_Abt Vogler_ (äpt v[=o]g'ler)
Actors, in early plays;
Elizabethan
Addison;
life;
works;
hymns;
influence;
style
_Adonais_ (ad-[=o]-n[=a]'is)
Aesc (esk)
Aidan, St. ([=i]'dan)
_Aids to Reflection_
_Alastor_ ([)a]-l[)a]s-tôr)
_Alchemist, The_
_Alexander's Feast_
Alfred, King;
life and times;
works
_All for Love_
_Alysoun_, or Alisoun (äl'[)y]-sown or äl'[)y]-zoon), old form of Alice
_Amelia_
_American Taxation_, Burke's speech on
_An Epistle_
_Anatomy of Melancholy_
_Ancren Riwle_ (angk'ren rol)
_Andrea del Sarto_ (än-dr[=a]'yä del sär't[=o])
_Andreas_
Angeln
Angles, the
Anglo-Norman Period;
literature;
ballads;
lyrics;
summary;
selections for reading;
bibliography;
questions on;
chronology
_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_
Anglo-Saxon Period;
early poetry;
springs of poetry;
language;
Christian writers;
source books;
summary;
selections for reading;
bibliography;
questions on;
chronology
Anglo-Saxons;
the name;
life;
language;
literature,
_see_ Anglo-Saxon Period.
_Annus Mirabilis_
Anselm
_Apologia_, Newman's
_Apologie for Poetrie_
_Arcadia_
_Areopagitica_ ([)a]r'=[=e]-[)o]p-[)a]-j[)i]t'[)i]-cä)
Arnold, Matthew;
life;
poetry;
prose works;
characteristics
Art, definition of
Arthurian romances
Artistic period of drama
Artistic quality of literature
Ascham, Roger
Assonance
_Astraea Redux_ ([)a]s-tr[=e]'ä r[=e]'duks)
_Astrophel and Stella_ ([)a]s'tr[=o]-fel)
_Atalanta in Calydon_ ([)a]t-[)a]-l[)a]n'tä, k[)a]l'[)i]-d[)o]n)
Augustan Age, meaning. _See_
Eighteenth-century literature
_Aurora Leigh_ ([a:]-r[=o]'rä l[=e])
Austen, Jane; life;
novels; Scott's criticism of
Bacon, Francis; life; works;
place and influence
Bacon, Roger
Ballad, the
_Ballads and Sonnets_
_Barchester Towers_
_Bard, The_
_Bard of the Dimbovitza_ (dim-bo-vitz'ä),
Roumanian folk songs
_Battle of Agincourt_ (English, [)a]j'in-k[=o]rt)
_Battle of Brunanburh_
_Battle of the Books_
Baxter, Richard
Beaumont, Francis (b[=o]'mont)
_Becket_
Bede; his history; his account
of Cædmon
_Bells and Pomegranates_
Benefit of clergy
_Beowulf_ (b[=a]'[=o]-wulf), the poem;
history; poetical form;
manuscript of
Beowulf's Mount
Bibliographies, study of literature;
Anglo-Saxon Period; Norman;
Chaucer; Revival of Learning;
Elizabethan; Puritan;
Restoration; Eighteenth
century; Romanticism;
Victorian; general
_Bickerstaff Almanac_
_Biographia Literaria_
Blackmore, Richard
Blake, William; life; works
Blank verse
_Blessed Damozel_
_Blot in the 'Scutcheon, A_
Boethius (b[=o]-[=e]'thi-us)
Boileau (bwa-l[=o]'), French critic
_Boke of the Duchesse_
_Book of Martyrs_
_Borough, The_
Boswell, James. _See also_ Johnson
Boy actors
Breton, Nicholas
Brontë, Charlotte and Emily
Browne, Thomas; works
Browning, Mrs. Elizabeth Barrett
Browning, Robert; life;
works; obscurity of; as
a teacher; compared with
Shakespeare; with Tennyson;
periods of work; soul
studies; place and message
_Brut_, Layamon's; quotation from
Brutus, alleged founder of Britain
Bulwer Lytton
Bunyan, John; life; works;
his style
Burke, Edmund; life; works;
analysis of his orations
Burney, Fanny (Madame D'Arblay)
Burns, Robert; life; poetry;
Carlyle's essay on
Burton, Robert
Butler, Samuel
Byron; life; works;
compared with Scott
Cædmon (k[)a]d'mon), life; works;
his _Paraphrase_; school of
_Cain_
_Callista_
Calvert, Raisley
Camden, William
_Campaign, The_
Campion, Thomas
_Canterbury Tales_; plan of;
prologue; Dryden's criticism
of
Canynge's coffer
Carew, Thomas
Carlyle; life; works;
style and message
Carols, in early plays
_Casa Guidi Windows_ (kä'sä gw[=e]'d[=e])
_Castell of Perseverance_
_Castle of Indolence_
_Cata_
Cavalier poets
Caxton; specimen of printing
Celtic legends
_Chanson de Gestes_
_Chanson de Roland_
Chapman, George; his _Homer_;
Keats's sonnet on
Chatterton, Thomas
Chaucer, how to read; life;
works; form of his poetry;
melody; compared with Spenser
Chaucer, Age of: history; writers;
summary; selections for reading;
bibliography; questions on; chronology
Chester plays
Cheyne Row
_Childe Harold_
_Child's Garden of Verses_
Chocilaicus (k[=o]-kil-[=a]'[=i]-cus)
_Christ, The_, of Cynewulf
_Christabel_
_Christian Year_
_Christmas Carol, A_
Christ's Hospital, London
_Chronicle, The Anglo-Saxon_
Chronicle plays
Chronicles, riming
Chronology: Anglo-Saxon Period;
Norman-French; Age of Chaucer;
Revival of Learning; Elizabethan;
Puritan; Restoration; Eighteenth Century;
Romanticism; Victorian
_Citizen of the World_
_Clarissa_
Classic and classicism
Classic influence on the drama
_Cloister and the Hearth_
Clough, Arthur Hugh
_Cockaygne, Land of_ (k[=o]-k[=a]n')
Coleridge; life; works; critiqal writings
Collier, Jeremy
Collins, William
Comedy, definition; first English; of the court
_Complete Angler, The_
_Comus, Masque of_
_Conciliation with America_, Burke's speech
_Confessions of an English Opium-Eater_
_Consolations of Philosophy_
_Cotter's Saturday Night_
Couplet, the
Court comedies
Covenant of 1643
Coventry plays
Cowley, Abraham
Cowper, William; life; works
Crabbe, George
_Cranford_
Crashaw, Richard
Critic, meaning of
Critical writing, Dryden; Coleridge;
in Age of Romanticism;
in Victorian Age
Criticism, Arnold's definition
Cross, John Walter
_Crown of Wild Olive_
_Culture and Anarchy_
_Curse of Jfehama_ (k[=e]-hä'mä)
_Cursor Mundi_
Cycles, of plays; of romances
Cynewulf (kin'[)e]-wulf), 36-38
_Cynthia's Revels_ (sin'thi-ä)
Daniel, Samuel
_Daniel Deronda_
D'Arblay, Madame (Fanny Burney)
Darwin and _Darwinism_
Death, Raleigh's apostrophe to
_Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_
_Defense of Poesie_
_Defensio pro Populo Anglicano_
Defoe; life; works
Dekker, Thomas
_Delia_
Democracy and Romanticism;
in Victorian Age
_Dear's Lament_
De Quincey; life; works; style
_De Sapientia Veterum_
_Deserted Village, The_
_Dethe of Blanche the Duchesse_
_Diary_, Evelyn's; Pepys's; selections from
Dickens;
life;
works;
general plan of novels;
his characters;
his public;
limitations
_Dictionary_, Johnson's
_Discoverie of Guiana_ (g[=e]-ä'nä)
_Divina Commedia_ (d[=e]-v[=e]'nä kom-m[=a]'d[=e]-ä)
_Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde_
Domestic drama
Donne, John
his poetry
Dotheboys Hall (do-the-boys)
Drama, in Elizabethan Age
origin,
periods of,
miracle and mystery plays,
interludes,
classical influence on,
unities,
the English,
types of,
decline of.
_See also_ Elizabethan Age, Shakespeare,
Jonson, Marlowe, etc.
Dramatic unities
Dramatists, methods of _See_
Shakespeare, Marlowe, etc.
_Drapier's Letters_
Drayton, Michael
_Dream of Gerontius, The_ (j[)e]-r[)o]n'sh[)i]-us)
Dryden
life,
works,
influence,
criticism of _Canterbury Tales_
_Duchess of Malfi_ (mäl'f[=e])
_Dunciad, The_ (dun's[)i]-ad)
Ealhild, queen ([=e]-äl'hild)
_Earthly Paradise_
_Eastward Ho_!
