagli, which are set in
delicate filigree work. Round it runs a long inscription, from which it
appears that it was a present from _Adefonsus Princeps cum conjuge
Scemena Regina_, and that it was made in Era DCCCCA. Duodecima; A.D.
874. The number of gems which have reached us, after so many centuries
of ruin, the similarity of the different specimens, and the statement
which appears on the cross of King Pelayo, that it was made at the
castle of Gauzon, prove that the goldsmith's industry had attained great
importance in Spain during this period.
By studying the different objects of silver and gold work which still
exist in Spanish churches, we can form a good idea of the historical
progress of this industry in the following centuries of the Middle Ages;
but before we do so, it is well to make some observations upon objects
of _orfèvrerie_, the work of the Moors. There is a constant connection
between these objects and those made of ivory: the same characteristics
exist which I shall hereafter point out as appearing in Moorish ivory
carvings. The art of ivory carving was imported from the East, the
subjects are much alike in ivory and metal when men and animals are
represented, and the inscriptions and bands of ornamentation are similar
in style. The main variations consist in the different systems employed
in metal work, by which the work differs according to the proceedings
adopted, of _repoussé_ or chiselling, filigree, niellos or enamels.
A fine Casket belongs to this kind of oriental work which still may be
seen on the high altar of the cathedral of Gerona, Spain. This casket is
15 inches long by 9 wide and 10-1/2 high. It is made in the usual manner
of wood covered with silver gilt platings with a heavy _repoussé_
ornamentation of leaves enclosed within circles of pearls. Round the
rim of the cover runs the following Cufic inscription:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"In the name of God. The blessing of God and happiness and prosperity
and permanent joy for the servant of God, Alhakem Emir Amumenin
Almostanser Billah, because he ordered this casket to be made for Abdul
walid Hischem, heir to the throne of the Muslims. It was finished by the
hands of Hudzen Ibn Bothla."
Alhakem reigned in Spain from A.D. 961 to 976, in which year he was
succeeded by his son Hischem II. This casket belongs, therefore, to this
period, and is especially interesting as giving the artist's name. Two
other silver Arabian caskets may be seen at the Archæological Museum,
Madrid, which were formerly at the shrine of San Isidoro of Leon, but
they possess less artistic interest than the casket at Gerona. One of
these is elliptical in form; it is ornamented with a good design of
leaves and tendrils, and Cufic inscription; the whole of the casket is
enamelled in black. The ornamentation belongs to the 12th century. The
inscription only mentions the owner's name, Abdo Shakir. The other
casket is silver-gilt, square in form, and rather poorly ornamented. The
two Cufic inscriptions which surround it are laudatory. At the cathedral
of Oviedo there is another silver casket with a laudatory inscription
and medallions with figures, in which from very early times, the remains
of S^{ta.} Eulalia have been kept. I suspect that this casket and the
former one are not of Spanish Arab workmanship, for besides the
circumstance that their inscriptions can be applied to any owner, their
ornamentation is unlike others of the same kind. In the first casket it
is insignificant, but on the shrine of S^{ta.} Eulalia the background
of the medallions is covered with an imbricated pattern which I have
never seen repeated on any Arab or Moorish example in Spain. It is
highly probable that they were productions of Oriental industry and were
imported commercially.
Several specimens of the 14th and 15th centuries, the last period of the
Moorish domination, exist in Spain. They consist of jewels and sword
handles. The most interesting trinkets are a bracelet and fragments of a
necklace and earrings which are at the Archæological Museum, Madrid.
They are made of gold, covered with a geometrical _repoussé_
ornamentation, and a delicate filigree pattern. There are specimens also
at the Kensington Museum, Nos. 1455 to 1447, 70, consisting of a
bracelet, silver-gilt, formed of seven alternate oval and rectangular
plaques, with impressed pattern and applied filigree and bossed
ornament, and earrings made of gold, formed of clusters of united
circles and lozenges with filigree bosses. Other jewels of less
importance are known to exist, consisting of bracelets, amulets,
earrings, and rings, mostly made of silver niello-work, these are
ornamented with geometrical patterns and inscriptions of little
importance.
