The Knickerbocker Group
The Fourth of July orator for 1826 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, was
Edward Everett. Although only thirty-two he was already a distinguished
speaker. In the course of his oration he apostrophized John Adams and
Thomas Jefferson as venerable survivors of that momentous day, fifty
years earlier, which had witnessed our Declaration of Independence. But
even as Everett was speaking, the aged author of the Declaration
breathed his last at Monticello, and in the afternoon of that same day
Adams died also, murmuring, it is said, with his latest breath, and as
if with the whimsical obstinacy of an old man who hated to be beaten by
his ancient rival, "Thomas Jefferson still lives." But Jefferson was
already gone.
On the first of August, Everett commemorated the career of the two
Revolutionary leaders, and on the following day a greater than Everett,
Daniel Webster, pronounced the famous eulogy in Faneuil Hall. Never were
the thoughts and emotions of a whole country more adequately voiced than
in this commemorative oratory. Its pulse was high with national pride
over the accomplishments of half a century. "I ask," Everett declared,
"whether more has not been done to extend the domain of civilization, in
fifty years, since the Declaration of Independence, than would have been
done in five centuries of continued colonial subjection?" Webster
asserted in his peroration: "It cannot be denied, but by those who would
dispute against the sun, that with America, and in America, a new era
commences in human affairs. This era is distinguished by free
representative governments, by entire religious liberty, by improved
systems of national intercourse, by a newly awakened and an
unconquerable spirit of free enquiry, and by a diffusion of knowledge
through the community such as has been before altogether unknown and
unheard of."
Was this merely the "tall talk" then so characteristic of American
oratory and soon to be satirized in Martin Chuzzlewit? Or was it
prompted by a deep and true instinct for the significance of the vast
changes that had come over American life since 1776? The external
changes were familiar enough to Webster's auditors: the opening of
seemingly illimitable territory through the Louisiana Purchase, the
development of roads, canals, and manufactures; a rapid increase in
wealth and population; a shifting of political power due to the rise of
the new West--in a word, the evidences of irrepressible national energy.
But this energy was inadequately expressed by the national literature.
The more cultivated Americans were quite aware of this deficiency. It
was confessed by the pessimistic Fisher Ames and by the ardent young men
who in 1815 founded The North American Review. British critics in The
Edinburgh and The Quarterly, commenting upon recent works of travel in
America, pointed out the literary poverty of the American soil. Sydney
Smith, by no means the most offensive of these critics, declared in
1820: "During the thirty or forty years of their independence they have
done absolutely nothing for the sciences, for the arts, for
literature.... In the four quarters of the globe, who reads an American
book? or goes to an American play? or looks at an American picture or
statue?"
Sydney Smith's question "Who reads an American book?" has outlived all
of his own clever volumes. Even while he was asking it, London was
eagerly reading Irving's Sketch Book. In 1821 came Fenimore Cooper's Spy
and Bryant's Poems, and by 1826, when Webster was announcing in his
rolling orotund that Adams and Jefferson were no more, the London and
Paris booksellers were covering their stalls with Cooper's The Last of
the Mohicans. Irving, Cooper, and Bryant are thus the pioneers in a new
phase of American literary activity, often called, for convenience in
labeling, the Knickerbocker Group because of the identification of these
men with New York. And close behind these leaders come a younger
company, destined likewise, in the shy boyish words of Hawthorne, one of
the number, "to write books that would be read in England." For by 1826
Hawthorne and Longfellow were out of college and were trying to learn to
write. Ticknor, Prescott, and Bancroft, somewhat older men, were
settling to their great tasks. Emerson was entering upon his duties as a
minister. Edgar Allan Poe, at that University of Virginia which
Jefferson had just founded, was doubtless revising Tamerlane and Other
Poems which he was to publish in Boston in the following year. Holmes
was a Harvard undergraduate. Garrison had just printed Whittier's first
published poem in the Newburyport Free Press. Walt Whitman was a
barefooted boy on Long Island, and Lowell, likewise seven years of age,
was watching the birds in the tree-tops of Elmwood. But it was
Washington Irving who showed all of these men that nineteenth century
England would be interested in American books.