Economic conditions, in Age of Romanticism
Edgeworth, Maria
_Edward II_
_Egoist, The_
Eighteenth-Century Literature:
history of the period,
literary characteristics,
the Classic Age,
Augustan writers,
romantic revival,
the first novelists,
summary,
selections for reading,
bibliography,
questions,
chronology,
_Eikon Basilike_ ([=i]'kon b[)a]-sil'[)i]-k[=e])
Eikonoklastes ([=i]-kon-[=o]-klas't[=e]z)
_Elegy_, Gray's
_Elene_
Elizabethan Age
history,
non-dramatic poets,
first dramatists,
Shakespeare's predecessors,
Shakespeare,
Shakespeare's contemporaries and successors,
prose writers,
summary,
selections,
bibliography,
questions,
chronology
_Endymion_
_English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_
_English Humorists_
_English Idyls_
Eormanric ([=e]-or'man-ric)
_Epicaene_ ([)e]p'[=i]-sen), or _The Silent Woman_
_Epithalamium_ ([)e]p-[)i]-th[=a]-l[=a]'m[)i]-um)
Erasmus
_Essay concerning Human Understanding_
_Essay of Dramatic Poesy_
_Essay on Burns_
_Essay on Criticism_
_Essay on Man_
_Essay on Milton_
_Essays_,
Addison's,
Bacon's
_Essays in Criticism_
_Essays of Elia_ ([=e]'l[)i]-ä)
_Ethics of the Dust_
_Euphues_ and euphuism ([=u]'f[=u]-[=e]z)
Evans, Mary Ann. _See_ George Eliot
Evelyn, John
_Everlasting No_, and _Yea, The_
_Every Man in His Humour_
_Everyman_
_Excursion, The_
_Exeter Book_
Faber, Frederick
_Fables_, Dryden's
_Faery Queen_
_Fall of Princes_
_Faust_ (foust), _Faustus_ (fas'tus)
_Ferrex and Porrex_
Fielding,
novels,
characteristics
_Fight at Finnsburgh_
_Fingal_ (fing'gal)
First-folio Shakespeare
Fletcher, Giles
Fletcher, John
Ford, John
Formalism
_Four Georges, The_
Foxe, John
_Fragments of Ancient Poetry_
French influence in Restoration literature
French language in England
French Revolution, influence of
_French Revolution_, Carlyle's
Fuller, Thomas
_Gammer Gurton's Needle_
Gaskell, Mrs. Elizabeth
_Gawain and the Green Knight_ (gä'-w[=a]n)
Gawain cycle of romances, 57
_Gebir_ (g[=a]-b[=e]r')
Geoffrey of Monmouth (jef'r[)i])
George Eliot;
life;
works;
characteristics;
as a moralist
Gest (_or_ jest) books
_Geste of Robin Hood_
Gibbon,
his history
_Gifts of God, The_
Girondists (j[)i]-ron'dists)
Gleemen, _or_ minstrels
Goldsmith;
life;
works
_Good Counsel_
_Gorboduc_ (gôr'b[=o]-duk)
_Gorgeous Gallery_
Gower
_Grace Abounding_
Gray, Thomas;
life;
works
_Greatest English Poets_
Greene, Robert
Gregory, Pope
Grendel; story of;
mother of
Grubb Street
_Gulliver's Travels_
_Gull's Hornbook_
Hakluyt, Richard (h[)a]k'loot)
Hallam,
his criticism of Bacon
Hardy, Thomas
Hastings, battle of
Hathaway, Anne
Hazlitt, William
Hengist (h[)e]ng'gist)
_Henry Esmond_
Herbert, George;
life;
poetry of
_Hero and Leander_
_Heroes and Hero Worship_
Heroic couplet
_Heroic Stanzas_
Herrick, Robert
_Hesperides and Noble Numbers_ (h[)e]s-p[)e]r'[)i]-d[=e]z)
Heywood, John
Heywood, Thomas
Hilda, abbess
Hildgund (hild'gund)
Historical novel
_History, of England_, Macaulay's;
_of Frederick the Great_, Carlyle's;
_of Henry VIII_, Bacon's;
_of the Reformation in Scotland_, Knox's;
_of the Wortd_, Raleigh's
Hnæf (n[e=]f)
Hobbes, Thomas
Holofernes (hol-[=o]-fer'n[=e]z) in _Judith_
_Holy and Profane State_
_Holy Living_
_Holy War_
_Homer_, Chapman's;
Dryden's;
Pope's;
Cowper's
Hooker, Richard
Hooker, Thomas
_Hours in a Library_
_Hours of Idleness_
_House of Fame_
_House of Life_
Hrothgar (r[)o]th'gar)
_Hudibras_ (h[=u]'d[)i]-bras)
Humanism
_Humphrey Clinker_
Hunt, Leigh
_Husband's Message_
Huxley,
Hygelac (h[=i]-j[=e]'lak)
Hymn book, first English
_Hymn to Intellectual Beauty_
_Hymns_, Addison's;
Cowper's
_Hypatia_ (h[=i]-p[=a]'shia)
_Hyperion_ (h[=i]-p[=e]'r[)i]-on)
Idealism of Victorian Age
Ideals
Idols, of Bacon
_Idylls of the King_
_Il Penseroso_ (il pen-s[)e]-r[=o]'s[=o])
_Iliad_, Pope's translation;
Chapman's;
Dryden's
_Imaginary Conversations_
_Impeachment of Warren Hastings_
_In Memoriam_
_Instauratio Magna_ (in-sta-r[=a]'shi-o)
Interludes
_Intimations of Immortality_
Jacobean poets
_Jane Eyre_ (âr)
Jeffrey, Francis
Jest (_or_ gest) books
_Jew of Malta_
_John Gilpin_
Johnson, Samuel; life;
works; his conversations;
Boswell's _Life of Johnson_
_Jonathan Wild_
Jonson, Ben; life; works
_Joseph Andrews_
_Journal of the Plague Year_
_Journal to Stella_
_Judith_
_Juliana_
Keats; life; works;
place in literature
Kilmarnock Burns, the
_Kings' Treasuries_
Kingsley, Charles
_Knight's Tale, The_
Knox, John
_Kubla Khan_ (kob'lä kän)
Kyd, Thomas
_L'Allegro_ (läl-[=a]'gr[=o])
_Lady of the Lake_
Lake poets, the
Lamb, Charles; life; works;
style
Lamb, Mary
_Lamia_ (l[=a]'mi-ä)
_Land of Cockaygne_ (k[)o]-kän')
_Land of Dreams_
Landor, Walter Savage; life;
works
Langland, William
Language, our first speech; dual
character of; Teutonic origin
_Last Days of Pompeii_ (pom-p[=a]'y[=e])
Law, Hooker's idea of
_Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity,_
_Lay Sermons_
Layamon
_Lays of Ancient Rome_
_Lead, Kindly Light_
_Lectures on Shakespeare_
_Legends of Goode Wimmen_
_Leviathan_
Lewes, George Henry
_Liberty of Prophesying_
Life, compared to a sea voyage
_Life of Johnson_
_Life of Savage_
Lindsay, David
Literary Club, the
Literary criticism. _See also_
Critical writing.
_Literary Reminiscences_
Literature, definition; qualities;
tests; object in studying; importance;
Goethe's definition;
spirit of modern
_Literature and Dogma_
_Lives_, Plutarch's; Walton's
_Lives of the Poets_
Locke, John
Lockhart, John
_Lorna Doone_
_Lost Leader, The_
Lovelace, Richard
_Lycidas_ (lis'[)i]-das)
Lydgate, John
Lyly, John (lil'[)i])
_Lyra Apostolica_
_Lyrical Ballads_
Lytton, Edward Bulwer
Macaulay; life; works;
characteristics
Macpherson, James (mak-fer'son)
Magazines, the modern
_Maldon, The Battle of_
Malory
_Mandeville's Travels_
_Manfred_
Marlowe; life; works;
and Milton; and Shakespeare
_Marmion_
Marvell, Andrew
Massinger, Philip
Matter of France, Rome, and Britain
Melodrama
_Memoirs of a Cavalier_
Meredith, George
_Merlin and the Gleam_
Metaphysical poets
Metrical romances
Middleton, Thomas
_Miles Gloriosus_ (m[=e]'les gl[=o]-r[)i]-[=o]'s[u:]s)
_Mill on the Floss_
Milton; life; early or Horton
poems; prose works;
later poetry; and Shakespeare;
Wordsworth's sonnet on
_Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_
Miracle plays
_Mirror for Magistrates_
_Mr. Badman, Life and Death of_
Modern literature, spirit of
_Modern Painters_
_Modest Proposal, A_
_Moral Epistles_
Moral period of the drama
Moral purpose in Victorian literature
Morality plays
More, Hannah
More, Thomas
Morris, William
_Morte d'Arthur_ (mort där'ther)
_Mother Hubbard's Tale_
_Mulèykeh_ (m[=u]-l[=a]'k[)a])
_My Last Duchess_
_Mysteries of Udolpho, The_ ([=u]-dol'f[=o])
Mystery plays
_New Atalantis_
_Newcomes, The_
Newman, Cardinal; life;
prose works; poems;
style
Newspapers, the first
_Nibelungenlied_ (n[=e]'b[)e]-lung-en-l[=e]d)
_Noah, Play of_
Norman Conquest
Norman pageantry
Norman period. _See_ Anglo-Norman
Normans;
union with Saxons;
literature of
North, Christopher (John Wilson)
North, Thomas
Northanger Abbey (north'[=a]n-jer)
_Northern Antiquities_
Northumbrian literature; decline
of; how saved
Novel, meaning and history;
precursors of; discovery of
modern
Novelists, the first English.
