DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE MOUNTAINS.
MOUNT ELLSWORTH.
It has already been stated that the strata about the bases of the Henry
Mountains are nearly level; but the country which is built of them is
far from level. The arrangement of the drainage lines has caused the
degradation of some parts to greatly exceed that of others, so that
while the district at the south, which borders the Colorado River, is
paved with the red sandstones of the Jura-Trias series, the adjacent
region at the north still carries the yellow sandstones and blue shales
of the Cretaceous series. All about Mount Ellsworth are the upper strata
of the Jura-Trias. The lower beds of the same series rise upon its
flanks and arch over its summit.
A description of the structure of the mountain must include, first, the
arch of the strata; second, the faults which modify the arch; third, the
system of trachyte dikes and trachyte sheets; and fourth, the sculpture
of the mountain. In its general proportions the arch is at once simple
and symmetrical. From all sides the strata rise, slowly at first, but
with steadily increasing rate, until the angle of 45° is reached. Then
the dip as steadily diminishes to the center, where it is nothing. A
model to exhibit the form of the dome would resemble a round-topped hat;
only the level rim would join the side by a curve instead of an angle,
and the sides would not be perpendicular, but would flare rapidly
outward (see Figure 11). The base of the arch is not circular, but is
slightly oval, the long diameter being one-third greater than the short.
The length of the uplift is a little more than four miles; the width a
little more than three miles, and the height about 5,000 feet. The
curvature fades away so gradually at its outer limit that it is not easy
to tell where it ends, and the horizontal dimensions assigned to the
dome are no more than rude approximations. But there is another element
which can be given more exactly. The line of maximum dip, which
separates the convex upper portion of the dome from the concave
periphery, is easily traced out in nature, and runs at the foot of the
steep part of the mountain. It surrounds an area two miles in width and
two and two-thirds miles in length.
[Illustration:
FIG. 11A.—View from the west spur of Mount Ellsworth, showing the
trachyte dikes of the north spur and revetments of sandstone and
trachyte.
]
[Illustration:
FIG. 11.—Stereogram of Mount Ellsworth; an ideal restoration of the
form of the overarching strata.
]
The Ellsworth arch is almost but not completely isolated. The Holmes
arch, upon the east side, stands so near that the bases of the two
impinge and coalesce, and the same thing happens, though less notably,
with the Hillers arch at the north.
The simplicity of the arch is further impaired by faults—not great
faults dividing the whole uplift, but a system of small displacements
which are themselves subordinate phenomena of the uplift. They are
restricted to the central portion, and never occur so low down as the
line of maximum dip. The strata of the upper part of the arch are
divided into a number of prismoid blocks which stand at slightly
different levels but are not sufficiently deranged to destroy the
general form of the arch. The greatest throw is only a few hundred feet.
All or nearly all of the fault planes are occupied by dikes of trachyte.
The trachyte injections are not confined to the fault planes, nor is
their area so restricted as the fault area. Dikes and sheets abound from
the crest of the dome down to what might be called its springing
line—the line of maximum dip. At the center, dikes are more numerous;
near the limit, sheets. The central area is crowded so full of dikes,
and the weathering brings them so conspicuously to the surface, that the
softer sedimentaries are half concealed, and from some points of view
the trachyte appears to make the entire mass. The accompanying plan
(Figure 12) shows the arrangement of the dikes in one of the outer
amphitheaters of the mountain, where they are less complicated than in
the central region. The trends of two spurs (_a b_ and _c d_) are
indicated by the hatchings. They join the main crest of the mountain at
_e_, and inclose between them a deep amphitheater which opens to the
west. Upon the steep walls of the amphitheater the dikes outcrop in
lines of crags, dividing rough slopes of yellow and purple and brown
sandstone. The profile of one of the walls of the amphitheater (from _a_
to _b_, Figure 12) is drawn in Figure 13 for the sake of exhibiting the
relation of the dikes to faulted blocks of sandstone. It will be seen
that the throw of the faults is not constantly in one direction.
[Illustration:
FIG. 14.—Profile of the Northern Spur of Mount Ellsworth. 1, 2, 3, 4,
and 5 are Trachyte Dikes. _A_, Aubrey Sandstone. _S_, Shinarump
Shale. _V_, Vermilion Cliff Sandstone. _G_, Gray Cliff Sandstone.
]
The zone of sheets is just inside the line of maximum dip. Usually only
one or two sheets are laid bare by the erosion, but at one point (see
Figure 14) four can be counted. Toward the center of the uplift all of
these are limited by the erosion and exhibit their broken edges.
Downward, or toward the periphery, they dip out of sight. Laterally they
can be traced along the mountain side for varying distances, but they
soon wedge out and are replaced by others _en echelon_. In thickness the
sheets rarely exceed 50 feet, and never 100. They are always thin as
compared to the rock masses which separate them, but, by reason of their
superior ability to resist erosion, monopolize a large share of the
surface, and mask a still greater amount with their _débris_.
[Illustration:
FIG. 12.—Ground plan of Trachyte Dikes on the western flank of Mount
Ellsworth.
]
[Illustration:
FIG. 13.—Profile of a western spur of Mount Ellsworth, showing the
arrangement of Dikes and Faults. The dotted bed is the purple band
at the top of the Vermilion Cliff Sandstone. The dikes of trachyte
are indicated by letters.
]
The sedimentary rocks are not altered beyond the region of trachyte
intrusion. The mere flexure of the strata was not accompanied by a
perceptible change of constitution. In the zone of sheets there is
little change except along the surfaces of the contact. For a few feet,
or perhaps only a few inches, there is a discoloration (usually a
decolorization) and a slight induration, without notable alteration of
minerals. But in the region of reticulated dikes none of the
sedimentaries are unchanged; crystals are developed, colors are
modified, and hardness is increased, so that the physical properties of
familiar strata no longer serve for their identification. Still there is
no crumpling.
The trachyte masses and the altered rocks in contact with them are so
much more durable than the unaltered strata about them that they have
been left by the erosion in protuberances. The outcrop of every dike and
sheet is a crag or a ridge, and the mountain itself survives the general
degradation of the country only in virtue of its firmer rock masses.
Nevertheless, the mountain, because it was higher than its surroundings,
has been exposed to more rapid erosion, and has been deprived of a
greater depth of strata. From the base of the arch there have been worn
3,500 feet of Cretaceous, and from 500 to 1,500 feet of the Jura-Trias
series, which is here about 3,000 feet thick. From the summit of the
arch more than 2,500 feet of the Jura-Trias have been removed.
