Besides the above, there is a Division (2 squadrons) of Crimean Tartar
Cavalry, which would be expanded in case of war to a regiment.
The uniform of the Guard Cavalry, as can be seen by our plates, is
very brilliant compared with that of the Dragoons of the Line. The
whole Cavalry is armed with a light and slightly-curved sabre, called
a “Shashka,” which is worn on a narrow band over the right shoulder.
The front-ranks of the Cuirassiers and Lancers carry lances on
garrison-duty and on full-dress occasions, but these would not be taken
on service. The Dragoons carry a rifle, somewhat shorter than that of
the Infantry, the bayonet of which is worn on the “Shashka”-scabbard;
other Cavalry regiments carry the Berdan carbine.
[Sidenote: +Artillery.+]
The Field Artillery consists of:—
3 Brigades of Guard Field Artillery,
4 Brigades of Grenadier Field Artillery,
44 Brigades of Field Artillery of the Line.
Each brigade numbering 6 batteries.
The Horse Artillery consists of 1 Brigade of Guard Artillery, and 23
batteries of Horse Artillery of the Line; besides the above, there are
two Mounted Mountain Batteries.
The Field Batteries have 8 guns, only 4 of which are horsed in
peace-time. A Horse Artillery Battery always has 6 fully-horsed guns.
The matériel consists of excellent steel-guns, mostly from Krupp works
in Essen, the bore of the heavy field-guns being 4·16 inches, and that
of the light ones 3·39 inches.
[Sidenote: +Engineers.+]
The Engineers consist of 17 battalions of Sappers (including 1 Guard
and 1 Grenadier Battalion), and a few independent companies, 8
battalions of Pontonniers, 9 Railway battalions, 6 Field-parks, 16
Military Telegraph-parks, and 2 Siege-parks.
There is no Train; it is formed in war-time by taking men from
the Cavalry Reserves. Hence it would appear that the mobility and
manœuvring power of the Army in the field would not be very great.
During peace-time the Reserve forces, which would have to complete the
Army to war strength on its taking the field, and the Ersatz forces,
whose duty it would be to fill up gaps caused by death, wounds,
disease, etc., during the war, are only represented by depôt-cadres.
To the Local forces belong 50½ battalions of Garrison Artillery,
distributed amongst the fortresses of the country, besides 32 Line
battalions, quartered in Asiatic Russia for garrison duties; they may,
however, if necessary, be employed on Active Service. To these forces
also belong the “Instruction troops,” which practise new regulations,
tactical and otherwise, as they are brought out, and experimentalise
with new arms and equipment when necessary. The Corps of Gendarmes and
the Frontier Guards may also be said to form part of the Local forces.
[Sidenote: +Total Forces.+]
The Field Forces are in peace-time divided into 19 Army Corps
(including the Guard Corps and the Grenadier Corps); 2 to 3 Infantry
Divisions, and 1 Cavalry Division, with their Artillery, form an Army
Corps. The Infantry Division numbers 2 Infantry Brigades, each of 2
regiments and 1 brigade of Field Artillery. A Cavalry Division numbers
in the same way 2 brigades of 2 regiments each; besides 2 batteries of
Horse Artillery.
The peace-strength of the Regular Army comes to something like 700,000
men and 1,538 field-guns, and the war-strength to 1,800,000 men and
3,260 guns.
In addition to this enormous number there are the Irregular troops—a
force quite peculiar to Russia—namely, the Cossacks.[20]
[Sidenote: +Cossacks.+]
The Cossacks are tribes of mixed Russian, Turkish, and Tatar blood.
They are descended from tribes of horsemen, who after the Mongol
invasion in the thirteenth century settled on the Don and Dnieper and
established their own forms of government. Every three years they used
to elect a “Hetman” as chief, with a council of elders, “Narschines,”
to assist him. The Don Cossacks of Great Russia have their
head-quarters north of the Sea of Azov and in the mountainous districts
of that region. Branches of these Cossacks have settled on the Volga,
on the shores of the Sea of Azov, along the Ural, in the Kuban
North-Western Caucasus and in Siberia. Ever since they became subject
to Russia they have assisted in carrying the Russian dominion further
into Asia. The history of the settlement of these tribes in Siberia,
led by the Cossack chief Jermac, is exceedingly interesting. This bold
leader crossed the Ural mountains in 1758 with a following of only 840
Cossacks. His conquering progress equalled that of the Spaniards under
Cortez in Mexico for adventure and for the great results that flowed
from his successes.