The very word Knickerbocker is one evidence of the vitality of Irving's
happy imaginings. In 1809 he had invented a mythical Dutch historian of
New York named Diedrich Knickerbocker and fathered upon him a witty
parody of Dr. Mitchill's grave Picture of New York. To read Irving's
chapters today is to witness one of the rarest and most agreeable of
phenomena, namely, the actual beginning of a legend which the world is
unwilling to let die. The book made Sir Walter Scott's sides ache with
laughter, and reminded him of the humor of Swift and Sterne. But certain
New Yorkers were slow to see the joke.
Irving was himself a New Yorker, born just at the close of the
Revolution, of a Scotch father and English mother. His youth was
pleasantly idle, with a little random education, much theater-going, and
plentiful rambles with a gun along the Hudson River. In 1804 he went
abroad for his health, returned and helped to write the light social
satire of the Salmagundi Papers, and became, after the publication of
the Knickerbocker History, a local celebrity. Sailing for England in
1815 on business, he stayed until 1832 as a roving man of letters in
England and Spain and then as Secretary of the American Legation in
London. The Sketch Book, Bracebridge Hall, and Tales of a Traveler are
the best known productions of Irving's fruitful residence in England.
The Life of Columbus, the Conquest of Granada, and The Alhambra
represent his first sojourn in Spain. After his return to America he
became fascinated with the Great West, made the travels described in his
Tour of the Prairies, and told the story of roving trappers and the fur
trade in Captain Bonneville and Astoria. For four years he returned to
Spain as American Minister. In his last tranquil years at Sunnyside on
the Hudson, where he died in 1859, he wrote graceful lives of Goldsmith
and of Washington.
Such a glance at the shelf containing Irving's books suggests but little
of that personal quality to which he owes his significance as an
interpreter of America to the Old World. This son of a narrow, hard,
Scotch dealer in cutlery, this drifter about town when New York was only
a big slovenly village, this light-hearted scribbler of satire and
sentiment, was a gentleman born. His boyhood and youth were passed in
that period of Post-Revolutionary reaction which exhibits the United
States in some of its most unlovely aspects. Historians like Henry Adams
and McMaster have painted in detail the low estate of education,
religion, and art as the new century began. The bitter feeling of the
nascent nation toward Great Britain was intensified by the War of 1812.
The Napoleonic Wars had threatened to break the last threads of our
friendship for France, and suspicion of the Holy Alliance led to an era
of national self-assertion of which the Monroe Doctrine was only one
expression. The raw Jacksonism of the West seemed to be gaining upon the
older civilizations represented by Virginia and Massachusetts. The
self-made type of man began to pose as the genuine American. And at this
moment came forward a man of natural lucidity and serenity of mind, of
perfect poise and good temper, who knew both Europe and America and felt
that they ought to know one another better and to like one another more.
That was Irving's service as an international mediator. He diffused
sweetness and light in an era marked by bitterness and obscuration. It
was a triumph of character as well as of literary skill.
But the skill was very noticeable also. Irving's prose is not that of
the Defoe-Swift-Franklin-Paine type of plain talk to the crowd. It is
rather an inheritance from that other eighteenth century tradition, the
conversation of the select circle. Its accents were heard in Steele and
Addison and were continued in Goldsmith, Sterne, Cowper, and Charles
Lamb. Among Irving's successors, George William Curtis and Charles
Dudley Warner and William Dean Howells have been masters of it likewise.