The strata exposed high up on the mountain being older than those at the
base, and the dip being everywhere directed away from the center, it is
evident that the mountain is surrounded by concentric outcrops of beds
which lift their escarpments toward it. It is usually the case, where
the strata which incline against the flank of a mountain are eroded,
that the softer are excavated the more rapidly, while the harder are
left standing in _ridges_; and an alternation of beds suitable for the
formation of a ridge occurs here. One of the upturned beds is the
massive Vermilion Cliff sandstone, and beneath it are the shales of the
Shinarump Group. By the yielding of the shales the sandstone is left
prominent, and it circles the base of the mountain in a monoclinal
ridge. But the ridge is of a peculiar character, and has really no title
to the name except in the homology of its structure with that of the
typical monoclinal ridge. It lacks the continuity which is implied by
the word “ridge”. The drainage of Mount Ellsworth is from the center of
the dome outward. A half dozen drainage lines originate in the high
crests and pass outward through the zone of upturned strata. Lower down
their interspaces are divided by others, and when they reach the
circling escarpment of the Vermilion sandstone their number is fifteen.
Each of these cuts the ridge to its base, and the effect of the whole is
to reduce it to a row of sandstone points circling about the mountain.
Each point of sandstone lies against the foot of a mountain spur, as
though it had been built for a _retaining wall_ to resist the out-thrust
of the spur. Borrowing a name from the analogy, I shall call these
elementary ridges _revet-crags_, and speak of the spurs which bear them
as being _revetted_. The accompanying sketch is designed to illustrate
the structure, but is not drawn from nature. In the view of Mount
Hillers (Figure 27) the revetments may be seen, and in the bird’s-eye
view of the Henry Mountains (Plate V), as well as in the Frontispiece,
the revet-crags of Mount Ellsworth also are portrayed. The diagram of
the north spur of Mount Ellsworth (Figure 14) shows the revet-crag of
that spur at _V_.
[Illustration:
FIG. 15.—Revet-Crags.
]
The revet-crags of Vermilion sandstone follow, in a general way, the
line of maximum dip about the base of Mount Ellsworth; but a few of them
rise higher, and one—that which joins the northwest spur—climbs until it
is but little lower than the summit of the mountain. Outside the circle
of Vermilion Cliff sandstone lies the Gray Cliff sandstone, and in a few
places it takes the form of a revetment. Inside the same circle there
are many revetments, constituted by trachyte sheets bedded in Shinarump
shales (Figure 14). Conforming perfectly with the strata, the sheets
yield by erosion forms which are identical with those afforded by hard
sedimentary beds, and to the distant eye the impression of the arching
structure of Mount Ellsworth is conveyed less by what can be seen of the
strata than by ascending revetments of trachyte sheets, which simulate
and interpret the strata.
[Illustration:
FIG. 16.—Mount Holmes, from the north.
]
The laccolite of Mount Ellsworth is not exposed to view, but I am
nevertheless confident of its existence—that the visible arching strata
envelop it, that the visible forest of dikes join it, and that the
visible faulted blocks of the upper mountain achieved their displacement
while floated by the still liquid lava. The proof, however, is not in
the mountain itself, but depends on the association of the phenomena of
curvature and dike and sheet with laccolites, in other mountains of the
same group. In the sequel these will be described, but it chances that
the mountain next to be considered is even less developed by erosion
than Mount Ellsworth.
MOUNT HOLMES.
The order of sequence which places Mount Ellsworth before Mount Holmes
is the order of complexity. The former contains one laccolite, the
latter two. Neither of the two is visible, but the strata which envelop
them shadow forth their forms and leave no question of their duality.
They are so closely combined that the lesser seems a mere appendage of
the greater. From the center of the greater there is a descent of strata
in all directions, but from the center of the lesser the rocks incline
toward one-half only of the horizon. Where the two convex arches join
there is a curved groin—a zone of concave curvature uniting the two
convexities. About the compound figure can be obscurely seen a line of
maximum dip, and beyond that the fading of the curves. The curves
throughout are so gentle that it was found exceedingly difficult to
establish their limits. In a general way it may be said that each of the
Holmes arches is as broad as the Ellsworth arch, but the vertical
displacement is less. In the formation of the greater Holmes arch the
amount of uplift was 3,000 feet; for the lesser arch, 1,500 feet.
There is no evidence in the forms of the arches which proves one to be
older than the other. Studying the curves in the field, I could not
discover that either arch asserted itself more strongly than the other
in their common ground. They seem to meet upon equal terms. Still it is
probable, _a priori_, that they were formed successively and not
simultaneously. The coincidence in time of two eruptions of lava from
neighboring vents is no more unlikely than the coincidence of the two
irruptions, and the same principle of least resistance which causes
individual laccolitic arches to assume spheroidal forms, would have
given to the compound arch of two laccolites, coincident in time, a
simple instead of a compound form.
Assuming that the arches were successive in origin I shall in another
and more appropriate chapter discuss the problem of their chronological
order in the light of their somewhat peculiar drainage system.
The lesser arch betrays no dikes nor sheets. The Vermilion Cliff
sandstone covers it to the top. The greater is crowned by a few grand
dikes which govern its topography. From the center a long dike runs to
the south, a short one to the north, two to the east, and one to the
west. The course of each is a mountain spur, and between them are
amphitheaters and gorges. Clinging to the dikes are bodies of altered
sandstone, but the great sandstone masses of the summit were unaltered
and from them have been excavated the gorges. Along the dike-filled
fissures there has been some faulting, but there is no reason to believe
that the displacement is great in amount. Toward the flanks of the
mountain there are a few sheets, the outermost of which is far within
the line of maximum flexure. Their escarpments instead of facing upward
like the revetting sheets of Mount Ellsworth, face downward; their
buried and unknown edges are the edges toward the mountain. Their
thinning toward the periphery of the arch is conspicuous to the eye in
many instances, as is also the thinning of the dikes.
