In this mode it is intended that every two feet of ground should
bear one plant: and as an acre contains 43,560 square feet, there
will be half of that number of plants on an acre, and the roots must
weigh nearly five pounds each, on an average, to yield forty-eight
tons. The land must indeed be strong to produce so heavy a crop. If
our lands, enriched and prepared in the best manner conveniently in
our power, can be made to yield half as much, we shall have reason
to be satisfied: especially as the Mangel Wurtzel, quantity for
quantity, contains more than twice as much nutritive matter as the
Ruta Baga, and even 50 per cent. more than Carrots; according to
the experiments (by analysis) of a celebrated English Chymist, Sir
Humphrey Davy, which he stated to the British Board of Agriculture.
These experiments were made with the red and white Beets; but it is
presumed that the Mangel Wurtzel produces as much nutriment as any
other Beet.
Instead of 6 it may be advisable to apply at least 12 cubit yards
(that is 6 such cart loads as were before-mentioned) of manure to
an acre; and to distribute the same in deep furrows 4 feet apart.
This would give four square feet of ground to each plant, the plants
being at a foot distance one from another in the rows, four feet
apart, would admit the use of the common horse plough in their
cultivation.
Carrots and the Mangel Wurtzel possess one eminent advantage; that
they are not, to my knowledge, annoyed by insects at any period of
their growth. Whereas the Ruta Baga and other turnips, while in the
seed leaf, are injured (in England whole fields are often destroyed)
by a small black fly: and the Ruta Baga (like cabbages) when far
advanced in growth, is sometimes infested, and in dry seasons half
ruined, by plant lice; as was my small crop in 1818.
The Mangel Wurtzel also possesses one peculiar advantage above all
other root crops, that as soon as the tops or leaves, are full
grown, they may be stripped off (leaving only the small heart-leaves
uninjured) and given to cattle and swine.--This stripping may
be repeated once or twice; and it is said that the roots thrive
better for the stripping. If not stripped off many of the under
leaves perish. The leaves are pronounced excellent for increasing
the richness and quantity of milk in cows; and so are calculated
to supply the deficiency of herbage in the common pastures, which
generally fail, more or less, by the beginning of August. An acre
twice stripped will yield several tons of leaves.
THE RUTA BAGA. This root may be cultivated in the manner just
described for the Mangel Wurtzel; the ground being prepared in the
same manner. In England, they appear to be most commonly grown in
rows 27 inches apart, with the plants at a foot distance in the
rows. But William Cobbett, who in a small book, published in New
York, has minutely described his own practice, both in England and
America, asserts, that the largest crops are attainable by growing
the Ruta Baga in rows four feet apart, with the plants about 10
inches or a foot distant from each other in the rows: and in this
mode of culture, he has raised, in England, 30 tons to the acre.
For this mode of culture, the manure, being deposited in furrows
4 feet apart, is covered by 4 back furrows, 2 on one side and 2
on the other, of each line of manure; by which little ridges are
formed: and if the ploughing be deep (as it ought to be) there will
be a deep gutter between every two ridges.--The tops of the ridges
being made fine with a light harrow, or with rakes, the seeds are
sown with a drilling machine; or by hand, which Mr. Cobbett says he
prefers to a drill. Two men sowed for him 7 acres in 3 days, using
about 4 pounds of seed, in this manner; a man went along by the
side of each ridge, and put down 2 or 3 seeds in places at about
10 inches from each other, just drawing a little earth over, and
_pressing it on the seed_, in order to make it vegetate quickly,
before the earth became too dry. But, he adds, the 7 acres might
have been sown by one man in a day, by just scattering the seeds
along on the top of the ridge, where they might have been buried
with a rake, and pressed down with a spade or shovel, or other flat
instrument. But he used a light roller, to take two ridges at once,
the horse walking in the gutter between.
The time of sowing the seeds must vary with the climate. On Long
Island, (state of New York) Mr. Cobbett's trials of one year led him
to prefer the 26th of June; but in our own county, I would not pass
the middle of that month. Indeed I think it expedient (in order to
ascertain the fittest time) to commence sowing the seed as soon as
the ground can be prepared after the planting of Indian corn, and to
continue to sow, in small plots, weekly, until the middle of June.
As soon as the plants are fairly up, hoes and the fingers are to
be used, taking out all the plants but 1 in each 10 or 12 inches.