Although attached to Russia, the Cossacks are Russian in neither
their language, religion, nor customs. Gifted with extraordinarily
sharp senses, good-humoured, and hospitable, born warriors, excellent
horsemen, and good shots, they are yet difficult to govern, and
inclined somewhat to insubordination. Now that they have been bound
down to stay in settled districts, instead of wandering all over the
country, their wildness has been somewhat toned down, and they are of
inestimable value to Russia in her service on the Chinese frontier, in
the Ural, in the Kuban, in Siberia, in the Crimea, and on the Seas of
Azov or of Aral. In return for lands granted by the government on the
different frontiers, every Cossack is bound to serve as a soldier. They
have a military organisation and are divided into Cavalry regiments, or
“polks.”
[Illustration: Russia. I.
_Printed by G. Löwensohn, Fuerth Bavaria_
_Published by William Clowes & Sons, L^{d}, London._]
[Illustration: Russia. II.
_Printed by G. Löwensohn, Fuerth Bavaria_
_Published by William Clowes & Sons, L^{d}, London._]
They are gradually being more and more definitely organised,
disciplined, and trained. Each man has to provide himself with clothing
and equipment according to regulation, and with a horse, and keep
them up during his time of service. The uniform consists in a short
coat, “kasakin,” or a long one, “tcherkesska,” with a woollen shirt,
“beshmet,” loose trousers, long boots, no spurs, and a fur-cap,
“papasha.” Their chief weapon is a long pennonless lance, with
sabre (“shashka”), pistol, or in the case of Cossacks of the Caucasus,
long knives, “kinzhal,” and finally, a rifle of some sort.
[Illustration: Officer of the Field Police (full dress).]
[Illustration: Field Gendarme (service kit).]
Their small insignificant-looking horses are not to be beaten for speed
and endurance. A day journey of twenty hours is not too much for them;
their hardiness is extraordinary, and the worst forage possible does
not come amiss to them.
[Sidenote: +Cossack Characteristics.+]
A Cossack rides in the Oriental manner, _i.e._ with a loose rein, high
saddle, short stirrup, and toes down; he is very fond of his horse and
treats him kindly.
[Illustration: Cossack of the Amour.]
Their extraordinary mobility, endurance, and cleverness in getting
over all obstacles of ground, particularly fit the Cossack troops for
outpost and reconnaissance duty, for rapid raids and bold surprises, as
well as for the pursuit of the enemy. What is also by no means their
least advantage is that this mode of employing them in war would leave
the regular Russian Cavalry free for actual combat in the field.
The Cossack Army which best shows the Cossack peculiarities of
character and organisation is that of the Don Cossacks, which numbers
in peace-time, besides the Bodyguard Regiment of Cossacks, 15 regiments
of Cavalry, 1 battery of Guard-Cossacks, and 7 batteries of the Line.
In war-time these numbers can be considerably increased, and the whole
Cossack Army would amount to 14 battalions Infantry, 136 regiments
Cavalry, and 40 Horse Batteries (236 guns).
This gipsy-like nation of horsemen, who eat, drink, sleep, live and die
in their saddles, and, eager for plunder, either precede the Regular
Army or attach themselves to it, is well known in Germany, where it
appeared during the Wars of the Liberation (1806–1815). One might say
with Schiller: “The rider and his swift horse are fearsome guests.” On
the whole, it seems to be the fate of the Cossacks to be regarded with
feelings of greater respect as enemies than as friends.
Still less amenable to discipline than the Cossacks are some of the
other foreign tribes found amongst the Russian Irregulars, such
as the Tatars of the Crimea, the inhabitants of the Caucasus, the
Tcherkesses, the Bashkirs and the Tunguses. Although these people
render Russia most valuable service in her Asiatic possessions, still
she can hardly count on their services in an European war, so that an
invasion by these Asiatic races, like what happened in the times of
Tamerlane or Jengiz-Khan, need not be taken into account by the Europe
of to-day.
[Sidenote: +Conclusions.+]
Laying aside the question of these Irregular troops, we cannot deny
that Russia possesses a well-disciplined Army, and one which is
prepared for war. It is a mistaken idea to imagine the Russian soldier
to be half a barbarian and a foe to higher culture. Frederick the Great
learnt to respect Russia as a powerful adversary, and in the beginning
of this century she brought a heavy weight to bear in favour of Austria
and Prussia, and fought valiantly as their ally against the power of
Napoleon I. Since that period Russia has made important progress,
not only in her culture, but in the organisation and arming of her
Army; universal conscription has also acted as a powerful assistant
to universal education. Whether Russia will fight Germany in the near
or in the distant future is a matter that does not concern us here;
we will leave the discussion of the probabilities pro and con to the
newspapers. The time may come, but all we need know about the matter
is that Germany is fully prepared and, though respecting her possible
adversary, is not afraid of her.