Another peculiarity of dike form, one which has since been noted in a
number of localities, was first detected in Mount Holmes. It consists in
a definite upper limit. The dike so marked is often as even upon its
upper surface as an artificial stone wall. The upper surface may be
level or may incline toward one end of the dike, but in either case it
is sure to be found parallel to the bedding of the strata which inclose
the dike. This fact led to the suspicion, afterward confirmed by more
direct evidence, that the flat top of the dike was molded by an unbroken
stratum of rock bridging across the fissure which the lava filled
(Figure 20). The converse phenomenon can be observed in the ridge which
joins Mounts Ellsworth and Holmes. A great dike there forms the crest of
the ridge for half a mile, its base being buried in sandstone; but at
the end of the ridge the strata are seen to be continuous beneath it
(Figure 21).
[Illustration:
FIG. 17.—Stereogram of the Holmes Arches; an ideal restoration of the
form of the overarching strata.
]
[Illustration:
FIG. 18.—Ideal cross-section of the Laccolites of Mount Holmes.
]
[Illustration:
FIG. 19.—A flat-topped dike.
]
[Illustration:
FIG. 20.—Ideal Cross-section of Flat-topped Dikes; _a_, before
denudation; _b_, after denudation.
]
[Illustration:
FIG. 21.—Ideal Cross-section of a Flat-bottomed Dike.
]
[Illustration:
FIG. 22.—Diagram to illustrate a hypothetical explanation of
Flat-edged Dikes.
]
That a fissure several feet or several scores of feet in width should
end thus abruptly, demands explanation, and the phenomena immediately
concerned offer none. Nevertheless it is easy to make an assumption
which if true renders both cases clear. If we assume that the fissure
instead of ending at the crosshead is merely offset, and resumes its
course beyond, and that the dike contained in it has two bodies
connected by a thin sheet (Figure 22), we shall have no difficulty in
conceiving the erosion which will produce either of the natural
appearances described.
The rocks which constitute Mount Holmes are the same as those about its
base. The Vermilion Cliff and Gray Cliff Sandstones alone appear in the
crests. The underlying Shinarump shales are cut by the erosion at a few
points only, and those are near the base. For this reason the Vermilion
Sandstone is not undermined about the base, and the circle of
revet-crags which surrounds Mount Ellsworth finds no counterpart. There
are, indeed, a few revetments of Gray Cliff sandstone, but they are
scattered and for the most part inconspicuous.
In the general view of Mount Holmes (Figure 16), one of the main dikes
crowns the nearest spur, and another the spur leading to the right. At
the left are minor dikes, and high up is a trap sheet notched on its
lower edge. At the left base of the mountain lies the lesser arch.
Figure 23 gives a section exhibited by one of the northward cañons. It
shows one of the faults of the upper part of the arch and illustrates
the thinning of the sheets as they descend.
[Illustration:
FIG. 23.—Section shown in a northward cañon of Mount Holmes. _a_,
Vestige of Trachyte sheet. _b_ _b_ _b_, Trachyte sheets. _c_,
Trachyte dike. 1, Gray Cliff Sandstone. 2 2, Purple Sandstone. 3,
Vermilion Cliff Sandstone. 4, Shinarump Shale.
]
MOUNT HILLERS.
Next in order to the north is Mount Hillers. Let it not be supposed,
however, that there is discernible system in the geographic arrangement
of the mountains or of the laccolites. A chart of the mountain peaks and
a chart of the laccolites would alike prove intractable in the hands of
those geologists who draw parallel lines through groups of volcanic
vents by way of showing their trend. They are as perfectly heterotactous
as they could be made by an artificial arrangement.
The diagram (Figure 24) shows the relation of the laccolite groups to
each other and to the meridian. The principal mountain summits are
indicated by triangles, and the curved lines inclose areas of
disturbance.
Mount Hillers and its foot-hills are constituted by a group of no less
than eight laccolites, and a ninth, the Howell laccolite, is
conveniently classed with them, although not contiguous.
[Illustration:
FIG. 25.—Cross-section of Mount Hillers.
FIG. 26.—The same, with ideal representation of the underground
structure.
Scale, 1 inch = 4,000 feet. 1. Tununk Sandstone; 2. Henry’s Fork
Conglomerate; 3. Gray
Cliff Sandstone. The full black lines represent trachyte sheets, and
the broad black area the
Hillers Laccolite.
]
[Illustration:
FIG. 27.—Mount Hillers, from the south.
]
_The Hillers laccolite_ is the largest in the Henry Mountains. Its depth
is about 7,000 feet, and its diameters are four miles and three and
three-quarter miles. Its volume is about ten cubic miles. The upper half
constitutes the mountain, the lower half the mountain’s deep-laid
foundation. Of the portion which is above ground, so to speak, and
exposed to atmospheric degradation, less than one-half has been stripped
of its cover of overarching strata. The remainder is still mantled and
shielded by sedimentary beds and by many interleaved sheets of trachyte.
The portion which has been uncovered is not left in its original shape,
but is sculptured into alpine forms and scored so deeply that not less
than 1,000 feet of its mass are shown in section. All about the eroded
(south) face of the mountain the base is revetted by walls of Vermilion
and Gray Cliff sandstone, strengthened by trachyte sheets. At the
extreme south these stand nearly vertical (80°), and their inclination
diminishes gradually in each direction, until at the east and west bases
of the mountain it is not more than 60°. On the north side there are no
revet-crags, and the inclination is comparatively slight. It would
appear that the laccolite was asymmetric, and was so much steeper-sided
on the south that that side suffered most rapid degradation.
[Illustration:
FIG. 24.—Ground Plan of the Henry Mountains. The curved lines show the
limits of the principal displacements; the triangles, the positions
of the main peaks. N, Mount Ellen. P, Mount Pennell. H, Mount
Hillers. M, Mount Holmes. E, Mount Ellsworth.
]
By reference to the section (Figure 25) it will be seen that the
sedimentary strata of the north flank stretch quite to the summit of the
mountain. The same beds which form the revet-crags on the southern base
constitute also some of the highest peaks. Since these rest directly
upon the laccolite, it is assumed that the next lower beds of the
stratigraphic series form its floor; and the base of the laccolite is
drawn in the ideal section on the level which the Shinarump Group holds
where it is unaffected by the displacements of the mountain.
It is noteworthy that wherever the sedimentaries appear upon the
mountain top they are highly metamorphic. But in the revet-crags there
is very little alteration. Massive sandstone, divided by sheets and
dikes several hundred feet in thickness, is discolored and indurated at
the contact surface only, and ten feet away betrays no change.