It is mellow human talk, delicate, regardful, capable of exquisite
modulation. With instinctive artistic taste, Irving used this old and
sound style upon fresh American material. In Rip van Winkle and The
Legend of Sleepy Hollow he portrayed his native valley of the Hudson,
and for a hundred years connoisseurs of style have perceived the
exquisite fitness of the language to the images and ideas which Irving
desired to convey. To render the Far West of that epoch this style is
perhaps not "big" and broad enough, but when used as Irving uses it in
describing Stratford and Westminster Abbey and an Old English Christmas,
it becomes again a perfect medium. Hawthorne adopted it for Our Old
Home, and Englishmen recognized it at once as a part of their own
inheritance, enriched, like certain wines, by the voyage across the
Atlantic and home again. Irving wrote of England, Mr. Warner once said,
as Englishmen would have liked to write about it. When he described the
Alhambra and Granada and the Moors, it was the style, rich both in
physical sensation and in dreamlike reverie, which revealed to the world
the quick American appreciation of foreign scenes and characters. Its
key is sympathy.
Irving's popularity has endured in England. It suffered during the
middle of the century in his own country, for the strongest New England
authors taught the public to demand more thought and passion than were
in Irving's nature. Possibly the nervous, journalistic style of the
twentieth century allows too scanty leisure of mind for the full
enjoyment of the Knickerbocker flavor. Yet such changes as these in
literary fashion scarcely affect the permanent service of Irving to our
literature. He immortalized a local type--the New York Dutchman--and
local legends, like that of Rip van Winkle; he used the framework of the
narrative essay to create something almost like the perfected short
story of Poe and Hawthorne; he wrote prose with unfailing charm in an
age when charm was lacking; and, if he had no message, it should be
remembered that some of the most useful ambassadors have had none save
to reveal, with delicacy and tact and humorous kindness, the truth that
foreign persons have feelings precisely like our own.
Readers of Sir Walter Scott's Journal may remember his account of an
evening party in Paris in 1826 where he met Fenimore Cooper, then in the
height of his European reputation. "So the Scotch and American lions
took the field together," wrote Sir Walter, who loved to be generous.
The Last of the Mohicans, then just published, threatened to eclipse the
fame of Ivanhoe. Cooper, born in 1789, was eighteen years younger than
the Wizard of the North, and was more deeply indebted to him than he
knew. For it was Scott who had created the immense nineteenth century
audience for prose fiction, and who had evolved a kind of formula for
the novel, ready for Cooper's use. Both men were natural story-tellers.
Scott had the richer mind and the more fully developed historical
imagination. Both were out-of-doors men, lovers of manly adventure and
of natural beauty. But the American had the good fortune to be able to
utilize in his books his personal experiences of forest and sea and to
reveal to Europe the real romance of the American wilderness.
That Cooper was the first to perceive the artistic possibilities of this
romance, no one would claim. Brockden Brown, a Quaker youth of
Philadelphia, a disciple of the English Godwin, had tried his hand at
the very end of the eighteenth century upon American variations of the
Gothic romance then popular in England. Brown had a keen eye for the
values of the American landscape and even of the American Indian. He had
a knack for passages of ghastly power, as his descriptions of maniacs,
murderers, sleep-walkers, and solitaries abundantly prove. But he had
read too much and lived too little to rival the masters of the art of
fiction. And there was a traveled Frenchman, Chateaubriand, surely an
expert in the art of eloquent prose, who had transferred to the pages of
his American Indian stories, Atala and René, the mystery and enchantment
of our dark forests and endless rivers. But Chateaubriand, like Brockden
Brown, is feverish. A taint of old-world eroticism and despair hovers
like a miasma over his magnificent panorama of the wilderness. Cooper,
like Scott, is masculine.
He was a Knickerbocker only by adoption. Born in New Jersey, his
childhood was spent in the then remote settlement of Cooperstown in
Central New York. He had a little schooling at Albany, and a brief and
inglorious career at Yale with the class of 1806. He went to sea for two
years, and then served for three years in the United States Navy upon
Lakes Ontario and Champlain, the very scene of some of his best stories.
In 1811 he married, resigned from the Navy, and settled upon a little
estate in Westchester County, near New York. Until the age of thirty, he
was not in the least a bookman, but a healthy man of action. Then, as
the well-known anecdote goes, he exclaims to his wife, after reading a
stupid English novel, "I believe I could write a better story myself."