_See_ Scott, Dickens, etc.
_Novum Organum_ (or'g[)a]-num)
_Ode on the Morning of Christ's Nativity_
_Ode to Dejection_
_Ode to the West Wind_
Odes, Pindaric
_Odyssey_, Pope's; Chapman's;
Dryden's
_Old Fortunatus_ (for-t[=u]-n[=a]'tus)
_Oliver Cromwell_, Carlyle's
_Oliver Twist_
_Origin of Species_
_Orlando Furioso_ (or-lan'd[=o] foo-r[=e]-[=o]'s[=o])
Orm, _or_ Orme; his _Ormulum_
Orosius ([=o]-r[=o]'si-us), his history
Ossian (osh'ian) and Ossianic poems
_Owl and Nightingale, The_
Oxford movement
_P's, The Four_
_Palamon and Arcite_ (pal'a-mon, är'-s[=i]te)
_Pamela_ (pam'e-lä)
Pantisocracy (pan-t[=i]-sok'r[=a]-se), of Coleridge,
Southey, etc.
_Paradise Lost_
_Paradise Regained_
_Paradyse of Daynty Devises_
_Paraphrase_, of Cædmon
_Parish Register, The_
_Pauline_
_Pearl, The_
_Pelham_
_Pendennis_
Pepys, Samuel (pep'is, peeps, pips)
Percy, Thomas
_Peregrine Pickle_ (per'e-grin)
_Pericles and Aspasia_ (per'i-kl[=e]z, as-p[=a]'shi-ä)
Philistines, the
_Phoenix_ (f[=e]'nix)
_Pickwick Papers_
_Piers Plowman_ (peers)
_Pilgrim's Progress_
Pindaric odes (pin-där'ic)
_Pippa Passes_
_Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven_
Plutarch's _Lives_
_Poems by Two Brothers_
_Poetaster, The_
_Polyolbion_ (pol-[)i]-ol'b[)i]-on)
Pope, Alexander; life;
works
Porter, Jane
_Practice of Piety_
_Praeterita_ (pr[=e]-ter'[)i]-tä)
_Praise of Folly_
_Prelude, The_
_Pre-Raphaelites_ (rä'f[=a]-el-ites)
_Pride and Prejudice_
_Princess, The_
_Prometheus Unbound_ (pr[=o]-m[=e]'th[=u]s)
Prose development in eighteenth century
Pseudo-classicism (s[=u]'d[=o])
Purchas, Samuel; _Purchas His
Pilgrimes_
Puritan Age: history; literary
characteristics; poets;
prose writers; compared with
Elizabethan; summary;
selections for reading; bibliography,
questions;
chronology
Puritan movement
Puritans, wrong ideas of
Queen Mab, in _Romeo and Juliet_
_Queen's Gardens_
_Rabbi Ben Ezra_
Radcliffe, Mrs. Anne
Raleigh, Walter
_Ralph Royster Doyster_
_Rambler_ essays
_Rape of the Lock_
Reade, Charles
Realism
_Recluse, The_
_Reflections on the French Revolution_
_Religio Laici_
_Religio Medici_
Religious period of the drama
_Reliques of Ancient English Poetry_
_Reminiscences_, Carlyle's
_Remorse_
Renaissance, the (re-n[=a]'säns, r[=e]'n[=a]s-sans, etc.)
Restoration Period: history; literary
characteristics; writers;
summary; selections for
reading; bibliography;
questions; chronology
Revival of Learning Period: history;
literature; summary;
selections for reading; bibliography;
questions; chronology
_Revolt of Islam_
Revolution, French; of
1688; age of
Richardson, Samuel; novels of
_Rights of Man_
_Rime of the Ancient Alariner_
Rime Royal
_Ring and the Book, The_
_Robin Hood_
_Robinson Crusoe_
_Roderick_
_Roderick Random_
Romance; Greek Romances
Romance languages
_Romance of the Rose_
Romantic comedy and tragedy
Romantic enthusiasm
Romantic poetry
Romanticism, Age of; history;
literary characteristics;
poets; prose writers; summary;
selections for reading;
bibliography; questions;
chronology
Romanticism, meaning
_Romola_
_Rosalynde_
Rossetti, Christina (ros-set't[=e])
Rossetti, Dante Gabriel
_Rowley Papers_
Royal Society
Runes
Ruskin; life; works;
characteristics; message
Sackville, Thomas
_St. Catherine, Play of_
St. George's Guild
_Saints' Everlasting Rest_
_Samson Agonistes_ (ag-o-nis't[=e]z)
_Sartor Resartus_ (sar'tor re-sar'tus)
Satire; of Swift; of Thackeray
Saxon. _See_ Anglo-Saxon
_School of Shooting_
Science, in Victorian Age
Scop, _or_ poet (skop)
Scott, Walter; life; poetry;
novels; criticism of Jane
Austen
_Scottish Chiefs_
Scyld (skild), story of
Sea, names of, in Anglo-Saxon, 25
_Seafarer, The_
_Seasons, The_
Selections for reading:
Anglo-Saxon period;
Norman;
Chaucer;
Revival of Learning;
Elizabethan;
Puritan;
Restoration;
Eighteenth Century;
Romanticism;
Victorian
_Sentimental Journey_
_Sesame and Lilies_ (ses'a-m[=e])
Shakespeare;
life;
works;
four periods;
sources of plays;
classification of plays;
doubtful plays;
poems;
place and influence
_She Stoops to Conquer_
Shelley;
life;
works;
compared with Wordsworth
_Shepherds' Book_
_Shepherd's Calendar_
Shirley, James
_Shoemaker's Holiday, The_
_Short View of the English Stage_
Sidney, Philip
_Sigurd the Volsung_
_Silas Marner_
_Silent Woman, The_
_Sir Charles Grandison_
Skelton, John
_Sketches by Boz_
Smollett, Tobias
Social development in eighteenth century
_Sohrab and Rustum_ (soo'rhab, _or_ s[=o]'hrab)
_Songs of Innocence_, and _Songs of Experience_
Sonnet, introduction of
_Sonnets_,
of Shakespeare;
of Milton
_Sonnets from the Portuguese_
Southey;
works
_Spanish Gypsy_
_Spanish Tragedy_
_Specimens of English Dramatic Poets_
_Spectator, The_
Spenser;
life;
works;
characteristics;
compared with Chaucer
Spenserian poets
Spenserian stanza
Stage, in early plays;
Elizabethan
Steele, Richard
Stephen, Leslie
Sterne, Lawrence
Stevenson, Robert Louis
Style, a test of literature
Suckling, John
Surrey, Henry Howard, Earl of
_Swan, The_
Swift;
life;
works;
satire;
characteristics
Swinburne
_Sylva_
Symonds, John Addington
Tabard Inn
_Tale of a Tub_
_Tale of Two Cities_
_Tales from Shakespeare_
_Tales in Verse_
_Tales of the Hall_
_Tam o' Shanter_
_Tamburlaine_ (tam'bur-lane)
_Task, The_
_Tatler, The_
Taylor, Jeremy
_Temora_ (te-m[=o]'rä)
_Tempest, The_
_Temple, The_
Tennyson;
life;
works;
characteristics;
message
_Tenure of Kings and Magistrates_
_Terra_
Tests of literature
Teufelsdroeckh (toy'felz-droek)
Thackeray;
life;
works;
characteristics;
style;
and Dickens
_Thaddeus of Warsaw_
_Thalaba_ (täl-ä'bä)
Theater, the first
Thomson, James
_Thyrsis_ (ther'sis)
_Timber_
_Tintern Abbey_
_Tirocinium_ (t[=i]-r[=o]-sin'[)i]-um), _or A Review of Schools_
_Tom Jones_
Tories and Whigs
_Tottel's Miscellany_
Townley plays
_Toxophilus_ (tok-sof'[)i]-lus)
Tractarian movement
_Tracts for the Times_
Tragedy, definition,
of blood
Transition poets
_Traveler, The_
_Treasure Island_
_Treatises on Government_
_Tristram Shandy_
_Troilus and Cressida_ (tr[=o]'[)i]-lus, kres'-[)i]-dä)
Trollope, Anthony
Troyes, Treaty of
_Truth_, or _Good Counsel_
Tyndale, William (tin'dal)
Udall, Nicholas ([=u]'dal)
_Udolpho_ ([=u]-dol'f[=o])
_Unfortunate Traveller, The_
Universality, a test of literature
University wits
_Unto This Last_
_Utopia_
_Vanity Fair_
_Vanity of Human Wishes_
Vaughan, Henry
_Vercelli Book_
_Vicar of Wakefield_
Vice, the, in old plays
Victorian Age,
history,
literary characteristics,
poets,
novelists,
essayists, etc.,
spirit of,
summary,
selections for reading,
bibliography,
questions,
chronology
_View of the State of Ireland_
_Village, The_
_Vision of the Rood_
_Volpone_ (vol-p[=o]'ne)
_Voyages_, Hakluyt's
Wakefield plays
_Waldere_ (väl-d[=a]'re, _or_ väl'dare)
Waller, Edmund
Walton, Izaak
_Waverley_
_Wealth of Nations_
_Weather, The_, play of
Webster, John
Wedmore, Treaty of
_Westward Ho_
Whigs and Tories
Whitby (hwit'b[)i])
_Widsith_ (vid'sith)
Wiglaf (vig'läf)
Wilson, John (Christopher North),
Wither, George
Women, in literature
Wordsworth,
life,
poetry,
poems of nature,
poems of life,
last works
Wordsworth, Dorothy
_Worthies of England_
_Wuthering Heights_ (wuth'er-ing)
Wyatt (w[=i]'at), Thomas
Wyclif (wik'lif)
Wyrd (vird), or fate
York plays
Footnote 1: From _The Bard of the Dimbovitza_, First Series, p. 73.