The engraving of Mount Hillers (Figure 27) exhibits the south face with
its revet-crags and bold spurs of trap. In nature the effect is
heightened by the contrast of color, the bright red revetments being
strongly relieved against the dark gray of the laccolite. The strata of
the summits cannot be discriminated at a distance. They are too near the
laccolite in hardness to differ from it in the style of their sculpture.
Of the minor laccolites of the cluster there are three so closely joined
to the chief that they merge topographically with the mountain. They are
not well exposed for study. The smallest, which overlooks the pass
between Mount Hillers and Mount Pennell (A, Figure 28) has probably lost
the whole of its cover and with it so much of its substance that the
original form and surface cannot be seen. Its floor is probably the
Tununk sandstone. East of it and lying a little deeper in the Cretaceous
series is a second laccolite (B), broader, lower, and less eroded. The
third (C) joins the great one on the northeast, and is so closely united
that it was at first supposed to be the same body. Later examinations
have shown, however, that its immediate roof is the Henry’s Fork
conglomerate, and its horizon is thus established as more than two
thousand feet above that of its great companion.
[Illustration:
FIG. 30.—The Steward Laccolite.
]
[Illustration:
FIG. 28.—Diagram of the Hillers Cluster of Laccolites; Ground plan.
]
[Illustration:
FIG. 29.—Diagram of the Hillers Cluster of Laccolites; Elevation.
The upper horizontal line marks the base of the Cretaceous; the
middle, the base of
the Jura-Trias; the lower, the level of the sea.
]
The _Steward laccolite_ (Figure 30) is better exposed for study. It was
buried in the soft bad-land sandstone of the Flaming Gorge Group, and
its matrix has been so far washed away that nearly the whole body of
trap is revealed. It is weathered out, like a chert-nodule on the face
of a block of limestone. At one end it is bared quite to the base, and
the sandstone floor on which it rests is brought in sight. The waste of
the sandstone has undermined its edge, and a small portion of the
laccolite has fallen away. Near the opposite end a fragment of its cover
of arching sandstone survives—just enough to indicate that the
sedimentaries were once bent over it, and that the smooth low-arching
surface which now crowns it portrays the original form which the molten
lava assumed. The laccolite is about two and a half miles long and one
and one-half broad. The height of its eastward face, where it is sapped
by the erosion of the bad-land rock, is six hundred feet, and the
central depth must be more than eight hundred feet.
[Illustration:
FIG. 31.—Cross-section of the Pulpit arch, with ideal representation
of the Pulpit Laccolite. Scale, 1 inch = 3,500 feet. 1, Vermilion
Cliff Sandstone. 2, 2, Gray Cliff Sandstone. 3, 3, Flaming Gorge
Shale. 4, Henry’s Fork Conglomerate. 5, Tununk Shale.
]
_Pulpit arch_ is as high and as broad as the lesser arch of Mount
Holmes, but its place is not marked in the topography by an eminence for
the reason that the degradation of the land has not yet progressed so
far as to unearth its core of trachyte. The drainage from Mount Hillers
crosses it from west to east and has given it an oblique truncation, as
illustrated in the diagram. At the upper end of the slope the Henry’s
Fork conglomerate outcrops; at the lower end the base of the Flaming
Gorge series, and in the interval the Gray Cliff sandstone is lifted to
the surface. The same streams which planed away the crown of the arch
have now cut themselves deeper channels and divide the massive sandstone
by picturesque cañons, between which it is grotesquely carved into
pinnacles and ridges. A curious salient of the sandstone has given its
name to the arch. How deeply the Pulpit laccolite lies buried is not
known, no sheet nor dike of trachyte betraying its proximity. The valley
of the Colorado may have to be deepened thousands of feet before it will
be laid bare.
_The Jerry Butte_ is the most conspicuous adjunct to Mount Hillers and
topographically is more important and striking than the features which
have just been described, but its structure is less clear. Its crest is
formed by a great dike several hundred feet in width and two miles in
length, and with an even top like those observed on Mount Holmes. The
western end of the dike is the higher and forms the culminating point of
the butte, and from it there radiate three other dikes of notable size.
The inclosing strata, preserved from erosion only by the shelter of the
dikes, are the lower portion of the Cretaceous series, and they are so
little lifted above their normal level that there is room for no
considerable laccolite beneath them. The inclination of the beds is so
complicated by the dips of the Pulpit, Steward, and Hillers arches, all
of which are contiguous, that nothing can be made out of the form of the
laccolite, if it exists.
_The Howell laccolite_ lies apart from the cluster and is well exposed.
It differs from all that have been enumerated in its extreme thinness.
With a breadth of more than two thousand feet, it has a depth of only
fifty. Seen from the east, it might readily be mistaken for a _coulée_,
for on that side it is the thin, hard, black cap of a table carved out
of soft, sandy shale (Flaming Gorge Group) by circumdenudation. But
followed westward, the table is found gradually to lose its height by
the rising of the adjacent land, and at last the lava-bed runs into the
slope and disappears beneath the upper layers of the same sandy shale on
which it rests. How far it extends under ground can only be conjectured.
How far it originally stretched in the opposite direction cannot be
known because it is broken away. The original edge is concealed at one
end and has been undermined and destroyed at the other, so that the only
place where it can be seen is the point at which it emerges from the
shale. At this point, where erosion has bared but has not yet attacked
the lava, the form and character of the edge are exhibited. In place of
the tapering wedge which usually terminates intrusive sheets, there is a
blunt, rounded margin, and the lava scarcely diminishes in depth in
approaching it. The underlying strata, locally hardened to sandstones,
lie level; the overlying curve downward to join them, and between the
curved strata is interleaved a curved lava-sheet. In all these
characters the intrusive body is affiliated with the typical laccolites,
and distinguished from the typical sheets.
[Illustration:
FIG. 32.—The Howell Laccolite, as seen from the north.
]
[Illustration:
FIG. 33.—The Edge of the Howell Laccolite.
]
[Illustration:
FIG. 34.—Mount Pennell, from the west.
]
_The laccolite which is marked “D”_ on the diagrams of the Hillers
cluster is identical in nearly all its characters with the Howell; it is
thin and broad. One margin is wasting as its foundation is sapped; the
other is hidden from view. Its depth does not diminish toward the edge.
Moreover, a few dikes issue from its margin, or from beneath its margin.
It was intruded within the same formation as the Howell (the Flaming
Gorge shale), but at a horizon several hundred feet higher; and, what is
specially noteworthy, the rock of which it is composed is identical in
_facies_ with that of the Howell laccolite, and notably different from
all others which were observed in the Hillers cluster.