ADDENDUM TO RUSSIA.
P. 53. The Russian Infantry now numbers—
10 Regiments of the Guard,
18 ” ” Grenadiers,
164 ” ” the Line,
20 ” ” Rifles (2 battalions each),
4 Rifle Battalions of the Guard,
38 Rifle Battalions of the Line.
Pp. 56–58. The Cossacks form altogether—
32 Regiments Regular Cavalry,
136 Squadrons Irregular ”
7 Battalions of Infantry,
12 Batteries of Artillery.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 20: From the Turco-Tataric word Kasak, which means in Turkish
a robber, and in Tatar a free lightly-armed warrior.]
DENMARK.
[Illustration:
Switzerland. Denmark.
_Printed by G. Löwensohn, Fuerth Bavaria_
_Published by William Clowes & Sons, L^{d}, London._]
The military organisations of the Great Powers of Europe have served
as patterns to the smaller Powers, for even the smallest State must
have an Army of its own wherewith to defend its independence and secure
the vindication of its rights, actual or imaginary. Its strength would
depend on the size, geographical situation, and historical associations
of the State.
[Sidenote: +Historical.+]
In recent times the small State of Denmark has once or twice been
obliged to have recourse to arms, in order to keep possession of
the Duchies of Schleswig-Holstein, to the right of attaching which
to the Danish crown, or rather to their absorption into the Danish
commonwealth, Prussia objected. In the year 1848–49 the small Danish
Army succeeded in making such a gallant stand against the might of
Prussia, that time was gained for other great Powers, namely, Russia
and England, to step in in her favour. The result was that Prussia was
obliged to stay her hand from taking under her protection the German
inhabitants of the two Duchies.
In 1863–64, when Prussia and Austria took in hand the German rights
in the Duchies, circumstances were considerably altered, and the war,
which lasted a whole year, was brought at last to a close by the Treaty
of Vienna, which once and for all separated the Duchies from Denmark
and gave them to Prussia. The resolution and courage, however, with
which the men of the tiny Danish Army withstood the vastly superior
forces of the other two Powers, and the determined opposition which
they offered, more especially in their fortifications at Danewirke,
Duppel, and the Island of Alsen, until their last hope of foreign
intervention had gone, bear most honourable testimony to the excellence
and courage of the Danish troops.
[Sidenote: +Terms of Service.+]
After this war Denmark made use of her bitter experience in
reorganising her Army on new lines, a proof that she had, in spite of
the loss of her lands, by no means given up the idea of being a Power
in the North of Europe. She has now made an important step in the
military line by introducing universal conscription, the terms of which
are four years with the Colours, four in the Reserve, and eight in the
“Reinforcement” Reserve.
[Sidenote: +Organisation.+]
The Danish Army is now constituted as follows:—
[Sidenote: +Infantry.+]
Infantry—
1 Battalion of Foot Guards, with 4 battalions Reinforcement Reserve.
10 Regiments of the Line, each of 3 battalions Active and 1 battalion
Reinforcement Reserve, forming 5 brigades (2 Jutland, 2 Seeland and
1 Fünen) of 2 regiments each.
[Illustration: Foot Guardsman.]
[Sidenote: +Cavalry.+]
Cavalry—
1 Regiment Hussars of the Guard and 4 regiments of Dragoons, each of 4
squadrons.
[Sidenote: +Artillery.+]
Artillery—
Field Artillery—2 Regiments of 2 divisions each—total, 12 Line and 4
Reinforcement Reserve Batteries.
Garrison Artillery—2 Battalions—total, 6 Line and 4 Reinforcement
Reserve Companies.
[Sidenote: +Engineers.+]
Engineers—1 Regiment of 5 Line and 3 Reserve Companies. Train—4
Sections.
The total strength of the Danish Army is reckoned at about 50,000 men,
with 128 guns. The Reinforcement Reserve battalions and batteries only
exist as depôt-cadres.
The Infantry is still armed with a single-loading rifle, the Remington,
but it is intended to shortly arm them with a magazine-rifle, which is
now in course of preparation.
The Cavalry is armed with the sabre and Remington carbine. Their
Jutland horses are clumsy, but enduring, animals. Recently large
purchases of horses have been made in Germany to improve the breed.
The Danish character is better adapted for stout resistance and
endurance than for daring courage, and the Army accordingly is better
fitted for a defensive rôle, such as holding a fortified position to
the last extremity, than for offensive action and bold attack.