Footnote 2: There is a mystery about this old hero which stirs our
imagination, but which is never explained. It refers, probably, to some
legend of the Anglo-Saxons which we have supplied from other sources, aided
by some vague suggestions and glimpses of the past in the poem itself.
Footnote 3: This is not the Beowulf who is hero of the poem.
Footnote 4: _Beowulf_, ll. 26-50, a free rendering to suggest the
alliteration of the original.
Footnote 5: Grendel, of the Eoten (giant) race, the death shadow, the
mark stalker, the shadow ganger, is also variously called god's foe, fiend
of hell, Cain's brood, etc. It need hardly be explained that the latter
terms are additions to the original poem, made, probably, by monks who
copied the manuscript. A belief in Wyrd, the mighty power controlling the
destinies of men, is the chief religious motive of the epic. In line 1056
we find a curious blending of pagan and Christian belief, where Wyrd is
withstood by the "wise God."
Footnote 6: Summary of ll. 710-727. We have not indicated in our
translation (or in quotations from Garnett, Morley, Brooke, etc.) where
parts of the text are omitted.
Footnote 7: Grendel's mother belongs also to the Eoten (giant) race. She
is called _brimwylf_ (sea wolf), _merewif_ (sea woman), _grundwyrgen_
(bottom master), etc.
Footnote 8: From Garnett's _Beowulf_, ll. 1384-1394.
Footnote 9: From Morley's version, ll. 1357-1376.
Footnote 10: _Beowulf_, ll. 2417-2423, a free rendering.
Footnote 11: Lines 2729-2740, a free rendering.
Footnote 12: Morley's version, ll. 2799-2816.
Footnote 13: Lines 3156-3182 (Morley's version).
Footnote 14: Probably to the fourth century, though some parts of the
poem must have been added later. Thus the poet says (II. 88-102) that he
visited Eormanric, who died _cir_. 375, and Queen Ealhhild whose father,
Eadwin, died _cir_. 561. The difficulty of fixing a date to the poem is
apparent. It contains several references to scenes and characters in
_Beowulf_.
Footnote 15: Lines 135-143 (Morley's version).
Footnote 16: A lyric is a short poem reflecting some personal emotion,
like love or grief. Two other Anglo-Saxon poems, "The Wife's Complaint" and
"The Husband's Message," belong to this class.
Footnote 17: First strophe of Brooke's version, _History of Early English
Literature_
Footnote 18: _Seafarer_, Part I, Iddings' version, in _Translations from
Old English Poetry._
Footnote 19: It is an open question whether this poem celebrates the
fight at which Hnæf, the Danish leader, fell, or a later fight led by
Hengist, to avenge Hnæf's death.
Footnote 20: Brooke's translation, _History of Early English Literature_,
For another early battle-song see Tennyson's "Battle of Brunanburh."
Footnote 21: William Camden (1551-1623), one of England's earliest and
greatest antiquarians. His first work, _Britannia_, a Latin history of
England, has been called "the common sun whereat our modern writers have
all kindled their little torches."
Footnote 22: From Iddings' version of _The Seafarer_.
Footnote 23: From _Andreas_, ll. 511 ff., a free translation. The whole
poem thrills with the Old Saxon love of the sea and of ships.
Footnote 24: From _Beowulf_, ll. 1063 ff., a free translation.
Footnote 25: Translated from _The Husband's Message_, written on a piece
of bark. With wonderful poetic insight the bark itself is represented as
telling its story to the wife, from the time when the birch tree grew
beside the sea until the exiled man found it and stripped the bark and
carved on its surface a message to the woman he loved. This first of all
English love songs deserves to rank with Valentine's description of Silvia:
Why, man, she is mine own,
And I as rich in having such a jewel
As twenty seas, if all their sand were pearl,
The water nectar and the rocks pure gold.
_Two Gentlemen of Verona_, II, 4.
Footnote 26: From the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, record of the year 457.
Footnote 27: According to Sweet the original home of the Aryans is placed
in central or northern Europe, rather than in Asia, as was once assumed.
See _The History of Language_, p. 103.
Footnote 28: "Cædmon's Hymn," Cook's version, in _Translations from Old
English Poetry_.
Footnote 29: _Ecclesiastical History_, IV, xxiv.
Footnote 30: Genesis, 112-131 (Morley).
Footnote 31: Exodus, 155 ff. (Brooke).
Footnote 32: Runes were primitive letters of the old northern alphabet.
In a few passages Cynewulf uses each rune to represent not only a letter
but a word beginning with that letter. Thus the rune-equivalent of C stands
for _cene_ (keen, courageous), Y for _yfel_ (evil, in the sense of
wretched), N for _nyd_ (need), W for _ivyn_ (joy), U for _ur_ (our), L for
_lagu_ (lake), F for _feoh_ (fee, wealth). Using the runes equivalent to
these seven letters, Cynewulf hides and at the same time reveals his name
in certain verses of _The Christ_, for instance:
Then the _Courage-hearted_ quakes, when the King (Lord) he hears
Speak to those who once on earth but obeyed Him weakly,
While as yet their _Yearning fain_ and their _Need_
most easily Comfort might discover.... Gone is then the _Winsomeness_
Of the earth's adornments! What to _Us_ as men belonged
Of the joys of life was locked, long ago, in _Lake-flood_.
All the _Fee_ on earth.
See Brooke's _History of Early English Literature_, pp. 377-379, or _The
Christ of Cynewulf_, ed. by Cook, also by Gollancz.
Footnote 33:
My robe is noiseless while I tread the earth,
Or tarry 'neath the banks, or stir the shallows;
But when these shining wings, this depth of air,
Bear me aloft above the bending shores
Where men abide, and far the welkin's strength
Over the multitudes conveys me, then
With rushing whir and clear melodious sound
My raiment sings. And like a wandering spirit
I float unweariedly o'er flood and field.
(Brougham's version, in _Transl. from Old Eng. Poetry_.)
Footnote 34: The source of _Andreas_ is an early Greek legend of St.
Andrew that found its way to England and was probably known to Cynewulf in
some brief Latin form, now lost.
Footnote 35: Our two chief sources are the famous Exeter Book, in Exeter
Cathedral, a collection of Anglo-Saxon poems presented by Bishop Leofric
(_c_. 1050), and the Vercelli Book, discovered in the monastery of
Vercelli, Italy, in 1822. The only known manuscript of _Beowulf_ was
discovered _c_. 1600, and is now in the Cotton Library of the British
Museum. All these are fragmentary copies, and show the marks of fire and of
hard usage. The Exeter Book contains _the Christ, Guthlac, the Phoenix,
Juliana, Widsith, The Seafarer, Deor's Lament, The Wife's Complaint, The
Lover's Message_, ninety-five Riddles, and many short hymns and
fragments,--an astonishing variety for a single manuscript.
Footnote 36: From Alfred's _Boethius_.
Footnote 37: It is not certain that the translation of Bede is the work
of Alfred.
Footnote 38: See _Translations from Old English Poetry_. Only a brief
account of the fight is given in the _Chronicle_. The song known as "The
Battle of Maldon," or "Byrhtnoth's Death," is recorded in another
manuscript.
Footnote 39: This is an admirable little book, containing the cream of
Anglo-Saxon poetry, in free translations, with notes. Translations from
_Old English Prose_ is a companion volume.
Footnote 40: For full titles and publishers of general reference books,
and for a list of inexpensive texts and helps, see General Bibliography at
the end of this book.
Footnote 41: The chief object of these questions is not to serve as a
review, or to prepare for examination, but rather to set the student
thinking for himself about what he has read. A few questions of an advanced
nature are inserted which call for special study and research in
interesting fields.