Thus there are grouped in this one cluster laccolites of the most varied
character, differing in form, in magnitude, in the stratigraphic depth
at which they were intruded, in the extent to which they have been
uncovered or demolished in the progress of erosion, and also, but very
slightly, in their lithologic characters. The greatest is one thousand
times as bulky as the least. The length of the most obese is three times
its depth; the length of the most attenuated is more than one hundred
times its depth. The one highest in the strata lies a thousand feet
above the base of the Cretaceous rock series; the lowest is not higher
than the summit of the Carboniferous. The latter has not yet been
touched by erosion, others have been completely denuded, and some have
been partially demolished and removed.
MOUNT PENNELL.
Mount Pennell and Mount Ellen are distinct mountain masses separated by
a low pass, but there is no interval between the clusters of laccolites
by which they are constituted.
Whether the site of a laccolite shall be marked by a mountain depends in
great measure on the relation of the laccolite to the progress of
erosion. In the Henry Mountains the laccolites which have not been
reached by the denudation scarcely affect the topography. The arched
sedimentaries above them are no harder than the same strata in the
surrounding plain, and they are brought substantially to the same level.
It is to those which the downward progress of erosion has reached and
passed that the mountains are due. In virtue of their hardness they
survive the general degradation, and conserve with them broad
foundations of more perishable material. Mounts Ellen and Pennell mark
the positions of the highest of a great cluster of laccolites, and the
pass between them marks a part of the cluster where all the laccolites
lie low in the strata.
[Illustration:
FIG. 35.—Cross-section of Mount Pennell. 1, Blue Gate Sandstone. 2, 2,
Blue Gate Shale. 3, 3, Tununk Sandstone. The full black lines
represent Trachyte.
]
Mount Pennell is not so easily studied as the lower mountains at the
south. Its summits are timbered and are carved into alpine forms which
do not portray the structure but rather mask it. Upon its flanks however
the topography and the structure are in so close sympathy that the
latter is easily read; and by their study some of the general features
of the mountain have been made out. From the east and south and west the
strata can be seen to rise toward it. The uprising strata on the west
are the Tununk sandstone and the shales above and below it. The
sandstone forms no revetments, but accords so closely in its dips with
the slopes of the mountain that it is the surface rock over a broad
area, outcropping wherever there is rock exposure. At the head of the
foot-slope trachyte sheets are associated with it, some overlying and
others underlying it; and at one point a gorge reveals a laccolite not
far below it—a laccolite that may or may not be the great nucleus of the
mountain. On the west and south flanks the uprising strata are the Blue
Gate and Tununk sandstones, with their shales. The Gate sandstone has
been worn away nearly to the foot of the slope, and forms a monoclinal
ridge circling about the base. The ridge is interrupted by a number of
waterways, and it sends salients well up upon the flank, but it is too
continuous to be regarded as a mere line of revetments. The Tununk
sandstone is not to be seen without search, being covered by heavy
trachyte sheets. Trachyte sheets also underlie it, and the whole are
carved into a conspicuous series of revet-crags.
[Illustration:
FIG. 36.—Mount Pennell, from the north.
]
The association of overarching strata with sheets of trachyte leaves no
doubt in my mind that the core of Mount Pennell is laccolitic, but
whether it is simple or compound is not so clear. The collation of all
the observed dips shows that if there be but one laccolite it has not
the simplicity of form which usually characterizes them.
There are low arches of the strata at the southern, northern, and
northeastern bases, which reveal no trachyte and give the impression
that there may be a foundation of low-lying laccolites upon which the
main trachyte mass or masses of the mountain are based. One of these low
arches, that at the northeast, is shown in the foreground of Figure 36.
The strata which portray it are of the Henry’s Fork conglomerate, and
the laccolite which they cover is of necessity distinct from that which
is revealed on the east flank of the mountain.
[Illustration:
FIG. 37.—Sentinel Butte.
]
In addition to the laccolites of the foundation and of the main body,
there is a series which jut forth from the northern flank like so many
dormer windows. They are comparatively small but are rendered
conspicuous by the removal of the soft rocks which originally inclosed
them. They are higher in the strata than any other observed laccolites,
their position being above the Tununk sandstone and in the Blue Gate
shale. The core of the main body of the mountain is probably inclosed in
the Tununk shale, and the laccolites under the low arches (at the north
at least) are entirely below the Cretaceous. The higher series stand on
top of the low arches, and are just outside of the sheets which inclose
the central body. The largest of them constitutes Sentinel Butte, and
stands guard over Penellen Pass. Sapped by the yielding of its soft
foundation it is rapidly wasting, and on three sides its faces are
precipitous. The huge blocks which cleave from it as they are undermined
strew the surrounding slopes for a great distance. Its depth of 400 feet
is made up of two layers, of which the lower is the deeper, and between
which there is a slight lithologic difference. The upper surface of the
butte is smooth and plane with an inclination to the south. It is
probably a portion of the original surface of the laccolite.
Thus we have in Mount Pennell a great central body consisting of a
single laccolite or of a number closely massed together; an inferior
group of three or more, evidenced by low broad arches; and a superior
group of not less than four, all of which are partially destroyed.
MOUNT ELLEN.
The crest of Mount Ellen is as lofty as that of Mount Pennell and it is
more extended. It stretches for two miles from north to south and is
buttressed by many spurs.
The sculpture of the crest is alpine, and the structure is consequently
obscured. There are dikes of trachyte and perhaps the remnants of
laccolites; there are Cretaceous sandstones greatly indurated; and there
are Cretaceous shales baked to clinking slate; but they are all carved
into smooth, pyramidal forms, and each is half hidden by the _débris_
from the rest so that their order and meaning cannot be seen.
The flanks however are full of interest to the geologist. The Ellen
cluster of laccolites is a broad one, and all but the central portion is
well exposed for study. In the spurs and foot-slopes and marginal buttes
no less than sixteen individual laccolites have been discriminated, a
number of them most beautifully displayed. They will be enumerated in
the order of their position, beginning at the west of Penellen Pass and
passing along the western, northern, and eastern flanks to the Scrope
Butte, east of the pass.
[Illustration:
FIG. 38.—Ground Plan of the Ellen Cluster of Laccolites.