Moorish arms are most artistic; they are fully described in the article
Arms. The most important specimens are in the Royal Armoury, and noble
house of Villaseca, Madrid; another fine example of a similar style is
at the Generalife of Granada. The hilt and settings of the sheath are of
solid silver, gilt, and covered with geometrical patterns ornamented in
high relief, parts of which are filled with translucid _cloisonné_
enamel. In some instances the hilt is made of ivory. It is impossible
(see plate on p. 85) to find anything more beautiful than the
ornamentation of these swords, or greater perfection in every detail. It
is evident, therefore, that this industry had reached a very high grade
of perfection at Granada in the second part of the 15th century. The
sword now in the possession of the Villaseca family belonged to Boabdil,
the last Moorish king; the one at Granada to one of Boabdil's nearest
relations.
In continuing our description of Christian silver-work in the 11th and
12th centuries, we meet with two historical chalices of the highest
interest. One was made by the order of Saint Domingo de Silos [A.D.
1045-1074] when abbot of this church. This chalice still exists there,
with the following inscription:--
_In nomine Domini ob honorem Sci Sebastiani Dominico abbas
fecit._
It is ornamented with fine filigree work, forming zones and horse-shoe
arches, in a similar style to that of the silversmiths' work of
Asturias, which has never been completely abandoned in Spain. The author
of the life of this saint, Fr. Juan de Castro, Madrid 1688, says, p.
297, that he does not consider it was ever used for the sacrifice of the
mass, owing to its great height [13 inches]. The other chalice might
have been seen until very lately at San Isidoro, Leon; it has been
temporarily concealed owing to political disturbances. The cup and foot
are of agate, probably specimens of the classic period; the mounting,
which dates from the time of D^{na}. Urraca, is studded with a profusion
of precious stones and pastes. Some of the gems of the chalice and paten
are antiques.[A] In the centre of the paten is set a splendid flat onyx.
Round the lower part runs the following inscription:--
+ _In nomine D[=n]i Urraca Fredi[=n][=a]di._
[A] For further details of this interesting work of art, see "Monumentos
Arquitectonicos de España," in which a good reproduction is given.
Dona Urraca, who was a sister of Alfonso VI., and was generally called
_Urraca Fernandez_, bestowed many important gifts on the church of San
Isidoro. She died A.D. 1101. Another interesting chalice of the same
period, although not of the same importance as those just named, belongs
to Cardinal Moreno, archbishop of Toledo. Round the stem are represented
the emblems of the Evangelists, and the inscription: _Pelagius abbas me
fecit_; this formula appears so frequently that it must be understood
in the sense of _fecit fieri_, ordered to be made.
The Santo Caliz at Valencia has been traditionally held as the cup used
by Our Saviour at the Last Supper. This chalice consists of a circular
cup hollowed out from a fine brown sardonyx which is tastefully moulded
round the lip. The base is formed of another inverted sardonyx. These
are united by straps of pure gold. The stem is flanked by handles, which
are inlaid with delicate arabesque in black enamel. Oriental pearls are
set round the base and stem, which alternate with rubies, sapphires and
emeralds. This chalice is a work of the Roman imperial epoch, and the
mounts are of a later date. Other specimens of jewellers' work of the
Roman period might be mentioned which exist in Spain, but I do not find
sufficient evidence to justify the opinion that they were made in that
country. I consider those that I have described to be of Spanish origin,
for they keep to the same technical modes of workmanship as the jewel
work of Asturias, and the inscriptions which appear on them refer to
historical personages. It would be difficult, considering all things, to
suppose they were imported.
[Illustration: ONE LEAF OF TRIPTYCH IN CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.]
We can mention in the thirteenth century a specimen of Spanish
silversmiths' work which illustrates the transition to the new style,
and the progress in the design of the figures owing to the Italian
Renaissance--I refer to the interesting triptych at the Cathedral of
Seville, known as the "Tablas Alfonsinas," made by the order of Don
Alfonso el Sabio for holding relics. It is of wood, covered inside and
out with silver-gilt plates; it is 22 inches high by 39 wide when its
three leaves are open (the woodcut opposite represents the outside of
left leaf), and is divided inside into fifteen compartments full of
minute ornamentation, among which are set a large number of capsules
covered with rock crystal containing relics, each one with an
inscription of enamelled gold, _cloisonné_. Several good cameos with
sacred subjects appear near the edge of the side leaves. The outside of
this triptych is decorated with twelve medallions containing the arms
of Castile and Aragon, and forty-eight others in which are repeated
alternately the subjects of the Adoration of the Magi and Annunciation
of the Virgin, which are also _repoussé_. In the centres are eagles,
which S^{r}. Rios supposes to allude to Don Alonso's claim to be crowned
Emperor, in which case it was made in the year 1274. (See Mus. esp. de
Antig., vol. ii. p. 83.) The ornamentation which surrounds the panels
belongs to the 16th century. S^{r}. Rios suggests that the possible or
probable author of this interesting object of silversmith work was
Maestro Jorge, a silversmith of Toledo, who is praised by Don Alonso in
his Cantigas--he also mentions the names of Don Lorenzo and Don Niculas
as silversmiths of Seville who worked in this period.