Footnote 42: A Romance language is one whose basis is Latin,--not the
classic language of literature, but a vulgar or popular Latin spoken in the
military camps and provinces. Thus Italian, Spanish, and French were
originally different dialects of the vulgar Latin, slightly modified by the
mingling of the Roman soldiers with the natives of the conquered provinces.
Footnote 43: See p. 51.
Footnote 44: It is interesting to note that all the chroniclers of the
period, whether of English or Norman birth, unite in admiration of the
great figures of English history, as it was then understood. Brutus,
Arthur, Hengist, Horsa, Edward the Confessor, and William of Normandy are
all alike set down as English heroes. In a French poem of the thirteenth
century, for instance, we read that "there is no land in the world where so
many good kings and saints have lived as in the isle of the English ...
such as the strong and brave Arthur, Edmund, and Cnut." This national poem,
celebrating the English Edward, was written in French by a Norman monk of
Westminster Abbey, and its first heroes are a Celt, a Saxon, and a Dane.
(See Jusserand, _Literary History of the English People_, I, 112 ff.)
Footnote 45: _English Literature from the Norman Conquest to Chaucer_.
Footnote 46: Anselm was an Italian by birth, but wrote his famous work
while holding the see of Canterbury.
Footnote 47: During the Roman occupancy of Britain occurred a curious
mingling of Celtic and Roman traditions. The Welsh began to associate their
national hero Arthur with Roman ancestors; hence the story of Brutus,
great-grandson of Aeneas, the first king of Britain, as related by Geoffrey
and Layamon.
Footnote 48: Probably a Latin copy of Bede.
Footnote 49: Wace's translation of Geoffrey.
Footnote 50: Only one word in about three hundred and fifty is of French
origin. A century later Robert Mannyng uses one French word in eighty,
while Chaucer has one in six or seven. This includes repetitions, and is a
fair estimate rather than an exact computation.
Footnote 51: The matter of Britain refers strictly to the Arthurian, i.e.
the Welsh romances; and so another division, the matter of England, may be
noted. This includes tales of popular English heroes, like Bevis of
Hampton, Guy of Warwick, Horn Child, etc.
Footnote 52: According to mediæval literary custom these songs were
rarely signed. Later, when many songs were made over into a long poem, the
author signed his name to the entire work, without indicating what he had
borrowed
Footnote 53: An English book in which such romances were written was
called a Gest or Jest Book. So also at the beginning of _Cursor Mundi_
(_c_. 1320) we read:
Men yernen jestis for to here
And romaunce rede in diverse manere,
and then follows a summary of the great cycles of romance, which we are
considering.
Footnote 54: Tennyson goes farther than Malory in making Gawain false and
irreverent. That seems to be a mistake; for in all the earliest romances
Gawain is, next to Arthur, the noblest of knights, the most loved and
honored of all the heroes of the Round Table.
Footnote 55: There were various French versions of the story; but it came
originally from the Irish, where the hero was called Cuchulinn.
Footnote 56: It is often alleged that in this romance we have a very
poetical foundation for the Order of the Garter, which was instituted by
Edward III, in 1349; but the history of the order makes this extremely
doubtful. The reader will be chiefly interested in comparing this romance
with _Beowulf_, for instance, to see what new ideals have taken root in
England.
Footnote 57: Originally Cockaygne (variously spelled) was intended to
ridicule the mythical country of Avalon, somewhat as Cervantes' _Don
Quixote_ later ridicules the romances of chivalry. In Luxury Land
everything was good to eat; houses were built of dainties and shingled with
cakes; buttered larks fell instead of rain; the streams ran with good wine;
and roast geese passed slowly down the streets, turning themselves as they
went.
Footnote 58: Child's _English and Scottish Popular Ballads_ is the most
scholarly and complete collection in our language. Gummere's _Old English
Ballads_ is a good short work. Professor Kittredge's Introduction to the
Cambridge edition of Child's _Ballads_ is the best summary of a very
difficult subject. For an extended discussion of the literary character of
the ballad, see Gummere's _The Popular Ballad_.
Footnote 59: little bird.
Footnote 60: in her language.
Footnote 61: I live
Footnote 62: fairest
Footnote 63: I am
Footnote 64: power, bondage.
Footnote 65: a pleasant fate I have attained.
Footnote 66: I know
Footnote 67: gone
Footnote 68: lit, alighted
Footnote 69: For titles and publishers of reference books see General
Bibliography at the end of this book.
Footnote 70: The reader may perhaps be more interested in these final
letters, which are sometimes sounded and again silent, if he remembers that
they represent the decaying inflections of our old Anglo-Saxon speech.
Footnote 71: _House of Fame_, II, 652 ff. The passage is more or less
autobiographical.
Footnote 72: _Legend of Good Women_, Prologue, ll. 29 ff.
Footnote 73: wealth.
Footnote 74: the crowd.
Footnote 75: success.
Footnote 76: blinds.
Footnote 77: act.
Footnote 78: trouble.
Footnote 79: i.e. the goddess Fortune.
Footnote 80: kick.
Footnote 81: awl.
Footnote 82: judge.
Footnote 83: For the typography of titles the author has adopted the plan
of putting the titles of all books, and of all important works generally
regarded as single books, in italics. Individual poems, essays, etc., are
in Roman letters with quotation marks. Thus we have the "Knight's Tale," or
the story of "Palamon and Arcite," in the _Canterbury Tales_. This system
seems on the whole the best, though it may result in some inconsistencies.
Footnote 84: _Troilus and Criseyde_, III.
Footnote 85: See p. 107.
Footnote 86: For a summary of Chaucer's work and place in our literature,
see the Comparison with Spenser, p. 111.
Footnote 87: clad.
Footnote 88: wonder.
Footnote 89: brook.
Footnote 90: sounded.
Footnote 91: theirs
Footnote 92: rule
Footnote 93: righteousness
Footnote 94: called
Footnote 95: theirs
Footnote 96: yield
Footnote 97: say
Footnote 98: them
Footnote 99: hate
Footnote 100: persecute
Footnote 101: slander
Footnote 102: rains
Footnote 103: In its English form the alleged Mandeville describes the
lands and customs he has seen, and brings in all the wonders he has heard
about. Many things he has seen himself, he tells us, and these are
certainly true; but others he has heard in his travels, and of these the
reader must judge for himself. Then he incidentally mentions a desert where
he saw devils as thick as grasshoppers. As for things that he has been told
by devout travelers, here are the dog-faced men, and birds that carry off
elephants, and giants twenty-eight feet tall, and dangerous women who have
bright jewels in their heads instead of eyes, "and if they behold any man
in wrath, they slay him with a look, as doth the basilisk." Here also are
the folk of Ethiopia, who have only one leg, but who hop about with
extraordinary rapidity. Their one foot is so big that, when they lie in the
sun, they raise it to shade their bodies; in rainy weather it is as good as
an umbrella. At the close of this interesting book of travel, which is a
guide for pilgrims, the author promises to all those who say a prayer for
him a share in whatever heavenly grace he may himself obtain for all his
holy pilgrimages.
Footnote 104: For titles and publishers of reference works see General
Bibliography at the end of this book.
Footnote 105: _Constitutional History of England_.
Footnote 106: Symonds, _Revival of Learning_.
Footnote 107: Sismondi attributes this to two causes: first, the lack of
general culture; and second, the absorption of the schools in the new study
of antiquity. See _Literature of the South of Europe_, II, 400 ff.
Footnote 108: Erasmus, the greatest scholar of the Renaissance, was not
an Englishman, but seems to belong to every nation. He was born at
Rotterdam (_c_. 1466), but lived the greater part of his life in France,
Switzerland, England, and Italy. His _Encomium Moriae_ was sketched on a
journey from Italy (1509) and written while he was the guest of Sir Thomas
More in London.
Footnote 109: Unless, perchance, the reader finds some points of
resemblance in Plato's "Republic."
Footnote 110: See Wordsworth's sonnet, _On the Sonnet_. For a detailed
study of this most perfect verse form, see Tomlinson's _The Sonnet, Its
Origin, Structure, and Place in Poetry_.
Footnote 111: William Caxton (_c_. 1422-1491) was the first English
printer. He learned the art abroad, probably at Cologne or Bruges, and
about the year 1476 set up the first wooden printing press in England. His
influence in fixing a national language to supersede the various dialects,
and in preparing the way for the literary renaissance of the Elizabethan
age, is beyond calculation.
Footnote 112: Malory has, in our own day, been identified with an English
country gentleman and soldier, who was member of Parliament for
Warwickshire in 1445.
Footnote 113: For titles and publishers of general works see General
Bibliography at the end of this book.
Footnote 114: _Eastward Ho!_ a play given in Blackfriars Theater about
1603. The play was written by Marston and two collaborators.
Footnote 115: Lie so faint.
Footnote 116: The _View_ was not published till 1633.
Footnote 117: clad.
Footnote 118: handsome.
Footnote 119: jousts, tournaments.
Footnote 120: countenance.