]
In the chart of the Ellen cluster, Figure 38, an attempt is made to show
the horizontal grouping of the laccolites and the order of their
superposition wherever they overlap. It will be observed that where the
limits are imperfectly known the outlines are left incomplete, and that
the central area remains blank, not because it contains no trachyte
masses, but because its alpine sculpture has prevented their study.
Where it is not evident which of two encroaching laccolites is the
superior, they are separated by a straight line.
[Illustration:
FIG. 40.—Section of the Lewis Creek Cañon through the Newberry Arch.
1, Henry’s Fork Conglomerate. 2, Upper portion of Flaming Gorge
Shale. 3, Newberry Laccolite.
]
The line _a a_ in the chart is the springing line of a broad, flat arch
which underlies all the other arches of the western flank. If it covers
but one laccolite, that one is the rival in magnitude of the Hillers
nucleus, although widely different in proportions; but it is more
probable that it contains a greater number. The upper surface is rolling
and uneven, and has not the degree of symmetry which laccolites usually
display. At the points _b_, _c_, _d_, and _e_ the altitude of the arch
is 3,800, 3,500, 2,000 (estimated) and 2,500 feet. Nevertheless there is
nothing in its simple outline to indicate a compound structure; the
monoclinal ridges by which it is margined do not exhibit the flexuous
curves which are commonly seen about the bases of confluent arches.
Whether the nucleus is simple or compound it sends no branches to the
surface; the only outcrops of trachyte belong to the overlying arches.
The upper parts of the arch have been so carried away that the steepness
of the mountain flank is not increased by it, and inferior strata are
brought to the surface. At the north the crown of the arch bears the
Henry’s Fork conglomerate, while beyond its base the plateau is built of
Blue Gate sandstone. At the south the arch bears the Tununk sandstone,
and the Masuk lies outside.
[Illustration:
FIG. 39.—The Newberry Arch and Laccolite.
]
_The laccolite marked “E”_ on the chart rests upon the Tununk sandstone.
The Blue Gate shale which once buried it has been all washed away except
some metamorphosed remnants upon the top, and the trachyte itself has
wasted to such an extent that its original form cannot be traced. The
laccolite has no near neighbor, and the erosion has left it prominent
upon the mountain flank. A continuous and solitary spur joins it to the
central ridge.
_The Newberry laccolite_ makes a knob 1,700 feet high, and stands by
itself. Its cover of Henry’s Fork conglomerate is re-enforced by a
number of trachyte sheets, and is broken through at one point only. At
that point Lewis Creek cuts with a straight course across a flank of the
arch, and exposes a portion of the nucleus in section (Figures 39 and
40). The conglomerate does not rest directly upon the trachyte, but is
separated by one or two hundred feet of shale of the Flaming Gorge
Group.
[Illustration:
FIG. 41.—The Geikie Laccolite (_G_), overlapped by the Henry’s Fork
Conglomerate (_H H_), and the Shoulder Laccolite (_S_).
]
Two miles to the northward is the _Geikie laccolite_, smaller than the
rest but similar in character. It lies close to the top of the Flaming
Gorge shale, and is enwrapped by the Henry’s Fork conglomerate. Upon
three sides the conglomerate can be seen to curve over its margin from
top to bottom, and upon two of these sides the curves are so broken
through by erosion that the trachyte is visible within. On the north two
cañons cut down to the nucleus, and on the south there is a broad face
of trachyte framed all about by the cut edges of the conglomerate beds.
_The Shoulder laccolite_ overlaps the Geikie, and the two are exposed in
such manner as to show their relation in section. The conglomerate runs
under the one and over the other and separates them. The upper laccolite
is a broad and deep one, and takes its name from the fact that it makes
a great shoulder or terrace on the mountain side. Toward the mountain it
is buried; toward the valley it is uncovered, and in part bounded by a
cliff. It is deeply cleft by cañons. It has not been subjected to
measurement, but its depth is not overestimated at fifteen hundred feet
nor its area at five square miles.
In the sketch (Figure 42) many of these features can be traced—the
Geikie laccolite at the left and the Shoulder in the center, with an
outcrop of the conglomerate curving down from the roof of the one to the
floor of the other, and the Newberry arch in the foreground with its
cleft side. At the rear is the pyramidal Ellen Peak and the _F_
laccolite, overlooking the Shoulder. In the distance at the left is the
Marvine laccolite.
Little more can be said of the _F laccolite_ than that it exists and is
the nucleus of a lofty spur. Its summit rises too nearly to the crest of
the mountain to be well defined, and at its base the sedimentaries are
hidden by talus.
[Illustration:
FIG. 42.—The Western Flank of Mount Ellen. _N_, Newberry Arch; _S_,
Shoulder Laccolite; _G_, Geikie Laccolite.
]
[Illustration:
FIG. 43.—The Northern face of the Marvine Laccolite.
]
[Illustration:
FIG. 44.—The Western face of the Marvine Laccolite.
]
Not so the _Marvine laccolite_. Lying at the foot of the mountain where
erosion is so conditioned as to discriminate between hard and soft, and
surrounded by nothing firmer than the Tununk shale and Tununk sandstone,
it has suffered a rapid denudation, in which nearly the whole of its
cover has been carried away without seriously impairing its form. It
stands forth on a pedestal, devoid of talus, naked and alone. The upper
surface undulates in low waves preserving the original form as it was
impressed on the molten mass. Over a portion there is a thin coating of
sandstone, the layer next to the trachyte being saved from destruction
by the induration acquired during the hot contact. From the remainder
this also has disappeared, and the contact face of the trachyte is bare.
For some reason the exterior portion of the laccolite disintegrates more
slowly than the interior. It may be that there was some reaction from
the surrounding sedimentaries during the cooling, which modified the
crystallization. Or it may be that at a later epoch a reciprocal
metamorphism was induced along the contact of the diverse rocks. At all
events there is a crust a few feet in thickness which is specially
qualified to resist destructive agents, and which by this peculiarity
can be distinguished from the trachyte of the interior. All about the
northern and western faces, which are steep, this crust has been broken
through and the interior excavated; but it is only along the upper edge
of the face that the crust is completely destroyed. Along the lower edge
it is preserved in remnants sufficiently numerous to fully define the
outline of the base. Each remnant is a sort of revet-crag standing
nearly vertical and joined by a buttress to the cliff behind it. In the
accompanying sketches (Figures 43 and 44) the most of these features
find better expression than words can give them. The solemn order of the
tombstone-like revetments is not exaggerated, nor is the contrast
between the ruggedness of the cliff and the smoothness of the upper
crust. At the left in the upper view, and at the right in the lower,
there can be seen inclined strata, the remnants of the arch which once
covered the whole.