The general plan of national defence is based on this characteristic,
for the capital, Copenhagen, is going to be turned into a great
entrenched camp, which would be garrisoned by the larger portion of the
Danish Army in case of war.
[Illustration: Surgeon.]
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
[Illustration:
Sweden. Norway.
_Printed by G. Löwensohn, Fuerth Bavaria_
_Published by William Clowes & Sons, L^{d}, London._]
Sweden, which once, in the time of the Thirty Years’ War, represented
the first Military Power in Europe, keeps up now only a small Army,
just large enough for the needs of the country. The military system of
Sweden is a peculiar one, and entirely different from that of other
States.
[Sidenote: +Military System.+]
The whole land is divided into a great many small “Rote” or Divisions,
each of which has to supply one able-bodied man of the right age for
the Army. This man serves for as long as his physical powers last. He
receives a small property, consisting of house, farm, and ploughland,
and definite pay as long as he is actually with the Colours.
Men for the Cavalry are provided in a very similar manner with their
horses by the larger landowners or “Rusthalters,” in return for their
exemption from certain taxes.
These troops are called “Indelta” men.
The second portion of the Swedish Army consists of the “Värfvade,”
the men of which body enlist voluntarily for from two to six years’
service, and may re-engage for further service.
The Värfvade men can be trained much more thoroughly than those of the
Indelta, for the former are continually with their Corps, whilst the
latter are, during the greater part of the year, on furlough, looking
after their farms.
The third portion is the “Bewäring,” which consists of all men between
their twenty-first and twenty-sixth years of age. In case of war they
would have to reinforce the other two portions.
[Sidenote: +Organisation.+]
The Swedish Army consists of—
[Sidenote: +Infantry.+]
Infantry—
2 Regiments of the Body-Guard,
2 ” ” Body-Grenadiers,
17 ” ” Infantry,
2 Battalions of Body-Grenadiers, and
4 Rifle battalions.
Each regiment consists of 2 battalions in peace-and 3 in war-time: this
would give 48 and 69 battalions respectively.
[Sidenote: +Cavalry.+]
Cavalry—
1 Regiment of Life-Guards of 4 squadrons,
4 Regiments of Hussars with altogether 26 squadrons,
2 Regiments of Dragoons with altogether 15 squadrons,
1 Corps of Light Horse of 2 squadrons.
Total, 47 squadrons.
[Sidenote: +Artillery.+]
Artillery—3 Regiments of Field Artillery, of 5 divisions
of 2 batteries each, the regiment consisting of 10
(2 “Driving,” 6 Horse-Artillery, and 2 “Foot”) batteries,
besides the Reserve Artillery of 3 Foot and 6 Driving-batteries.
Each battery has about 6 guns, which gives a total number
of 234 field-guns.
[Sidenote: +Engineers.+]
Engineers—1 Pontoon battalion, including a Field-Telegraph
Company, and 1 battalion of Sappers.
Train—1 battalion of 2 companies.
The Swedish Infantry drill is somewhat out of date. The quiet and
leisurely way in which a battalion drills is something astonishing. The
skirmishers have to keep exactly in line and are directed by a sergeant
in the centre with uplifted rifle. Every time a man in the firing-line
snaps his rifle, he shouts out “Piff-paff!” The introduction of a new
magazine-rifle will, therefore, probably cause some fatigue to the
throats of the Swedish Infantry.
NORWAY.
Although Norway is united under the same Crown with Sweden, still her
military system differs entirely from that of the latter.
[Sidenote: +Military System.+]
Every able-bodied man of twenty-two years old is sent to the so-called
“Land-armament,” to serve five years in the Line, four in the
“Landwehr” and four in the “Landsturm.” The conscripts remain but very
few weeks with the Colours. The main portion of the Army consists of
men voluntarily enlisted, who are bound to stay for six years.
[Sidenote: +Organisation.+]
The Rifle Corps, of five companies, of which one forms a Guard-Company,
consisting entirely of voluntarily-enlisted men, constitutes the only
Corps under arms in time of peace; of the remaining troops there are
only cadres in existence. In the event of war, the Line Infantry would
consist of 5 brigades of 4 battalions each—total, 20 battalions. The
Cavalry of 1 brigade of 3 Corps of Light Dragoons—total, 11 squadrons;
the Artillery of 5 battalions = 11 batteries with 66 guns; the
Engineers of a small division. Grand total, about 18,000 men.
[Illustration: Officer (Standard-bearer) of the Life Guards (Andra
Lifgardet).]
The rifle of the Swedish and Norwegian Infantry is the Remington,
which, however, will shortly be replaced by a magazine-rifle invented
by Colonel Jarman of their Army.