As soon as weeds appear, hoeing is to commence; hoeing the tops
of the ridges to the width of about 6 inches, showing the plants
distinct and clean. Then the plough is introduced, taking a furrow
from the side of one ridge, going up the field, a furrow from the
other ridge coming down, then another furrow from the same side of
the first ridge going up, and another furrow from the same side of
the other ridge coming down. In taking away the last two furrows,
you go within three inches of the turnip plants. Thus a ridge is
formed over the original gutter. The next process is, to turn these
furrows back again to the turnips. This hoeing and ploughing is
to be repeated, when the appearance of the weeds requires it; and
afterwards, the few weeds which may rise are to be hoed or pulled
up. In this way, Mr. Cobbett thinks, a thousand bushels of Ruta Baga
may be raised on an acre that will yield 50 bushels of Indian corn.
In describing the culture of the Mangel Wurtzel, transplanting was
mentioned, to fill vacant places. The same may be practised with
the Ruta Baga. But unless those vacant spots be dug afresh, the
transplanted roots will be much inferiour to their transplanted
neighbours; as I found in my last year's experiment. And Mr.
Cobbett mentions the like difference in his practice.--At the
same time he strongly recommends the raising of the Ruta Baga, by
_transplanting_, for _entire crops_, as for preferable to the sowing
of the seeds, and letting the plants grow where their seeds first
vegetated. But then he considers it indispensable to perform this
transplanting _on ground fresh ploughed_. And by sowing the seeds in
beds, to raise plants, as we do for cabbages, a month's more time
is allowed to prepare the ground for their reception. In the work
of transplanting, the plain dibble before described is a necessary
instrument. The hole made by it must be fully as deep as the length
of the root; and this being introduced (taking care in putting it
into the hole not to bend its point) the dibble is thrust down by
its side, and by a dexterous twist, or circular motion of the hand,
the earth is pressed close against the root, in its whole length.
The largest crop of Ruta Baga he ever raised in England, Mr. Cobbett
says, was by transplanting, on 17 acres, which produced 33 tons to
the acre; the rows (on ridges) 4 feet asunder, and the plants a foot
asunder in the rows.
In this mode of raising the Ruta Baga, by transplanting the entire
crop, so much time is gained for preparing the ground, that two
crops of weeds may be destroyed, by that number of ploughings;
the first in the beginning of June, and the second immediately
before transplanting. But Mr. Cobbett recommends a previous _deep_
fall-ploughing, and another _deep_ ploughing in April, of the ground
intended for the Ruta Baga. The like two deep ploughings will be
equally proper and beneficial for the Mangel Wurtzel and Carrots.
Among the advantages of the transplanting method, mentioned by Mr.
Cobbett, one is, that it "saves almost the whole of the _after
culture_. There is no _hoeing_, no _thinning_ of the plants; and not
more than one ploughing between the ridges."
_Harvesting of Roots._ The Mangel Wurtzel, growing chiefly above the
surface, and thus exposed to frost, should be taken up the latter
end of October or beginning of November, according to the nature
of the season. The harvesting of Carrots may follow that of the
Mangel Wurtzel; and the Ruta Baga succeed the Carrots. In the first
experimental culture of the roots, in which but small quantities
are raised, they can be preserved in dry cellars not liable to
freezing. Where large quantities are raised, they may be deposited
in heaps, sufficiently covered, in a dry field. The common method
of heaping and covering roots in the field, and which Mr. Cobbett
practised with the Ruta Baga, is perhaps, as good as any. Holes of
a round or square form are dug about a foot deep, and about fifty
bushels are put into each, piling up the roots above the level of
the surface of the land, sloping to the top: then covering them
with straw, throw earth over the whole to a depth sufficient to
guard them from frost. Smooth the surface of this earth by beating
it close with the back of a spade, or other instrument, the better
to cast off rain. On Long Island and in Pennsylvania, a covering
of earth, a foot or 15 inches deep has been found sufficient. A
greater depth will probably be necessary here. In throwing up this
cover, a trench will be formed on all sides of the heap, to receive
the water running off it. It may be well to sink the bottom of the
trench lower than the bottom of the hole in which the roots are
deposited. Where large quantities are to be thus preserved, several
loads may be put into one hole: and then oblong heaps will be best
as requiring less labour in covering them. A quantity of roots,
for feeding cattle till the middle of December, may be kept in a
barn or stable covered with straw or any dry litter. I would begin
feeding with Mangel Wurtzel--follow next with Carrots--and conclude
with Ruta Baga; for the latter root will keep sound until the
commencement of the summer succeeding their growth.
All the roots, especially the Mangel Wurtzel and Carrots, should
be fully dried before they are housed, or covered in the field, to
guard them against rotting.
_Roots for raising Seed._ Of the Mangel Wurtzel I would select
large and fair roots of a red colour, whose bodies have grown most
above ground, and with a moderate, if not the smallest, quantity of
leaves; for although _these_ are valuable for stripping, the _roots_
are much more valuable; and I am inclined to think those with small
tops are least liable to rot.
Of Carrots, large and fair roots of the deepest yellow colour, and
with the smallest tops in proportion to the size of the roots, are
to be preferred.