The extreme depth of the laccolite is 1,200 feet, and its diameters are
6,000 and 4,000 feet.
_The G arch_, the Dana, the Crescent, and the Maze agree in having no
visible laccolites. They are mere dome-like uplifts, by which inferior
beds are brought to light. In the middle of the Crescent arch, and there
only, is a small dike. They differ in their dimensions and in their
erosion and topography. The G arch is low and broad, and lifts the
Henry’s Fork conglomerate a few hundred feet only. It is covered by that
bed except where Bowl Creek and one or two others cross it in shallow
cañons.
_The Dana arch_ bears the same relation to Mount Ellen and Jukes Butte
that the Pulpit arch bears to Mount Hillers. The streams which flow down
have truncated it, and afterward carved a system of cañons below the
plane of truncation. The Henry’s Fork conglomerate overlooks it from the
base of the Jukes laccolite on one side, and on the other margins it
with a monoclinal ridge; and in the interval the Flaming Gorge and Gray
Cliff rocks come to the surface.
[Illustration:
FIG. 45.—The Jukes Butte, as seen from the southeast, showing the
Jukes Laccolite, resting upon the Dana Arch.
]
_The Crescent arch_ is so perfectly truncated by the existing mountain
streams that their flood-plains unite above it in a single broad slope.
On the side toward the mountain there are a few insular hills of the
conglomerate, and on the side toward the plateau the same rock lifts a
low monoclinal ridge which circles about the base of the arch in a
crescent. Within the crescent there are few outcrops, but it is probable
that the Gray Cliff Sandstone is brought to the surface. Near the center
a solitary thin dike juts forth, like a buoy set to mark the place where
a laccolite is sunk. Judging the magnitude of the laccolite by the
proportions of the uplift, it has a diameter of nearly four miles and a
depth of 2,500 feet; and these dimensions indicate a volume of three and
a half cubic miles.
_The Maze arch_ covers a smaller area than the Crescent, but its height
is greater. The drainage from the mountain crosses it on a number of
lines, but there is no indication that at any recent stage of the
degradation they have produced an even truncation. At present they
divide the Gray and Vermilion Sandstones by so intricate a labyrinth of
deep cañons that the whole area of the uplift is almost impassable. The
monotony of red sandstone, for here all members of the Jura-Trias are
brick-red, the variety of dip, complicated to the eye by oblique
lamination, the multiplicity of cañons and ridges, conspire to give an
impression of chaos from whatever point the tract is viewed; and even
from the most commanding stations I was unable to make out completely
the arrangement of the drainage lines. Still no faults were discerned,
and it is probable that the Maze arch, intricate as it seems, is a
simple circular dome. On the north it adjoins the Crescent arch, and the
monoclinal ridges of conglomerate which margin the two at the east are
confluent. On the south it adjoins rather more closely one of the low
arches which have been referred to the Pennell cluster. On the west, or
toward the mountain, it is probably met by other arches at its own
level; but these if they exist cannot be fully known until the
progressing degradation of the country shall have removed certain
laccolites which lie above them and slightly overlap the Maze arch.
The four arches just described are of the foundation series of the
eastern base, and cover laccolites of unknown depths. Higher in the
strata, and at the same time absolutely higher, is a second series,
which to a certain extent overlap them. The Bowl Creek encroaches on the
G laccolite; the Jukes, on the Dana and on the Bowl Creek; the H
laccolite, on the Crescent; the Peale and Scrope, on the Maze.
[Illustration:
FIG. 46.—Cross-section of the Bowl Creek Arch. _c_, _c_ marks the
water level of Bowl Creek; _l_, the Bowl Creek Laccolite; _a_, _a_,
Shales; and _s_, the Gryphea Sandstone. Scale, 1 inch = 1,000 feet.
]
_The Bowl Creek arch_ is so masked by the overlapping Jukes laccolite,
and by the encroachment of certain large dikes, that its general form
and proportions are not known; but it is laid bare at one point in a
fine natural section. Bowl Creek crosses it near the center, and in the
walls of the cañon are exhibited two hundred feet of the laccolite,
together with two hundred and fifty feet of superjacent beds. The curve
of the strata is unbroken by faults or dikes, and carries them below the
level of the creek at each end of the cañon. Next above the trachyte
lies a clay shale which has been baked to the hardness of limestone. It
is one hundred feet thick, and is more or less altered throughout, as is
also the sandstone which overlies it. The extent of the metamorphism
indicates that the trachyte mass by which it was produced is not a mere
sheet, but is the body of the laccolite itself.
_The Jukes laccolite_ encroaches upon the G, the Dana, and the Bowl
Creek arches, and is superior to them all; it may be said to stand upon
them. The trachyte has a depth of only one thousand feet, but it lies so
high with reference to the general degradation that it is a conspicuous
feature of the topography. The edges of the laccolite are all eaten
away, and only the central portion survives. All of its faces are
precipitous. The cover of shale or sandstone has completely disappeared,
and the upper surface seems uneven and worn; but a distant view (Figure
47) shows that its wasting has not progressed so far as to destroy all
trace of an original even surface. The eminences of the present surface
combine to give to the eye which is aligned with their plane the
impression of a straight line. The hill is loftier than the laccolite,
for under the one thousand feet of trachyte are five hundred feet of
softer rock which constitute its pedestal, and by their yielding
undermine the laccolite and perpetuate its cliffs.
[Illustration:
FIG. 47.—Profile of the Jukes Butte, as seen from the northwest.
]
_The H laccolite_ is not well exposed. It lies on one edge of the
Crescent arch and is covered by the Henry’s Fork conglomerate.
[Illustration:
FIG. 48.—The Peale Laccolite exposed in natural cross-section. _a_,
_b_, _c_, _d_, and _e_ are intrusive masses of trachyte. _H_ is the
Henry’s Fork Conglomerate.
]
[Illustration:
FIG. 49.—The East Flank of Mount Ellen, showing the Scrope, Peale, and
Jukes Laccolites, and the Maze and Crescent Arches.