Footnote 121: dreaded.
Footnote 122: took off.
Footnote 123: pity.
Footnote 124: know.
Footnote 125: In the nineteenth century men learned again to appreciate
Chaucer.
Footnote 126: The most dramatic part of the early ritual centered about
Christ's death and resurrection, on Good Fridays and Easter days. An
exquisite account of this most impressive service is preserved in St.
Ethelwold's Latin manual of church services, written about 965. The Latin
and English versions are found in Chambers's _Mediaeval Stage_, Vol. II.
For a brief, interesting description, see Gayley, _Plays of Our
Forefathers_, pp. 14 ff.
Footnote 127: How much we are indebted to the Norman love of pageantry
for the development of the drama in England is an unanswered question.
During the Middle Ages it was customary, in welcoming a monarch or in
celebrating a royal wedding, to represent allegorical and mythological
scenes, like the combat of St. George and the dragon, for instance, on a
stage constructed for the purpose. These pageants were popular all over
Europe and developed during the Renaissance into the dramatic form known as
the Masque. Though the drama was of religious origin, we must not overlook
these secular pageants as an important factor in the development of
dramatic art.
Footnote 128: Miracles were acted on the Continent earlier than this. The
Normans undoubtedly brought religious plays with them, but it is probable
that they began in England before the Conquest (1066). See Manly,
_Specimens of the Pre-Shaksperean Drama_, I, xix.
Footnote 129: See Jusserand, _A Literary History of the English People_,
I, iii, vi. For our earliest plays and their authors see Gayley, _Plays of
Our Forefathers_.
Footnote 130: These three periods are not historically accurate. The
author uses them to emphasize three different views of our earliest plays
rather than to suggest that there was any orderly or chronological
development from Miracle to Morality and thence to the Interludes. The
latter is a prevalent opinion, but it seems hardly warranted by the facts.
Thus, though the Miracles precede the Moralities by two centuries (the
first known Morality, "The Play of the Lord's Prayer," mentioned by Wyclif,
was given probably about 1375), some of the best known Moralities, like
"Pride of Life," precede many of the later York Miracles. And the term
Interlude, which is often used as symbolical of the transition from the
moral to the artistic period of the drama, was occasionally used in England
(fourteenth century) as synonymous with Miracle and again (sixteenth
century) as synonymous with Comedy. That the drama had these three stages
seems reasonably certain; but it is impossible to fix the limits of any one
of them, and all three are sometimes seen together in one of the later
Miracles of the Wakefield cycle.
Footnote 131: In fact, Heywood "cribbed" from Chaucer's _Tales_ in
another Interlude called "The Pardoner and the Frere."
Footnote 132: Schelling, _Elizabethan Drama_, I, 86.
Footnote 133: That these gallants were an unmitigated nuisance, and had
frequently to be silenced by the common people who came to enjoy the play,
seems certain. Dekker's _Gull's Hornbook_ (1609) has an interesting chapter
on "How a Gallant should behave Himself in a Playhouse."
Footnote 134: The first actors were classed with thieves and vagabonds;
but they speedily raised their profession to an art and won a reputation
which extended far abroad. Thus a contemporary, Fynes Moryson, writes in
his _Itinerary:_ "So I remember that when some of our cast despised stage
players came ... into Germany and played at Franckford ... having nether a
complete number of actors, nor any good aparell, nor any ornament of the
stage, yet the Germans, not understanding a worde they sayde, both men and
wemen, flocked wonderfully to see their gesture and action."
Footnote 135: Schelling, _Elizabethan Drama_.
Footnote 136: Baker, in his _Development of Shakespeare as a Dramatist_,
pp. 57-62, takes a different view, and shows how carefully many of the boy
actors were trained. It would require, however, a vigorous use of the
imagination to be satisfied with a boy's presentation of Portia, Juliet,
Cordelia, Rosalind, or any other of Shakespeare's wonderful women.
Footnote 137: These choir masters had royal permits to take boys of good
voice, wherever found, and train them as singers and actors. The boys were
taken from their parents and were often half starved and most brutally
treated. The abuse of this unnatural privilege led to the final withdrawal
of all such permits.
Footnote 138: So called from Euphues, the hero of Lyly's two prose works,
_Euphues, the Anatomy of Wit_ (1579), and _Euphues and his England_ (1580).
The style is affected and over-elegant, abounds in odd conceits, and uses
hopelessly involved sentences. It is found in nearly all Elizabethan prose
writers, and partially accounts for their general tendency to
artificiality. Shakespeare satirizes euphuism in the character of Don
Adriano of _Love's Labour's Lost_, but is himself tiresomely euphuistic at
times, especially in his early or "Lylian" comedies. Lyly, by the way, did
not invent the style, but did more than any other to diffuse it.
Footnote 139: See Schelling, I, 211.
Footnote 140: See p. 114.
Footnote 141: In 1587 the first history of Johann Faust, a half-legendary
German necromancer, appeared in Frankfort. Where Marlowe found the story is
unknown; but he used it, as Goethe did two centuries later, for the basis
of his great tragedy.
Footnote 142: We must remember, however, that our present version of
_Faustus_ is very much mutilated, and does not preserve the play as Marlowe
wrote it.
Footnote 143: The two dramatists may have worked together in such
doubtful plays as _Richard III_, the hero of which is like Timur in an
English dress, and _Titus Andronicus_, with its violence and horror. In
many strong scenes in Shakespeare's works Marlowe's influence is manifest.
Footnote 144: _Gammer Gurton's Needle_ appeared _c_. 1562; _Love's
Labour's Lost, c_. 1591.
Footnote 145: _King John_, IV, 2.
Footnote 146: Queen Mab, in _Romeo and Juliet_.
Footnote 147: By Archdeacon Davies, in the seventeenth century.
Footnote 148: In 1709, nearly a century after the poet's death.
Footnote 149: Robert Greene, one of the popular playwrights of the time,
who attacked Shakespeare in a pamphlet called "A Groat's Worth of Wit
Bought with a Million of Repentance." The pamphlet, aside from its jealousy
of Shakespeare, is a sad picture of a man of genius dying of dissipation,
and contains a warning to other playwrights of the time, whose lives were
apparently almost as bad as that of Greene.
Footnote 150: _Love's Labour's Lost, Comedy of Errors, Two Gentlemen of
Verona_.
Footnote 151: _Henry VI, Richard III, Richard II, King John_. Prior to
1588 only three true Chronicle plays are known to have been acted. The
defeat of the Armada in that year led to an outburst of national feeling
which found one outlet in the theaters, and in the next ten years over
eighty Chronicle plays appeared. Of these Shakespeare furnished nine or
ten. It was the great popular success of _Henry VI_, a revision of an old
play, in 1592 that probably led to Greene's jealous attack.
Footnote 152: See Lee's _Life of William Shakespeare_, pp. 188-196.
Footnote 153: Like _Henry VIII_, and possibly the lost _Cardenio_.
Footnote 154: A name given to the privilege--claimed by the mediæval
Church for its clergy--of being exempt from trial by the regular law
courts. After the Reformation the custom survived for a long time, and
special privileges were allowed to ministers and their families. Jonson
claimed the privilege as a minister's son.
Footnote 155: A similar story of quackery is found in Chaucer, "The
Canon's Yeoman's Tale."
Footnote 156: In this and in _A Fair Quarrel_ Middleton collaborated with
William Rowley, of whom little is known except that he was an actor from
_c_. 1607-1627.
Footnote 157: The reader will find wholesome criticism of these writers,
and selections from their works, in Charles Lamb's _Specimens of English
Dramatic Poets_, an excellent book, which helps us to a better knowledge
and appreciation of the lesser Elizabethan dramatists.
Footnote 158: The first five books were published 1594-1597, and are as
Hooker wrote them. The last three books, published after his death, are of
doubtful authorship, but they are thought to have been completed from
Hooker's notes.
Footnote 159: For titles and publishers of reference works see General
Bibliography at the end of this book.
Footnote 160: See, for instance, the "Hymn to St. Theresa" and "The
Flaming Heart."
Footnote 161: So called from Pindar, the greatest lyric poet of Greece.
Footnote 162: See, for instance, "Childhood," "The Retreat,"
"Corruption," "The Bird," "The Hidden Flower," for Vaughan's mystic
interpretation of childhood and nature.
Footnote 163: There is some doubt as to whether he was born at the
Castle, or at Black Hall. Recent opinion inclines to the latter view.
Footnote 164: "On his being arrived to the Age of Twenty-three."
Footnote 165: "It is remarkable," says Lamartine, "how often in the
libraries of Italian princes and in the correspondence of great Italian
writers of this period you find mentioned the name and fame of this young
Englishman."
Footnote 166: In Milton's work we see plainly the progressive influence
of the Puritan Age. Thus his Horton poems are joyous, almost Elizabethan in
character; his prose is stern, militant, unyielding, like the Puritan in
his struggle for liberty; his later poetry, following the apparent failure
of Puritanism in the Restoration, has a note of sadness, yet proclaims the
eternal principles of liberty and justice for which he had lived.