With regard to the Ruta Baga, Mr. Cobbett says, it is apt to
_degenerate_, if the seed be not saved with care. "We in England
(said he) examine well to find out those that run least into _neck_
and _green_. We reject all such as approach at all towards a
_whitish_ colour, or which are even of a _greenish_ colour _towards
the neck_, which _there_ ought to be a little of a _reddish cast_."
Varieties of plants of the _same kind_ (the different sorts of
cabbages, for instance, or of Indian corn) if growing near together
and bearing seed, will impart to one another their respective
peculiarities, and injuriously, whenever it is desired to preserve
their distinct qualities unmixed, and to prevent an inferiour
engendering with one of a superiour quality; the impregnating dust
of the flowers of plants falling on the flowers of other plants of
the same kind, producing effects similar to the crossing of animals
of the same kind but of different breeds. In a word, the _sexual_
system exists in plants as well as among animals; only in plants the
male and female are generally united in the same plant; as in Indian
corn, the male impregnating dust (the farina) is in the tassel or
flower, at the top: the ear is the female, and from every cell of
the future grain proceeds a thread, which together constitute what
is called the silk, on which the farina falling causes the cells
to fill, and become, when ripe, kernels of corn. In most fruits,
as the apple and pear, the male and female are in the same flower.
But in hemp, some of the plants are exclusively male, and others
exclusively female.
The Ruta Baga, therefore, when set out for bearing seed, should be
placed at a distance from every other seed plant of the Turnip or
Cabbage kind. So likewise the Mangel Wurtzel intended to bear seed,
should not be set near any other seed beet plants. It may not be
amiss to add, that for the same reasons, pumpkins, squashes, melons,
cucumbers, in all their varieties, in order to preserve them in
purity, should be planted at some distance from each other.
Pumpkins, as food for domestic animals, seem closely connected with
the roots before-mentioned. Every farmer knows their value for
milk cows, for fattening cattle, and for swine. Their consumption
conveniently precedes that of the Mangel Wurtzel.
With ample supplies of the Vegetables whose culture I have mentioned
and described, our present Stocks may be better fed, their numbers
enlarged, our coarse fodder be more advantageously consumed,
our manure increased, and pork and beef and the products of the
dairy, probably doubled. The latter, in particular, are miserably
deficient, from the want of juicy food for cows, in continuance
of the supply yielded by our common pastures just at midsummer.
Pumpkins and the roots, indeed, will not be ready to keep up that
supply; but oats and barley, and above all Indian corn, may be sown
and planted, to be cut green, and carry along our cows to the last
of September, when pumpkins will begin to ripen. The consumption
of these green crops and roots, by producing vast additions to our
manure, will enable us to enrich our fields, and to make annual
additions to the products of our farms.
The immense importance of providing for cows a full supply of food,
and of food which they relish, to the extent of their appetites, has
been demonstrated by many examples of very large products of milk,
butter and cheese, from cows so supplied. The following statement
from a recent English publication, is a further illustration of the
fact:--"A farmer, some years since, kept _eighteen_ cows upon a
_Common_, and was often obliged to buy butter for his family. The
Common was _enclosed_, (which deprived the farmer of his pasture,)
and the same person supplied his family amply with milk and butter,
from _four_ cows _well kept._"
_III. On Indian Corn and Winter Grain._
The ancient, and to this day the general practice, in cultivating
Indian corn, has been to plant it in squares, and in the course of
its growth to draw up earth about the stems of the plants, forming
_hills_; under the idea of supporting them against strong winds; but
the necessity or utility of this practice has long been doubted.
I have sometimes cultivated Indian corn without raising any hills
about the plants; and, from the result, am satisfied that hills
are not necessary. If, indeed, winter wheat, or rye, is to be sown
among the corn, at its last dressing, I think the hilling must be
injurious; for the richer mould being drawn up into hills, the
intervals are robbed of what is requisite to produce an even crop.
I am aware that some intelligent farmers consider it bad husbandry
to sow winter grain among Indian corn--to _double-crop_ the ground.
But if this be _rich_, and in _fine tilth_ by deep ploughing before
the corn crop is put in, and good and clean tillage accompanying
its growth, I can perceive no solid objection to the practice. With
us, the early sowing of winter grain is of the first importance, to
insure a full crop, early ripe, and most secure from mildew. The
husbandry of Mr. Ducket, already described, justifies the practice.