]
Little is known of the form of the _Peale laccolite_. One edge is lost
in the obscurity of the alpine sculpture, and the other has been removed
along with the crest of the Maze arch, on which it rested. But by this
removal a section has been opened across the laccolite, revealing its
internal structure from top to bottom. It is shown to be composite,
attaining its height of 850 feet by the compilation of three distinct
beds of trachyte, separated by partings and wedges of shale. The lowest
bed is thin and of small extent. Next is the main bed, six hundred feet
thick and a mile or more broad; and on top is a bed two hundred feet
thick and proportionately narrow. Each of the beds is lenticular in
section, and the piling of the less upon the greater produces a
quasi-pyramidal form. The interleaved shale bands are metamorphosed to
the condition of slate. Under the laccolite are one or two hundred feet
of shale, apparently unaltered except at the contact. Then come the
Henry’s Fork conglomerate, 350 feet thick, and the Flaming Gorge shale,
several times thicker. Within the upper shale is a restricted trachyte
sheet and near the top of the lower shale is a broader one. The latter
is double throughout, its two layers having been intruded at different
times.
The top of the escarpment is at the top of the laccolite, and only a
short distance back from the brow are shale and sandstone resting upon
the trachyte and conforming to its uneven surface.
_The Scrope laccolite_ resembles the Jukes in everything except that its
erosion has progressed so far as to obliterate every trace of the
original upper surface. Its position in the strata is about the same,
and the erosion of its matrix has left it a conspicuous crag. It rests
on the flank of the Maze arch, just as the Jukes laccolite rests on the
Dana arch. The remnant of trachyte is less than one thousand feet high,
and has been carved into a subconical form in which no hint of the
original size and proportions of the trachyte body is conveyed.
Figure 49 is a view of the east flank of Mount Ellen, as seen from Mount
Hillers. It groups together many of the details that have been
enumerated. The conical hill at the left is the Scrope laccolite. The
spur from the mountain which ends just at the right of it is the Peale
laccolite. The bold butte which terminates the last spur of the mountain
in the distance is the Jukes laccolite. Across the base of the latter
one can trace the outcrop of a hard bed. This is the Henry’s Fork
conglomerate, and the upward curve which it shows belongs (probably) to
the Crescent arch. Nearer than the Jukes Butte and in the same direction
is a low hill, marking the dike within the Crescent. Just to the left of
it is an insular outcrop of the conglomerate, and nearer by is another
outcrop in the form of a cliff, which is continuous to the base of the
Peale laccolite. Between the Peale and Scrope laccolites the
conglomerate is hidden by an embayment of the cliff, and it reappears in
the base of the Scrope Butte. In all these outcrops the escarpments of
conglomerate face toward the east and at the same time toward the Maze
and Crescent arches. On the opposite side of the arches the same
conglomerate outcrops in a monoclinal ridge with its escarpment facing
to the west. The ridge can be traced in the sketch from a point in the
foreground under the Jukes Butte nearly to the eastern base of the
butte, the course at first being almost directly toward the butte and
then curving far to the right and forming the Crescent. Between the
Scrope and Peale laccolites on one side and the monoclinal ridge on the
other, lie the Maze and the Maze arch. Beyond the Maze arch and limited
at the right by the Crescent, is the Crescent arch. The Scrope, the
Peale, and the Jukes are visible laccolites; the Maze and Crescent
arches cover invisible laccolites.
The determinate laccolites and arches which compose the lower slopes of
Mount Ellen, while they are of prime importance for purposes of
investigation, must not be considered superior in number and magnitude
to those of the central region. That region is known to abound in
trachyte masses, and it far exceeds the marginal district in the extent
and degree of its metamorphism. There is every reason to believe that
the mountain crest marks the zone of greatest igneous activity, and that
the foot-hills are as truly subsidiary from a geological point of view
as they are from a topographic. There is no evidence of a great central
laccolite, such as the Hillers and Pennell clusters possess, and I am
disposed to regard the mountain as a great congeries of trachyte masses
of moderate size, separated and in the main covered by shales and
sandstones. The sedimentary strata of the summits are all of the
Cretaceous series, but they are too greatly altered to permit the
discrimination of the Masuk, Gate, and Tununk groups. The Henry’s Fork
conglomerate, which might have been recognized even in a metamorphic
condition, was not seen.
STEREOGRAM OF THE HENRY MOUNTAINS.
For the double purpose of mapping and studying the mountains a model in
relief was constructed, in which great pains was taken to give all the
principal features their proper altitudes and proportions. This model
was photographed, and has been reproduced by the heliotype process in
Plate III, at the end of the volume. After it had been completed, a
second model was constructed by adding to the surface of the first.
Wherever the Blue Gate sandstone appeared in the original model no
addition was made. Where the Tununk sandstone appeared there was added
an amount equivalent to the combined thickness of the Blue Gate
sandstone and the Blue Gate shale; and in general, enough was added in
every part to bring the surface up to the summit of the Blue Gate
sandstone. In this way a restoration was made of the form of that
sandstone previous to its erosion. It is not to be understood that the
mountains ever possessed this form; for when the surface of the Blue
Gate sandstone was unbroken by erosion it was unbroken only because it
was covered by other strata, which while they shielded it were
themselves eroded. If the sandstone had been indestructible, this is the
form which would have been developed by the washing away of all the
overlying beds; and in this form are embodied the arches and domes which
were impressed upon the sandstone by the upswelling of the laccolites.
The model became a stereogram of the displacements of the Henry
Mountains, and a photograph from the stereogram appears in Plate IV.
It will be observed that over the central district of Mount Ellen, where
by reason of the peculiar sculpture of the rock its structure was
concealed, the restoration of the sandstone was not carried; it seemed
better to represent our lack of knowledge by a blank than to bridge over
the interval by the aid of the imagination.
If the reader will study the plate, he will find that it expresses a
great body of the phenomena which have been described in this chapter.
The simplicity of the Ellsworth and Holmes arches is contrasted with the
complexity of the others; the greatness of the Hillers and Pennell domes
with the smallness of those which lie upon their flanks. One point that
is especially striking is the relation between the upper and lower domes
of the Ellen cluster. The upper, which give rise to all the conspicuous
features of the mountain flanks, are comparatively small, while the
lower, which might almost be overlooked in a rapid examination of the
mountain, are comparatively large and constitute the great mass of the
uplift. The smaller laccolites, because they are the upper, have been
denuded of their covers, and in virtue of their hardness stand forth
salient. The larger, because they are the lower, have not been laid
bare, and the comparatively feeble resistance which their covers have
opposed to erosion has impressed their forms but slightly on the
topography.