Footnote 167: Of these sixty were taken from the Bible, thirty-three from
English and five from Scotch history.
Footnote 168: The latter was by Lewis Bayly, bishop of Bangor. It is
interesting to note that this book, whose very title is unfamiliar to us,
was speedily translated into five different languages. It had an enormous
sale, and ran through fifty editions soon after publication.
Footnote 169: Abridged from _Grace Abounding_, Part 3; _Works_ (ed.
1873), p. 71.
Footnote 170: For titles and publishers of reference works, see General
Bibliography at the end of this book.
Footnote 171: Guizot's _History of the Revolution in England_.
Footnote 172: Jeremy Collier (1650-1726), a clergyman and author, noted
for his scholarly _Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain_ (1708-1714) and
his _Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage_
(1698). The latter was largely instrumental in correcting the low tendency
of the Restoration drama.
Footnote 173: The Royal Society, for the investigation and discussion of
scientific questions, was founded in 1662, and soon included practically
all of the literary and scientific men of the age. It encouraged the work
of Isaac Newton, who was one of its members; and its influence for
truth--at a time when men were still trying to compound the philosopher's
stone, calculating men's actions from the stars, and hanging harmless old
women for witches--can hardly be overestimated.
Footnote 174: If the reader would see this in concrete form, let him read
a paragraph of Milton's prose, or a stanza of his poetry, and compare its
exuberant, melodious diction with Dryden's concise method of writing.
Footnote 175: Edmund Waller (1606-1687), the most noted poet of the
Restoration period until his pupil Dryden appeared. His works are now
seldom read.
Footnote 176: From _Divine Poems_, "Old Age and Death."
Footnote 177: Following the advice of Boileau (1676-1711), a noted French
critic, whom Voltaire called "the lawgiver of Parnassus."
Footnote 178: By a critic we mean simply one who examines the literary
works of various ages, separates the good from the bad, and gives the
reasons for his classification. It is noticeable that critical writings
increase in an age, like that of the Restoration, when great creative works
are wanting.
Footnote 179: Two other principles of this book should be noted: (1) that
all power originates in the people; and (2) that the object of all
government is the common good. Here evidently is a democratic doctrine,
which abolishes the divine right of kings; but Hobbes immediately destroys
democracy by another doctrine,--that the power given by the people to the
ruler could not be taken away. Hence the Royalists could use the book to
justify the despotism of the Stuarts on the ground that the people had
chosen them. This part of the book is in direct opposition to Milton's
_Defense of the English People_.
Footnote 180: Locke's _Treatises on Government_ should also be mentioned,
for they are of profound interest to American students of history and
political science. It was from Locke that the framers of the Declaration of
Independence and of the Constitution drew many of their ideas, and even
some of their most striking phrases. "All men are endowed with certain
inalienable rights"; "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness"; "the
origin and basis of government is in the consent of the governed,"--these
and many more familiar and striking expressions are from Locke. It is
interesting to note that he was appointed to draft a constitution for the
new province of Carolina; but his work was rejected,--probably because it
was too democratic for the age in which he lived.
Footnote 181: A few slight changes and omissions from the original text,
as given in Wheatley's edition of Pepys (London, 1892, 9 vols.), are not
indicated in these brief quotations.
Footnote 182: The first daily newspaper, _The Daily Courant_, appeared in
London in 1702.
Footnote 183: See Lecky, _England in the Eighteenth Century_.
Footnote 184: Addison's "Campaign" (1704), written to celebrate the
battle of Blenheim.
Footnote 185: Great writers in every age, men like Shakespeare and
Milton, make their own style. They are therefore not included in this
summary. Among the minor writers also there are exceptions to the rule; and
fine feeling is often manifest in the poetry of Donne, Herbert, Vaughan,
and Herrick.
Footnote 186: We have endeavored here simply to show the meaning of terms
in general use in our literature; but it must be remembered that it is
impossible to classify or to give a descriptive name to the writers of any
period or century. While "classic" or "pseudo-classic" may apply to a part
of eighteenth-century literature, every age has both its romantic and its
classic movements. In this period the revolt against classicism is shown in
the revival of romantic poetry under Gray, Collins, Burns, and Thomson, and
in the beginning of the English novel under Defoe, Richardson, and
Fielding. These poets and novelists, who have little or no connection with
classicism, belong chronologically to the period we are studying. They are
reserved for special treatment in the sections following.
Footnote 187: Pope's satires, for instance, are strongly suggested in
Boileau; his _Rape of the Lock_ is much like the mock-heroic _Le Lutrin;_
and the "Essay on Criticism," which made him famous, is an English edition
and improvement of _L'Art Poétique_. The last was, in turn, a combination
of the _Ars Poetica_ of Horace and of many well-known rules of the
classicists.
Footnote 188: These are the four kinds of spirits inhabiting the four
elements, according to the Rosicrucians,--a fantastic sect of spiritualists
of that age. In the dedication of the poem Pope says he took the idea from
a French book called _Le Comte de Gabalis_.
Footnote 189: Compare this with Shakespeare's "All the world's a stage,"
in _As You Like it_, II, 7.
Footnote 190: It is only fair to point out that Swift wrote this and two
other pamphlets on religion at a time when he knew that they would damage,
if not destroy, his own prospects of political advancement.
Footnote 191: See Tennyson's "Merlin and the Gleam."
Footnote 192: Of the _Tatler_ essays Addison contributed forty-two;
thirty-six others were written in collaboration with Steele; while at least
a hundred and eighty are the work of Steele alone.
Footnote 193: From "The Vanity of Human Wishes"
Footnote 194: A very lovable side of Johnson's nature is shown by his
doing penance in the public market place for his unfilial conduct as a boy.
(See, in Hawthorne's _Our Old Home_, the article on "Lichfield and
Johnson.") His sterling manhood is recalled in his famous letter to Lord
Chesterfield, refusing the latter's patronage for the _Dictionary_. The
student should read this incident entire, in Boswell's _Life of Johnson_.
Footnote 195: In Johnson's _Dictionary_ we find this definition:
"Grub-street, the name of a street in London much inhabited by writers of
small histories, _dictionaries_, and temporary poems; whence any mean
production is called Grub-street."
Footnote 196: From Macaulay's review of Boswell's _Life of Johnson_.
Footnote 197: Many of the writers show a mingling of the classic and the
romantic tendencies. Thus Goldsmith followed Johnson and opposed the
romanticists; but his _Deserted Village_ is romantic in spirit, though its
classic couplets are almost as mechanical as Pope's. So Burke's orations
are "elegantly classic" in style, but are illumined by bursts of emotion
and romantic feeling.
Footnote 198: A much more interesting work is Thomas Paine's _Rights of
Man_, which was written in answer to Burke's essay, and which had enormous
influence in England and America.
Footnote 199: In the same year, 1775, in which Burke's magnificent
"Conciliation" oration was delivered, Patrick Henry made a remarkable
little speech before a gathering of delegates in Virginia. Both men were
pleading the same cause of justice, and were actuated by the same high
ideals. A very interesting contrast, however, may be drawn between the
methods and the effects of Henry's speech and of Burke's more brilliant
oration. Burke makes us wonder at his learning, his brilliancy, his
eloquence; but he does not move us to action. Patrick Henry calls us, and
we spring to follow him. That suggests the essential difference between the
two orators.
Footnote 200: The romantic revival is marked by renewed interest in
mediæval ideals and literature; and to this interest is due the success of
Walpole's romance, _The Castle of Otranto_, and of Chatterton's forgeries
known as the _Rowley Papers_.
Footnote 201: From _The Task_, Book II.
Footnote 202: See, for instance, Phelps, _Beginnings of the Romantic
Movement_, for a list of Spenserian imitators from 1700 to 1775.
Footnote 203: Such is Goldsmith's version of a somewhat suspicious
adventure, whose details are unknown.
Footnote 204: Goldsmith's idea, which was borrowed from Walpole,
reappears in the pseudo _Letters from a Chinese Official_, which recently
attracted considerable attention.
Footnote 205: Fitz-Greene Halleck's poem "To a Rose from near Alloway
Kirk" (1822) is a good appreciation of Burns and his poetry. It might be
well to read this poem before the sad story of Burns's life.
Footnote 206: Introduction, _Songs of Innocence_.
Footnote 207: Swinburne's _William Blake_.
Footnote 208: There are several omissions from the text in this fragment
from _Fingal_.
Footnote 209: Several fragments of Gaelic poetry, attributed to Ossian or
Oisin, are now known to have existed at that time in the Highlands.
Macpherson used these as a basis for his epic, but most of the details were
furnished by his own imagination. The alleged text of "Ossian" was
published in 1807, some eleven years after Macpherson's death. It only
added another mystery to the forgery; for, while it embodied a few old and
probably genuine fragments, the bulk of it seems to be Macpherson's work
translated back into Gaelic.
Footnote 210: For various other collections of songs and ballads,
antedating Percy's, see Phelps's _Beginnings of the English Romantic
Movement_, ch. vii.