I know it is already common amongst us; but without the _deep
tillage_ which enabled him to put in seven crops with only four
ploughings. With such complete tillage, of a soil so enriched as to
yield forty or fifty bushels of Indian corn to the acre, grown on
a level, without hills or ridges; and if, in harvesting the corn,
it be cut close to the ground; I see no reason why grass seeds may
not properly be sown on the winter grain, in the spring. In this
way, may be obtained a crop of Indian corn the first year--a crop of
wheat or rye the second year--and hay the third and fourth years;
and all from one deep ploughing, and a handsome culture of the
Indian corn.
By the early sowing of winter grain among Indian corn, it quickly
vegetates, and sends forth numerous branches; and soon covering the
ground, prevents or checks the growth of weeds. Probably, too, the
plants, acquiring so much strength by early sowing (for the roots
must multiply and extend in proportion to the growth above ground)
are less liable to be winter-killed.
_IV. On Live Stock._
I have now to present to your notice the other of the three
celebrated English Farmers, described by Arthur Young--Mr.
Bakewell--the most distinguished improver of live stock, on
principles of his own, in Great Britain. "The principles he began
upon (says Mr. Young) were _fine forms_, _small bones_, _and a
true disposition to make readily fat_, which is indeed inseparable
from small bones, or rather fine bones, and fine forms, or true
symmetry of the parts." Before Bakewell's day, the rules which
governed Breeders of Live Stock, Mr. Young pronounces a tissue "of
absurdities."
He began his improvements of sheep, by selecting from the best
in his neighbourhood. And so little had any correct principle of
improvement been known, or regarded, that a guinea or half a guinea
extraordinary would give Mr. Bakewell the choice of any sheep in
any flock. And his uncommon sagacity enabled him, by the best
selections and judicious crossings, to form a breed distinguished
above all others, for _the disposition to fatten_, _early maturity_,
_a form indicating strength of constitution_, _weight in the most
valuable parts_, with _lightness of offals_. Mr. Young expresses
his opinion, that there is not a breed of any sort of live stock
in Great Britain, that does not derive its improvement from the
skill, knowledge and principles of Mr. Bakewell. Another eminent
Agriculturalist declares, (and Mr. Young does not think he
exaggerates) "that Mr. Bakewell enabled those who followed his
ideas, to produce two pounds of mutton where only one was produced
before."
Mr. Young adds, that Bakewell was the most careful feeder of stock
that he ever met with, and who made his food go the farthest. To
horses and cattle in stalls, he did not permit more than a handful
of hay to be given at a time; and the same economy was used in all
other feeding.--But his stocks were so large as to require one or
more persons to be appropriated to that service. This practice, in
our small farms and with our small stocks, cannot be fully adopted;
but it may be imitated, in some degree, during the season (winter)
most requiring such attention. By feeding them in this manner, the
cattle will doubtless _eat more_, but they will _waste less_; so
that while, in the whole, no more fodder will be consumed, the stock
will be put into much better plight.
Cleanliness, also, will materially contribute to the health and
thriving of stock. The common cattle-stalls of our country are so
ill contrived, and so straitened in their dimensions, that the
cattle are constrained to lie down, in part in their own dung. This
dries and forms a thick coat on their hind quarters, from which
they are not relieved till they shed their hair in the spring. They
are thus rendered _uncomfortable_; to be _uncomfortable_ is to
suffer some degree of _pain_; and no one will suppose that animals
in _pain_ can _thrive_, or _preserve their plight_, with the same
food, equally with others perfectly at ease. Even hogs, though prone
to wallow in the mire, in warm weather, are always pleased with a
dry bed, and thrive best when kept clean. I have some where read an
account of an experiment made with two, confined in separate pens,
and fed exactly alike: one was suffered to be constantly foul with
the mire of his sty; the other, washed every day, and kept clean,
far outstripped the former in thriving.
It may be useful to add some further information on Live Stock,
from the writings of Sir John Sinclair, President of the British
Board of Agriculture. He proposed to a gentleman in England,[10]
who is eminent for his knowledge and accurate observations relative
to plants and animals, some questions concerning Live Stock.
In one of his answers, he says--"I have found the food animals
generally require, to keep them in proper condition, is much more
nearly proportioned to their _height_ and _length_, than to their
_weight_." In confirmation of this opinion, he adds, that one of his
neighbours made a comparative experiment with the Devon and Hereford
cows; and though fond of the former for their neatness, he gave
them up, because "they would not nearly live upon the same food
which supplied animals _stouter_ and _more compact_, of the same
weight."
[10] Thomas A. Knight, Esq.
To the question, "What is the best shape for feeding with little
food?" Mr. Knight answers--"The more deep and capacious the chest,
and the shorter and lower any animal is, relative to its weight,
the better adapted it will be to live and fatten upon little food;
the more labour it will also go through; and I have always found
the short legged oxen to be the best labourers. Mr. Marshall also
observes, in his Rural Economy of Gloucestershire, that the best
labouring ox he ever saw, had the shortest legs."