Precaution (1820) was the result, but whether it was better than the
unknown English book, no one can now say. It was bad enough. Yet the
next year Cooper published The Spy, one of the finest of his novels,
which was instantly welcomed in England and translated in France. Then
came, in swift succession, The Pioneers, the first Leather-Stocking tale
in order of composition, and The Pilot, to show that Scott's Pirate was
written by a landsman! Lionel Lincoln and The Last of the Mohicans
followed. The next seven years were spent in Europe, mainly in France,
where The Prairie and The Red Rover were written. Cooper now looked back
upon his countrymen with eyes of critical detachment, and made ready to
tell them some of their faults. He came home to Cooperstown in 1833, the
year after Irving's return to America. He had won, deservedly, a great
fame, which he proceeded to imperil by his combativeness with his
neighbors and his harsh strictures upon the national character, due
mainly to his lofty conception of the ideal America. He continued to
spin yarns of sea and shore, and to write naval history. The tide of
fashion set against him in the eighteen-forties when Bulwer and Dickens
rode into favor, but the stout-hearted old pioneer could afford to bide
his time. He died in 1851, just as Mrs. Stowe was writing Uncle Tom's
Cabin.
Two generations have passed since then, and Cooper's place in our
literature remains secure. To have written our first historical novel,
The Spy, our first sea-story, The Pilot, and to have created the
Leather-Stocking series, is glory enough. In his perception of masculine
character, Cooper ranks with Fielding. His sailors, his scouts and
spies, his good and bad Indians, are as veritable human figures as
Squire Western. Long Tom Coffin, Harvey Birch, Hawk-Eye, and
Chingachgook are physically and morally true to life itself. Read the
Leather-Stocking books in the order of the events described, beginning
with The Deerslayer, then The Last of the Mohicans, The Pathfinder, The
Pioneers, and ending with the vast darkening horizon of The Prairie and
the death of the trapper, and one will feel how natural and inevitable
are the fates of the personages and the alterations in the life of the
frontier. These books vary in their poetic quality and in the degree of
their realism, but to watch the evolution of the leading figure is to
see human life in its actual texture.
Clever persons and pedantic persons have united to find fault with
certain elements of Cooper's art. Mark Twain, in one of his least
inspired moments, selected Cooper's novels for attack. Every grammar
school teacher is ready to point out that his style is often prolix and
his sentences are sometimes ungrammatical. Amateurs even criticize
Cooper's seamanship, although it seemed impeccable to Admiral Mahan. No
doubt one must admit the "helplessness, propriety, and incapacity" of
most of Cooper's women, and the dreadfulness of his bores, particularly
the Scotchmen, the doctors, and the naturalists. Like Sir Walter, Cooper
seems to have taken but little pains in the deliberate planning of his
plots. Frequently he accepts a ready-made formula of villain and hero,
predicament and escape, renewed crisis and rescue, mystification and
explanation, worthy of a third-rate novelist. His salvation lies in his
genius for action, the beauty and grandeur of his landscapes, the
primitive veracity of his children of nature.
Cooper was an elemental man, and he comprehended, by means of something
deeper than mere artistic instinct, the feelings of elemental humanity
in the presence of the wide ocean or of the deep woods. He is as healthy
and sane as Fielding, and he possesses an additional quality which all
of the purely English novelists lack. It was the result of his youthful
sojourn in the wilderness. Let us call it the survival in him of an
aboriginal imagination. Cooper reminds one somehow of a moose--an
ungraceful creature perhaps, but indubitably big, as many a hunter has
suddenly realized when he has come unexpectedly upon a moose that
whirled to face him in the twilight silence of a northern wood.
Something of this far-off and gigantic primitivism inheres also in the
poetry of William Cullen Bryant. His portrait, with the sweeping white
beard and the dark folds of the cloak, suggests the Bard as the Druids
might have known him. But in the eighteen-thirties and forties, Mr.