The most important example of Spanish silversmith's work of the 14th
century is the Retablo and Baldaquino of the cathedral of Gerona. Mr.
Street, in his Gothic Arch. in Spain, p. 326, describes this work of art
in the following manner: "The Retablo is of wood entirely covered with
silver plates, and divided vertically into three series of niches and
canopies: each division has a subject, and a good deal of enamelling is
introduced in various parts of the canopies and grounds of the panels.
Each panel has a cinque-foiled arch with a crocketed gablet and
pinnacles on either side. The straight line of the top is broken by
three niches, which rise in the centre and at either end. In the centre
is the Blessed Virgin with our Lord; on the right San Narcisso; and on
the left St. Filia. The three tiers of subjects contain figures of
saints, subjects from the life of the Blessed Virgin, and subjects from
the life of our Lord."
At the base of this Retablo may be read the words--_Pere Bernec me
feu_--Peter Bernec made me. Bernec was a silversmith of Valencia, and in
another document he was called Barners. It has been supposed that two
other contemporary silversmiths, whose names appear in papers of the
cathedral, worked also at the Retablo. Their names were Raimundo Andreu,
and Master Bartolomé. Formerly in front of this altar there was a
magnificent silver and gold frontal studded with stones, a fine work of
the 11th century--which was unfortunately carried off by the French in
their invasion of the Peninsula early in the present century, and was
probably with other innumerable priceless treasures melted by them. See
further details in "Viage Literario de Villanueva," vol. xii. p. 180.
In the Sala Capitular of the Cathedral of Gerona there are three
splendid processional crosses belonging to the 15th and 16th centuries;
one of them is of enamelled gold, and is undoubtedly one of the most
artistic works of the kind in Spain.
Among Spanish art treasures of the 15th century of a historical style
must be mentioned the splendid silver throne of king Don Martin de
Aragon, d. 1410, still existing in the cathedral of Barcelona; it is
covered with chiselled ornamentation, and a band of velvet embroidered
with gold and completely studded with precious stones. This throne is
carried in the procession of Corpus Christi. The monstrance, a splendid
work of art in the Gothic style, ornamented with delicate pinnacles and
jewel work, is placed on a fine silver foot and carried on this day in
front of this throne. This monstrance is covered also with jewels of
great value which almost conceal it, the gifts of royal personages. The
fine Gothic silver-gilt cross must also be mentioned, known at Toledo by
the name of _Guion de Mendoza_; it was borne before the great Cardinal
Mendoza, and was the first cross placed on the highest point of the
Alhambra Torre de la Vela on the day of the conquest, 2nd January, 1492.
The following woodcut represents a processional cross of Spanish work of
the beginning of the 15th century, in the South Kensington Museum, No.
514-'73. It is of wood covered with plates of silver-gilt _repoussé_
work. On one side is a rood with the Virgin and St. John. Over the
figure of Christ is the word Inri. At the extremities angels in high
relief bear the emblems of the Passion. On each side of the figure of
Christ are plaques of translucent enamel representing the penitent and
impenitent thief, at the foot of the cross the Resurrection and
Adoration of the Magi, and above the figure of Christ the Nativity.
[Illustration: SPANISH PROCESSIONAL CROSS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
At the back there is a figure in high relief of the Almighty; in the
four extremities the emblems of the Evangelists in high relief and
enamelled plaques representing the Annunciation, Flight into Egypt,
Christ's descent into Hades.