[Illustration: Light Cavalry. (Jemtlands hästjägarecorps.)]
The Cavalry carries the Remington carbine in addition to the sabre. The
Artillery is being re-armed with new guns, made partly in the Krupp
works at Essen, and partly in the Swedish cast-steel works.
It is strange to find here, in the north of Europe, a head-dress
similar to that south of the Alps. The Norwegian Rifleman wears an
almost identical hat with the Italian Bersagliere.
The idea of having their Army organised for a foreign campaign does not
appear to have been entertained by the Norwegian-Swedish government.
The men, however, are tough fighters and good campaigners, sturdy and
enduring, abstemious and unassuming, and there is every reason to
believe that the Scandinavian Army would be in any case fully equal to
its true and destined use—_i.e._, the defence of the country.
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
In most European States the Army is worked by the Sovereign or
Government of the country for the defence of the Crown and the nation,
and for the upholding of the Law. This, however, was for a long time
not the case in the south-western portion of Europe, _i.e._ the
Iberian Peninsula. It could not be the case, for during even this
century revolution has succeeded revolution, and the different forms
of government introduced at rapidly-recurring intervals have made it
impossible for the Army to be always at the beck and call of the head
of the State for the time being. The energetic young king, Alfonso
XII., who ascended the Spanish throne in 1874 (and died in 1885),
experienced the necessity of making himself chief of the Army, and
instituted a military system by which he hoped to put an end to the
earlier irregularities.
[Sidenote: +Organisation.+]
The Army of Spain is therefore now divided into the Peninsular Army,
which serves in Spain itself, and the Colonial Army, which serves in
Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippine Islands.
[Sidenote: +Terms of Service.+]
The Peninsular Army is founded on the system of universal conscription,
to which every Spaniard becomes liable on attaining his twentieth year.
Those who are exempted by law from the Army are only called out in time
of war, and those who belong to certain named professions are allowed
to buy exemptions from service for £60. Of the remaining able-bodied
men it is the ballot which decides which are to enter the Active Army.
Service is for twelve years on the whole, of which six years, as
a rule, or three, or even less, are passed with the Colours. The
remainder of a man’s service is passed in the Active Reserve. All those
who are not taken by lot to serve with the Colours, including those
exempted by law and purchase, are classed as “Disponible Recruits;”
these receive only a very short training and are called out to
reinforce the Army in case of necessity only. After six years’ service
as such, the “Disponible” recruits enter the 2nd Reserve.
[Sidenote: +Organisation.+]
[Sidenote: +Infantry.+]
The kingdom of Spain is divided up into 14 Military Districts, each
under a Captain-general. These are again divided into 140 Military
Zones, each under a colonel, who is responsible for mobilisation and
supply details. Each Zone comprises 1 Active, 1 Reserve, and 1 Depôt
battalions. These latter two battalions are in peace-time represented
only by cadres, which would be expanded into either Field or 2nd Line
battalions in case of mobilisation. Of the 140 active battalions 20 are
Rifles; the remainder form 60 Line regiments of 2 battalions each.
[Illustration:
Spain. Spain. Portugal.
_Printed by G. Löwensohn, Fuerth Bavaria_
_Published by William Clowes & Sons, L^{d}, London._]
[Illustration: Halberdier of the Palace.]
There are in peace-time no higher units than battalions; brigades,
divisions, and army corps would be formed only in case of war.
The remainder of the Spanish Army consists of:—
[Sidenote: +Cavalry.+]
Cavalry— 8 Regiments of Lancers, 14 Regiments of Cazaderos (Light
Horse), 2 Regiments of Hussars, 4 Regiments of Dragoons, each of 4
squadrons. Besides these there are 28 Reserve regiments, of which
only cadres exist in peace-time, and 1 squadron of Life-Guards.
[Sidenote: +Artillery.+]
Artillery—5 Regiments of Divisional Artillery of 6 batteries each,
altogether 30 batteries with 180 guns; 5 regiments of Corps
Artillery of 4 batteries each, altogether 20 batteries with 120
guns; 2 regiments of Mountain Artillery, each of 6 batteries,
altogether 72 guns, and 1 regiment of Siege and Position Artillery,
4 batteries of 4 guns each, altogether 16 guns. Total therefore, 388
guns, and 9 battalions Fortress Artillery.
[Sidenote: +Engineers.+]
Engineers—5 Pioneer regiments, 1 Railway battalion,
1 Telegraph battalion, and 5 Reserve regiments.
There is no Train in time of peace.
The peace-strength of the Peninsular Army amounts to 116,000 men.
[Illustration: General (full dress).]