Bryant's alert, clean-shaven face, and energetic gait as he strode down
Broadway to the Evening Post office, suggested little more than a
vigorous and somewhat radical editor of an increasingly prosperous
Democratic newspaper. There was nothing of the Fringed Gentian or Yellow
Violet about him. Like so many of the Knickerbockers, Bryant was an
immigrant to New York; in fact, none of her adopted men of letters have
represented so perfectly the inherited traits of the New England
Puritan. To understand his long and honorable public life it is
necessary to know something of the city of his choice, but to enter into
the spirit of his poetry one must go back to the hills of western
Massachusetts.
Bryant had a right to his cold-weather mind. He came from Mayflower
stock. His father, Dr. Peter Bryant of Cummington, was a sound country
physician, with liberal preferences in theology, Federalist views in
politics, and a library of seven hundred volumes, rich in poetry. The
poet's mother records his birth in her diary in terse words which have
the true Spartan tang: "Nov. 3, 1794. Stormy, wind N. E. Churned. Seven
in the evening a son born." Two days later the November wind shifted.
"Nov. 5, 1794. Clear, wind N. W. Made Austin a coat. Sat up all day.
Went into the kitchen." The baby, it appears, had an abnormally large
head and was dipped, day after day, in rude hydropathy, into an icy
spring. A precocious childhood was followed by a stern, somewhat
unhappy, but aspiring boyhood. The little fellow, lying prone with his
brothers before the firelight of the kitchen, reading English poetry
from his father's library, used to pray that he too might become a poet.
At thirteen he produced a satire on Jefferson, The Embargo, which his
proud Federalist father printed at Boston in 1808. The youth had nearly
one year at Williams College, over the mountain ranges to the west. He
wished to continue his education at Yale, but his father had no money
for this greater venture, and the son remained at home. There, in the
autumn of 1811, on the bleak hills, he composed the first draft of
Thanatopsis. He was seventeen, and he had been reading Blair's Grave and
the poems of the consumptive Henry Kirke White. He hid his verses in a
drawer, and five years later his father found them, shed tears over
them, and sent them to the North American Review, where they were
published in September, 1817.
In the meantime the young man had studied law, though with dislike of
it, and with the confession that he sometimes read The Lyrical Ballads
when he might have been reading Blackstone. One December afternoon in
1815, he was walking from Cummington to Plainfield--aged twenty-one, and
looking for a place in which to settle as a lawyer. Across the vivid
sunset flew a black duck, as solitary and homeless as himself. The bird
seemed an image of his own soul, "lone wandering but not lost." Before
he slept that night he had composed the poem To a Waterfowl. No more
authentic inspiration ever visited a poet, and though Bryant wrote verse
for more than sixty years after that crimson sky had paled into chill
December twilight, his lines never again vibrated with such
communicative passion.
Bryant's ensuing career revealed the steady purpose, the stoicism, the
reticence of the Puritan. It was highly successful, judged even by
material standards. Thanatopsis had been instantly regarded in 1817 as
the finest poem yet produced in America. The author was invited to
contribute to the North American Review an essay on American poetry, and
this, like all of Bryant's prose work, was admirably written. He
delivered his Harvard Phi Beta Kappa poem, The Ages, in 1821, the year
of Emerson's graduation. After a brief practice of the law in Great
Barrington, he entered in 1826 into the unpromising field of journalism
in New York. While other young Knickerbockers wasted their literary
strength on trifles and dissipated their moral energies, Bryant held
steadily to his daily task. His life in town was sternly ascetic, but he
allowed himself long walks in the country, and he continued to meditate
a somewhat thankless Muse. In 1832 he visited his brothers on the
Illinois prairies, and stopped one day to chat with a "tall awkward
uncouth lad" of racy conversational powers, who was leading his company
of volunteers into the Black Hawk War. The two men were destined to meet
again in 1860, when Bryant presided at that Cooper Union address of
Lincoln's which revealed to New York and to the country that the former
captain of volunteers was now a king of men. Lincoln was embarrassed on
that occasion, it is said, by Bryant's fastidious, dignified presence.