This cross, which is three feet in height, is marked in several places
with the name of
+-----+ +-----+
| | | |
| PE | | MAR |
| DRO | | TIN |
| | | |
+-----+ +-----+
A large number of images exist in Spain belonging to this period, and
even to an earlier date, chiefly consisting of images of the Blessed
Virgin; their garments are formed of silver platings, chiselled and
_repoussé_ in the traditional Byzantine style. Among the most remarkable
may be mentioned those preserved in the cathedrals of Seville, Pamplona
and Astorga. The following document undoubtedly alludes to one of these
figures. It is dated 12th May, 1367:--
"I Sancho Martinez Orebse, silversmith, native of Seville, inform you,
the dean and chapter of the church of Seville, that it was agreed I
should make an image of Saint Mary with its tabernacle, that it should
be finished at a given time, and that you were to give me the silver and
stones required to make it."
Notwithstanding the poverty of the Spanish monarchs, their personal
ornaments were rich and splendid. We find in "Memorials of Henry the
VIIth," edited by Gairdner, an interesting description by Machado, the
herald or king-of-arms of Henry VII., of the embassy sent to Spain in
1489, to ask for the hand of the Princess Catharine for the Prince of
Wales. The account he gives us of the jewels worn by Queen Isabel la
Catolica is most interesting. They varied at every interview. In one of
these she wore "a line of trimming composed of oblong bosses, of gold,
each decorated with fine and valuable jewels, so rich that no one has
ever seen the like. She wore round her waist a girdle of leather made in
a man's style; the pouch was decorated with a large balass ruby, the
size of a tennis ball, between five rich diamonds and other stones, the
size of a bean. The rest of the girdle was decorated with other precious
stones. Round her neck she wore a rich gold necklace composed of white
and red roses, adorned with jewels. Two ribbons were suspended from her
breast adorned with diamonds, balass and other rubies, pearls, and other
jewels of great value to the number of a hundred or more" (p. 341.)
"After the King came the Queen, mounted on a fine mule, and all the
harness of the said mule was adorned with pearls and other precious
stones. She was dressed in a robe of a rich woven cloth of gold made in
the fashion of the kingdom, and over that a mantilla all spangled with
lozenges of crimson and black velvet, and on each lozenge was a large
pearl. And with each of these pearls was a rich balass ruby the size of
a beech nut, the richest thing that could be seen, no man ever saw
anything equal to it. She had on her neck a large necklace, adorned with
large diamonds, balass rubies, carbuncles, large pearls, and a great
number of other rich precious stones. She had upon her head-dress two
balass rubies as pendants, the size of a pigeon's egg, and at the end of
the said rubies a large pearl, which jewel was supposed to be worth
12,000 crowns" (p. 348.)
In the specimens described belonging to the Visigothic period, and many
others to which we might refer, we find constant similarity in form with
silversmith's work of other European countries. It is true that we
occasionally meet with Moorish _orfèvrerie_, and some details, such as
filigree work, due to oriental influence; but in general Byzantine,
Roman, and Gothic styles were adopted and copied in Spain; and the
technical details were the same with those followed in other countries,
with the exception of _champlevé_ enamel, which appears to have been
almost exclusively used at Limoges in the middle ages. It is
interesting, however, and worthy of remark, that important objects are
also found in Spain decorated with _champlevé_ enamel, such as the
splendid altars of San Miguel in Excelsis (Navarre), and Santo Domingo
de Silos (Rioja), and the image of the Virgin de la Vega at San Esteban
(Salamanca), three specimens of the greatest importance.
In the Renaissance period, Spanish _orfèvrerie_ enters into its most
brilliant epoch, not only on account of the beauty of the form of the
objects produced, but also owing to its great richness. Among objects of
this period the most important are the _Custodias_ or monstrances of the
cathedrals; these are exclusively peculiar to Spanish art. The almost
incalculable quantity of silver-work produced at this period is
accounted for by the reconquest of the Peninsula from the Moors, the
discovery and possession of America, and other circumstances which
increased the power and wealth of Spain, and elevated the country to
great importance.