Footnote 211: The first books to which the term "novel," in the modern
sense, may be applied, appeared almost simultaneously in England, France,
and Germany. The rapid development of the English novel had an immense
influence in all European nations.
Footnote 212: The name "romance" was given at first to any story in one
of the Romance languages, like the French metrical romances, which we have
considered. Because these stories were brought to England at a time when
the childish mind of the Middle Ages delighted in the most impossible
stories, the name "romance" was retained to cover any work of the unbridled
imagination.
Footnote 213: This division of works of fiction into romances and novels
is a somewhat arbitrary one, but it seems, on the whole, the most natural
and the most satisfactory. Many writers use the generic term "novel" to
include all prose fiction. They divide novels into two classes, stories and
romances; the story being a form of the novel which relates certain
incidents of life with as little complexity as possible; and the romance
being a form of novel which describes life as led by strong emotions into
complex and unusual circumstances. Novels are otherwise divided into novels
of personality, like _Vicar of Wakefield_ and _Silas Marner_; historical
novels, _Ivanhoe_; novels of romance, like _Lorna Doone_ and novels of
purpose, like _Oliver Twist_ and _Uncle Tom's Cabin_. All such
classifications are imperfect, and the best of them is open to objections.
Footnote 214: One of these tales was called _The Wonderful Things beyond
Thule_. It is the story of a youth, Dinias, who for love of a girl,
Dercyllis, did heroic things and undertook many adventures, including a
journey to the frozen north, and another to the moon. A second tale,
_Ephesiaca_, is the story of a man and a maid, each of whom scoffs at love.
They meet and fall desperately in love; but the course of true love does
not run smooth, and they separate, and suffer, and go through many perils,
before they "live happily ever after." This tale is the source of the
mediæval story, _Apollonius of Tyre_, which is used in Gower's _Confessio
Amantis_ and in Shakespeare's _Pericles_. A third tale is the pastoral love
story, _Daphnis and Chloe_, which reappeared in many forms in subsequent
literature.
Footnote 215: Minto's _Life of Defoe_, p. 139.
Footnote 216: These were not what the booksellers expected. They wanted a
"handy letter writer," something like a book of etiquette; and it was
published in 1741, a few months after _Pamela_.
Footnote 217: See p. 315.
Footnote 218: For titles and publishers of general reference works, and
of inexpensive texts, see General Bibliography at end of this book.
Footnote 219: Mrs. Radcliffe's best work is the _Mysteries of Udolpho_.
This is the story of a tender heroine shut up in a gloomy castle. Over her
broods the terrible shadow of an ancestor's crime. There are the usual
"goose-flesh" accompaniments of haunted rooms, secret doors, sliding
panels, mysterious figures behind old pictures, and a subterranean passage
leading to a vault, dark and creepy as a tomb. Here the heroine finds a
chest with blood-stained papers. By the light of a flickering candle she
reads, with chills and shivering, the record of long-buried crimes. At the
psychologic moment the little candle suddenly goes out. Then out of the
darkness a cold, clammy hand--ugh! Foolish as such stories seem to us now,
they show, first, a wild reaction from the skepticism of the preceding age;
and second, a development of the mediæval romance of adventure; only the
adventure is here inward rather than outward. It faces a ghost instead of a
dragon; and for this work a nun with her beads is better than a knight in
armor. So heroines abound, instead of heroes. The age was too educated for
medieval monsters and magic, but not educated enough to reject ghosts and
other bogeys.
Footnote 220: The _Lyrical Ballads_ were better appreciated in America
than in England. The first edition was printed here in 1802.
Footnote 221: _The Prelude_ was not published till after Wordsworth's
death, nearly half a century later.
Footnote 222: _The Prelude_, Book IV.
Footnote 223: Dowden's _Selections from Wordsworth_ is the best of many
such collections. See Selections for Reading, and Bibliography, at the end
of this chapter.
Footnote 224: See "Christ's Hospital Five and Thirty Years Ago," in
_Essays of Elia_.
Footnote 225: See Scott's criticism of his own work, in comparison with
Jane Austen's, p. 439.
Footnote 226: Scott's novels were not the first to have an historical
basis. For thirty years preceding the appearance of _Waverley_, historical
romances were popular; but it was due to Scott's genius that the historical
novel became a permanent type of literature. See Cross, _The Development of
the English Novel_.
Footnote 227: See Selections for Reading, and Bibliography, at the end of
this chapter.
Footnote 228: Shelley undoubtedly took his idea from a lost drama of
Aeschylus, a sequel to _Prometheus Bound_, in which the great friend of
mankind was unchained from a precipice, where he had been placed by the
tyrant Zeus.
Footnote 229: This idea is suppported by Shelley's poem _Adonais_, and by
Byron's parody against the reviewers, beginning, "Who killed John Keats? I,
says the Quarterly."
Footnote 230: See "Christ's Hospital Five and Thirty Years Ago," in
_Essays of Elia_.
Footnote 231: See _Essays of Elia,_ "The Superannuated Man."
Footnote 232: In the first essay, "The South Sea House," Lamb assumed as
a joke the name of a former clerk, Elia. Other essays followed, and the
name was retained when several successful essays were published in book
form, in 1823. In these essays "Elia" is Lamb himself, and "Cousin Bridget"
is his sister Mary.
Footnote 233: See histories for the Congress of Vienna (1814) and the
Holy Alliance (1815).
Footnote 234: For full titles and publishers of general reference books,
see General Bibliography at end of this book.
Footnote 235: An excellent little volume for the beginner is Van Dyke's
"Poems by Tennyson," which shows the entire range of the poet's work from
his earliest to his latest years. (See Selections for Reading, at the end
of this chapter.)
Footnote 236: Tennyson made a distinction in spelling between the _Idylls
of the King_, and the _English Idyls_, like "Dora."
Footnote 237: An excellent little book for the beginner is Lovett's
_Selections from Browning_. (See Selections for Reading, at the end of this
chapter.)
Footnote 238: This term, which means simply Italian painters before
Raphael, is generally applied to an artistic movement in the middle of the
nineteenth century. The term was first used by a brotherhood of German
artists who worked together in the convent of San Isodoro, in Rome, with
the idea of restoring art to its mediæval purity and simplicity. The term
now generally refers to a company of seven young men,--Dante Gabriel
Rossetti and his brother William, William Holman Hunt, John Everett
Millais, James Collinson, Frederick George Stevens, and Thomas Woolner,--
who formed the Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood in England in 1848. Their
official literary organ was called _The Germ_, in which much of the early
work of Morris and Rossetti appeared. They took for their models the early
Italian painters who, they declared, were "simple, sincere, and religious."
Their purpose was to encourage simplicity and naturalness in art and
literature; and one of their chief objects, in the face of doubt and
materialism, was to express the "wonder, reverence, and awe" which
characterizes mediæval art. In its return to the mysticism and symbolism of
the mediæval age, this Pre-Raphaelitism suggests the contemporary Oxford or
Tractarian movement in religion. (See footnote, p. 554).
Footnote 239: Arnold was one of the best known poets of the age, but
because he has exerted a deeper influence on our literature as a critic, we
have reserved him for special study among the essayists. (See p. xxx)
Footnote 240: It should be pointed out that the _English Humorists_ is
somewhat too highly colored to be strictly accurate. In certain cases also,
notably that of Steele, the reader may well object to Thackeray's
patronizing attitude toward his subject.
Footnote 241: See pp. 260-261.
Footnote 242: Emily Brontë (1818-1848) was only a little less gifted than
her famous sister. Her best known work is _Wuthering Heights_ (1847), a
strong but morbid novel of love and suffering. Matthew Arnold said of her
that, "for the portrayal of passion, vehemence, and grief," Emily Brontë
had no equal save Byron. An exquisite picture of Emily is given in
Charlotte Brontë's novel _Shirley_.
Footnote 243: _Essays_, Riverside edition, I, 318.
Footnote 244: The student should remember that Carlyle's literary
opinions, though very positive, are to be received with caution. Sometimes,
indeed, they are so one-sided and prejudiced that they are more valuable as
a revelation of Carlyle himself than as a study of the author he is
considering.
Footnote 245: The Oxford movement in religion has many points of
resemblance to the Pre-Raphaelite movement in art. Both protested against
the materialism of the age, and both went back for their models to the
Middle Ages. Originally the movement was intended to bring new life to the
Anglican church by a revival of the doctrine and practices of an earlier
period. Recognizing the power of the press, the leaders chose literature
for their instrument of reform, and by their _Tracts for the Times_ they
became known as Tractarians. To oppose liberalism and to restore the
doctrine and authority of the early Church was the center of their
teaching. Their belief might be summed up in one great article of the
Creed, with all that it implies,--"I believe in one Catholic and Apostolic
Church." The movement began at Oxford with Keble's famous sermon on
"National Apostasy," in 1833; but Newman was the real leader of the
movement, which practically ended when he entered the Catholic church in
1845.