Not so Nathaniel Hawthorne, who had seen the poet in Rome, two years
before. "There was a weary look in his face," wrote Hawthorne, "as if he
were tired of seeing things and doing things.... He uttered neither
passion nor poetry, but excellent good sense, and accurate information,
on whatever subject transpired; a very pleasant man to associate with,
but rather cold, I should imagine, if one should seek to touch his heart
with one's own." Such was the impression Bryant made upon less gifted
men than Hawthorne, as he lived out his long and useful life in the
Knickerbocker city. Toward the close of it he was in great demand for
public occasions; and it was after delivering a speech dedicating a
statue to Mazzini in Central Park in 1878, when Bryant was eighty-four,
that a fit of dizziness caused a fall which proved fatal to the
venerable poet. It was just seventy years since Dr. Peter Bryant had
published his boy's verses on The Embargo.
Although Bryant's poetry has never roused any vociferous excitement, it
has enduring qualities. The spiritual preoccupations of many a voiceless
generation of New England Puritans found a tongue at last in this
late-born son of theirs. The determining mood of his best poems, from
boyhood to old age, was precisely that thought of transiency, "the
eternal flow of things," which colored the imaginations of the first
colonists. This is the central motive of Thanatopsis, To a Waterfowl,
The Rivulet, A Forest Hymn, An Evening Revery, The Crowded Street, The
Flood of Years. All of these tell the same story of endless change and
of endless abiding, of varying eddies in the same mighty stream of human
existence. Bryant faced the thought as calmly, as majestically, at
seventeen as when he wrote The Flood of Years at eighty-two. He is a
master of description, though he has slight gift for narrative or drama,
and he rarely sounds the clear lyric note. But everywhere in his verse
there is that cold purity of the winter hills in Western Massachusetts,
something austere and elemental which reaches kindred spirits below the
surface on which intellect and passion have their play, something more
primitive, indeed, than human intellect or passion and belonging to
another mode of being, something "rock-ribbed and ancient as the sun."
A picture of the Knickerbocker era is not complete without its portraits
of the minor figures in the literary life of New York up to the time of
the Civil War. But the scope of the present volume does not permit
sketches of Paulding and Verplanck, of Halleck and his friend Drake, of
N. P. Willis and Morris and Woodworth. Some of these are today only
"single-poem" men, like Payne, the author of Home Sweet Home, just as
Key, the author of The Star-Spangled Banner, is today a "single-poem"
man of an earlier generation. Their names will be found in such limbos
of the dead as Griswold's Poets and Poetry of America and Poe's
Literati. They knew "the town" in their day, and pleased its very easily
pleased taste. The short-lived literary magazines of the
eighteen-forties gave them their hour of glory. As representatives of
passing phases of the literary history of New York their careers are not
without sentimental interest, but few of them spoke to or for the
country as a whole. Two figures, indeed, stand out in sharp contrast
with those habitual strollers on Broadway and frequenters of literary
gatherings, though each of them was for a while a part of Knickerbocker
New York. To all appearances they were only two more Bohemians like the
rest, but the curiosity of the twentieth century sets them apart from
their forgotten contemporaries. They are two of the unluckiest--and yet
luckiest--authors who ever tried to sell a manuscript along Broadway.
One of them is Edgar Allan Poe and the other is Walt Whitman. They shall
have a chapter to themselves.
But before turning to that chapter, we must look back to New England
once more and observe the blossoming-time of its ancient commonwealths.
During the thirty years preceding the Civil War New England awoke to a
new life of the spirit. So varied and rich was her literary
productiveness in this era that it still remains her greatest period,
and so completely did New England writers of this epoch voice the ideals
of the nation that the great majority of Americans, even today, regard
these New Englanders as the truest literary exponents of the mind and
soul of the United States. We must take a look at them.