We find frequent mention at this time of silversmiths, many of whom came
from Germany, France, or Italy, attracted by the large number of works
ordered. Many settled in Spain, such as Enrique de Arphe, Jacome Trezzo,
Mateo Aleman, Hans Belta, and others. The Spaniards who joined them were
greater in number, and not inferior in merit. Silversmiths were already
at that time divided into different groups, according to the technical
proceedings which each one adopted: _plateros de la plata_, workers in
silver, was the name given to those who worked exclusively in _repoussé_
and chiselled work, and imitated sculpture and architectural models;
goldsmiths, those who worked jewels with stones, enamels, and
niello-work. Even within these groups were workers in filigree, and
those who decorated different objects with painted or mosaic work,
_atauxia_, in the Moorish style. Almost all the most important Spanish
towns were large centres of these industries. Leon, Burgos, Valladolid,
Cuenca, Toledo, Cordova, and Seville rivalled each other in the number
and quality of their productions. The Venetian ambassador, Navagiero,
who visited Valladolid in 1527, says, "Sono in Valladolid assai artefici
di ogni sorte, e se vi lavora benissimo di tutti le arti, e sopra tutto
d' argenti, e vi son tanti argenten quanti non sono in due altri terre,
le prime di Spagna" ("Il Viaggio di Spagna," Vinegia, 1563, p. 35.)
In order to complete the study of this subject, it is necessary,
besides, to give some notice of the legal dispositions contained in the
Municipal Ordinances and in other laws of a more general character.
In Capmany's "Memorias," vol. i., part 3, p. 88, are to be found several
statutes concerning the silversmiths of Barcelona from the 14th century,
proving the importance of this guild in 1301. At this period three of
its members formed part of the town Council. The introduction of a
statute of 1489 proves the excellence of the works which they made.
"Experience having shown us in past times, and proof existing at the
present time, that such clever silversmiths have existed and exist at
Barcelona that their works are highly reputed by kings and great people,
and held in great honour and estimation in the town itself." The
Silversmiths' guild still preserve the folio volumes full of drawings,
and the description of the different objects which they presented for
the approbation of the jury, during the 16th and 17th centuries. The
designs contained in these volumes constitute a most interesting
collection of jewels, giving a good idea of the great height of this
industry in Barcelona.
Baron C. H. Davillier is about to publish a volume on Spanish
silversmiths, in which etchings of several of these designs will be
reproduced. In the list of artists which follows I give the names of the
most remarkable of those who worked at Barcelona.
In the Municipal Ordinances of Toledo of the year 1494, some laws
relating to silversmiths appeared; they are, however, uninteresting. The
same thing occurs with the Ordinances of Seville, which were re-compiled
in 1526. The guild of silversmiths of Toledo must have been most
important, for in 1423 they already formed a brotherhood or guild under
the protection of St. Eloy, in which they agreed to help the members of
the guild in every way. See "Documentos Ineditos," published by Zarco
del Valle, p. 166. The Ordinances of Granada enter more into details
concerning the technical proceedings of silversmith's work. These
Ordinances appeared in 1538; the work in the Moorish style is described
in full detail; it appears to have been preserved in this locality more
than elsewhere.
We can judge of the enormous quantities of objects which were made by
those still to be seen in Spanish cathedrals and churches, having
survived the French invasion of the present century. For full details of
the barbarous treatment of these works of art during the French
invasion, see Ford's "Handbook of Spain." The expropriations of the
Spanish government during the civil wars of 1833 to 1840, and the
injudicious law of expropriations of 1869 for the purpose of collecting
artistic objects, have brought about the destruction and disappearance
of numberless works of art in order not to give them up to the
government.
The same splendour and abundance of silver objects of every kind existed
in the royal palaces and houses of the grandees. Madame d'Aunoy in her
"Voyage en Espagne, Lyon, 1643," p. 109, says: "L'on ne se sert point de
vaisselle d'étain, celle d'argent ou de terre sont les seules qui soient
en usage. Le duc d'Alburquerque est mort, il y a déjà quelque tems; l'on
m'a dit que l'on avoit employé six semaines à écrire sa vaisselle d'or
et d'argent. Il y avoit 1400 douzaines d'assiettes, 500 grands plats, et
700 petits, tout le reste à proportion, et 40 échelles d'argent pour
monter au haut de son buffet, qui étoit par gradins comme un autel placé
dans une grande salle." The splendid silver table belonging to the
Marquis of Villaseca at Madrid gives a good idea of the furniture of
this time. In the Inventories, a great number of which exist, we find
numerous details of silver objects of every kind. In one which was drawn
up in 1574, of the effects of Princess Da Juana (MS. folio, Acad. de la
Historia), the sister of Philip II., we find mention, without counting
the jewels, of a silver balustrade, weighing 121 pounds, to be placed
round the bed. The greater part of the kitchen utensils were also made
of silver.